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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:00:08 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:00:08 -0700 |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4 + "Bradford, William" to "Brequigny, Louis" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 17, 2010 [EBook #33750] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 4 SL 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A couple of typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME IV SLICE IV<br /><br /> +Bradford, William to Brequigny, Louis</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BRADFORD, WILLIAM</a> (American colonial governor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BRADFORD, WILLIAM</a> (printer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BRADFORD, WILLIAM</a> (painter)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BRAS D’OR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BRADFORD</a> (England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BRASDOR, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BRADFORD</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BRASIDAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BRADFORD CLAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BRASS</a> (Nigeria)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BRADFORD-ON-AVON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BRASS</a> (alloy)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BRADLAUGH, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BRASSES, MONUMENTAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ÉTIENNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BRADLEY, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BRASSEY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BRADSHAW, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BRASSÓ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BRADSHAW, HENRY</a> (English poet)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BRATHWAIT, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BRADSHAW, HENRY</a> (British scholar)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BRATIANU, ION C.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BRADSHAW, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BRATLANDSDAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BRADWARDINE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BRATTISHING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BRADY, NICHOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BRATTLEBORO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BRAUNAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BRAEMAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BRAUNSBERG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BRAG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BRAVO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BRAGA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BRAWLING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BRAGANZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BRAY, SIR REGINALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BRAGG, BRAXTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BRAY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BRAGI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BRAY</a> (England)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BRAHAM, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BRAY</a> (Ireland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BRAHE, PER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BRAHE, TYCHO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BRAZIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BRAHMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BRAZIL</a> (legendary island)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BRAHMANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BRAZIL</a> (republic)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BRAHMANISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BRAZIL</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BRAHMAPUTRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BRAZIL NUTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BRAHMA SAMAJ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BRAZIL WOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BRAHMS, JOHANNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BRAZING AND SOLDERING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BRAHUI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL FRANÇOIS CAMILLE SAVORGNAN DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BRAID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BRAZZA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BREACH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BRAILA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BREAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BRAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BRAINERD, DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BREADALBANE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BRAINERD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BREAD-FRUIT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BRAINTREE</a> (Essex, England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BREAKING BULK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BRAINTREE</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BREAKWATER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BRAKE</a> (town of Germany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BRÉAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BRAKE</a> (engineering)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BREAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BREAST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BRAMAH, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BREAUTÉ, FALKES DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BRAMANTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BRECCIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BRECHIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BRAMPTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BRECON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BRAN</a> (Welsh hero)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BRECONSHIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BRAN</a> (husk of cereals)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BREDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BRANCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BRANCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BREDERODE, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BRANCOVAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BRAND, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BREDOW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BREECH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BREEDS AND BREEDING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BRANDENBURG</a> (electorate of Prussia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BREEZE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BRANDENBURG</a> (province of Prussia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BREGENZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BRANDENBURG</a> (town of Germany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BREHON LAWS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BRANDER, GUSTAVUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BREISACH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BREISGAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BRANDING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BREISLAK, SCIPIONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BREITENFELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BRANDON</a> (Canada)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BREMEN</a> (German state)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BRANDON</a> (England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BREMEN </a>(German city)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BRANDY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BREMER, FREDRIKA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BRANDYWINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BREMERHAVEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BRANFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BRENDAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BRANGWYN, FRANK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BRENHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BRANKS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BRENNER PASS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BRANT, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BRENNUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BRANT, SEBASTIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BRENTANO, KLEMENS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BRANTFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BRENTFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BRANTÔME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BRANTÔME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BRENTWOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BRANXHOLM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BRENZ, JOHANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BRANXTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BRÉQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD FEUDRIX DE</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1590-1657), American colonial governor and historian, +was born in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, probably in March 1590. He +became somewhat estranged from his family, which was one of considerable +importance in the locality, when in early youth he joined the Puritan +sect known as Separatists, and united in membership with the +congregation at Scrooby. He prepared in 1607, with other members of the +church, to migrate to Holland, but the plan was discovered and several +of the leaders, among them Bradford, were imprisoned. In the year +following, however, he joined the English colony at Amsterdam, where he +learned the trade of silk weaving. He subsequently sold his Yorkshire +property and embarked in business on his own account at Leiden, where +the English refugees had removed. He became an active advocate of the +proposed emigration to America, was one of the party that sailed in the +“Mayflower” in September 1620, and was one of the signers of the compact +on shipboard in Cape Cod Bay. After the death of Governor John Carver in +April 1621, Bradford was elected governor of Plymouth Colony, and served +as such, with the exception of five years (1633, 1634, 1636, 1638 and +1644) until shortly before his death. After 1624, at Bradford’s +suggestion, a board of five and later seven assistants was chosen +annually to share the executive responsibility. Bradford’s rule was firm +and judicious, and to his guidance more than to that of any other man +the prosperity of the Plymouth Colony was due. His tact and kindness in +dealing with the Indians helped to relieve the colony from the conflicts +with which almost every other settlement was afflicted. In 1630 the +council for New England granted to “William Bradford, his heires, +associatts, and assignes,” a new patent enlarging the original grant of +territory made to the Plymouth settlers. This patent Bradford in the +name of the trustees made over to the body corporate of the colony in +1641. Bradford died in Plymouth on the 9th of May 1657. He was the +author of a very important historical work, the <i>History of Plimouth +Plantation</i> (until 1646), first published in the <i>Proceedings</i> of the +Massachusetts Historical Society for 1856, and later by the state of +Massachusetts (Boston, 1898), and in facsimile, with an introduction by +John A. Doyle, in 1896. The manuscript disappeared from Boston during +the War of Independence, was discovered in the Fulham library, London, +in 1855, and was returned by the bishop of London to the state of +Massachusetts in 1897. This work has been of inestimable value to +writers on the history of the Pilgrims, and was freely used, in +manuscript, by Morton, Hubbard, Mather, Prince and Hutchinson. Bradford +was also undoubtedly part author, with Edward Winslow, of the “Diary of +Occurrences” published in Mourts’ <i>Relation</i>, edited by Dr H.M. Dexter +(Boston, 1865). He also wrote a series of <i>Dialogues</i>, on church +government, published in the Massachusetts Historical Society’s +Publications (1870.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For Bradford’s ancestry and early life see Joseph Hunter, <i>Collections +concerning the Founders of New Plymouth</i>, in Massachusetts Historical +Society’s <i>Collections</i> (Boston, 1852); also the quaint sketch in Cotton +Mather’s <i>Magnalia</i> (London, 1702), and a chapter in Williston Walker’s +<i>Ten New England Leaders</i> (New York, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1663-1752), American colonial printer, +was born in Leicestershire, England, on the 20th of May +1663. He learned the printer’s trade in London with Andrew +Sowle, and in 1682 emigrated with William Penn to Pennsylvania, +where in 1685 he introduced the “art and mystery” of printing +into the Middle Colonies. His first imprint was an almanac, +<i>Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense or America’s Messenger</i> (1685). +At the outset he was ordered “not to print anything but what +shall have lycence from ye council,” and in 1692, the colony then +being torn by schism, he issued a tract for the minority sect of +Friends, whereupon his press was seized and he was arrested. +He was released, however, and his press was restored on his +appeal to Governor Benjamin Fletcher. In 1690, with William +Rittenhouse (1644-1708) and others, he established in Roxboro, +Pennsylvania, now a part of Philadelphia, the first paper mill +in America. In the spring of 1693 he removed to New York, +where he was appointed royal printer for the colony, a position +which he held for more than fifty years; and on the 8th of +November 1725 he issued the first number of the <i>New York +Gazette</i>, the first paper established in New York and from 1725 +to 1733 the only paper in the colony. Bradford died in New +York on the 23rd of May 1752.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Andrew Sowle Bradford</span> (1686-1742), removed +from New York to Philadelphia in 1712, and there on the 22nd +of December 1719 issued the first number of the <i>American +Weekly Mercury</i>, the first newspaper in the Middle Colonies. +Benjamin Franklin, for a time a compositor in the office, +characterized the paper as “a paltry thing, in no way interesting”; +but it was continued for many years and was edited by Bradford +until his death.</p> + +<p>The latter’s nephew, <span class="sc">William Bradford</span> (1722-1791), +established in December 1742 the <i>Pennsylvania Journal and +Weekly Advertiser</i>, which was for sixty years under his control +or that of his son, and which in 1774-1775 bore the oft-reproduced +device of a divided serpent with the motto “Unite or Die.” +He served in the War of American Independence, rising to the +rank of colonel. His son, <span class="sc">William Bradford</span> (1755-1795), +also served in the War of Independence, and afterwards was +attorney-general of Pennsylvania (1791), a judge of the supreme +court of the state, and in 1794-1795 attorney-general of the +United States.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1827-1892), American marine painter, +was born at New Bedford, Massachusetts. He was a Quaker, +and was self-taught, painting the ships and the marine +views he saw along the coast of Massachusetts, Labrador and +Nova Scotia; he went on several Arctic expeditions with Dr +Hayes, and was the first American painter to portray the frozen +regions of the north. His pictures attracted much attention by +reason of their novelty and gorgeous colour effects. His “Steamer +’Panther’ in Melville Bay, under the Light of the Midnight +Sun” was exhibited at the Royal Academy in London in 1875. +Bradford was a member of the National Academy of Design, +New York, and died in that city on the 25th of April 1892. His +style was somewhat influenced by Albert van Beest, who worked +with Bradford at Fairhaven for a time; but Bradford is minute +and observant of detail where van Beest’s aim is general effect.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a city, and municipal, county and parliamentary +borough, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 192 m. +N.N.W. of London and 8 m. W. of Leeds. Pop. (1891) 265,728; +(1901) 279,767. It is served by the Midland and the North +Eastern railways (Midland station), and by the Great Northern +and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Exchange station). +It lies in a small valley opening southward from that of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span> +Aire, and extends up the hills on either side. Most of the +principal streets radiate from a centre between the Midland and +Exchange stations and the town hall. This last is a handsome +building, opened in 1873, surmounted by a bell tower. The +exterior is ornamented with statues of English monarchs. The +council-chamber contains excellent wood-carving. The extension +of the building was undertaken in 1905. The parish church of +St Peter is Perpendicular, dating from 1485, and occupies the +site of a Norman church. Its most noteworthy feature is the +fine original roof of oak. There was no other church in the town +until 1815, but modern churches and chapels are numerous. +Among educational institutions, the grammar school existed +in the 16th century, and in 1663 received a charter of incorporation +from Charles II. It occupies a building erected in 1873, +and is largely endowed, possessing several scholarships founded +by prominent citizens. The technical college, under the corporation +since 1899, was opened in 1882. A mechanics’ institute +was founded in 1832, and in 1871 the handsome mechanics’ +hall, close to the town hall, was opened. Other establishments +are the Airedale College of students for the Independent ministry, +and the United Independent College (1888). The general +infirmary is the principal of numerous charitable institutions. +The most noteworthy public buildings beside the town hall are +St George’s hall (1853), used for concerts and public meetings, +the exchange (1867), extensive market buildings, and two +court-houses. The Cartwright memorial hall, principally the +gift of Lord Masham, opened in 1904 and containing an art +gallery and museum, commemorates Dr Edmund Cartwright +(1743-1823) as the inventor of the power-loom and the +combing-machine. The hall stands in Lister Park, and was opened +immediately before, and used in connexion with, the industrial +exhibition held here in 1904. The Temperance hall is of interest +inasmuch as the first hall of this character in England was +erected at Bradford in 1837. Some of the great warehouses +are of considerable architectural merit. Statues commemorate +several of those who have been foremost in the development of +the city, such as Sir Titus Salt, Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham), +and W.E. Forster. Of several parks the largest are Lister, Peel, +and Bowling parks, each exceeding fifty acres. In the last is an +ancient and picturesque mansion, which formerly belonged to +the Bowling or Bolling family. A large acreage of high-lying +moorland near the city is maintained by the corporation as a +public recreation ground.</p> + +<p>As a commercial centre Bradford is advantageously placed +with regard to both railway communication and connexion +with the Humber and with Liverpool by canal, and through +the presence in its immediate vicinity of valuable deposits +of coal and iron. The principal textile manufactures in order +of importance are worsted, employing some 36,000 hands, +females considerably outnumbering males; woollens, employing +some 8000, silk and cotton. The corporation maintains a +conditioning-hall for testing textile materials. A new hall was +opened in 1902. Engineering and iron works (as at Bowling and +Low Moor) are extensive; and the freestone of the neighbourhood +is largely quarried, and in Bradford itself its use is general for +building. It blackens easily under the influence of smoke, and +the town has consequently a somewhat gloomy appearance. +The trade of Bradford, according to an official estimate, advanced +between 1836 and 1884 from a total of five to at least thirty-five +millions sterling, and from not more than six to at least fifty +staple articles. The annual turn-over in the staple trade is +estimated at about one hundred millions sterling.</p> + +<p>Bradford was created a city in 1897. The parliamentary +borough returned two members from 1832 until 1885, when it +was divided into three divisions, each returning one member. +The county borough was created in 1888. Its boundaries include +the suburbs, formerly separate urban districts, of Eccleshill, +Idle and others. The corporation consists of a lord mayor +(this dignity was conferred in 1907), 21 aldermen, and 63 +councillors. One feature of municipal activity in Bradford +deserves special notice—there is a municipal railway, opened +in 1907, extending from Pateley Bridge to Lofthouse (6 m.) +and serving the Nidd valley, the district from which the main +water-supply of the city is obtained. Area of the city, 22,879 +acres.</p> + +<p>Bradford, which is mentioned as having belonged before +1066, with several other manors in Yorkshire, to one Gamel, +appears to have been almost destroyed during the conquest +of the north of England and was still waste in 1086. By that +time it had been granted to Ilbert de Lacy, in whose family it +continued until 1311. The inquisition taken after the death +of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, in that year gives several +interesting facts about the manor; the earl had there a hall or +manor-house, a fulling mill, a market every Sunday, and a fair +on the feast of St Andrew. There were also certain burgesses +holding twenty-eight burgages. Alice, only daughter and +heiress of Henry de Lacy, married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of +Lancaster, and on the attainder of her husband she and Joan, +widow of Henry, were obliged to release their rights in the manor +to the king. The earl of Lancaster’s attainder being reversed +in 1327, Bradford, with his other property, was restored to his +brother and heir, Henry Plantagenet, but again passed to the +crown on the accession of Henry IV., through the marriage of +John of Gaunt with Blanche, one of the daughters and heirs of +Henry Plantagenet. Bradford was evidently a borough by +prescription and was not incorporated until 1847. Previous to that +date the chief officer in the town had been the chief constable, +who was appointed annually at the court leet of the manor. Before +the 19th century Bradford was never represented in parliament, +but in 1832 it was created a parliamentary borough returning +two members. A weekly market on Thursdays was granted +to Edward de Lacy in 1251 and confirmed in 1294 to Henry de Lacy, +earl of Lincoln, with the additional grant of a fair on the eve +and day of St Peter ad Vincula and three days following. In +1481 Edward IV. granted to certain feoffees in whom he had +vested his manor of Bradford a market on Thursday every +week and two yearly fairs, one on the feast of the Deposition +of St William of York and two days preceding, the +other on the feast of St Peter in Cathedra and two days +preceding.</p> + +<p>From the mention of a fulling mill in 1311 it is possible that +woollen manufacture had been begun at that time. By the reign +of Henry VIII. it had become an important industry and added +much to the status of the town. Towards the end of the 17th +and beginning of the 18th century the woollen trade decreased +and worsted manufacture began to take its place. Leland +in his <i>Itinerary</i> says that Bradford is “a praty quik Market +Toune. It standith much by clothing.” In 1773 a piece hall +was erected and for many years served as a market-place for +the manufacturers and merchants of the district. On the +introduction of steam-power and machinery the worsted trade +advanced with great rapidity. The first mill in Bradford was +built in 1798; there were 20 mills in the town in 1820, 34 in 1833, +and 70 in 1841; and at the present time there are over 300, of +much greater magnitude than the earlier factories. In 1836 Mr +(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt developed the alpaca manufacture +in the town; mohair was shortly afterwards introduced; and +the great works at Saltaire were opened (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shipley</a></span>). Later, +Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham) introduced the silk and velvet +manufacture, having invented a process of manipulating silk +waste, whereby what was previously treated as refuse is made +into goods that will compete with those manufactured from +the perfect cocoon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John James, <i>History of Bradford</i> (1844, new and enlarged +ed., 1866); A. Holroyd, <i>Collectanea Bradfordiana</i> (1873); <i>Victoria +County History—Yorkshire</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a city of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., +near the N. border of the state, about 80 m. E. by S. of Erie. +Pop. (1890) 10,514; (1900) 15,029, of whom 2211 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 14,544. It is served by the Pennsylvania, +the Erie, and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways, and +is connected with Olean, New York, by an electric line. Bradford +is situated 1427 ft. above sea-level in the valley of the Tuna, +and is shut in by hills on either side. Since 1876 it has been one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span> +of the most important oil centres of the state, and it has been +connected by pipe lines with cities along the Atlantic coast; +petroleum refining is an important industry. Among the city’s +manufactures are boilers, machines, glass, chemicals, terra +cotta, brick, iron pipes and couplings, gas engines, cutlery and +silk. The place was first settled about 1827; in 1838 it was laid +out as a town and named Littleton; in 1858 the present name, +in honour of William Bradford (1755-1795), was substituted; +and Bradford was incorporated as a borough in 1873, and was +chartered as a city in 1879. Kendall borough was annexed +to Bradford in 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD CLAY,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> in geology, a thin, rather inconstant bed +of clay or marl situated in England at the base of the Forest +Marble, the two together constituting the Bradfordian group +in the Bathonian series of Jurassic rocks. The term “Bradford Clay” +appears to have been first used by J. de. C. Sowerby in 1823 +(<i>Mineral Conchology</i>, vol. v.) as an alternative for W. Smith’s +“Clay on Upper Oolite.” The clay came into notice late in the +18th century on account of the local abundance of the crinoid +<i>Apiocrinus Parkinsoni</i>. It takes its name from Bradford-on-Avon +in Wiltshire, whence it is traceable southward to the +Dorset coast and northward towards Cirencester. It may be +regarded as a local phase of the basement beds of the Forest +Marble, from which it cannot be separated upon either +stratigraphical or palaeontological grounds. It is seldom more than +10 ft. thick, and it contains as a rule a few irregular layers of +limestone and calcareous sandstone. The lowest layer is often +highly fossiliferous; some of the common forms being <i>Arca +minuta, Ostrea gregaria, Waldheimia digona, Terebratula coarctata, +Cidaris bradfordensis</i>, &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H.B. Woodward, “Jurassic Rocks of Britain,” <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>, +vol. iv. (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD-ON-AVON,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a market town in the Westbury +parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, on the rivers +Avon and Kennet, and the Kennet & Avon Canal, 98 m. W. by S. +of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 4514. Its houses, all built of grey stone, rise in +picturesque disorder up the steep sides of the Avon valley, +here crossed by an ancient bridge of nine arches, with a chapel +in the centre. Among many places of worship may be mentioned +the restored parish church of Holy Trinity, which dates from the +12th century and contains some interesting monuments and +brasses; and the Perpendicular Hermitage or Tory chapel, +with a 15th or 16th century chantry-house. But most notable +is the Saxon church of St Lawrence, the foundation of which is +generally attributed, according to William of Malmesbury (1125), +to St Aldhelm, early in the 8th century. It consists of a chancel, +nave and porch, in such unchanged condition that E.A. Freeman +considered it “the most perfect surviving church of its kind +in England, if not in Europe.” It has more lately, however, +been held that the present building is not Aldhelm’s, but a +restoration, dating from about 975, and attributable to the +influence of Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. Kingston House, +long the seat of the dukes of Kingston, is a beautiful example +of early 17th-century domestic architecture. The local industries +include the manufacture of rubber goods, brewing, quarrying +and iron-founding.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bradford (Bradauford, Bradeford) was the site of a battle in 652 +between Kenwal and his kinsman Cuthred. A monastery existed +here in the 8th century, of which St Aldhelm was abbot at the time +of his being made bishop of Sherborne in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 705. In 1001 Æthelred +gave this monastery and the town of Bradford to the nunnery of +Shaftesbury, in order that the nuns might have a safe refuge against +the insults of the Danes. No mention of the monastery occurs after +the Conquest, but the nunnery of Shaftesbury retained the lordship +of the manor until the dissolution in the reign of Henry VIII. +In a synod held here in 954, Dunstan was elected bishop of +Winchester. Bradford appears as a borough in the Domesday survey, +and is there assessed at 42 hides. No charter of incorporation is +recorded, however, and after returning two members to the parliament +of 1295 the town does not appear to have enjoyed any of the +privileges of a borough. The market is of ancient origin, and was +formerly held on Monday; in the survey the tolls are assessed at +45 shillings. Bradford was at one time the centre of the clothing +industry in the west of England, and was especially famous for its +broadcloths and mixtures, the waters of the Avon being especially +favourable to the production of good colours and superior dyes. +The industry declined in the 18th century, and in 1740 we find the +woollen merchants of Bradford petitioning for an act of parliament +to improve their trade and so re-establish their credit in foreign +markets.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADLAUGH, CHARLES<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1833-1891), English free-thinker +and politician, was born at Hoxton, London, on the 26th of +September 1833. His father was a poor solicitor’s clerk, who also +had a small business as a law stationer, and his mother had been +a nursemaid. At twelve years old he became office-boy to his +father’s employer, and at fourteen wharf-clerk and cashier to +a coal merchant in the City Road. He had been baptized and +brought up in the Church of England, but he now came into contact +with a group of free-thinkers who were disciples of Richard +Carlile. He was hastily labelled an “atheist,” and was turned +out of his situation. Thus driven into the arms of the secularists, +he managed to earn a living by odd jobs, and became further +immersed in the study of free-thought. At the end of 1850 he +enlisted as a soldier, but in 1853 was bought out with money +provided by his mother. He then found employment as a lawyer’s +clerk, and gradually became known as a free-thought lecturer, +under the name of “Iconoclast.” From 1860 he conducted the +<i>National Reformer</i> for several years, and displayed much resource +in legal defence when the paper was prosecuted by the government +on account of its alleged blasphemy and sedition in 1868-1869. +Bradlaugh became notorious as a leading “infidel,” and +was supported by the sympathy of those who were enthusiasts +at that time for liberty of speech and thought. He was a +constant figure in the law courts; and his competence to take +the oath was continually being called in question, while his +atheism and republican opinions were adduced as reasons why +no jury should give damages for attacks on his character. In +1874 he became acquainted with Mrs Annie Besant (b. 1847), +who afterwards became famous for her gifts as a lecturer on +socialism and theosophy. She began by writing for the <i>National +Reformer</i> and soon became co-editor. In 1876 the Bristol +publisher of an American pamphlet on the population question, called +<i>Fruits of Philosophy</i>, was indicted for selling a work full +of indecent physiological details, and, pleading guilty, was lightly +sentenced; but Bradlaugh and Mrs Besant took the matter up, +in order to vindicate their ideas of liberty, and aggressively +republished and circulated the pamphlet. The prosecution +which resulted created considerable scandal. They were convicted +and sentenced to a heavy fine and imprisonment, but the +sentence was stayed and the indictment ultimately quashed on +a technical point. The affair, however, had several side issues +in the courts and led to much prejudice against the defendants, +the distinction being ignored between a protest against the +suppression of opinion and the championship of the particular +opinions in question. Mrs Besant’s close alliance with Bradlaugh +eventually terminated in 1886, when she drifted from secularism, +first into socialistic and labour agitation and then into theosophy +as a pupil of Mme Blavatsky. Bradlaugh himself took up +politics with increasing fervour. He had been unsuccessful in +standing for Northampton in 1868, but in 1880 he was returned +by that constituency to parliament as an advanced Radical. +A long and sensational parliamentary struggle now began. +He claimed to be allowed to affirm under the Parliamentary +Oaths Act, and the rejection of this pretension, and the refusal +to allow him to take the oath on his professing his willingness +to do so, terminated in Bradlaugh’s victory in 1886. But this +result was not obtained without protracted scenes in the House, +in which Lord Randolph Churchill took a leading part. When the +long struggle was over, the public had gradually got used to +Bradlaugh, and his transparent honesty and courageous contempt +for mere popularity gained him increasing respect. Experience +of public life in the House of Commons appeared to give him a +more balanced view of things; and before he died, on the 30th +of January 1891, the progress of events was such that it was +beginning to be said of him that he was in a fair way to end as +a Conservative. Hard, arrogant and dogmatic, with a powerful +physique and a real gift for popular oratory, he was a natural +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span> +leader in causes which had society against them, but his sincerity +was as unquestionable as his combativeness.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Life</i> was written, from a sympathetic point of view, with +much interesting detail as to the history of secularism, by his +daughter, Mrs Bradlaugh Bonner, and J.M. Robertson (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1821-1903), English +divine and scholar, was born on the 11th of December 1821, his +father, Charles Bradley, being at that time vicar of Glasbury, +Brecon. He was educated at Rugby under Thomas Arnold, +and at University College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow +in 1844. He was an assistant master at Rugby from 1846 to +1858, when he succeeded G.E.L. Cotton as headmaster at +Marlborough. In 1870 he was elected master of his old college +at Oxford, and in August 1881 he was made dean of Westminster +in succession to A.P. Stanley, whose pupil and intimate friend +he had been, and whose biographer he became. Besides his +<i>Recollections of A.P. Stanley</i> (1883) and <i>Life of Dean Stanley</i> +(1892), he published <i>Aids to writing Latin Prose Composition</i> and +<i>Lectures on Job</i> (1884) and <i>Ecclesiastes</i> (1885). He took part in +the coronation of Edward VII., resigned the deanery in 1902, +and died on the 13th of March 1903.</p> + +<p>Dean Bradley’s family produced various other members +distinguished in literature. His half-brother, <span class="sc">Andrew Cecil +Bradley</span> (b. 1851), fellow of Balliol, Oxford, became professor +of modern literature and history (1881) at University College, +Liverpool, and in 1889 regius professor of English language and +literature at Glasgow University; and he was professor of +poetry at Oxford (1901-1906). Of Dean Bradley’s own children +the most distinguished in literature were his son, <span class="sc">Arthur +Granville Bradley</span> (b. 1850), author of various historical and +topographical works; and especially his daughter, Mrs <span class="sc">Margaret +Louisa Woods</span> (b. 1856), wife of the Rev. Henry George Woods, +president of Trinity, Oxford (1887-1897), and master of the +Temple (1904), London. Mrs Woods became well known for +her accomplished verse (<i>Lyrics and Ballads</i>, 1889), largely +influenced by Robert Bridges, and for her novels, of which her +<i>Village Tragedy</i> (1887) was the earliest and strongest.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADLEY, JAMES<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1693-1762), English astronomer, was +born at Sherborne in Gloucestershire in March 1693. He +entered Balliol College, Oxford, on the 15th of March 1711, and +took degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1714 and 1717 respectively. +His early observations were made at the rectory of Wanstead +in Essex, under the tutelage of his uncle, the Rev. James Pound +(1669-1724), himself a skilled astronomer, and he was elected a +fellow of the Royal Society on the 6th of November 1718. He +took orders on his presentation to the vicarage of Bridstow +in the following year, and a small sinecure living in Wales +was besides procured for him by his friend Samuel Molyneux +(1689-1728). He, however, resigned his ecclesiastical preferments +in 1721, on his appointment to the Savilian professorship of +astronomy at Oxford, while as reader on experimental philosophy +(1729-1760) he delivered 79 courses of lectures in the Ashmolean +museum. His memorable discovery of the aberration of light +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aberration</a></span>) was communicated to the Royal Society in +January 1729 (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> xxxv. 637). The observations +upon which it was founded were made at Molyneux’s house on +Kew Green. He refrained from announcing the supplementary +detection of nutation (<i>q.v.</i>) until the 14th of February 1748 +(<i>Phil. Trans.</i> xlv. 1), when he had tested its reality by minute +observations during an entire revolution (18.6 years) of the +moon’s nodes. He had meantime (in 1742) been appointed to +succeed Edmund Halley as astronomer royal; his enhanced +reputation enabled him to apply successfully for an instrumental +outfit at a cost of £1000; and with an 8-foot quadrant completed +for him in 1750 by John Bird (1700-1776), he accumulated at +Greenwich in ten years materials of inestimable value for the +reform of astronomy. A crown pension of £250 a year was +conferred upon him in 1752. He retired in broken health, nine +years later, to Chalford in Gloucestershire, and there died on +the 13th of July 1762. The printing of his observations was +delayed by disputes about their ownership; but they were +finally issued from the Clarendon Press, Oxford, in two folio +volumes (1798, 1805). The insight and industry of F.W. Bessel +were, however, needed for the development of their fundamental +importance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Rigaud’s Memoir prefixed to <i>Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence +of James Bradley, D.D.</i> (Oxford, 1832), is practically +exhaustive. Other sources of information are: <i>New and General +Biographical Dictionary</i>, xii. 54 (1767); <i>Biog. Brit.</i> (Kippis); +Fouchy’s “Éloge,” <i>Paris Memoirs</i> (1762), p. 231 (Histoire); +Delambre’s <i>Hist. de l’astronomie au 18<span class="sp">me</span> siècle</i>, p. 413.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADSHAW, GEORGE<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1801-1853), English printer and +publisher, was born at Windsor Bridge, Pendleton, Lancashire, +on the 29th of July 1801. On leaving school he was apprenticed +to an engraver at Manchester, eventually setting up on his own +account in that city as an engraver and printer—principally of +maps. His name was already known as the publisher of <i>Bradshaw’s +Maps of Inland Navigation</i>, when in 1839, soon after the +introduction of railways, he published, at sixpence, <i>Bradshaw’s +Railway Time Tables</i>, the title being changed in 1840 to <i>Bradshaw’s +Railway Companion</i>, and the price raised to one shilling. +A new volume was issued at occasional intervals, a supplementary +monthly time-sheet serving to keep the book up to date. In +December 1841, acting on a suggestion made by his London +agent, Mr W.J. Adams, Bradshaw reduced the price of his +time-tables to the original sixpence, and began to issue them +monthly under the title <i>Bradshaw’s Monthly Railway Guide.</i> +In June 1847 was issued the first number of <i>Bradshaw’s Continental +Railway Guide</i>, giving the time-tables of the Continental +railways just as <i>Bradshaw’s Monthly Railway Guide</i> gave the +time-tables of the railways of the United Kingdom. Bradshaw, +who was a well-known member of the Society of Friends, and +gave considerable time to philanthropic work, died in 1853.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADSHAW, HENRY<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1450-1513), English poet, was born +at Chester. In his boyhood he was received into the Benedictine +monastery of St Werburgh, and after studying with other novices +of his order at Gloucester (afterwards Worcester) College, Oxford, +he returned to his monastery at Chester. He wrote a Latin +treatise <i>De antiquitate et magnificentia Urbis Cestriae</i>, which is +lost, and a life of the patron saint of his monastery in English +seven-lined stanza. This work was completed in the year of its +author’s death, 1513, mentioned in “A balade to the auctour” +printed at the close of the work. A second ballad describes him +as “Harry Braddeshaa, of Chestre abbey monke.” Bradshaw +disclaims the merit of originality and quotes the authorities +from which he translates—Bede, William of Malmesbury, +Giraldus Cambrensis, Alfred of Beverley, Henry of Huntingdon, +Ranulph Higden, and especially the “Passionary” or life of the +saint preserved in the monastery. The poem, therefore, which +is defined by its editor, Dr Carl Horstmann, as a “legendary epic,” +is rather a compilation than a translation. It contains a good deal +of history beside the actual life of the saint. St Werburgh was +the daughter of Wulfere, king of Mercia, and Bradshaw gives a +description of the kingdom of Mercia, with a full account of its +royal house. He relates the history of St Ermenilde and St +Sexburge, mother and grandmother of Werburgh, who were +successively abbesses of Ely. He does not neglect the miraculous +elements of the story, but he is more attracted by historical +fact than legend, and the second book narrates the Danish invasion +of 875, and describes the history and antiquities of Chester, +from its foundation by the legendary giant Leon Gaur, from which +he derives the British name of Caerleon, down to the great +fire which devastated the city in 1180, but was suddenly extinguished +when the shrine of St Werburgh was carried in procession +through the streets. <i>The Holy Lyfe and History of +saynt Werburge very frutefull for all Christen people to rede</i> (printed +by Richard Pynson, 1521) has been very variously estimated. +Thomas Warton, who deals with Bradshaw at some length,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +quotes as the most splendid passage of the poem the description +of the feast preceding Werburgh’s entry into the religious life. +He considered Bradshaw’s versification “infinitely inferior to +Lydgate’s worst manner.” Dr Horstmann, on the other hand, +finds in the poem “original genius, of a truly epic tone, with a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span> +native simplicity of feeling which sometimes reminds the reader +of Homer.” Most readers will probably adopt a view between +these extremes. Bradshaw expresses the humblest opinion of +his own abilities, and he certainly had no delicate ear for rhythm. +His sincerity is abundantly evident, and his piety is admitted +even by John Bale<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a>, hostile as he was to monkish writers. +W. Herbert<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> thought that a <i>Lyfe of Saynt Radegunde</i>, also +printed by Pynson, was certainly by Bradshaw. The only +extant copy is in the Britwell library.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Pynson’s edition of the <i>Holy Lyfe</i> is very rare, only five copies +being known. A reprint copying the original type was edited by +Mr. Edward Hawkins for the Chetham Society in 1848, and by +Dr Carl Hortsmann for the Early English Text Society in 1887.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>History of English Poetry</i> (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1871; iii. pp. 140-149).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Scriptorum Illustrium, cant. ix.</i> No. 17.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ames, <i>Typographical Antiquities</i> (ed. W. Herbert, 1785; i. p. 294).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADSHAW, HENRY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1831-1886), British scholar and +librarian, was born in London on the 2nd of February 1831, and +educated at Eton. He became a fellow of King’s College, +Cambridge, and after a short scholastic career in Ireland he accepted +an appointment in the Cambridge university library as +an extra assistant. When he found that his official duties +absorbed all his leisure he resigned his post, but continued to +give his time to the examination of the MSS. and early printed +books in the library. There was then no complete catalogue +of these sections, and Bradshaw soon showed a rare faculty +for investigations respecting old books and curious MSS. In +addition to his achievements in black-letter bibliography he +threw great light on ancient Celtic language and literature by the +discovery, in 1857, of the <i>Book of Deer</i>, a manuscript copy of +the Gospel in the Vulgate version, in which were inscribed old +Gaelic charters. This was published by the Spalding Club in +1869. Bradshaw also discovered some Celtic glosses on the MS. +of a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels by Juvencus. He made +another find in the Cambridge library of considerable philological +and historical importance. Cromwell’s envoy, Sir Samuel +Morland (1625-1695), had brought back from Piedmont MSS. +containing the earliest known Waldensian records, consisting +of translations from the Bible, religious treatises and poems. +One of the poems referred the work to the beginning of the 11th +century, though the MSS. did not appear to be of earlier date +than the 15th century. On this Morland had based his theory +of the antiquity of the Waldensian doctrine, and, in the absence +of the MSS., which were supposed to be irretrievably lost, the +conclusion was accepted. Bradshaw discovered the MSS. in the +university library, and found in the passage indicated traces of +erasure. The original date proved to be 1400. Incidentally +the correct date was of great value in the study of the history of +the language. He had a share in exposing the frauds of Constantine +Simonides, who had asserted that the <i>Codex Sinaiticus</i> +brought by Tischendorf from the Greek monastery of Mount +Sinai was a modern forgery of which he was himself the author. +Bradshaw exposed the absurdity of these claims in a letter to +the <i>Guardian</i> (January 26, 1863). In 1866 he made a valuable +contribution to the history of Scottish literature by the discovery +of 2200 lines on the siege of Troy incorporated in a MS. of +Lydgate’s <i>Troye Booke</i>, and of the <i>Legends of the Saints</i>, an +important work of some 40,000 lines. These poems he attributed, +erroneously, as has since been proved, to Barbour (<i>q.v.</i>). +Unfortunately Bradshaw allowed his attention to be distracted by +a multiplicity of subjects, so that he has not left any literary +work commensurate with his powers. The strain upon him +was increased when he was elected (1867) university librarian, +and as dean of his college (1857-1865) and praelector (1863-1868) +he was involved in further routine duties. Besides his brilliant +isolated discoveries in bibliography, he did much by his untiring +zeal to improve the standard of library administration. He died +very suddenly on the 10th of February 1886. His fugitive +papers on antiquarian subjects were collected and edited by +Mr F. Jenkinson in 1889.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An excellent <i>Memoir of Henry Bradshaw</i>, by Mr G.W. Prothero, +appeared in 1888. See also C.F. Newcombe, <i>Some Aspects of the +Work of Henry Bradshaw</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADSHAW, JOHN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1602-1659), president of the “High +Court of Justice” which tried Charles I., was the second son of +Henry Bradshaw, of Marple and Wibersley in Cheshire. He +was baptized on the 10th of December 1602, was educated at +Banbury in Cheshire and at Middleton in Lancashire, studied +subsequently with an attorney at Congleton, was admitted into +Gray’s Inn in 1620, and was called to the bar in 1627, becoming +a bencher in 1647. He was mayor of Congleton in 1637, and later +high steward or recorder of the borough. According to Milton +he was assiduous in his legal studies and acquired considerable +reputation and practice at the bar. On the 21st of September 1643 +he was appointed judge of the sheriff’s court in London. In +October 1644 he was counsel with Prynne in the prosecution of +Lord Maguire and Hugh Macmahon, implicated in the Irish +rebellion, in 1645 for John Lilburne in his appeal to the Lords +against the sentence of the Star Chamber, and in 1647 in the +prosecution of Judge Jenkins. On the 8th of October 1646 he +had been nominated by the Commons a commissioner of the +great seal, but his appointment was not confirmed by the Lords. +In 1647 he was made chief justice of Chester and a judge in Wales, +and on the 12th of October 1648 he was presented to the degree +of serjeant-at-law. On the 2nd of January 1649 the Lords +threw out the ordinance for bringing the king to trial, and the +small remnant of the House of Commons which survived Pride’s +Purge, consisting of 53 independents, determined to carry out +the ordinance on their own authority. The leading members +of the bar, on the parliamentary as well as on the royalist side, +having refused to participate in proceedings not only illegal +and unconstitutional, but opposed to the plainest principles of +equity, Bradshaw was selected to preside, and, after some +protestations of humility and unfitness, accepted the office. The +king refused to plead before the tribunal, but Bradshaw silenced +every legal objection and denied to Charles an opportunity to +speak in his defence. He continued after the king’s death to +conduct, as lord president, the trials of the royalists, including +the duke of Hamilton, Lord Capel, and Henry Rich, earl of +Holland, all of whom he condemned to death, his behaviour +being especially censured in the case of Eusebius Andrews, +a royalist who had joined a conspiracy against the government. +He received large rewards for his services. He was appointed +in 1649 attorney-general of Cheshire and North Wales, and +chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and was given a sum of +£1000, together with confiscated estates worth £2000 a year. He +had been nominated a member of the council of state on the 14th +of February 1649, and on the 10th of March became president. +He disapproved strongly of the expulsion of the Long Parliament, +and on Cromwell’s coming subsequently to dismiss the council +Bradshaw is said, on the authority of Ludlow, to have confronted +him boldly, and denied his power to dissolve the parliament. +An ardent republican, he showed himself ever afterwards an +uncompromising adversary of Cromwell. He was returned for +Stafford in the parliament of 1654, and spoke strongly against +vesting power in a single person. He refused to sign the +“engagement” drawn up by Cromwell, and in consequence withdrew +from parliament and was subsequently suspected of complicity in +plots against the government. He failed to obtain a seat in +the parliament of 1656, and in August of the same year Cromwell +attempted to remove him from the chief-justiceship of Cheshire. +After the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Bradshaw again +entered parliament, became a member of the council of state, and +on the 3rd of June 1659 was appointed a commissioner of the +great seal. His health, however, was bad, and his last public +effort was a vehement speech, in the council, when he declared +his abhorrence of the arrest of Speaker Lenthall. He died on +the 31st of October 1659, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. +His body was disinterred at the Restoration, and exposed on a +gibbet along with those of Cromwell and Ireton. Bradshaw +married Mary, daughter of Thomas Marbury of Marbury, Cheshire, +but left no children.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADWARDINE, THOMAS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1290-1349), English archbishop, +called “the Profound Doctor,” was born either at Hartfield +in Sussex or at Chichester. He was educated at Merton +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span> +College, Oxford, where he took the degree of doctor of divinity, +and acquired the reputation of a profound scholar, a skilful mathematician +and an able divine. He was afterwards raised to the high +offices of chancellor of the university and professor of divinity. +From being chancellor of the diocese of London, he became chaplain +and confessor to Edward III., whom he attended during his +wars in France. On his return to England, he was successively +appointed prebendary of Lincoln, archdeacon of Lincoln (1347), +and in 1349 archbishop of Canterbury. He died of the plague +at Lambeth on the 26th of August 1349, forty days after his +consecration. Chaucer in his <i>Nun’s Priest’s Tale</i> ranks Bradwardine +with St Augustine. His great work is a treatise against +the Pelagians, entitled <i>De causa Dei contra Pelagium et de virtute +causarum</i>, edited by Sir Henry Savile (London, 1618). He +wrote also <i>De Geometria speculativa</i> (Paris, 1530); <i>De Arithmetica +practica</i> (Paris, 1502); <i>De Proportionibus</i> (Paris, 1495; Venice, +1505); <i>De Quadratura Circuli</i> (Paris, 1495); and an <i>Ars Memorativa</i>, +Sloane MSS. No. 3974 in the British Museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Quétif-Échard, <i>Script. Praedic.</i> (1719), i. 744; W.F. Hook, +<i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i>, vol. iv.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADY, NICHOLAS<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1659-1726), Anglican divine and poet, +was born at Bandon, Co. Cork, on the 28th of October 1659. +He received his education at Westminster school, and at Christ +Church, Oxford; but he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin. +He took orders, and in 1688 was made a prebendary of Cork. +He was a zealous promoter of the Revolution and suffered in +consequence. When the troubles broke out in Ireland in 1690, +Brady, by his influence, thrice prevented the burning of the town +of Bandon, after James II. had given orders for its destruction; +and the same year he was employed by the people of Bandon +to lay their grievances before the English parliament. He soon +afterwards settled in London, where he obtained various preferments. +At the time of his death, on the 20th of May 1726, +he held the livings of Clapham and Richmond. Brady’s best-known +work is his metrical version of the Psalms, in which +Nahum Tate collaborated with him. It was licensed in 1696, +and largely ousted the old version of T. Sternhold and J. Hopkins. +He also translated Virgil’s <i>Aeneid</i>, and wrote several smaller +poems and dramas, as well as sermons.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1840-1888), +Belgian painter, was born at Antwerp. He was trained by his +father, a <i>genre</i> painter, and his uncle, Baron Henri Leys, and +devoted himself to scenes of everyday Antwerp life. The first +pictures he exhibited, “The Laundry” (Van Cutsem collection, +Brussels), and “The Coppersmith’s Workshop” (Vleeshovwer +collection, Antwerp), were shown at the Antwerp exhibition in +1861. He received the gold medal at Brussels in 1872 for +“The Geographer” and “The Lesson” (both in the Brussels +gallery); the gold medal at Vienna in 1873 for “The Painter’s +Studio” and “Grandmother’s Birthday”; and the medal +of honour at the Exposition Universelle at Amsterdam for +“The Pilot House.” Among his more notable works are +“A Shoemaker” (1862), “A Tailor’s Workroom” (1863), +“A Gardener” (1864, Antwerp gallery), “Interior of a Church” +(1866), “Interior, Flanders” (1867), “Woman spinning” +(1869), “Man reading” (1871), “The rue du Serment, Antwerp” +(1875), “A Copperplate Printer,” “The Sailor’s Return,” +“The Man at the Window” (Couteaux collection, Brussels), +“The Horn-blower” (Couteaux collection), “Man retouching a +Picture” (Couteaux collection), “The Potters” (Marlier collection, +Brussels), “Staircase in the Hydraulic House at Antwerp” +(Marlier collection), and “The Brewer’s House at Antwerp” +(Marlier collection). The last, better known as “A Man sitting,” +is generally regarded as his masterpiece. As a lithographer +and etcher, his work resembles that of Henri Leys. Towards the +end of his life de Braekeleer did some dot painting (<i>pointillisme</i>), +in which he achieved admirable effects of light.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAEMAR,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a district in S.W. Aberdeenshire, Scotland, +extending from Ballater in the E. to Glen Dee in the W., a +distance of 24 m. with a breadth varying from 3 to 6 m. It is +drained throughout by the river Dee, both banks of which are +bounded by hills varying from 1000 to nearly 3000 ft. in height. +The whole area is distinguished by typical Highland scenery, +and is a resort alike for sportsmen and tourists. The villages and +clachans (Gaelic for hamlet) being situated at an altitude of from +600 to more than 1000 ft. above the sea, the air is everywhere +pure and bracing. The deer forests comprise the royal forests +of Balmoral and Ballochbuie, Glen Ey Forest, Mar Forest and +Invercauld Forest. At various points on either side of the Dee, +granite castles, mansions and lodges have been built, mostly +in the Scottish baronial style, and all effectively situated with +reference to the wooded hills or the river. The chief of these are +Balmoral and Abergeldie Castles belonging to the crown, Invercauld +House, Braemar Castle, Mar Lodge and Old Mar Lodge. +Castleton of Braemar is the foremost of the villages, being +sometimes styled the capital of the Deeside Highlands. Its +public buildings include halls erected by the duke of Fife and +Colonel Farquharson of Invercauld to commemorate the Victorian +jubilee of 1887. Not far from the spot where the brawling Clunie +joins the Dee the earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt in +1715. His seat, Braemar Castle, reputed to be a hunting-lodge +of Malcolm Canmore, was forfeit along with the estates. The +new castle built by the purchasers in 1720 was acquired at a later +date by Farquharson of Invercauld, who gave government the use +of it during the pacification of the Highlands after the battle of +Culloden in 1746. Population of Crathie and Braemar (1901) 1452.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAG,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a very old game of cards, probably evolved from the +ancient Spanish <i>primero</i>, played by five or six, or more players. +It is the ancestor of poker. A full pack is used, the cards ranking +as at whist, with certain exceptions. There are no trumps. Each +player receives three cards and puts up three stakes. The last +round is dealt face upwards: the holder of the highest card +irrespective of suits wins the first stake from all the players. +In the case of equality the elder hand wins, but the ace of diamonds +is always a winning card. For the second stake the players +<i>brag</i> or bet against each other, if they hold either a pair, or a +pair-royal (three cards of the same rank). Pairs and pairs-royal +take precedence according to the value of the cards composing +them, but any pair-royal beats any pair. The knave of clubs +may be counted as any card, <i>e.g.</i> two twos and the knave of clubs +rank as a pair-royal in twos; two aces and the knave as a pair-royal +in aces. Sometimes the knave of diamonds is allowed +the same privilege, but is inferior to the club knave; <i>e.g.</i> two +threes and the club would beat the other two threes and the +diamond. Players who accept another’s brag must cover his. +bet and offer another. The third stake is won by the player +whose cards make 31 or are nearest to 31 by their pips, aces +and court counting ten; but the ace may by arrangement count +as 1 or 11. Players may draw from the stock, losing if they +over-draw. If one player wins all three stakes, he may receive +the value of another stake, or of two or three stakes, all round, +as arranged. The deal passes as at whist. Each player +should have the same number of deals before the game is +abandoned.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAGA,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a city of northern Portugal, formerly included in the +province of Entre Minho e Douro, situated on the right-bank of +the small river Deste near its source, and at the head of a railway +from Oporto. Pop. (1900) 24,202. Braga, which ranks after +Lisbon and Oporto as the third city of the kingdom, is the +capital of an administrative district, and an archiepiscopal see. +Its cathedral, founded in the 12th century, was rebuilt during +the 16th century in the blend of Moorish and florid Gothic styles +known as Manoellian. It contains several tombs of considerable +historical interest, some fine woodwork carved in the 15th +century, and a collection of ancient vestments, plate and other +objects of art. Among the other churches Santa Cruz is noteworthy +for its handsome façade, which dates from 1642. There +are several convents, an archiepiscopal palace, a library, containing +many rare books and manuscripts, an orphan asylum, +and a large hospital; also the ruins of a theatre, a temple and +an aqueduct of Roman workmanship, and a great variety of +minor antiquities of different ages. The principal manufactures +are firearms, jewelry, cutlery, cloth and felt hats. Large cattle +fairs are held in June and September, for cattle-breeding and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span> +dairy-farming are among the foremost local industries. On a +hill about 3 m. E. by S. stands the celebrated sanctuary of Bom +Jesus, or Bom Jesus do Monte, visited at Whitsuntide by many +thousands of pilgrims, who do public penance as they ascend to +the shrine; and about 1 m. beyond it is Mount Sameiro (2535 +ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the Virgin Mary, and commanding +a magnificent view of the mountainous country which +culminates in the Serra do Gerez, on the north-east.</p> + +<p>Braga is the Roman <i>Bracara Augusta</i>, capital of the <i>Callaici +Bracarii</i>, or <i>Bracarenses</i>, a tribe who occupied what is now Galicia +and northern Portugal. Early in the 5th century it was taken +by the Suevi; but about 485 it passed into the hands of the +Visigothic conquerors of Spain, whose renunciation of the Arian +and Priscillianist heresies, at two synods held here in the 6th +century, marks the origin of its ecclesiastical greatness. The +archbishops of Braga retain the title of primate of Portugal, +and long claimed supremacy over the Spanish church also; but +their authority was never accepted throughout Spain. From the +Moors, who captured Braga early in the 8th century, the city was +retaken in 1040 by Ferdinand I., king of Castile and Leon; and +from 1093 to 1147 it was the residence of the Portuguese court.</p> + +<p>The administrative district of Braga coincides with the central +part of the province of Entre Minho e Douro (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1900) +357,159. Area, 1040 sq. m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAGANZA<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (<i>Bragança</i>), the capital of an administrative +district formerly included in the province of Traz-os-Montes, +Portugal; situated in the north-eastern extremity of the +kingdom, on a branch of the river Sabor, 8 m. S. of the Spanish +frontier. Pop. (1900) 5535. Braganza is an episcopal city. +It consists of a walled upper town, containing the cathedral +college and hospital, and of a lower or modern town. Large +tracts of the surrounding country are uncultivated, partly +because railway communication is lacking and the roads are bad. +Except farming, the chief local industry is silkworm-rearing +and the manufacture of silk. The administrative district of +Braganza coincides with the eastern part of Traz-os-Montes (<i>q.v.</i>). +Pop. (1900) 185,162; area, 2513 sq. m.</p> + +<p>The city gave its name to the family of Braganza, members of +which were rulers of Portugal from 1640 to 1853, and emperors +of Brazil from 1822 to 1889. This family is descended from +Alphonso (d. 1461), a natural son of John I., king of Portugal +(d. 1433), who was a natural son of King Peter I., and consequently +belonged to the Portuguese branch of the Capetian +family. Alphonso was made duke of Braganza in 1442, and in +1483 his grandson, Duke Ferdinand II., lost his life through +heading an insurrection against King John II. In spite of this +Ferdinand’s descendants acquired great wealth, and several +of them held high office under the kings of Portugal. Duke +John I. (d. 1583) married into the royal family, and when King +Henry II. died without direct heirs in 1580, he claimed the +crown of Portugal in opposition to Philip II. of Spain. John, +however, was unsuccessful, but, when the Portuguese threw off +the Spanish dominion in 1640, his grandson, John II., duke of +Braganza, became king as John IV. In 1807, when Napoleon +declared the throne of Portugal vacant, King John VI. fled to +Brazil; but he regained his inheritance after the fall of Napoleon +in 1814, although he did not return to Europe until 1821, when +he left his elder son Peter to govern Brazil. In 1822 a revolution +established the independence of Brazil with Peter as emperor. +In 1826 Peter became king of Portugal on the death of his +father; but he at once resigned the crown to his young daughter +Maria, and appointed his brother Miguel to act as regent. Miguel +soon declared himself king, but after a stubborn struggle was +driven from the country in 1833, after which Maria became +queen. Maria married for her second husband Ferdinand (d. +1851), son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg; and when she died +in 1853 the main Portuguese branch of the family became +extinct. Maria was succeeded by her son Louis I., father of +Charles I., who ascended the throne of Portugal in 1889. The +empire of Brazil descended on the death of Peter I. to his son +Peter II., who was expelled from the country in 1889. When +Peter died in 1891 this branch of the family also became extinct +in the male line. His only child, Isabella, married Louis Gaston +of Orleans, count of Eu. The exiled king, Miguel, founded a +branch of the family of Braganza which settled in Bavaria, +and various noble families in Portugal are descended from +cadets of this house. The title of duke of Braganza is now borne +by the eldest son of the king of Portugal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAGG, BRAXTON<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1817-1876), American soldier, was born +in Warren county, North Carolina, on the 22nd of March 1817. +He graduated at the United States military academy in 1837, +and as an artillery officer served in the Seminole wars of 1837 +and 1841, and under General Taylor in Mexico. For gallant +conduct at Fort Brown, Monterey and Buena Vista, he received +the brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel. He +resigned from the regular army on the 3rd of January 1856, and +retired to his plantation in Louisiana. From 1859 to 1861 he +was commissioner of the board of public works of the state. When +in 1861 the Civil War began, Bragg was made a brigadier-general +in the Confederate service, and assigned to command +at Pensacola. In February 1862, having meanwhile become +major-general, he took up a command in the Army of the +Mississippi, and he was present at the battle of Shiloh (April). +The vacancy created by the death of Sidney Johnston at that +battle was filled by the promotion of Bragg to full general’s +rank, and he succeeded General Beauregard when that officer +retired from the Western command. In the autumn of 1862 he led +a bold advance from Eastern Tennessee across Kentucky to +Louisville, but after temporary successes he was forced to retire +before Buell, and after the battle of Perryville (8th October) +retired into Tennessee. Though the material results of his +campaign were considerable, he was bitterly censured, and his +removal from his command was urged. But the personal favour +of Jefferson Davis kept him, as it had placed him, at the head of +the central army, and on the 31st of December 1862 and 2nd of +January 1863 he fought the indecisive battle of Murfreesboro (or +Stone river) against Rosecrans, Buell’s successor. In the campaign +of 1863 Rosecrans constantly outmanoeuvred the Confederates, +and forced them back to the border of Georgia. Bragg, however, +inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponent at Chickamauga +(September 19-20) and for a time besieged the Union forces +in Chattanooga. But enormous forces under Grant were concentrated +upon the threatened spot, and the great battle of Chattanooga +(November 23-25) ended in the rout of the Confederates. +Bragg was now deprived of his command, but President Davis +made him his military adviser, and in that capacity he served +during 1864. In the autumn of that year he led an inferior +force from North Carolina to Georgia to oppose Sherman’s +march. In February 1865 he joined Johnston, and he was +thus included in the surrender of that officer to Sherman. After +the war he became chief engineer to the state of Alabama, and +supervised improvements in Mobile harbour. He died suddenly +at Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of September 1876. General +Bragg, in spite of his want of success, was unquestionably a +brave and skilful officer. But he was a severe martinet, and +rarely in full accord with the senior officers under his orders, +the consequent friction often acting unfavourably on the conduct +of the operations.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Thomas Bragg</span> (1810-1872), was governor of North +Carolina 1855-1859, U.S. senator 1859-1861, and attorney-general +in the Confederate cabinet from Nov. 1861 to March 1862.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAGI,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> in Scandinavian mythology, the son of Odin, and god +of wisdom, poetry and eloquence. At the Scandinavian sacrificial +feasts a horn consecrated to Bragi was used as a drinking-cup +by the guests, who then vowed to do some great deed +which would be worthy of being immortalized in verse.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHAM, JOHN<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1774-1856), English vocalist, was born +in London about 1774, of Jewish parentage, his real name being +Abraham. His father and mother died when he was quite young. +Having received lessons in singing from an Italian artist named +Leoni, he made his first appearance in public at Covent Garden +theatre on the 21st of April 1787, when he sang “The soldier +tired of war’s alarms” and “<i>Ma chère arrive</i>.” On the +breaking of his voice, he had to support himself by teaching the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> +pianoforte. In a few years, however, he recovered his voice, +which proved to be a tenor of exceptionally pure and +rich quality. His second début was made in 1794 at the +Bath concerts, to the conductor of which, Rauzzini, he was +indebted for careful training extending over a period of more +than two years. In 1796 he reappeared in London at Drury +Lane in Storace’s opera of <i>Mahmoud</i>. Such was his success that +he obtained an engagement the next year to appear in the Italian +opera house in Grétry’s <i>Azor et Zémire</i>. He also sang in oratorios +and was engaged for the Three Choir festival at Gloucester. +With the view of perfecting himself in his art he set out for Italy +in the autumn of 1797. On the way he gave some concerts at +Paris, which proved so successful that he was induced to remain +there for eight months. His career in Italy was one of continuous +triumph; he appeared in all the principal opera-houses, singing +in Milan, Genoa, Leghorn and Venice. His compass embraced +about nineteen notes, his management of the falsetto being +perfect. In 1801 he returned to his native country, and appeared +once more at Covent Garden in the opera <i>Chains of the +Heart</i>, by Mazzinghi and Reeve. So great was his popularity that +an engagement he had made when abroad to return after a year to +Vienna was renounced, and he remained henceforward in England. +In 1824 he sang the part of Max in the English version of Weber’s +<i>Der Freischütz</i>, and he was the original Sir Huon in that +composer’s <i>Oberon</i> in 1826. Braham made two unfortunate +speculations on a large scale, one being the purchase of the Colosseum +in the Regent’s Park in 1831 for £40,000, and the other the +erection of the St James’s theatre at a cost of £26,000 in 1836. +In 1838 he sang the part of William Tell at Drury Lane, and in +1839 the part of Don Giovanni. His last public appearance +was at a concert in March 1852. He died on the 17th of February +1856. There is, perhaps, no other case upon record in which +a singer of the first rank enjoyed the use of his voice so long; +between Braham’s first and last public appearances considerably +more than sixty years intervened, during forty of which he held +the undisputed supremacy alike in opera, oratorio and the +concert-room. Braham was the composer of a number of vocal +pieces, which being sung by himself had great temporary +popularity, though they had little intrinsic merit, and are now +deservedly forgotten. A partial exception must be made in +favour of “The Death of Nelson,” originally written in 1811 +as a portion of the opera <i>The American</i>; this still keeps its +place as a standard popular English song.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHE, PER,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1602-1680), Swedish soldier and statesman, +was born on the island of Rydboholm, near Stockholm, +on the 18th of February 1602. He was the grandson of Per +Brahe (1520-1590), one of Gustavus I.’s senators, created count +of Visingsborg by Eric XIV., known also as the continuator of +Peder Svart’s chronicle of Gustavus I., and author of <i>Oeconomia</i> +(1585), a manual for young noblemen. Per Brahe the younger, +after completing his education by several years’ travel abroad, +became in 1626 chamberlain to Gustavus Adolphus, whose +lasting friendship he gained. He fought with distinction in +Prussia during the last three years of the Polish War (1626-1629) +and also, as colonel of a regiment of horse, in 1630 in Germany. +After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 his military +yielded to his political activity. He had been elected president +(<i>Landsmarskalk</i>) of the diet of 1629, and in the following year +was created a senator (<i>Riksråd</i>). In 1635 he conducted the +negotiations for an armistice with Poland. In 1637-1640 and +again in 1648-1654 he was governor-general in Finland, to which +country he rendered inestimable services by his wise and provident +rule. He reformed the whole administration, introduced a +postal system, built ten new towns, improved and developed +commerce and agriculture, and very greatly promoted education. +In 1640 he opened the university of Åbo, of which he was the +founder, and first chancellor. After the death of Charles X. +in 1660, Brahe, as <i>rikskansler</i> or chancellor of Sweden, became +one of the regents of Sweden for the second time (he had held a +similar office during the minority of Christina, 1632-1644), and +during the difficult year 1660 he had entire control of both +foreign and domestic affairs. He died on the 2nd of September +1680, at his castle at Visingsborg, where during his lifetime he +had held more than regal pomp.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Nils Brahe</span> (1604-1632), also served with distinction +under Gustavus Adolphus. He took part in the siege +and capture of Riga in 1621, served with distinction in Poland +(1626-1627) and assisted in the defence of Stralsund in 1628. +In 1630 he accompanied Gustavus into Germany, and in 1631 +was appointed colonel of “the yellow regiment,” the king’s +world-renowned life-guards, at the head of which he captured +the castle of Würzburg on the 8th of October 1631. He took +part in the long duel between Gustavus and Wallenstein round +Nuremberg as general of infantry, and commanded the left +wing at Lützen (November 6, 1632), where he was the only +Swedish general officer present. At the very beginning of the +fight he was mortally wounded. The king regarded Brahe as +the best general in the Swedish army after Lennart Torstensen.</p> + +<p>A direct descendant of Nils, <span class="sc">Magnus Brahe</span> (1790-1844), +fought in the campaign of 1813-14, under the crown prince +Bernadotte, with whom, after his accession to the throne as +Charles XIV., he was in high favour. He became marshal of +the kingdom, and, especially from 1828 onwards, exercised a +preponderant influence in public affairs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Martin Veibull, <i>Sveriges Storhetstid</i>, vol. iv. (Stockholm, 1881); +<i>Letters to Axel Oxenstjerna</i> (Swed.) 1832-1851 (Stockholm, 1890); +Petrus Nordmann, <i>Per Brahe</i> (Helsingfors, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHE, TYCHO<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1546-1601), Danish astronomer, was born on +the 14th of December 1546 at the family seat of Knudstrup in +Scania, then a Danish province. Of noble family, he was early +adopted by his uncle, Jörgen Brahe, who sent him, in April 1559, +to study philosophy and rhetoric at Copenhagen. The punctual +occurrence at the predicted time, August 21st, 1560, of a total +solar eclipse led him to regard astronomy as “something divine”; +he purchased the <i>Ephemerides</i> of Johann Stadius (3rd ed., 1570), +and the works of Ptolemy in Latin, and gained some insight into +the theory of the planets. Entered as a law-student at the +university of Leipzig in 1562, he nevertheless secretly prosecuted +celestial studies, and began continuous observations with a globe, +a pair of compasses and a “cross-staff.” He quitted Leipzig on +the 17th of May 1565, but his uncle dying a month later, he +repaired to Wittenberg, and thence to Rostock, where, in 1566, +he lost his nose in a duel, and substituted an artificial one made +of a copper alloy. In 1569 he matriculated at Augsburg, and +devoted himself to chemistry for two years (1570-1572). On his +return to Denmark, in 1571, he was permitted by his maternal +uncle, Steno Belle, to instal a laboratory at his castle of +Herritzvad, near Knudstrup; and there, on the 11th of November +1572, he caught sight of the famous “new star” in Cassiopeia. +He diligently measured its position, and printed an account of +his observations in a tract entitled <i>De Novâ Stellâ</i> (Copenhagen, +1573), a facsimile of which was produced in 1901, as a tercentenary +tribute to the author’s memory.</p> + +<p>Tycho’s marriage with a peasant-girl in 1573 somewhat +strained his family relations. He delivered lectures in +Copenhagen by royal command in 1574; and in 1575 travelled +through Germany to Venice. The execution of his design to +settle at Basel was, however, anticipated by the munificence of +Frederick II., king of Denmark, who bestowed upon him for life +the island of Hveen in the Sound, together with a pension of 500 +thalers, a canonry in the cathedral of Roskilde, and the income +of an estate in Norway. The first stone of the magnificent +observatory of Uraniborg was laid on the 8th of August 1576; it +received the finest procurable instrumental outfit; and was the +scene, during twenty-one years, of Tycho’s labours in systematically +collecting materials—the first made available since the +Alexandrian epoch—for the correction of astronomical theories. +James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. of England, visited +him at Uraniborg on the 20th of March 1590. But by that time +his fortunes were on the wane; for Frederick II. died in 1588, +and his successor, Christian IV., was less tolerant of Tycho’s +arrogant and insubordinate behaviour. His pension and fief +having been withdrawn, he sailed for Rostock in June 1597, and +re-commenced observing before the close of the year, in the castle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span> +of Wandsbeck near Hamburg. He spent the following winter at +Wittenberg, and reached Prague in June 1599, well assured of +favour and protection from the emperor Rudolph II. That +monarch, accordingly, assigned him the castle of Benatky for +his residence, with a pension of 3000 florins; his great +instruments were moved thither from Hveen, and Johannes Kepler +joined him there in January 1600. But this phase of renewed +prosperity was brief. After eleven days’ illness, Tycho Brahe +died on the 24th of October 1601, at Benatky, and was buried in +the Teynkirche, Prague.</p> + +<p>Tycho’s principal work, entitled <i>Astronomiae Instauratae +Progymnasmata</i> (2 vols., Prague, 1602-1603) was edited by +Kepler. The first volume treated of the motions of the sun and +moon, and gave the places of 777 fixed stars (this number was +increased to 1005 by Kepler in 1627 in the “Rudolphine Tables”). +The second, which had been privately printed at Uraniborg in 1588 +with the heading <i>De Mundi Aetherei recentioribus Phaenomenis</i>, +was mainly concerned with the comet of 1577, demonstrated +by Tycho from its insensible parallax to be no terrestrial +exhalation, as commonly supposed, but a body traversing +planetary space. It included, besides, an account of the +Tychonic plan of the cosmos, in which a <i>via media</i> was sought +between the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems. The earth +retained its immobility; but the five planets were made to revolve +round the sun, which, with its entire cortège, annually +circuited the earth, the sphere of the fixed stars performing +meanwhile, as of old, its all-inclusive diurnal rotation (see +ASTRONOMY: <i>History</i>). Under the heading <i>Astronomiae +Instauratae Mechanica</i>, Tycho published at Wandsbeck, in 1598, a +description of his instruments, together with an autobiographical +account of his career and discoveries, including the memorable +one of the moon’s “variation” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moon</a></span>). The book was reprinted +at Nuremberg in 1602 (cf. Hasselberg, <i>Vierteljahrsschrift +Astr. Ges.</i> xxxix. iii. 180). His <i>Epistolae Astronomicae</i>, +printed at Uraniborg in 1596 with a portrait engraved by Geyn of +Amsterdam in 1586, were embodied in a complete edition of his +works issued at Frankfort in 1648. Tycho vastly improved the +art of astronomical observation. He constructed a table of +refractions, allowed for instrumental inaccuracies, and eliminated +by averaging accidental errors. He, moreover, corrected the +received value of nearly every astronomical quantity; but the +theoretical purpose towards which his practical reform was +directed, was foiled by his premature death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.L.E. Dreyer’s <i>Tycho Brahe</i> (Edinburgh, 1890), which gives +full and authentic information regarding his life and work. +Also Gassendi’s <i>Vita</i> (Paris, 1654); +<i>Lebensbeschreibung</i>, collected from various Danish sources, +and translated into German by Philander von der Weistritz +(Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1756); +<i>Tyge Brahe</i>, by F.R. Friis (Copenhagen, 1871); +<i>Prager Tychoniana</i>, collected by Dr F.I. Studnicka +(Prague, 1901), a description of the scanty Tychonian relics +which survived the Thirty Years’ War and are still preserved +at Prague.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHMAN,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a Sanskrit noun-stem which, differently accented, yields +in the two nominatives <i>Brahmă</i> (neut.) and <i>Brahmā</i> +(masc.), the names of two deities which occupy prominent places in the +orthodox system of Hindu belief. Brahmă (n.) is the designation +generally applied to the Supreme Soul (<i>paramātman</i>), or +impersonal, all-embracing divine essence, the original source and +ultimate goal of all that exists; Brahmā (m.), on the other hand, +is only one of the three hypostases of that divinity whose creative +activity he represents, as distinguished from its preservative and +destructive aspects, ever apparent in life and nature, and represented +by the gods Vishṇu and Śiva respectively. The history of +the two cognate names reflects in some measure the development +of Indian religious speculation generally.</p> + +<p>The neuter term <i>brahmă</i> is used in the <i>Rigveda</i> both in +the abstract sense of “devotion, worship,” and in the concrete sense +of “devotional rite, prayer, hymn.” The spirit of Vedic worship +is pervaded by a devout belief in the efficacy of invocation and +sacrificial offering. The earnest and well-expressed prayer or +hymn of praise cannot fail to draw the divine power to the +worshipper and make it yield to his supplication; whilst offerings, +so far from being mere acts of devotion calculated to give pleasure +to the god, constitute the very food and drink which render him +vigorous and capable of battling with the enemies of his mortal +friend. It is this intrinsic power of fervent invocation and +worship which found an early expression in the term <i>brahmă</i>; +and its independent existence as an active moral principle in shaping +the destinies of man became recognized in the Vedic pantheon in the +conception of a god <i>Bṛihaspati</i> or <i>Brahmaṇaspati</i>, +“lord of prayer or devotion,” the divine priest and the guardian +of the pious worshipper. By a natural extension of the original +meaning, the term <i>brahmă</i>, in the sense of sacred utterance, +was subsequently likewise applied to the whole body of sacred +writ, the <i>tri-vidyā</i> or “triple lore” of the Veda; whilst it +also came to be commonly used as the abstract designation of the +priestly function and the Brāhmanical order generally, in the +same way as the term <i>kshatra</i>, “sway, rule,” came to denote the +aggregate of functions and individuals of the Kshatriyas or +Rājanyas, the nobility or military class.</p> + +<p>The universal belief in the efficacy of invocation as an +indispensable adjunct to sacrifices and religious rites generally, +could not fail to engender and maintain in the minds of the +people feelings of profound esteem and reverence towards those +who possessed the divine gift of inspired utterance, as well as for +those who had acquired an intimate knowledge of the approved +forms of ritual worship. A common designation of the priest is +brahman (nom. <i>brahma</i>), originally denoting, it would seem, +“one who prays, a worshipper,” perhaps also “the composer +of a hymn” (<i>brahman</i>, n.); and the same term came subsequently +to be used not only for one of the sacerdotal order generally, +but also, and more commonly, as the designation of a special +class of priests who officiated as superintendents during sacrificial +performances, the complicated nature of which required the +co-operation of a whole staff of priests, and who accordingly +were expected to possess a competent knowledge of the entire +course of ritual procedure, including the correct form and +mystic import of the sacred texts to be repeated or chanted +by the several priests. The Brahman priest (<i>brahmā</i>) being +thus the recognized head of the sacerdotal order (<i>brahmă</i>), +which itself is the visible embodiment of sacred writ and the +devotional spirit pervading it (<i>brahmă</i>), the complete +realization of theocratic aspirations required but a single step, +which was indeed taken in the theosophic speculations of the later +Vedic poets and the authors of the Brāhmanas (<i>q.v.</i>), viz. the +recognition of this abstract notion of the Brahma as the highest +cosmic principle and its identification with the pantheistic +conception of an all-pervading, self-existent spiritual substance, +the primary source of the universe; and subsequently coupled +therewith the personification of its creative energy in the form +of Brahmā, the divine representative of the earthly priest, who +was made to take the place of the earlier conception of <i>Prajāpati</i>, +“the lord of creatures” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brahmanism</a></span>). By this means the +very name of this god expressed the essential oneness of his +nature with that of the divine spirit as whose manifestation he +was to be considered. In the later Vedic writings, especially +the Brāhmanas, however, Prajāpati still maintains throughout +his position as the paramount personal deity; and Brahma, +in his divine capacity, is rather identified with Bṛihaspati, the +priest of the gods. Moreover, the exact relationship between +Prajāpati and the Brahmă (n.) is hardly as yet defined with +sufficient precision; it is rather one of simple identification: +in the beginning the Brahma was the All, and Prajapati is the +Brahma. It is only in the institutes of Manu, where we find the +system of castes propounded in its complete development, that +Brahmā has his definite place assigned to him in the cosmogony. +According to this work, the universe, before undiscerned, was +made discernible in the beginning by the sole, self-existent lord +Brahmă (n.). He, desirous of producing different beings from his +own self, created the waters by his own thought, and placed in +them a seed which developed into a golden egg; therein was +born Brahmā (m.), the parent of all the worlds; and thus “that +which is the undiscrete Cause, eternal, which is and is not, from +it issued that male who is called in the world Brahmā.” Having +dwelt in that egg for a year, that lord spontaneously by his own +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span> +thought split that egg in two; and from the two halves he +fashioned the heaven and the earth, and in the middle, the sky, and +the eight regions (the points of the compass), and the perpetual +place of the waters. This theory of Brahmā being born from a +golden egg is, however, a mere adaptation of the Vedic conception +of <i>Hiranya-garbha</i> (“golden embryo”), who is represented as +the supreme god in a hymn of the tenth (and last) book of the +<i>Rigveda</i>. Another still later myth, which occurs in the epic +poems, makes Brahma be born from a lotus which grew out of +the navel of the god Vishṇu whilst floating on the primordial +waters. In artistic representations, Brahmā usually appears +as a bearded man of red colour with four heads crowned with +a pointed, tiara-like head-dress, and four hands holding his +sceptre, or a sacrificial spoon, a bundle of leaves representing +the Veda, a bottle of water of the Ganges, and a string of beads +or his bow Parivīta. His vehicle (<i>vāhana</i>) is a goose or swan +(<i>hamsa</i>), whence he is also called <i>Haṃsāvhana</i>; and his consort +is Sarasvatī, the goddess of learning.</p> + +<p>One could hardly expect that a colourless deity of this description, +so completely the product of priestly speculation, could +ever have found a place in the hearts of the people generally, +And indeed, whilst in theoretic theology Brahma has retained +his traditional place and function down to our own days, his +practical cult has at all times remained extremely limited, the +only temple dedicated to the worship of this god being found at +Pushkar (Pokhar) near Ajmir in Rājputāna. On the other +hand, his divine substratum, the impersonal Brahma, the +world-spirit, the one and only reality, remains to this day the +ultimate element of the religious belief of intelligent India of +whatever sect. Being devoid of all attributes, it can be the +object only of meditation, not of practical devotional rites; +and philosophy can only attempt to characterize it in general +and vague terms, as in the favourite formula which makes it +to be <i>sachchidānanda</i>, <i>i.e.</i> being (<i>sat</i>), thinking (<i>chit</i>), and bliss +(<i>ānanda</i>).</p> +<div class="author">(J. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRĀHMAṆA,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> the Sanskrit term applied to a body of prose +writings appended to the collections (<i>samhitā</i>) of Vedic texts, +the meaning and ritual application of which they are intended +to elucidate, and like them regarded as divinely revealed. From +a linguistic point of view, these treatises with their appendages, +the more mystic and recondite Āraṇyakas and the speculative +Upanishads, have to be considered as forming the connecting +link between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit. The exact +derivation and meaning of the name is somewhat uncertain. +Whilst the masculine term <i>brāhmaṇa</i> (nom. <i>brāhmaṇas</i>), the +ordinary Sanskrit designation of a man of the Brahmanical +caste, is clearly a derivative of <i>brahman</i> (nom. <i>brahmā</i>), a common +Vedic term for a priest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brahman</a></span>), thus meaning the son +or descendant of a Brahman, the neuter word <i>brāhmaṇa</i> (nom. +<i>brāhmaṇam</i>) on the other hand, with which we are here concerned, +admits of two derivations: either it is derived from the same +word <i>brahman</i>, and would then seem to mean a <i>dictum</i> or observation +ascribed to, or intended for the use of, a Brahman, or +superintendent priest; or it has rather to be referred to the +neuter noun <i>brahmān</i> (nom. <i>brahmă</i>), in the sense of “sacred +utterance or rite,” in which case it might mean a comment on a +sacred text, or explanation of a devotional rite, calculated to +bring out its spiritual or mystic significance and its bearing on +the Brahma, the world-spirit embodied in the sacred writ and +ritual. This latter definition seems on the whole the more +probable one, and it certainly would fit exactly the character +of the writings to which the term relates. It will thus be seen +that the term <i>brāhmaṇam</i> applies not only to complete treatises +of an exegetic nature, but also to single comments on particular +texts or rites of which such a work would be made up.</p> + +<p>The gradual elaboration of the sacrificial ceremonial, as the +all-sufficient expression of religious devotion, and a constantly +growing tendency towards theosophic and mystic speculation +on the significance of every detail of the ritual, could not fail +to create a demand for explanatory treatises of this kind, which, +to enhance their practical utility, would naturally deal with the +special texts and rites assigned in the ceremonial to the several +classes of officiating priests. At a subsequent period the demand +for instruction in the sacrificial science called into existence a +still more practical set of manuals, the so-called <i>Kalpa-sūtras</i>, +or ceremonial rules, detailing, in succinct aphorisms, the approved +course of sacrificial procedure, without reference to the supposed +origin or import of the several rites. These manuals are also +called <i>Śrauta-sūtras</i>, treating as they do, like the Brāhmaṇas, of +the Śrauta rites—<i>i.e.</i> the rites based on the <i>śruti</i> or revelation—requiring +at least three sacrificial fires and a number of priests, +as distinguished from the <i>gṛihya</i> (domestic) or <i>smārta</i> (traditional) +rites, supposed to be based on the <i>smriti</i> or tradition, which are +performed on the house-fire and dealt with in the <i>Gṛihya-sūtras</i>.</p> + +<p>The ritual recognizes four principal priests (<i>ṛitvij</i>), each of +whom is assisted by three subordinates: viz. the <i>Brahman</i> +or superintending priest; the <i>Hotṛi</i> or reciter of hymns and +verses; the <i>Udgātri</i> or chanter; and the <i>Adhvaryu</i> or offerer, +who looks after the details of the ceremonial, including the +preparation of the offering-ground, the construction of fire-places +and altars, the making of oblations and muttering of the +prescribed formulae. Whilst the two last priests have assigned +to them special liturgical collections of the texts to be used by +them, the <i>Sāmaveda-saṃhitā</i> and <i>Yajurveda-saṃhitā</i> respectively, +the Hotṛi has to deal entirely with hymns and verses +taken from the <i>Ṛigveda-saṃhitā</i>, of which they would, however, +form only a comparatively small portion. As regards the +Brahman, he would doubtless be chosen from one of those other +three classes, but would be expected to have made himself +thoroughly conversant with the texts and ritual details appertaining +to all the officiating priests. It is, then, to one or other +of those three collections of sacred texts and the respective class +of priests, that the existing Brāhmaṇas attach themselves. At +a later period, when the Atharvan gained admission to the +Vedic canon, a special connexion with the Brahman priest was +sometimes claimed, though with scant success, for this fourth +collection of hymns and spells, and the comparatively late and +unimportant Gopatha-brāhmaṇa attached to it.</p> + +<p>The Udgātṛi’s duties being mainly confined to the chanting +of hymns made up of detached groups of verses of the <i>Ṛigveda</i>, +as collected in the Sāmaveda-saṃhitā, the more important +Brāhmaṇas of this sacerdotal class deal chiefly with the various +modes of chanting, and the modifications which the verses have +to undergo in their musical setting. Moreover, the performance +of chants being almost entirely confined to the Soma-sacrifice, +it is only a portion, though no doubt the most important portion, +of the sacrificial ceremonial that enters into the subject matter +of the Sāmaveda Brāhmaṃas.</p> + +<p>As regards the Brāhmaṇas of the <i>Ṛigveda</i>, two of such works +have been handed down, the <i>Aitareya</i> and the <i>Kaushītaki</i> (or +<i>Śānkhāyana</i>)<i>-Brāhmaṇas</i>, which have a large amount of their +material in common. But while the former work (transl. into +English by M. Haug) is mainly taken up with the Soma-sacrifice, +the latter has in addition thereto chapters on the other forms of +sacrifice. Being intended for the Hotṛi’s use, both these works +treat exclusively of the hymns and verses recited by that priest +and his assistants, either in the form of connected litanies or +in detached verses invoking the deities to whom oblations are +made, or uttered in response to the solemn hymns chanted by +the Udgātṛis.</p> + +<p>It is, however, to the Brāhmaṇas and Sūtras of the <i>Yajurveda</i>, +dealing with the ritual of the real offering-priest, the Adhvaryu, +that we have to turn for a connected view of the sacrificial +procedure in all its material details. Now, in considering the +body of writings connected with this Veda, we are at once +confronted by the fact that there are two different schools, an +older and a younger one, in which the traditional body of ritualistic +matter has been treated in a very different way. For +while the younger school, the <i>Vājasaneyins</i>, have made a clear +severance between the sacred texts or mantras and the exegetic +discussions thereon—as collected in the <i>Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā</i> +and the <i>Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa</i> (trans. by J. Eggeling, in <i>Sacred +Books of the East</i>) respectively—arranged systematically in +accordance with the ritual divisions, the older school on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span> +other hand present their materials in a hopelessly jumbled form; +for not only is each type of sacrifice not dealt with continuously +and in orderly fashion, but short textual sections of mantras +are constantly followed immediately by their dogmatic exegesis; +the term <i>brāhmaṇa</i> thus applying in their case only to these +detached comments and not to the connected series of them. +Thus the most prominent subdivision of the older school, the +<i>Taittirīyas</i>, in their <i>Saṃhitā</i>, have treated the main portion of +the ceremonial in this promiscuous fashion, and to add to the +confusion they have, by way of supplement, put forth a so-called +<i>Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa</i>, which, so far from being a real Brāhmaṇa, +merely deals with some additional rites in the same confused +mixture of sacrificial formulae and dogmatic explanations. +It is not without reason, therefore, that those two schools, the +older and the younger, are commonly called the Black (<i>kṛishṇa</i>) +and the White (<i>sukla</i>) Yajus respectively.</p> + +<p>Although the ritualistic discussions of the Brāhmaṇas are for +the most part of a dry and uninteresting nature to an even +greater degree than is often the case with exegetic theological +treatises, these works are nevertheless of considerable importance +both as regards the history of Indian institutions and as +“the oldest body of Indo-European prose, of a generally free, +vigorous, simple form, affording valuable glimpses backwards +at the primitive condition of unfettered Indo-European talk” +(Whitney). Of especial interest in this respect are the numerous +myths and legends scattered through these works. From the +archaic style in which these mythological tales are usually +composed, as well as from the fact that not a few of them are +found in Brāhmaṇas of different schools and Vedas, though often +with considerable variations, it seems pretty evident that the +groundwork of them must go back to times preceding the composition +or final redaction of the existing Brāhmaṇas. In the +case of some of these legends—as those of Śunaḥ-Śepha, and +the fetching of Soma from heaven—we can even see how they +have grown out of germs contained in some of the Vedic hymns. +If the literary style in which the exegetic discussion of the texts +and rites is carried on in the Brāhmaṇas is, as a rule, of a very +bald and uninviting nature, it must be borne in mind that these +treatises are of a strictly professional and esoteric character, +and in no way lay claim to being considered as literary compositions +in any sense of the word. And yet, notwithstanding +the general emptiness of their ritualistic discussions and mystic +speculations, “there are passages in the Brāhmaṇas full of +genuine thought and feeling, and most valuable as pictures of +life, and as records of early struggles, which have left no trace +in the literature of other nations” (M. Müller).</p> + +<p>The chief interest, however, attaching to the Brāhmaṇas is +doubtless their detailed description of the sacrificial system as +practised in the later Vedic ages; and the information afforded +by them in this respect should be all the more welcome to us, +as the history of religious institutions knows of no other sacrificial +ceremonial with the details of which we are acquainted +to anything like the same extent. An even more complete and +minutely detailed view of the sacrificial system is no doubt +obtained from the ceremonial manuals, the Kalpa-sūtras; but +it is just by the speculative discussions of the Brāhmaṇas—the +mystic significance and symbolical colouring with which +they invest single rites—that we gain a real insight into the +nature and gradual development of this truly stupendous +system of ritual worship.</p> + +<p>The sacrificial ritual recognizes two kinds of <i>śrauta</i> sacrifices, +viz. <i>haviryajnas</i> (meat-offerings), consisting of oblations (<i>ishti</i>) +of milk, butter, cereals or flesh, and <i>somayāgas</i> or oblations of the +juice of the soma plant. The setting up, by a householder, of a +set of three sacrificial fires of his own constitutes the first ceremony +of the former class, the <i>Agny-ādhāna</i> (or (?) <i>Agny-ādheya</i>). +The first of the three fires laid down is the <i>gārhapatya</i>, or householder’s +fire, so called because, though not taken from his +ordinary house-fire, but as a rule specially produced by friction, +it serves for cooking the sacrificial food, and thus, as it were, +represents the domestic fire. From it the other two fires, the +<i>ānavanīya</i>, or offering fire, and the <i>dakshiṇāgni</i>, or southern fire, +used for certain special purposes, are taken. The principal other +ceremonies of this class are the new and full moon offerings, the +oblations made at the commencement of the three seasons, the +offering of first-fruits, the animal sacrifice, and the <i>Agnihotra</i>, or +daily morning and evening oblation of milk, which, however, is +also included amongst the <i>gṛihya</i>, or domestic rites, as having to +be performed daily on the domestic fire by the householder who +keeps no regular set of sacrificial fires.</p> + +<p>Of a far more complicated nature than these offerings are the +Soma-sacrifices, which, besides the simpler ceremonies of this +class, such as the <i>Agnishtoma</i> or “Praise of Agni,” also include +great state functions, such as the <i>Räjasūya</i> or consecration of a +king, and the <i>Aśvamedha</i> or horse-sacrifice, which, in addition to +the sacrificial rites, have a considerable amount of extraneous, +often highly interesting, ceremonial connected with them, which +makes them seem to partake largely of the nature of public +festivals. Whilst the oblations of Soma-juice, made thrice on +each offering-day, amidst chants and recitations, constitute the +central rites of those services, their ritual also requires numerous +single oblations of the <i>ishti</i> kind, including at least three animal +offerings, and in some cases the immolation of many hecatombs +of victims. Moreover, a necessary preliminary to every Soma-sacrifice +is the construction, in five layers, of a special fire-altar of +large dimensions, consisting of thousands of bricks, formed and +baked on the spot, to each, or each group, of which a special +symbolic meaning is attached. The building of this altar is +spread over a whole year, during which period the sacrificer has +to carry about the sacrificial fire in an earthen pan for at least +some time each day, until it is finally deposited on the completed +altar to serve as the offering-fire for the Soma oblations. The +altar itself is constructed in the form of a bird, because Soma was +supposed to have been brought down from heaven by the metre +Gāyatrī which had assumed the form of an eagle. Whilst the +Soma-sacrifice has been thus developed by the Brāhmaṇas in +an extraordinary degree, its essential identity with the Avestan +Haoma-cult shows that its origin goes back at all events to the +Indo-Iranian period.</p> + +<p>Among the symbolic conceits in which the authors of the +Brāhmaṇas so freely indulge, there is one overshadowing all +others—if indeed they do not all more or less enter into it—which +may be considered as the sum and substance of these +speculations, and the esoteric doctrine of the sacrifice, involved +by the Brāhmanical ritualists. This is what may conveniently +be called the Prajāpati theory, by which the “Lord of Creatures,” +the efficient cause of the universe, is identified with both the +sacrifice (<i>yajna</i>) and the sacrificer (<i>yajamāna</i>). The origin of this +theory goes back to the later Vedic hymns. In the so-called +Purusha-sūkta (<i>Ṛigv.</i> x. 90) in which the supreme spirit is conceived +of as <i>the</i> person or man (<i>purusha</i>), born in the beginning, +and consisting of “whatever hath been and whatever shall be,” +the creation of the visible and invisible universe is represented as +originating from an “all-offered” (holocaust) sacrifice in which +the Purusha himself forms the offering-material (<i>havis</i>), or, as +we might say, the victim. In this primeval, or rather timeless +because ever-proceeding, sacrifice, time itself, in the shape of its +unit the year, is made to take its part, inasmuch as the three +seasons—spring, summer and autumn—of which it consists, +constitute the ghee (clarified butter), the offering-fuel and the +oblation respectively. These speculations may be said to have +formed the foundation on which the theory of the sacrifice, as +propounded in the Brāhmaṇas, has been reared. Prajāpati—who +(probably for practical considerations, as better representing +the sacrificer, the earthly ruler, or “lord of the creatures”) +here takes the place of the Purusha, the world-man or all-embracing +personality—is offered up anew in every sacrifice; +and inasmuch as the very dismemberment of the lord of +creatures, which took place at that archtypal sacrifice, was in +itself the creation of the universe, so every sacrifice is also a +repetition of that first creative act. Thus the periodical sacrifice +is nothing else than a microcosmic representation of the ever-proceeding +destruction and renewal of all cosmic life and matter. +The ritualistic theologians, however, go an important step +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span> +further by identifying Prajāpati with the performer, or patron, +of the sacrifice, the sacrificer; every sacrifice thus becoming +invested—in addition to its cosmic significance—with the mystic +power of regenerating the sacrificer by cleansing him of all guilt +and securing for him a seat in the eternal abodes.</p> + +<p>Whilst forming the central feature of the ritualistic symbolism, +this triad—Prajāpati, sacrifice (oblation, victim), sacrificer—is +extended in various ways. An important collateral identification +is that of Prajāpati (and the sacrificer) with Agni, the god of fire, +embodied not only in the offering-fire, but also in the sacred +Soma-altar, the technical name of which is <i>agni</i>. For this reason +the altar, as representative of the universe, is built in five layers, +representing earth, air and heaven, and the intermediate regions; +and in the centre of the altar-site, below the first layer, on a +circular gold plate (the sun), a small golden man (<i>purusha</i>) is laid +down with his face looking upwards. This is Prajāpati, and the +sacrificer, who when regenerated will pass upwards through the +three worlds to the realms of light, naturally perforated bricks +being for this purpose placed in the middle of the three principal +altar-layers. One of the fourteen sections of the Śatapatha-brāhmana, +the tenth, called <i>Agni-rahasya</i> or “the mystery of +Agni (the god and altar),” is entirely devoted to this feature of +the sacrificial symbolism. Similarly the sacrificer, as the human +representatiye of the Lord of Creatures, is identified with Soma +(as the supreme oblation), with Time, and finally with Death: by +the sacrificer thus becoming Death himself, the fell god ceases to +have power over him and he is assured of everlasting life. And +now we get the Supreme Lord in his last aspect; nay, his one +true and real aspect, in which the sacrificer, on shuffling off this +mortal coil, will himself come to share—that of pure intellectuality, +pure spirituality—he is Mind: such is the ultimate source +of being, the one Self, the Purusha, the Brahman. As the sum +total of the wisdom propounded in the mystery of Agni, the +searcher after truth is exhorted to meditate on that Self, made up +of intelligence, endowed with a body of spirit, a form of light, +and of an ethereal nature; holding sway over all the regions and +pervading this All, being itself speechless and devoid of mental +states; and by so doing he shall gain the assurance that “even +as a grain of rice, or the smallest granule of millet, so is the +golden Purusha in my heart; even as a smokeless light, it is +greater than the sky, greater than the ether, greater than the +earth, greater than all existing things;—that Self of the Spirit +is my Self; on passing away from hence, I shall obtain that +Self. And, verily, whosoever has this trust, for him there is no +uncertainty.”</p> +<div class="author">(J. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHMANISM,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a term commonly used to denote a system of +religious institutions originated and elaborated by the <i>Brāhmans</i>, +the sacerdotal and, from an early period, the dominant caste of +the Hindu community (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar27">Brahman</a></span>). In like manner, as the +language of the Āryan Hindūs has undergone continual processes +of modification and dialectic division, so their religious belief +has passed through various stages of development broadly +distinguished from one another by certain prominent features. +The earliest phases of religious thought in India of which a clear +idea can now be formed are exhibited in a body of writings, +looked upon by later generations in the light of sacred writ, +under the collective name of <i>Veda</i> (“knowledge”) or <i>Śruti</i> +(“revelation”). The Hindū scriptures consist of four separate +collections, or <i>Samhitās</i>, of sacred texts, or <i>mantras</i>, including +hymns, incantations and sacrificial forms of prayer, +viz. the <i>Ṛich</i> (nom. sing. <i>ṛik</i>) or <i>Ṛigveda</i>, the <i>Sāman</i> or +<i>Sāmaveda</i>, the <i>Yajus</i> or <i>Yajurveda</i>, and the <i>Atharvan</i> or +<i>Atharvaveda</i>. Each of these four text-books has attached +to it a body of prose writings, called <i>Brāhmaṇas</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#ar28">Brāhmaṇa</a></span>), intended to explain the ceremonial application of +the texts and the origin and import of the sacrificial rites for +which these were supposed to have been composed. Usually +attached to these works, and in some cases to the Saṃhitās, +are two kinds of appendages, the Āraṇyakas and Upanishads, +the former of which deal generally with the more recondite +rites, while the latter are taken up chiefly with speculations on +the problems of the universe and the religious aims of man—subjects +often touched upon in the earlier writings, but here +dealt with in a more mature and systematic way. Two of the +<i>Saṃhitās</i>, the <i>Sāman</i> and the <i>Yajus</i>, owing their +existence to purely ritual purposes, and being, besides, the one almost +entirely, the other partly, composed of verses taken from the +<i>Ṛigveda</i>, are only of secondary importance for our present inquiry. +The hymns of the <i>Ṛigveda</i> constitute the earliest lyrical effusions +of the Āryan settlers in India which have been handed down +to posterity. They are certainly not all equally old; on the +contrary they evidently represent the literary activity of many +generations of bards, though their relative age cannot as yet be +determined with anything like certainty. The tenth (and last) +book of the collection, however, at any rate has all the characteristics +of a later appendage, and in language and spirit many of +its hymns approach very nearly to the level of the contents of +the <i>Atharvan</i>. Of the latter collection about one-sixth is found +also in the <i>Ṛigveda</i>, and especially in the tenth book; the +larger portion peculiar to it, though including no doubt some +older pieces, appears to owe its origin to an age not long anterior +to the composition of the <i>Brāhmaṇas</i>.</p> + +<p>The state of religious thought among the ancient bards, as reflected +in the hymns of the <i>Ṛigveda</i>, is that of a worship of the +grand and striking phenomena of nature regarded in the light +of personal conscious beings, endowed with a power beyond the +control of man, though not insensible to his praises and actions. +It is a nature worship purer than that met with in any other +polytheistic form of belief we are acquainted with—a mythology +still comparatively little affected by those systematizing +tendencies which, in a less simple and primitive state of thought, +lead to the construction of a well-ordered pantheon and a regular +organization of divine government. To the mind of the early +Vedic worshipper the various departments of the surrounding +nature are not as yet clearly defined, and the functions which he +assigns to their divine representatives continually flow into one +another. Nor has he yet learned to care to determine the +relative worth and position of the objects of his adoration; +but the temporary influence of the phenomenon to which he +addresses his praises bears too strongly upon his mind to allow +him for the time to consider the claims of rival powers to which +at other times he is wont to look up with equal feelings of awe +and reverence. It is this immediateness of impulse under which +the human mind in its infancy strives to give utterance to its +emotions that imparts to many of its outpourings the ring of +monotheistic fervour.</p> + +<p>The generic name given to these impersonations, viz. <i>deva</i> +(“the shining ones”), points to the conclusion, sufficiently +justified by the nature of the more prominent objects of Vedic +adoration as well as by common natural occurrences, that it +was the striking phenomena of light which first and most +powerfully swayed the Āryan mind. In the primitive worship of the +manifold phenomena of nature it is not, of course, so much their +physical aspect that impresses the human heart as the moral and +intellectual forces which are supposed to move and animate +them. The attributes and relations of some of the Vedic deities, +in accordance with the nature of the objects they represent, +partake in a high degree of this spiritual element; but it is not +improbable that in an earlier phase of Āryan worship the religious +conceptions were pervaded by it to a still greater and more +general extent, and that the Vedic belief, though retaining +many of the primitive features, has on the whole assumed a +more sensuous and anthropomorphic character. This latter +element is especially predominant in the attributes and imagery +applied by the Vedic poets to <i>Indra</i>, the god of the +atmospheric region, the favourite figure in their pantheon.</p> + +<p>While the representatives of the prominent departments of +nature appear to the Vedic bard as co-existing in a state of +independence of one another, their relation to the mortal worshipper +being the chief subject of his anxiety, a simple method of +classification was already resorted to at an early time, consisting +in a triple division of the deities into gods residing in the sky, in +the air, and on earth. It is not, however, until a later stage,—the +first clear indication being conveyed in a passage of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span> +tenth book of the <i>Ṛigveda</i>—that this attempt at a polytheistic +system is followed up by the promotion of one particular god +to the dignity of chief guardian for each of these three regions. +On the other hand, a tendency is clearly traceable in some of +the hymns towards identifying gods whose functions present a +certain degree of similarity of nature; attempts which would +seem to show a certain advance of religious reflection, the first +steps from polytheism towards a comprehension of the unity +of the divine essence. Another feature of the old Vedic worship +tended to a similar result. The great problems of the origin and +existence of man and the universe had early begun to engage +the Hindū mind; and in celebrating the praises of the gods the +poet was frequently led by his religious, and not wholly +disinterested, zeal to attribute to them cosmical functions of the +very highest order. At a later stage of thought, chiefly exhibited +in the tenth book of the <i>Ṛigveda</i> and in the <i>Atharvaveda</i>, +inquiring sages could not but perceive the inconsistency of such +concessions of a supremacy among the divine rulers, and tried to solve the +problem by conceptions of an independent power, endowed with +all the attributes of a supreme deity, the creator of the universe, +including the gods of the pantheon. The names under which +this monotheistic idea is put forth are mostly of an attributive +character, and indeed some of them, such as <i>Prajāpati</i> (“lord +of creatures”), <i>Viśvakarman</i> (“all-worker”), occur in the earlier +hymns as mere epithets of particular gods. But to other minds +this theory of a personal creator left many difficulties unsolved. +They saw, as the poets of old had seen, that everything around +them, that man himself, was directed by some inward agent; +and it needed but one step to perceive the essential sameness of +these spiritual units, and to recognize their being but so many +individual manifestations of one universal principle or spiritual +essence. Thus a pantheistic conception was arrived at, put +forth under various names, such as <i>Purusha</i> (“soul”), <i>Kāma</i> +(“desire”), <i>Brahman</i> (neutr.; nom. sing. <i>bráhma</i>) (“devotion, +prayer”). Metaphysical and theosophic speculations were thus +fast undermining the simple belief in the old gods, until, at the +time of the composition of the <i>Brāhmanas</i> and <i>Upanishads</i>, we +find them in complete possession of the minds of the theologians. +Whilst the theories crudely suggested in the later hymns are now +further matured and elaborated, the tendency towards catholicity +of formula favours the combination of the conflicting monotheistic +and pantheistic conceptions; this compromise, which makes +<i>Prajāpati</i>, the personal creator of the world, the manifestation +of the impersonal <i>Brahma</i>, the universal self-existent soul, leads +to the composite pantheistic system which forms the characteristic +dogma of the Brāhmanical period (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar27">Brahman</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the Vedic hymns two classes of society, the royal (or +military) and the priestly classes, were evidently recognized as +being raised above the level of the <i>Viś</i>, or bulk of the Āryan +community. These social grades seem to have been in existence +even before the separation of the two Asiatic branches of the +Indo-Germanic race, the Āryans of Iran and India. It is true that, +although the <i>Athrava, Rathaēstāo</i>, and <i>Vāśtrya</i> +of the <i>Zend Avesta</i> correspond in position and occupation to the +<i>Brāhman, Rājan</i> and <i>Viś</i> of the Veda, there is no +similarity of names between them; but this fact only shows that the common +vocabulary had not yet definitely fixed on any specific names +for these classes. Even in the Veda their nomenclature is by no +means limited to a single designation for each of them. Moreover, +<i>Atharvan</i> occurs not infrequently in the hymns as the +personification of the priestly profession, as the proto-priest who +is supposed to have obtained fire from heaven and to have +instituted the rite of sacrifice; and although <i>ratheshtha</i> +(“standing on a car”) is not actually found in connexion with the +<i>Rājan</i> or <i>Kshatriya</i>, its synonym <i>rathin</i> is in later +literature a not unusual epithet of men of the military caste. At the time +of the hymns, and even during the common Indo-Persian +period, the sacrificial ceremonial had already become sufficiently +complicated to call for the creation of a certain number of +distinct priestly offices with special duties attached to them. +While this shows clearly that the position and occupation of the priest +were those of a profession, the fact that the terms <i>brāhmaṇa</i> +and <i>brahmaputra</i>, both denoting “the son of a brahman,” are +used in certain hymns as synonyms of <i>brahman</i>, seems to justify +the assumption that the profession had already, to a certain +degree, become hereditary at the time when these hymns were +composed. There is, however, with the exception of a solitary +passage in a hymn of the last book, no trace to be found in the +<i>Ṛigveda</i> of that rigid division into four castes separated from +one another by insurmountable barriers, which in later times +constitutes the distinctive feature of Hindū society. The idea +of caste is expressed by the Sanskrit term <i>varna</i>, originally +denoting “colour,” thereby implying differences of complexion +between the several classes. The word occurs in the Veda in the +latter sense, but it is used there to mark the distinction, not +between the three classes of the Āryan community, but between +them on the one hand and a dark-coloured hostile people on the +other. The latter, called Dāsas or Dasyus, consisted, no doubt, +of the indigenous tribes, with whom the Āryans had to carry +on a continual struggle for the possession of the land. The +partial subjection of these comparatively uncivilized tribes as +the rule of the superior race was gradually spreading eastward, +and their submission to a state of serfdom under the name of +<i>Śūdras</i>, added to the Āryan community an element, totally +separated from it by colour, by habits, by language, and by +occupation. Moreover, the religious belief of these tribes +being entirely different from that of the conquering people, the +pious Āryas, and especially the class habitually engaged in acts +of worship, could hardly fail to apprehend considerable danger +to the purity of their own faith from too close and intimate a +contact between the two races. What more natural, therefore, +than that measures should have been early devised to limit the +intercourse between them within as narrow bounds as possible? +In course of time the difference of vocation, and the greater or +less exposure to the scorching influence of the tropical sky, +added, no doubt, to a certain admixture of Śūdra blood, especially +in the case of the common people, seem to have produced also +in the Āryan population different shades of complexion, which +greatly favoured a tendency to rigid class-restrictions originally +awakened and continually fed by the lot of the servile race. +Meanwhile the power of the sacerdotal order having been +gradually enlarged in proportion to the development of the +minutiae of sacrificial ceremonial and the increase of sacred lore, +they began to lay claim to supreme authority in regulating +and controlling the religious and social life of the people. The +author of the so-called <i>Purusha-sūkta</i>, or hymn of Purusha, +above referred to, represents the four castes—the <i>Brāhmaṇa, +Kshatriya, Vaiśya</i> and <i>Śūdra</i>—as having severally sprung +respectively from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and the feet +of Purusha, a primary being, here assumed to be the source of +the universe. It is very doubtful, however, whether at the +time when this hymn was composed the relative position of the +two upper castes could already have been settled in so decided +a way as this theory might lead one to suppose. There is, on +the contrary, reason to believe that some time had yet to elapse, +marked by fierce and bloody struggles for supremacy, of which +only imperfect ideas can be formed from the legendary and +frequently biased accounts of later generations, before the +Kshatriyas finally submitted to the full measure of priestly authority.</p> + +<p>The definitive establishment of the Brāhmanical hierarchy +marks the beginning of the Brāhmanical period properly so +called. Though the origin and gradual rise of some of the +leading institutions of this era can, as has been shown, be +traced in the earlier writings, the chain of their development +presents a break at this juncture which no satisfactory materials +as yet enable us to fill up. A considerable portion of the literature +of this time has apparently been lost; and several important works, +the original composition of which has probably to be assigned to the +early days of Brāhmanism, such as the institutes of Manu and the +two great epics, the <i>Mahābhārata</i> and <i>Rāmāyana</i>, +in the form in which they have been handed down to us, show +manifest traces of a more modern redaction. Yet it is sufficiently +clear from internal evidence that Manu’s Code of Laws, though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span> +merely a metrical recast of older materials, reproduces on the +whole pretty faithfully the state of Hindū society depicted in +the sources from which it was compiled. The final overthrow +of the Kshatriya power was followed by a period of jealous +legislation on the part of the Brāhmans. For a time their chief +aim would doubtless be to improve their newly gained vantage-ground +by surrounding everything relating to their order with +a halo of sanctity calculated to impress the lay community +with feelings of awe. In the Brāhmaṇas and even in the Purusha +Hymn, and the Atharvan, divine origin had already been +ascribed to the Vedic <i>Saṃhitās</i>, especially to the three older +collections. The same privilege was now successfully claimed +for the later Vedic literature, so imbued with Brāhmanic aspirations +and pretensions; and the authority implied in the designation +of <i>Śruti</i> or revelation removed henceforth the whole body of +sacred writings from the sphere of doubt and criticism. This +concession necessarily involved an acknowledgment of the new +social order as a divine institution. Its stability was, however, +rendered still more secure by the elaboration of a system of +conventional precepts, partly forming the basis of Manu’s Code, +which clearly defined the relative position and the duties of the +several castes, and determined the penalties to be inflicted on +any transgressions of the limits assigned to each of them. These +laws are conceived with no sentimental scruples on the part of +their authors. On the contrary, the offences committed by +Brāhmans against other castes are treated with remarkable +clemency, whilst the punishments inflicted for trespasses on the +rights of higher classes are the more severe and inhuman the +lower the offender stands in the social scale.</p> + +<p>The three first castes, however unequal to each other in +privilege and social standing, are yet united by a common bond +of sacramental rites (<i>saṃskāras</i>), traditionally connected from +ancient times with certain incidents and stages in the life of the +Āryan Hindū, as conception, birth, name-giving, the first taking +out of the child to see the sun, the first feeding with boiled rice, +the rites of tonsure and hair-cutting, the youth’s investiture +with the sacrificial thread, and his return home on completing +his studies, marriage, funeral, &c. The modes of observing +these family rites are laid down in a class of writings called +<i>Gṛihya-sūtras</i>, or domestic rules. The most important of these +observances is the <i>upanayana</i>, or rite of conducting the boy to a +spiritual teacher. Connected with this act is the investiture +with the sacred cord, ordinarily worn over the left shoulder and +under the right arm, and varying in material according to the +class of the wearer. This ceremony being the preliminary act +to the youth’s initiation into the study of the Veda, the management +of the consecrated fire and the knowledge of the rites of purification, +including the <i>sāvitrī</i>, a solemn invocation to <i>Savitṛi</i>, +the sun (probl. Saturnus),—as a rule the verse <i>Ṛigv</i>. iii. 62. 10, +also called <i>gāyatrī</i> from the metre in which it is composed—which +has to be repeated every morning and evening before the rise +and after the setting of that luminary, is supposed to constitute +the second or spiritual birth of the Ārya. It is from their +participation in this rite that the three upper classes are called +the twice-born. The ceremony is enjoined to take place some +time between the eighth and sixteenth year of age in the case +of a Brāhman, between the eleventh and twenty-second year of a +Kshatriya, and between the twelfth and twenty-fourth year of a +Vaiśya. He who has not been invested with the mark of his +class within this time is for ever excluded from uttering the +sacred <i>sāvitrī</i> and becomes an outcast, unless he is absolved +from his sin by a council of Brāhmans, and after due performance +of a purificatory rite resumes the badge of his caste. With one +not duly initiated no righteous man is allowed to associate or +to enter into connexions of affinity. The duty of the Śudra +is to serve the twice-born classes, and above all the Brāhmans. +He is excluded from all sacred knowledge, and if he performs +sacrificial ceremonies he must do so without using holy mantras. +No Brāhman must recite a Vedic text where a man of the servile +caste might overhear him, nor must he even teach him the laws +of expiating sin. The occupations of the Vaiśya are those +connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding +of cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and +defending the people, administering justice, and the duties of +the military profession generally. Both share with the Brāhman +the privilege of reading the Veda, but only so far as it is taught +and explained to them by their spiritual preceptor. To the +Brāhman belongs the right of teaching and expounding the +sacred texts, and also that of interpreting and determining the +law and the rules of caste. Only in exceptional cases, when no +teacher of the sacerdotal class is within reach, the twice-born +youth, rather than forego spiritual instruction altogether, may +reside in the house of a non-Brāhmanical preceptor; but +it is specially enjoined that a pupil, who seeks the path to +heaven, should not fail, as soon as circumstances permit, +to resort to a Brāhman well versed in the Vedas and their +appendages.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the barriers placed between the four castes, +the practice of intermarrying appears to have been too prevalent +in early times to have admitted of measures of so stringent a +nature as wholly to repress it. To marry a woman of a higher +caste, and especially of a caste not immediately above one’s +own, is, however, decidedly prohibited, the offspring resulting +from such a union being excluded from the performance of the +<i>śrāddha</i> or obsequies to the ancestors, and thereby rendered +incapable of inheriting any portion of the parents’ property. +On the other hand, a man is at liberty, according to the rules of +Manu, to marry a girl of any or each of the castes below his own, +provided he has besides a wife belonging to his own class, for +only such a one should perform the duties of personal attendance +and religious observance devolving upon a married woman. +As regards the children born from unequal marriages of this +description, they have the rights and duties of the twice-born, +if their mother belong to a twice-born caste, otherwise they, +like the offspring of the former class of intermarriages, share the +lot of the Śūdra, and are excluded from the investiture and the +<i>sāvitrī</i>. For this last reason the marriage of a twice-born man +with a Śūdra woman is altogether discountenanced by some of +the later law books. At the time of the code of Manu the intermixture +of the classes had already produced a considerable +number of intermediate or mixed castes, which were carefully +defined, and each of which had a specific occupation assigned to it +as its hereditary profession.</p> + +<p>The self-exaltation of the first class was not, it would seem, +altogether due to priestly arrogance and ambition; but, like a +prominent feature of the post-Vedic belief, the transmigration +of souls, it was, if not the necessary, yet at least a natural +consequence of the pantheistic doctrine. To the Brāhmanical +speculator who saw in the numberless individual existences of +animate nature but so many manifestations of the one eternal +spirit, to union with which they were all bound to tend as their +final goal of supreme bliss, the greater or less imperfection of the +material forms in which they were embodied naturally presented +a continuous scale of spiritual units from the lowest degradation +up to the absolute purity and perfection of the supreme spirit. +To prevent one’s sinking yet lower, and by degrees to raise one’s +self in this universal gradation, or, if possible, to attain the +ultimate goal immediately from any state of corporeal existence, +there was but one way—subjection of the senses, purity of life +and knowledge of the deity. “He” (thus ends the code of Manu) +“who in his own soul perceives the supreme soul in all beings +and acquires equanimity toward them all, attains the highest +state of bliss.” Was it not natural then that the men who, +if true to their sacred duties, were habitually engaged in what +was most conducive to these spiritual attainments, that the +Brāhmanical class early learnt to look upon themselves, even as +a matter of faith, as being foremost among the human species +in this universal race for final beatitude? The life marked out +for them by that stern theory of class duties which they themselves +had worked out, and which, no doubt, must have been +practised in early times at least in some degree, was by no means +one of ease and amenity. It was, on the contrary, singularly +calculated to promote that complete mortification of the instincts +of animal nature which they considered as indispensable to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span> +final deliverance from <i>saṃsāra</i>, the revolution of bodily and +personal existence.</p> + +<p>The pious Brāhman, longing to attain the <i>summum bonum</i> on the +dissolution of his frail body, was enjoined to pass through a succession +of four orders or stages of life, viz. those of <i>brahmachārin</i>, +or religious student; <i>gṛihastha</i> (or <i>gṛihamedhin</i>), or +householder; <i>vanavāsin</i> (or <i>vānaprastha</i>), or anchorite; +and <i>sannyāsin</i> (or <i>bhikshu</i>), or religious mendicant. +Theoretically this course of life was open and even recommended to every +twice-born man, his distinctive class-occupations being in that +case restricted to the second station, or that of married life. +Practically, however, those belonging to the Kshatriya and +Vaiśya castes were, no doubt, contented, with few exceptions, +to go through a term of studentship in order to obtain a certain +amount of religious instruction before entering into the married +state, and plying their professional duties. In the case of the +sacerdotal class, the practice probably was all but universal in +early times; but gradually a more and more limited proportion +even of this caste seem to have carried their religious zeal to the +length of self-mortification involved in the two final stages. +On the youth having been invested with the badge of his caste, +he was to reside for some time in the house of some religious +teacher, well read in the Veda, to be instructed in the knowledge +of the scriptures and the scientific or theoretic treatises attached +to them, in the social duties of his caste, and in the complicated +system of purificatory and sacrificial rites. According to the +number of Vedas he intended to study, the duration of this +period of instruction was to be, probably in the case of Brāhmanical +students chiefly, of from twelve to forty-eight years; +during which time the virtues of modesty, duty, temperance +and self-control were to be firmly implanted in the youth’s +mind by his unremitting observance of the most minute rules of +conduct. During all this time the student had to subsist entirely +on food obtained by begging from house to house; and his +behaviour towards the preceptor and his family was to be that +prompted by respectful attachment and implicit obedience. In +the case of girls no investiture takes place, but for them the +nuptial ceremony is considered as an equivalent to that rite. +On quitting the teacher’s abode, the young man returns to his +family and takes a wife. To die without leaving legitimate offspring, +and especially a son, capable of performing the periodical rite of +obsequies (<i>śrāddha</i>), consisting of offerings of water and +balls of rice, to himself and his two immediate ancestors, is +considered a great misfortune by the orthodox Hindū. There +are three sacred “debts” which a man has to discharge in life, +viz. that which is due to the gods, and of which he acquits +himself by daily worship and sacrificial rites; that due to the +<i>ṛishis</i>, or ancient sages and inspired seers of the Vedic texts, +discharged by the daily study of the scripture; and the “final +debt” which he owes to his <i>manes</i>, and of which he relieves +himself by leaving a son. To these three some authorities add +a fourth, viz. the debt owing to humankind, which demands +his continually practising kindness and hospitality. Hence the +necessity of a man’s entering into the married state. When the +bridegroom leads the bride from her father’s house to his own +home, and becomes a <i>gṛiha-paṭi</i>, or householder, the fire which +has been used for the marriage ceremony accompanies the +couple to serve them as their <i>gārhapatya</i>, or domestic fire. It +has to be kept up perpetually, day and night, either by themselves +or their children, or, if the man be a teacher, by his pupils. +If it should at any time become extinguished by neglect or +otherwise, the guilt incurred thereby must be atoned for by an +act of expiation. The domestic fire serves the family for preparing +their food, for making the five necessary daily and other +occasional offerings, and for performing the sacramental rites +above alluded to. No food should ever be eaten that has not +been duly consecrated by a portion of it being offered to the gods, +the beings and the <i>manes</i>. These three daily offerings are also +called by the collective name of <i>vaiśvadeva</i>, or sacrifice +“to all the deities.” The remaining two are the offering to Brahmă, +<i>i.e.</i> the daily lecture of the scriptures, accompanied by certain +rites, and that to men, consisting in the entertainment of guests. +The domestic observances—many of them probably ancient +Āryan family customs, surrounded by the Hindūs with a certain +amount of adventitious ceremonial—were generally performed +by the householder himself, with the assistance of his wife. +There is, however, another class of sacrificial ceremonies of a +more pretentious and expensive kind, called <i>śrauta</i> rites, or rites +based on <i>śritu</i>, or revelation, the performance of which, though +not indispensable, were yet considered obligatory under certain +circumstances (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar28">Brāhmaṇa</a></span>). They formed a very powerful +weapon in the hands of the priesthood, and were one of the chief +sources of their subsistence. However great the religious merit +accruing from these sacrificial rites, they were obviously a kind +of luxury which only rich people could afford to indulge in. +They constituted, as it were, a tax, voluntary perhaps, yet none +the less compulsory, levied by the priesthood on the wealthy laity.</p> + +<p>When the householder is advanced in years, “when he perceives +his skin become wrinkled and his hair grey, when he sees +the son of his son,” the time is said to have come for him to +enter the third stage of life. He should now disengage himself +from all family ties—except that his wife may accompany him, +if she chooses—and repair to a lonely wood, taking with him his +sacred fires and the implements required for the daily and +periodical offerings. Clad in a deer’s skin, in a single piece of +cloth, or in a bark garment, with his hair and nails uncut, the +hermit is to subsist exclusively on food growing wild in the forest, +such as roots, green herbs, and wild rice and grain. He must +not accept gifts from any one, except of what may be absolutely +necessary to maintain him; but with his own little hoard he +should, on the contrary, honour, to the best of his ability, those +who visit his hermitage. His time must be spent in reading the +metaphysical treatises of the Veda, in making oblations, and in +undergoing various kinds of privation and austerities, with a view +to mortifying his passions and producing in his mind an entire +indifference to worldly objects. Having by these means succeeded +in overcoming all sensual affections and desires, and in +acquiring perfect equanimity towards everything around him, +the hermit has fitted himself for the final and most exalted order, +that of devotee or religious mendicant. As such he has no further +need of either mortifications or religious observances; but “with +the sacrificial fires reposited in his mind,” he may devote the +remainder of his days to meditating on the divinity. Taking up +his abode at the foot of a tree in total solitude, “with no +companion but his own soul,” clad in a coarse garment, he should +carefully avoid injuring any creature or giving offence to any +human being that may happen to come near him. Once a day, +in the evening, “when the charcoal fire is extinguished and the +smoke no longer issues from the fire-places, when the pestle is +at rest, when the people have taken their meals and the dishes +are removed,” he should go near the habitations of men, in +order to beg what little food may suffice to sustain his feeble +frame. Ever pure of mind he should thus bide his time, “as a +servant expects his wages,” wishing neither for death nor for +life, until at last his soul is freed from its fetters and absorbed +in the eternal spirit, the impersonal self-existent Brahmă.</p> + +<p>The tendency towards a comprehension of the unity of the +divine essence had resulted in some minds, as has been remarked +before, in a kind of monotheistic notion of the origin of the +universe. In the literature of the Brāhmaṇa period we meet +with this conception as a common element of speculation; +and so far from its being considered incompatible with the +existence of a universal spirit, <i>Prajāpati</i>, the personal +creator of the world, is generally allowed a prominent place in the +pantheistic theories. Yet the state of theological speculation, +reflected in these writings, is one of transition. The general +drift of thought is essentially pantheistic, but it is far from +being reduced to a regular system, and the ancient form of belief +still enters largely into it. The attributes of Prajāpati, in the +same way, have in them elements of a purely polytheistic nature, +and some of the attempts at reconciling this new-fangled deity +with the traditional belief are somewhat awkward. An ancient +classification of the gods represented them as being thirty-three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span> +in number, eleven in each of the three worlds or regions of nature. +These regions being associated each with the name of one principal +deity, this division gave rise at a later time to the notion of a kind of +triple divine government, consisting of <i>Agni</i> (fire), <i>Indra</i> +sky) or <i>Vāyu</i> (wind), and <i>Sūrya</i> (sun), as presiding +respectively over the gods on earth, in the atmosphere, and in the sky. Of +this Vedic triad mention is frequently made in the Brāhmaṇa writings. +On the other hand the term <i>prajāpati</i> (lord of creatures), which in +the <i>Ṛigveda</i> occurs as an epithet of the sun, is also once in the +<i>Atharvaveda</i> applied jointly to Indra and Agni. In the Brāhmaṇas +Prajāpati is several times mentioned as the thirty-fourth +god; whilst in one passage he is called the fourth god, and made +to rule over the three worlds. More frequently, however, the +writings of this period represent him as the maker of the world +and the father or creator of the gods. It is clear from this +discordance of opinion on so important a point of doctrine, that at +this time no authoritative system of belief had been agreed upon +by the theologians. Yet there are unmistakable signs of a strong +tendency towards constructing one, and it is possible that in +yielding to it the Brāhmans may have been partly prompted by +political considerations. The definite settlement of the caste +system and the Brāhmanical supremacy must probably be assigned +to somewhere about the close of the Brāhmaṇa period. +Division in their own ranks was hardly favourable to the aspirations +of the priests at such a time; and the want of a distinct +formula of belief adapted to the general drift of theological +speculation, to which they could all rally, was probably felt the +more acutely, the more determined a resistance the military +class was likely to oppose to their claims. Side by side with the +conception of the Brahmă, the universal spiritual principle, with +which speculative thought had already become deeply imbued, +the notion of a supreme personal being, the author of the material +creation, had come to be considered by many as a necessary +complement of the pantheistic doctrine. But, owing perhaps to +his polytheistic associations and the attributive nature of his +name, the person of Prajāpati seems to have been thought but +insufficiently adapted to represent this abstract idea. The expedient +resorted to for solving the difficulty was as ingenious as +it was characteristic of the Brāhmanical aspirations. In the +same way as the abstract denomination of sacerdotalism, the +neuter <i>brahmă</i>, had come to express the divine essence, so the old +designation of the individual priest, the masculine term <i>brahmā</i>, +was raised to denote the supreme personal deity which was to take +the place and attributes of the Prajāpati of the Brāhmaṇas and +Upanishads (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar27">Brahman</a></span>).</p> + +<p>However the new dogma may have answered the purposes of +speculative minds, it was not one in which the people generally +were likely to have been much concerned; an abstract, colourless +deity like Brahmā could awake no sympathies in the hearts of +those accustomed to worship gods of flesh and blood. Indeed, +ever since the primitive symbolical worship of nature had undergone +a process of disintegration under the influence of metaphysical +speculation, the real belief of the great body of the +people had probably become more and more distinct from +that of the priesthood. In different localities the principal +share of their affection may have been bestowed on one or another +of the old gods who was thereby raised to the dignity of chief +deity; or new forms and objects of belief may have sprung up +with the intellectual growth of the people. In some cases even +the worship of the indigenous population could hardly have +remained without exercising some influence in modifying the +belief of the Āryan race. In this way a number of local deities +would grow up, more or less distinct in name and characteristics +from the gods of the Vedic pantheon. There is, indeed, sufficient +evidence to show that, at a time when, after centuries of theological +speculations, some little insight into the life and thought +of the people is afforded by the literature handed down to us, +such a diversity of worship did exist. Under these circumstances +the policy which seems to have suggested itself to the priesthood, +anxious to retain a firm hold on the minds of the people, was +to recognize and incorporate into their system some of the most +prominent objects of popular devotion, and thereby to establish +a kind of catholic creed for the whole community subject to +the Brāhmanical law. At the time of the original composition of the +great epics two such deities, <i>Śiva</i> or <i>Mahādeva</i> (“the +great god”) and <i>Vishṇu</i>, seem to have been already admitted into +the Brāhmanical system, where they have ever since retained +their place; and from the manner in which they are represented +in those works, it would, indeed, appear that both, and especially +the former, enjoyed an extensive worship. As several synonyms +are attributed to each of them, it is not improbable that in some +of these we have to recognize special names under which the +people in different localities worshipped these gods, or deities +of a similar nature which, by the agency of popular poetry, +or in some other way, came to be combined with them. The +places assigned to them in the pantheistic system were coordinate +with that of Brahmā; the three deities, <i>Brahmā, +Vishnu</i> and <i>Śiva</i>, were to represent a triple impersonation +of the divinity, as manifesting itself respectively in the creation, +preservation and destruction of the universe. Śiva does not occur +in the Vedic hymns as the name of a god, but only as an adjective +in the sense of “kind, auspicious.” One of his synonyms, +however, is the name of a Vedic deity, the attributes and nature +of which show a good deal of similarity to the post-Vedic god. +This is <i>Rudra</i>, the god of the roaring storm, usually portrayed, +in accordance with the element he represents, as a fierce, destructive +deity, “terrible as a wild beast,” whose fearful arrows +cause death and disease to men and cattle. He is also called +<i>kapardin</i> (“wearing his hair spirally braided like a shell”), +a word which in later times became one of the synonyms of +Śiva. The <i>Atharvaveda</i> mentions several other names of the same +god, some of which appear even placed together, as in one +passage <i>Bhava, Sarva, Rudra</i> and <i>Paśupati</i>. Possibly some of +them were the names under which one and the same deity was +already worshipped in different parts of northern India. This +was certainly the case in later times, since it is expressly stated +in one of the later works of the Brahmaṇa period, that Sarva was +used by the Eastern people and Bhava by a Western tribe. It is also worthy +of note that in the same work (the <i>Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa</i>), +composed at a time when the Vedic triad of Agni, +Indra-Vāyu and Sūrya was still recognized, attempts are made +to identify this god of many names with Agni; and that in one passage +in the <i>Mahābhārata</i> it is stated that the Brāhmans said +that Agni was Śiva. Although such attempts at an identification +of the two gods remained isolated, they would at least seem +to point to the fact that, in adapting their speculations to the +actual state of popular worship, the Brāhmans kept the older +triad distinctly in view, and by means of it endeavoured to bring +their new structure into harmony with the ancient Vedic belief. +It is in his character as destroyer that Śiva holds his place in the +triad, and that he must, no doubt, be identified with the Vedic +Rudra. Another very important function appears, however, +to have been early assigned to him, on which much more stress +is laid in his modern worship—that of destroyer being more +especially exhibited in his consort—viz. the character of a +generative power, symbolized in the phallic emblem (<i>linga</i>) +and in the sacred bull (<i>Nandi</i>), the favourite attendant of the +god. This feature being entirely alien from the nature of the +Vedic god, it has been conjectured with some plausibility, that +the <i>linga</i>-worship was originally prevalent among the +non-Āryan population, and was thence introduced into the worship +of Śiva. On the other hand, there can, we think, be little doubt +that Śiva, in his generative faculty, is the representative of +another Vedic god whose nature and attributes go far to account +for this particular feature of the modern deity, viz. <i>Pūshan</i>. +This god, originally, no doubt, a solar deity, is frequently +invoked, as the lord of nourishment, to bestow food, wealth +and other blessings. He is once, jointly with Soma, called the +progenitor of heaven and earth, and is connected with the +marriage ceremony, where he is asked to lead the bride to the +bridegroom and make her prosperous (<i>Śivatamā</i>). Moreover, +he has the epithet <i>kapardin</i> (spirally braided), as have Rudra +and the later Śiva, and is called <i>Paśupa</i>, or guardian of cattle, +whence the latter derives his name <i>Paśupati</i>. But he is also a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span> +strong, powerful, and even fierce and destructive god, who, +with his goad or golden spear, smites the foes of his worshipper, +and thus in this respect offers at least some points of similarity +to Rudra, which may have favoured the fusion of the two gods. +As regards <i>Vishṇu</i>, this god occupies already a place in the +Vedic mythology, though by no means one of such prominence +as would entitle him to that degree of exaltation implied in his +character as one of the three hypostases of the divinity. Moreover, +although in his general nature, as a benevolent, genial +being, the Vedic god corresponds on the whole to the later +Vishṇu, the preserver of the world, the latter exhibits many +important features for which we look in vain in his prototype, +and which most likely resulted from sectarian worship or from +an amalgamation with local deities. In one or two of them, +such as his names Vāsudeva and Vaikuntha, an attempt may +again be traced to identify Vishṇu with Indra, who, as we have +seen, was one of the Vedic triad of gods. The characteristic +feature of the elder Vishṇu is his measuring the world with +his three strides, which are explained as denoting either the +three stations of the sun at the time of rising, culminating and +setting, or the triple manifestation of the luminous element, +as the fire on earth, the lightning in the atmosphere and the sun +in the heavens.</p> + +<p>The male nature of the triad was supposed to require to be +supplemented by each of the three gods being associated with a +female energy (<i>Śakti</i>). Thus <i>Vāch</i> or <i>Sarasvatī</i>, the goddess of +speech and learning, came to be regarded as the <i>śakti</i>, or consort +of Brahmā; <i>Śrī</i> or <i>Lakshmī</i>, “beauty, fortune,” as that of +Vishṇu; and <i>Umā</i> or <i>Pārvatī</i>, the daughter of <i>Himavat</i>, the god +of the Himālaya mountain, as that of Śiva. On the other hand, +it is not improbable that <i>Pārvatī</i>—who has a variety of other +names, such as <i>Kālī</i> (“the black one”), <i>Durgā</i> (“the inaccessible, +terrible one”), <i>Māha-devī</i> (“the great goddess”)—enjoyed +already a somewhat extensive worship of her own, and that there +may thus have been good reason for assigning to her a prominent +place in the Brāhmanical system.</p> + +<p>A compromise was thus effected between the esoteric doctrine +of the metaphysician and some of the most prevalent forms of +popular worship, resulting in what was henceforth to constitute +the orthodox system of belief of the Brāhmanical community. +Yet the Vedic pantheon could not be altogether discarded, +forming part and parcel, as it did, of that sacred revelation +(<i>śruti</i>), which was looked upon as the divine source of all religious +and social law (<i>smṛiti</i>, “tradition”), and being, moreover, the +foundation of the sacrificial ceremonial on which the priestly +authority so largely depended. The existence of the old gods is, +therefore, likewise recognized, but recognized in a very different +way from that of the triple divinity. For while the triad represents +the immediate manifestation of the eternal, infinite soul—while +it constitutes, in fact, the Brahmă itself in its active relation +to mundane and seemingly material occurrences, the old traditional +gods are of this world, are individual spirits or portions of +the Brahma like men and other creatures, only higher in degree. +To them an intermediate sphere, the heaven of Indra (the +<i>svarloka</i> or <i>svarga</i>), is assigned to which man may raise himself +by fulfilling the holy ordinances; but they are subject to the same +laws of being; they, like men, are liable to be born again in +some lower state, and, therefore, like them, yearn for emancipation +from the necessity of future individual existence. It is a +sacred duty of man to worship these superior beings by invocations +and sacrificial observances, as it is to honour the <i>pitṛis</i> +(“the fathers”), the spirits of the departed ancestors. The +spirits of the dead, on being judged by <i>Yama</i>, the Pluto of Hindū +mythology, are supposed to be either passing through a term of +enjoyment in a region midway between the earth and the heaven +of the gods, or undergoing their measure of punishment in the +nether world, situated somewhere in the southern region, before +they return to the earth to animate new bodies. In Vedic +mythology Yama was considered to have been the first mortal +who died, and “espied the way to” the celestial abodes, and in +virtue of precedence to have become the ruler of the departed; +in some passages, however, he is already regarded as the god of +death. Although the pantheistic system allowed only a subordinate +rank to the old gods, and the actual religious belief of +the people was probably but little affected by their existence, +they continued to occupy an important place in the affections of +the poet, and were still represented as exercising considerable +influence on the destinies of man. The most prominent of them +were regarded as the appointed <i>Lokapālas</i>, or guardians of the +world; and as such they were made to preside over the four +cardinal and (according to some authorities) the intermediate +points of the compass. Thus <i>Indra</i>, the chief of the gods, was +regarded as the regent of the east; <i>Agni</i>, the fire (<i>ignis</i>), was in +the same way associated with the south-east; <i>Yama</i> with the +south; <i>Śurya</i>, the sun (<span class="grk" title="Haelios">Ἢλιος</span>), with the south-west; <i>Varūṇa</i>, +originally the representative of the all-embracing heaven (<span class="grk" title="Ouranos">Οὐρανός</span>) +or atmosphere, now the god of the ocean, with the west; <i>Vāyu</i> +(or <i>Pavana</i>), the wind, with the north-west; <i>Kubera</i>, the god of +wealth, with the north; and <i>Soma</i> (or <i>Chaṇdra</i>) with the north-east. +In the institutes of Manu the <i>Lokapālas</i> are represented as +standing in close relation to the ruling king, who is said to be +composed of particles of these his tutelary deities. The retinue +of Indra consists chiefly of the <i>Gandharvas</i> (probably etym. +connected with <span class="grk" title="kentauros">κένταυρος</span>), a class of genii, considered in the +epics as the celestial musicians; and their wives, the <i>Apsaras</i>, +lovely nymphs, who are frequently employed by the gods to +make the pious devotee desist from carrying his austere practices +to an extent that might render him dangerous to their power. +<i>Nārada</i>, an ancient sage (probably a personification of the cloud, +the “water-giver”), is considered as the messenger between the +gods and men, and as having sprung from the forehead of Brahmā. +The interesting office of the god of love is held by <i>Kāmadeva</i>, +also called <i>Ananga</i>, the bodyless, because, as the myth relates, +having once tried by the power of his mischievous arrow to make +Śiva fall in love with Pārvatī, whilst he was engaged in devotional +practices, the urchin was reduced to ashes by a glance of the +angry god. Two other mythological figures of some importance +are considered as sons of Śiva and Pārvatī, viz. <i>Kārttikeya</i> or +<i>Skanda</i>, the leader of the heavenly armies, who was supposed +to have been fostered by the six <i>Kṛittikās</i> or Pleiades; and +<i>Gaṇeśa</i> (“lord of troops”), the elephant-headed god of wisdom, +and at the same time the leader of the <i>dii minorum gentium</i>.</p> + +<p>Orthodox Brāhmanical scholasticism makes the attainment of +final emancipation (<i>mukti</i>, <i>moksha</i>) dependent on perfect knowledge +of the divine essence. This knowledge can only be obtained +by complete abstraction of the mind from external objects and +intense meditation on the divinity, which again presupposes +the total extinction of all sensual instincts by means of austere +practices (<i>tapas</i>). The chosen few who succeed in gaining +complete mastery over their senses and a full knowledge of the +divine nature become absorbed into the universal soul immediately +on the dissolution of the body. Those devotees, on the +other hand, who have still a residuum, however slight, of ignorance +and worldliness left in them at the time of their death, +pass to the world of Brahmā, where their souls, invested with +subtile corporeal frames, await their reunion with the Eternal +Being.</p> + +<p>The pantheistic doctrine which thus forms the foundation of +the Brahmanical system of belief found its most complete +exposition in one of the six orthodox <i>darśanas</i>, or philosophical +systems, the <i>Vedānta</i> philosophy. These systems are considered +as orthodox inasmuch as they recognize the Veda as the revealed +source of religious belief, and never fail to claim the authority +of the ancient seers for their own teachings, even though—as in +the case of Kapila, the founder of the materialistic Sānkhya +system—they involve the denial of so essential a dogmatic point +as the existence of a personal creator of the world. So much, +indeed, had freedom of speculative thought become a matter of +established habit and intellectual necessity, that no attempt +seems ever to have been made by the leading theological party +to put down such heretical doctrines, so long as the sacred +character of the privileges of their caste was not openly called +in question. Yet internal dissensions on such cardinal points of +belief could not but weaken the authority of the hierarchical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span> +body; and as they spread beyond the narrow bounds of the +Brāhmanical schools, it wanted but a man of moral and +intellectual powers, and untrammelled by class prejudices, to +render them fatal to priestly pretensions. Such a man arose in +the person of a Śākya prince of Kapilavastu, Gotama, the founder +of Buddhism (about the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Had it only been for +the philosophical tenets of Buddha, they need scarcely have +caused, and probably did not cause, any great uneasiness to +the orthodox theologians. He did, indeed, go one step beyond +Kapila, by altogether denying the existence of the soul as a +substance, and admitting only certain intellectual faculties as +attributes of the body, perishable with it. Yet the conception +which Buddha substituted for the transmigratory soul, viz. +that of <i>karma</i> (“work”), as the sum total of the individual’s +good and bad actions, being the determinative element of the +form of his future existence, might have been treated like any +other speculative theory, but for the practical conclusions he +drew from it. Buddha recognized the institution of caste, and +accounted for the social inequalities attendant thereon as being +the effects of <i>karma</i> in former existences. But, on the other hand, +he altogether denied the revealed character of the Veda and the +efficacy of the Brāhmanical ceremonies deduced from it, and +rejected the claims of the sacerdotal class to be the repositaries +and divinely appointed teachers of sacred knowledge. That +Buddha never questioned the truth of the Brāhmanical theory of +transmigration shows that this early product of speculative +thought had become firmly rooted in the Hindū mind as a tenet +of belief amounting to moral conviction. To the Hindū philosopher +this doctrine seemed alone to account satisfactorily for the +apparent essential similarity of the vital element in all animate +beings, no less than for what elsewhere has led honest and +logical thinkers to the stern dogma of predestination. The +belief in eternal bliss or punishment, as the just recompense +of man’s actions during this brief term of human life, which their +less reflective forefathers had at one time held, appeared to +them to involve a moral impossibility. The equality of all men, +which Buddha preached with regard to the final goal, the <i>nirvāna</i>, +or extinction of <i>karma</i> and thereby of all future existence and +pain, and that goal to be reached, not by the performance of +penance and sacrificial worship, but by practising virtue, could +not fail to be acceptable to many people. It would be out of +place here to dwell on the rapid progress and internal development +of the new doctrine. Suffice it to say that, owing no doubt +greatly to the sympathizing patronage of ruling princes, Buddhism +appears to have been the state religion in most parts of +India during the early centuries of our era. To what extent it +became the actual creed of the body of the people it will probably +be impossible ever to ascertain. One of the chief effects it +produced on the worship of the old gods was the rapid decline +of the authority of the orthodox Brāhmanical dogma, and a +considerable development of sectarianism. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hinduism</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H.H. Wilson, <i>Essays on the Religion of the Hindus</i>; +J. Muir, <i>Original Sanskrit Texts</i>; +M. Müller, <i>History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature</i>; +C. Lassen, <i>Indische Alterthumskunde</i>; +Elphinstone, <i>History of India</i>, ed. by E.B. Cowell.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHMAPUTRA,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a great river of India, with a total length +of 1800 m. Its main source is in a great glacier-mass of the +northernmost chain of the Himalayas, called Kubigangri, about +82° N., and receives various tributaries including one formerly +regarded as the true source from the pass of Mariam La (15,500 ft.), +which separates its basin from the eastern affluents of the +Mansarowar lakes, at least 100 m. south-east of those of the +Indus. It flows in a south-easterly direction for 170 m., and +then adheres closely to a nearly easterly course for 500 m. more, +being at the end of that distance in 29° 10′ N. lat. It then bends +north-east for 150 m. before finally shaping itself southwards +towards the plains of Assam. Roughly speaking, the river may +be said so far to run parallel to the main chain of the Himalaya +at a distance of 100 m. therefrom. Its early beginnings take +their rise amidst a mighty mass of glaciers which cover the +northern slopes of the watershed, separating them from the +sources of the Gogra on the south; and there is evidence that +two of its great southern tributaries, the Shorta Tsanpo (which +joins about 150 m. from its source), and the Nyang Chu (the +river of Shigatse and Gyantse), are both also of glacial origin. +From the north it receives five great tributaries, namely, the +Chu Nago, the Chachu Tsanpo and the Charta Tsanpo (all +within the first 200 m. of its course), and the Raka Tsanpo and +Kyi-chu (or river of Lhasa) below. The Chachu and the Charta +are large clear streams, evidently draining from the great central +lake district. Both of them measure more than 100 yds. in +width at the point of junction, and they are clearly non-glacial. +The Raka Tsanpo is a lateral affluent, flowing for 200 m. parallel +to the main river course and some 20 to 30 m. north of it, draining +the southern slopes of a high snowy range. It is an important +feature as affording foothold for the Janglam (the great high +road of southern Tibet connecting Ladakh with China), which +is denied by the actual valley of the Brahmaputra. The great +river itself is known in Tibet by many names, being generally +called the Nari Chu, Maghang Tsanpo or Yaro Tsanpo, above +Lhasa; the word “tsanpo” (tsang-po) meaning (according to +Waddell) the “pure one,” and applying to all great rivers. +Fifty miles from its source the river and the Janglam route touch +each other, and from that point past Tadum (the first important +place on its banks) for another 130 m., the road follows more +or less closely the left bank of the river. Then it diverges northwards +into the lateral valley of the Raka, until the Raka joins +the Brahmaputra below Janglache. The upper reaches are +nowhere fordable between Tadum and Lhasa, but there is a ferry +at Likche (opposite Tadum on the southern bank), where wooden +boats covered with hide effect the necessary connexion between +the two banks and ensure the passage of the Nepal trade. From +Janglache (13,800 ft.) to Shigatse the river is navigable, the +channel being open and wide and the course straight. This is +probably the most elevated system of navigation in the world. +From Shigatse, which stands near the mouth of the Nyang Chu, +to the Kyi-chu, or Lhasa river, there is no direct route, the +river being unnavigable below Shigatse. The Janglam takes +a circuitous course southwards to Gyantse and the Yamdok Cho +before dropping again over the Khambala pass to the ferry at +Khamba barje near Chushul. Thence the valley of the Kyi-chu +(itself navigable for small boats for about 30 m.) leads to Lhasa +northwards. At Chushul there is an iron chain-and-rope suspension +bridge over the deepest part of the river, but it does not +completely span the river, and it is too insecure for use. The +remains of a similar bridge exist at Janglache; but there are no +wooden or twig suspension bridges over the Tsanpo. At Tadum +the river is about one half as wide again as the Ganges at Hardwar +in December, <i>i.e.</i> about 250 to 300 yds. At Shigatse it flows in +a wide extended bed with many channels, but contracts again at +Chushul, where it is no wider than it is at Janglache, <i>i.e.</i> from +600 to 700 yds. At Chushul (below the Kyi-chu) the discharge +of the river is computed to be about 35,000 cub. ft. per second, +or seven times that of the Ganges at Hardwar.</p> + +<p>For about 250 m. below Kyi-chu to a point about 20 m. below +the great southerly bend (in 94° E. long.) the course of the +Brahmaputra has been traced by native surveyors. Then it +is lost amidst the jungle-covered hills of the wild Mishmi and +Abor tribes to the east of Bhutan for another 100 m., until it is +again found as the Dihong emerging into the plains of Assam. +About the intervening reaches of the river very little is known +except that it drops through 7000 ft. of altitude, and that in +one place, at least, there exist some very remarkable falls. +These are placed in 29° 40′ N. lat., between Kongbu and Pema-Koi. +Here the river runs in a narrow precipitous defile along +which no path is practicable. The falls can only be approached +from below, where a monastery has been erected, the resort +of countless pilgrims. Their height is estimated at 70 ft., and +by Tibetan report the hills around are enveloped in perpetual +mist, and the Sangdong (the “lion’s face”), over which the +waters rush, is demon-haunted and full of mystic import. Up +to comparatively recent years it was matter for controversy +whether the Tsanpo formed the upper reaches of the Dihong or +of the Irrawaddy. From the north-eastern extremity of Assam +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span> +where, near Sadya, the Lohit, the Dibong and the Dihong +unite to form the wide placid Brahmaputra of the plains—one +of the grandest rivers of the world—its south-westerly course +to the Bay of Bengal is sufficiently well known. It still retains +the proud distinction of being unbridged, and still the River +Flotilla Company appoints its steamers at regular intervals to +visit all the chief ports on its banks as far as Dibrugarh. Here, +however, a new feature has been introduced in the local railway, +which extends for some 80 m. to Sadya, with a branch to the +Buri Dihing river at the foot of the Patkoi range. The Patkoi +border the plains of Upper Assam to the south-east, and across +these hills lies the most reasonable probability of railway +extension to Burma.</p> + +<p>The following are the “lowest level” discharges of the principal +affluents of the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam, estimated in +cubic feet per second:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lohit river, 9 m. above Sadya</td> <td class="tcc">38,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dibong, 1 m. above junction with Dihong</td> <td class="tcc">27,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dihong    ”     ”     Dibong</td> <td class="tcc">55,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Subansiri</td> <td class="tcc">16,900</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The basins of the Dibong and Subansiri are as yet very imperfectly +known. That of the Lohit has been fairly well explored. +Near Goalpara the discharge of the river in January 1828 was +computed to be 140,000 cub. ft., or nearly double that of the +Ganges. The length of the river is 700 m. to the Dihong +junction, and about 1000 in Tibet and eastern Bhutan, +above the Dihong. The Brahmaputra, therefore, exceeds the +Ganges in length by about 400 m. The bed of the great +river maintains a fairly constant position between its extreme +banks, but the channels within that bed are so constantly shifting +as to require close supervision on the part of the navigation +authorities; so much detritus is carried down as to form a +perpetually changing series of obstructions to steamer traffic.</p> + +<p>An enormous development of agricultural resources has taken +place within the Brahmaputra basin of late years, chiefly in +the direction of tea cultivation, as well as in the production +of jute and silk. Gold is found in the sands of all its upper +tributaries, and coal and petroleum are amongst the chief +mineral products which have been brought into economic +prominence. During the rains the Brahmaputra floods hundreds +of square miles of country, reaching a height of 30 to 40 ft. above +its usual level. This supersedes artificial irrigation, and the +plains so watered yield abundantly in rice, jute and mustard.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Reports</i> of the native explorers of the Indian Survey, edited +by Montgomery and Harman; +<i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (1908); +Sir T.H. Holdich, <i>India</i> (“Regions of the World” series, 1903); +Ryder, <i>Geographical Journal</i>, 1905; +Rawlings, <i>The Great Plateau</i> (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHMA SAMAJ,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a religious association in India which +owes its origin to (Raja) Ram Mohan Roy, who began teaching +and writing in Calcutta soon after 1800. The name means +literally the “Church of the One God,” and the word <i>Samaj</i>, +like the word Church, bears both a local and a universal, or an +individual and a collective meaning. Impressed with the +perversions and corruptions of popular Hinduism, Ram Mohan +Roy investigated the Hindu Shastras, the Koran and the Bible, +repudiated the polytheistic worship of the Shastras as false, +and inculcated the reformed principles of monotheism as found +in the ancient Upanishads of the Vedas. In 1816 he established +a society, consisting only of Hindus, in which texts from the +Vedas were recited and theistic hymns chanted. This, however, +soon died out through the opposition it received from the Hindu +community. In 1830 he organized the society known as the Brahma Samaj.</p> + +<p>The following extract from the trust-deed of the building +dedicated to it will show the religious belief and the purposes +of its founder. The building was intended to be “a place of +public meeting for all sorts and descriptions of people, without +distinction, who shall behave and conduct themselves in an +orderly, sober, religious and devout manner, for the worship +and adoration of the eternal, unsearchable and immutable Being, +who is the author and preserver of the universe, but not under +and by any other name, designation or title, peculiarly used +for and applied to any particular being or beings by any +man or set of men whatsoever; and that no graven image, +statue or sculpture, carving, painting, picture, portrait or the +likeness of anything shall be admitted within the said messuage, +building, land, tenements, hereditament and premises; and +that no sacrifice, offering or oblation of any kind or thing shall +ever be permitted therein; and that no animal or living creature +shall within or on the said messuage, &c., be deprived of life +either for religious purposes or food, and that no eating or drinking +(except such as shall be necessary by any accident for the +preservation of life), feasting or rioting be permitted therein or +thereon; and that in conducting the said worship or adoration, +no object, animate or inanimate, that has been or is or shall +hereafter become or be recognized as an object of worship by any +man or set of men, shall be reviled or slightingly or contemptuously +spoken of or alluded to, either in preaching or in the hymns +or other mode of worship that may be delivered or used in the +said messuage or building; and that no sermon, preaching, +discourse, prayer or hymns be delivered, made or used in such +worship, but such as have a tendency to the contemplation +of the Author and Preserver of the universe or to the promotion +of charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and the +strengthening of the bonds of union between men of all religious +persuasions and creeds.”</p> + +<p>The new faith at this period held to the Vedas as its basis. +Ram Mohan Roy soon after left India for England, and took +up his residence in Bristol, where he died in 1835. The Brahma +Samaj maintained a bare existence till 1841, when Babu +Debendra Nath Tagore, a member of a famous and wealthy +Calcutta family, devoted himself to it. He gave a printing-press +to the Samaj, and established a monthly journal called +the <i>Tattwabodhinī Patrikā</i>, to which the Bengali language now +owes much for its strength and elegance. About 1850 some of +the followers of the new religion discovered that the greater +part of the Vedas is polytheistic, and a schism took place,—the +advanced party holding that nature and intuition form +the basis of faith. Between 1847 and 1858 branch societies +were formed in different parts of India, especially in Bengal, and +the new society made rapid progress, for which it was largely +indebted to the spread of English education and the work +of Christian missionaries. In fact the whole Samaj movement +is as distinct a product of the contest of Hinduism with Christianity +in the 19th century, as the <i>Panth</i> movement was of its +contest with Islam 300 years earlier.</p> + +<p>The Brahma creed was definitively formulated as follows:—(1) The +book of nature and intuition supplies the basis of religious +faith. (2) Although the Brahmas do not consider any book +written by man the basis of their religion, yet they do accept +with respect and pleasure any religious <i>truth</i> contained in any +book. (3) The Brahmas believe that the religious condition of +man is progressive, like the other departments of his condition +in this world. (4) They believe that the fundamental doctrines +of their religion are also the basis of every true religion. (5) They +believe in the existence of one Supreme God—a God endowed +with a distinct personality, moral attributes worthy of His +nature and an intelligence befitting the Governor of the universe, +and they worship Him alone. They do not believe in any of His +incarnations. (6) They believe in the immortality and progressive +state of the soul, and declare that there is a state of conscious +existence succeeding life in this world and supplementary to it +as respects the action of the universal moral government. +(7) They believe that repentance is the only way to salvation. They +do not recognize any other mode of reconcilement to the offended +but loving Father. (8) They pray for <i>spiritual</i> welfare and believe +in the <i>efficacy</i> of such prayers. (9) They believe in the +providential care of the divine Father. (10) They avow that love +towards Him and the performances of the works which He loves, +constitute His worship. (11) They recognize the necessity of +public worship, but do not believe that communion with the +Father depends upon meeting in any fixed place at any fixed +time. They maintain that they can adore Him at any time +and at any place, provided that the time and the place are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span> +calculated to compose and direct the mind towards Him. +(12) They do not believe in pilgrimages and declare that holiness can +only be attained by elevating and purifying the mind. (13) They +put no faith in rites or ceremonies, nor do they believe in penances +as instrumental in obtaining the grace of God. They declare +that moral righteousness, the gaining of wisdom, divine +contemplation, charity and the cultivation of devotional feelings +are their rites and ceremonies. They further say, govern and +regulate your feelings, discharge your duties to God and to man, +and you will gain everlasting blessedness; purify your heart, +cultivate devotional feelings and you will see Him who is unseen. +(14) Theoretically there is no distinction of caste among the +Brahmas. They declare that we are all the children of God, +and therefore must consider ourselves as brothers and sisters.</p> + +<p>For long the Brahmas did not attempt any social reforms. +But about 1865 the younger section, headed by Babu Keshub +Chunder Sen, who joined the Samaj in 1857, tried to carry their +religious theories into practice by demanding the abandonment +of the external signs of caste distinction. This, however, the +older members opposed, declaring such innovations to be premature. +A schism resulted, Keshub Chunder Sen and his followers +founding the Progressive Samaj, while the conservative stock +remained as the Adi (<i>i.e.</i> original) Samaj, their aim being to +“fulfil” rather than to abrogate the old religion. The vitality of +the movement, however, had left it, and its inconsistencies, combined +with the lack of strong leadership, landed it in a position +scarcely distinguishable from orthodox Hinduism. Debendra +Nath Tagore sought refuge from the difficulty by becoming +an ascetic. The “Brahma Samaj of India,” as Chunder Sen’s +party styled itself, made considerable progress extensively and +intensively until 1878, when a number of the most prominent +adherents, led by Anand Mohan Bose, took umbrage at Chunder +Sen’s despotic rule and at his disregard of the society’s regulations +concerning child marriage. This led to the formation of the +Sadharana (Universal) Brahma Samaj, now the most popular +and progressive of the three sections of the movement and +conspicuous for its work in the cause of literary culture, social +reform and female education in India. But even when we add +all sections of the Brahma Samaj together, the total number of +adherents is only about 4000, mostly found in Calcutta and its +neighbourhood. A small community (about 130) in Bombay, +known as the Prarthna (Prayer) Samaj, was founded in 1867 +through Keshub Chunder’s influence; they have a similar creed +to that of the Brahma Samaj, but have broken less decisively +with orthodox and ceremonial Hinduism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arya</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samaj</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Keshub Chunder Sen</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ram +Mohan Roy</a></span>. Also John Robson, <i>Hinduism and Christianity</i>; and +the <i>Theistic Quarterly Review</i> (the organ of the Society since 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHMS, JOHANNES<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1833-1897), German composer, was +born in Hamburg on the 7th of May 1833. He was the son of a +double-bass player in the Hamburg city theatre and received his +first musical instruction from his father. After some lessons +from O. Cossel, he went to Cossel’s master, Eduard Marxsen of +Altona, whose experience and artistic taste directed the young +man’s genius into the highest paths. A couple of public appearances +as a pianist were hardly an interruption to the course of +his musical studies, and these were continued nearly up to the +time when Brahms accepted an engagement as accompanist to +the Hungarian violinist, Remenyi, for a concert tour in 1853. +At Göttingen there occurred a famous <i>contretemps</i> which had a +most important though indirect influence on the whole after-life +of the young player. A piano on which he was to play the +“Kreutzer” sonata of Beethoven with Remenyi turned out to +be a semitone below the required pitch; and Brahms played the +part by heart, transposing it from A to B flat, in such a way that +the great violinist, Joachim, who was present and discerned +what the feat implied, introduced himself to Brahms, and laid +the foundation of a life-long friendship. Joachim gave him +introductions to Liszt at Weimar and to Schumann at Düsseldorf; +the former hailed him for a time as a member of the advanced +party in music, on the strength of his E flat minor scherzo, but +the misapprehension was not of long continuance. The introduction +to Schumann impelled that master, now drawing near +the tragic close of his career, to write the famous article “Neue +Bahnen,” in which the young Brahms was proclaimed to be the +great composer of the future, “he who was to come.” The +critical insight in Schumann’s article is all the more surprising +when it is remembered how small was the list of Brahms’s works +at the time. A string quartet, the first pianoforte sonata, the +scherzo already mentioned, and the earliest group of songs, +containing the dramatic “Liebestreu,” are the works which drew +forth the warm commendations of Schumann. In December 1853 +Brahms gave a concert at Leipzig, as a result of which the +firms of Breitkopf & Haertel and of Senff undertook to publish +his compositions. In 1854 he was given the post of choir-director +and music-master to the prince of Lippe-Detmold, but +he resigned it after a few years, going first to Hamburg, and +then to Zürich, where he enjoyed the friendship and artistic +counsel of Theodor Kirchner. The unfavourable verdict of the +Leipzig Gewandhaus audience upon his pianoforte concerto in +D minor op. 15, and several remarkably successful appearances +in Vienna, where he was appointed director of Ihe Singakademie +in 1863, were the most important external events of Brahms’s +life, but again he gave up the conductorship after a few months +of valuable work, and for about three years had no fixed place +of abode. Concert tours with Joachim or Stockhausen were +undertaken, and it was not until 1867 that he returned to +Vienna, or till 1872 that he chose it definitely as his home, his +longest absence from the Austrian capital being between 1874 and +1878, when he lived near Heidelberg. From 1871 to 1874 +he conducted the concerts of the “Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde,” +but after the later date he occupied no official position +of any kind. With the exception of journeys to Italy in the +spring, or to Switzerland in the summer, he rarely left Vienna. +He refused to come to England to take the honorary degree of +Mus.D. offered by the university of Cambridge; the university +of Breslau made him Ph.D. in 1881; in 1886 he was created a +knight of the Prussian order <i>Pour le mérite</i>, and in 1889 was +presented with the freedom of his native city. He died in Vienna +on the 3rd of April 1897.</p> + +<p>The works of Brahms may be summarized as follows:—Various +<i>sacred compositions for chorus</i>, op. 12, 13, 22, 27, 29, 30, +37, leading up to op. 45, the “German Requiem” first performed at +Bremen in 1868, and subsequently completed by a soprano solo with chorus; +the “Triumphlied” in commemoration of the German victories of 1870-71; +and some choral songs and motets, op. 74, 109 and 110. +<i>Secular choral works</i>, op. 17, 41, 42, 44, 50 (“Rinaldo” +for tenor solo and male choir), 53 (“Rhapsodie,” alto solo and male choir), +54 (“Schicksalslied”), 62, 82 (Schiller’s Nänie), 89 (“Gesang der Parzen”), +93, 104, 113. +<i>Concerted vocal-works</i>, op. 20, 28, 31, 52 (“Liebeslieder-Walzer”), +61, 64, 65 (“Neue Liebeslieder”), 75, 92, 103, 112. +<i>Solo songs</i>, nearly 300. +<i>Orchestral works</i>: four symphonies, op. 68, 73, 90 and 98; +two serenades, op. 11 and 16; +two pianoforte concertos, op. 15 and 83, one violin concerto, op. 77; +concerto for violin and violoncello, op. 102; +variations on a theme by Haydn, op. 56; +two overtures, “Academische Festouvertüre,” op. 80, and +“Tragic Overture,” op. 81. +<i>Chamber music</i>: two sextets, op. 18 and 36; +quintet, piano and strings, op. 34, strings, op. 88 and 111, +clarinet and strings, op. 115; +three string quartets, op. 51 and 67, +three quartets for piano and strings, op. 25, 26 and 60. +Three trios for piano and strings, op. 8, 87 and 101; +trio for piano, violin and horn, op. 40; +piano, clarinet and violoncello, op. 114. +Duet sonatas, three for piano and violin, op. 78, 100 and 108; +two for piano and violoncello, op. 38 and 99; +two for piano and clarinet, op. 120. +<i>Pianoforte solos</i>: +three sonatas, op. 1, 2 and 5; +scherzo, op. 4; +variations, op. 9, 21, 23, 24, 35; +4 ballads, op. 10; +waltzes, op. 39; +two rhapsodies, op. 79; +caprices and intermezzi, op. 76, 116, 117, 118 and 119. +5 <i>studies</i> and 51 <i>Uebungen</i> without opus-number, +and a <i>chorale-prelude and fugue</i> for organ, +besides four books of <i>Hungarian Dances</i> arranged for pianoforte duet.</p> + +<p>Brahms has often been called the last of the great classical +masters, in a sense wider than that of his place in the long line of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span> +the great composers of Germany. Though only the most superficial +observers could deny him the possession of qualities which +distinguish the masters of the romantic school, it is as a classicist +that he must be ranked among modern musicians. From the +beginning of his career until its close, his ideas were clothed by +preference in the forms which had sufficed for Beethoven, and +the instances in which he departed from structural precedent are +so rare that they might be disregarded, were they not of such +high value that they must be considered as the signs of a logical +development of musical form, and not as indicating a spirit of +rebellion against existing modes of structure. His practice, more +frequent in later than in earlier life, of welding together the +“working-out” and the “recapitulation” sections of his movements +in a closer union than any of his predecessors had attempted, +is an innovation which cannot fail to have important +results in the future; and if the skill of younger writers is not +adequate to such a display of ingenuity as occurs in the finale of +the fourth symphony, where the “passacaglia” form has been +used with an effect that is almost bewildering to the ordinary +listener, that at least stands as a monument of inventiveness +finely subordinated to the emotional and intellectual purport of +the thoughts expressed. His themes are always noble, and even +from the point of view of emotional appeal their deep intensity of +expression is of a kind which grows upon all who have once been +awakened to their beauty, or have been at the pains to grasp +the composer’s characteristics of utterance. His vocal music, +whether for one voice or many, is remarkable for its fidelity to +natural inflection and accentuation of the words, and for its +perfect reflection of the poet’s mood. His songs, vocal quartets +and choral works abound in passages that prove him a master of +effects of sound; and throughout his chamber music, in his treatment +of the piano, of the strings, or of the solo wind instruments +he employs, there are numberless examples which sufficiently +show the irrelevance of a charge sometimes brought against his +music, that it is deficient in a sense of what is called “tone-colour.” +It is perfectly true that the mere acoustic effect of a passage +was of far less importance to him than its inherent beauty, +poetic import, or logical fitness in a definite scheme of development; +and that often in his orchestral music the casual hearer +receives an impression of complexity rather than of clearness, +and is apt to imagine that the “thickness” of instrumentation is +the result of clumsiness or carelessness. Such instances as the +introduction to the finale of the first symphony, the close of the +first movement of the second, what may be called the epilogue of +the third, or the whole of the variations on a theme of Haydn, are +not only marvels of delicate workmanship in regard to structure, +but are instinct with the sense of the peculiar beauty and +characteristics of each instrument. The “Academic Festival” +overture proves Brahms a master of musical humour, in his treatment +of the student songs which serve as its themes; and the companion +piece, the “Tragic” overture, reaches a height of sublimity +which is in no way lessened because no particular tragedy +has ever been named in conjunction with the work.</p> + +<p>As with all creative artists of supreme rank, the work of Brahms +took a considerable time before it was very generally appreciated. +The change in public opinion is strikingly illustrated in regard to +the songs, which, once voted ineffective and unvocal, have now +taken a place in every eminent singer’s repertory. The outline in +his greater works must be grasped with some definiteness before +the separate ideas can be properly understood in their true +relation to each other; and while it is his wonderful power of +handling the recognized classical forms, so as to make them seem +absolutely new, which stamps him as the greatest musical +architect since Beethoven, the necessity for realizing in some +degree what musical form signifies has undoubtedly been a bar to +the rapid acceptance of his greater works by the uneducated +lovers of music. These are of course far more easily moved by +effects of colour than by the subtler beauties of organic structure, +and Brahms’s attitude towards tone-colour was scarcely such as +would endear him to the large number of musicians in whose view +tone-colour is pre-eminent. His mastery of form, again, has been +attacked as formalism by superficial critics, blind to the real +inspiration and distinction of his ideas, and to their perfection in +regard to style and the appropriateness of every theme to the +exact emotional state to be expressed. In his larger vocal works +there are some which treat of emotional conditions far removed +from the usual stock of subjects taken by the average composer; +to compare the ideas in the “German Requiem” with those of +the “Schicksalslied” or “Nänie” is to learn a lesson in artistic +style which can never be forgotten. In the songs, too, it is +scarcely too much to say that the whole range of human emotion +finds expression in noble lyrics that yield to none in actual +musical beauty. The four “Ernste Gesänge,” Brahms’s last +composition, must be considered as his supreme achievement +in dignified utterance of noble thoughts in a style that perfectly +fits them. The choice of words for these as well as for the +“Requiem” and others of his serious works reveals a strong +sense of the vanity and emptiness of human life, but at least as +strong a confidence in the divine consolations.</p> + +<p>It has been the misfortune of the musical world in Germany +that every prominent musician is ranged by critics and amateurs +in one of two hostile camps, and it was probably due in the main +to the misrepresentations of the followers of Wagner that the +idea was so generally held that Brahms was a man of narrow +sympathies and hard, not to say brutal manners. The latter +impression was fostered, no doubt, by the master’s natural +detestation of the methods by which the average lionizer seeks to +gain his object, and both alike are disproved in the <i>Recollections</i> of +J.V. Widmann, an intimate friend for many years, which throw +a new light on the master, revealing him as a man of the widest +artistic sympathies, neither intolerant of excellence in a line +opposed to his own, nor weakly enthusiastic over mediocre productions +by composers whose views were in complete sympathy +with him. His admiration for Verdi and Wagner is enough to +show that the absence of any operatic work from his list of compositions +was simply due to the difficulty of finding a libretto +which appealed to him, not to any antagonism to the lyric stage +in its modern developments. How far he stood from the prejudices +of the typical pedant may be seen in the passionate love +he showed throughout his life for national music, especially that +of Hungary. Not only were his arrangements of Hungarian +dances the first work by which his name was known outside his +native land, but his first pianoforte quartet, op. 25 in G minor, +incurred the wrath of the critics of the time by its introduction of +some characteristics of Hungarian music into the finale. His +arrangement of a number of children’s traditional songs was +published without his name, and dedicated to the children of +Robert and Clara Schumann in the earliest years of his creative +life; and among the last of his publications was a collection +of forty-nine German Volkslieder, arranged with the utmost +skill, taste and simplicity. He had a great admiration for the +waltzes of Strauss, and in many passages of his own works +the <i>entrain</i> that is characteristic of the Viennese dance-writers +is present in a striking degree.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also W.H. Hadow, <i>Studies in Modern Music</i> (2nd series, +1908); and the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Music</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Song</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. F. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAHUI,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a people of Baluchistan, inhabiting the Brahui +mountains, which extend continuously from near the Bolan +Pass to Cape Monze on the Arabian Sea. The khan of Kalat, +the native ruler of Baluchistan, is himself a Brahui, and a +lineal descendant of Kumbar, former chief of the Kumbarini, +a Brahui tribe. The origin of the Brahuis is an ethnological +mystery. Bishop Robert Caldwell and other authorities declare +them Dravidians, and regard them as the western +borderers of Dravidian India. Others believe them to be +Scythians,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and others again connect them with Tatar +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span> +mountaineers who early settled in southern parts of Asia. The +origin of the word itself is in doubt. It is variously derived +as a corruption of the Persian <i>Ba Rohi</i> (literally “of the hills”); +as an eponym from Braho, otherwise Brahin or Ibrahim, a +legendary hero of alleged Arab descent who led his people “out +of the west,” while Dr Gustav Oppert believes that the name is +in some way related to, if not identical with, that of the Baluchis. +He recognizes in the name of the Paratas and Paradas, who +dwelt in north-eastern Baluchistan, the origin of the modern +Brahui. He gives reasons for regarding the <i>Bra</i> as a contraction +of Bara and obtains “thus in Barahui a name whose resemblance +to that of the ancient Barrhai (the modern Bhars), as well as to +that of the Paratas and Paravar and their kindred the Maratha +Paravari and Dravidian Parheyas of Palaman, is striking.” +The Brahuis declare themselves to be the aborigines of the +country they now occupy, their ancestors coming from Aleppo. +For this there seems little foundation, and their language, +which has no affinities with Persian, Pushtu or Baluchi, must be, +according to the most eminent scholars, classed among the +Dravidian tongues of southern India. Probably the Brahuis are +of Dravidian stock, a branch long isolated from their kindred +and much Arabized, and thus exhibiting a marked hybridism.</p> + +<p>Whatever their origin, the Brahuis are found in a position +of considerable power in Baluchistan from earliest times. Their +authentic history begins with Mir Ahmad, who was their chief +in the 17th century. The title of “khan” was assumed by Nasir +the Great in the middle of the 18th century. The Brahuis are +a confederacy of tribes possessing common lands and uniting +from time to time for purposes of offence or defence. At their +head is the khan, who formerly seems to have been regarded as +semi-divine, it being customary for the tribesmen on visiting +Kalat to make offerings at the Ahmadzai gate before entering. +The Brahuis are a nomadic race, who dwell in tents made of +goats’ hair, black or striped, and live chiefly on the products +of their herds. They are Sunnite Mahommedans, but are not +fanatical. In physique they are very easily distinguished from +their neighbours, the Baluchis and Pathans, being a smaller, +sturdier people with rounder faces characterized by the flat, +blunt and coarse features of the Dravidian races. They are of +a dark brown colour, their hair and beards being often brown not +black. They are an active, hardy race, and though as avaricious +as the Pathans, are more trustworthy and less turbulent. Their +ordinary dress is a tunic or shirt, trousers gathered in at the +ankles and a cloak usually of brown felt. A few wear turbans, +but generally their headgear is a round skullcap with tassel +or button. Their women are not strictly veiled. Sandals of deer +or goat skin are worn by all classes. Their weapons are rifles, +swords and shields. They do not use the Afghan knife or any +spears. Some few Brahuis are enlisted in the Bombay Native +Infantry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dr Bellew, <i>Indus to Euphrates</i> (London, 1874); Gustav Oppert, +<i>The Original Inhabitants of India</i> (1893); Dr Theodore Duka, +<i>Essay on the Brahui Grammar</i> (after the German of Dr Trumpp of +Munich University).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare Mountstuart Elphinstone’s (<i>History of India</i>, 9th ed., +1905, p. 249) description of Scythians with physique of Brahuis. A +relationship between the Jats (<i>q.v.</i>) and the Brahuis has been suggested, +and it is generally held that the former were of Scythic stock. +The Mengals, Bizanjos and Zehris, the three largest Brahui tribes, +are called Jadgal or Jagdal, <i>i.e.</i> Jats, by some of their neighbours. +The Zaghar Mengal, a superior division of the Mengal tribe, believe +they themselves came from a district called Zughd, somewhere +near Samarkand in central Asia. <i>Gal</i> appears to be a collective +suffix in Baluchi, and <i>Men</i> or <i>Min</i> occurs on the lists of the Behistun +inscriptions as the name of one of the Scythian tribes deported +by Darius, the Achaemenian, for their turbulence (see <i>Kalat, A +Memoir on the County and Family of the Ahmadzai Khans of Kalat</i>, +by G.P. Tate). Sajdi, another Brahui tribal name, is Scythian, +the principal clan of which tribe is the Saga, both names being +identifiable with the Sagetae and Saki of ancient writers. Thus +there seems some reason for believing that the former occupants +of at least some portions of the Brahui domain were of Scythian blood.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAID<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>bregdan</i>, to move quickly to and +fro, hence to weave), a plait, especially a plait of hair, also a +plaited tape woven of wool, silk, gold thread, &c., used for trimming +or binding. A particular use is for the narrow bands, +bordered with open work, used in making point lace.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1715-1806), British teacher of the +deaf and dumb, was born in Scotland in 1715, and educated +at Edinburgh University. He became a school teacher, and +in 1760 opened in Edinburgh, with one pupil, the first school +in Great Britain for the deaf and dumb, following the system +of Dr John Wallis, described in <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> +nearly a hundred years before. This school was the model for +all of the early English institutions of the kind. Dr Johnson +visited it in 1773, and describes it as “a subject of philosophical +curiosity ... which no other city has to show,” and Braidwood’s +dozen pupils as able “to hear with the eye.” In 1783 +Braidwood moved to Hackney, where he died on the 24th of +October 1806.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAILA<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (in Rumanian <i>Braĭla</i>, formerly <span class="sc">Ibraila</span>), the capital +of the department of Braila, Rumania; situated amid flat and +dreary country on the left bank of the river Danube, about +100 m. from its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 58,392, including +10,811 Jews. Southward, the Danube encircles a vast fen, +tenanted only by waterfowl and herds of half-wild swine, while +the plain which extends to the north-east and east only grows +fertile at some distance inland. Braila itself is plainly built on +a bank rising about 50 ft. above sea-level; but partly on a narrow +strip of ground which separates this bank from the water’s edge. +Along the crest of the bank a public park is laid out, commanding +a view of the desolate Dobrudja hills, across the river.</p> + +<p>On the landward side, Braila has the shape of a crescent, +the curve of its outer streets following the line of the old +fortifications, dismantled in 1829. Few houses, among the older quarters, +exceed two storeys in height, but the main streets are paved, +and there is a regular supply of filtered water. A wide avenue, +the <i>Strada Bulivardului</i>, divides the town proper from the +suburbs. The principal church, among many, is the cathedral +of St Michael, a large, ungainly building of grey sandstone. +Electric tramways intersect the town, and are continued for 3 m. +to Lacul Sărat (Salt Lake), where there are mineral springs and +mud-baths, owned by the state. The waters, which contain +over 45% of salt, iodine and sulphur, are among the strongest +of their kind in Europe; and are of high repute, being annually +visited by more than a thousand patients. Braila is the seat +of a chamber of commerce. It is the chief port of entry for +Walachia, and the headquarters of the grain trade; for, besides +its advantageous position on the river, it is connected with +the central Walachian railways by a line to Buzeu, and with +the Russian and Moldavian systems by a line to Galatz. Quays, +where ships drawing 15 ft. of water can discharge, line the river +front; and there are large docks, grain elevators and warehouses, +besides paper mills, roperies, and soap and candle works. +Over 20 steamers, maintained by the state, ply between Braila +and Rotterdam. Among the vessels of all nations, the British +are first in numbers and tonnage, the Greek second. Grain +and timber form the chief articles of export; textiles, machinery, +iron goods and coal being most largely imported.</p> + +<p>Many events connected with the history of Walachia took +place in the neighbourhood of Braila. In 1475 Stephen the +Great, having dethroned the voivode Radu, burned the town. +In 1573 another Moldavian prince took the city by storm, and +massacred the Turkish garrison. In 1659 it was again burned +by the Walachian prince Mircea, and for the time the Turks +were expelled, but afterwards returned. In the latter part of the +18th century Braila was several times captured by the Russians, +and in 1770 it was burned. By the peace of Bucharest (1812) +the Turks retained the right of garrisoning Braila. In 1828 it +was gallantly defended by Soliman Pasha, who, after holding out +from the middle of May until the end of June, was allowed to +march out with the honours of war. At the peace of Adrianople +(1829) the place was definitely assigned to Walachia; but +before giving it up, the grand-duke Michael of Russia razed the +citadel, and in this ruinous condition it was handed over to the +Walachians. Braila was the spot chosen by the Russian general +Gorchakov for crossing the Danube with his division in 1854. +On the banks of the Danube, a little above the city, are some +remains of the piles of a bridge said by a very doubtful tradition +to have been built by Darius (<i>c.</i> 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAIN<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (A.S. <i>braegen</i>), that part of the central nervous system +which in vertebrate animals is contained within the cranium +or skull; it is divided into the great brain or cerebrum, the +hind brain or cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata, which is +the transitional part between the spinal cord and the other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span> +two parts already named. Except where stated, we deal here +primarily with the brain in man.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center sc">1. Anatomy</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Membranes of the Human Brain.</i></p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:420px; height:364px" src="images/img392a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Dura Mater and Cranial Sinuses.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1. Falx cerebri.</p> +<p>2. Tentorium.</p> +<p>3,3. Superior longitudinal sinus.</p> +<p>4. Lateral sinus.</p> +<p>5. Internal jugular vein.</p> +<p>6. Occipital sinus.</p> +<p>6′. Torcular Herophili.</p> +<p>7. Inferior longitudinal sinus.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>8. Veins of Galen.</p> +<p>9 and 10. Superior and inferior petrosal sinus.</p> +<p>11. Cavernous sinus.</p> +<p>12. Circular sinus which connects the two cavernous sinuses together.</p> +<p>13. Ophthalmic vein, from 15, the eyeball.</p> +<p>14. Crista galli of ethmoid bone.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Three membranes named the <i>dura mater, arachnoid</i> and <i>pia mater</i> +cover the brain and lie between it and the cranial cavity. The most +external of the three is the <i>dura mater</i>, which consists of a cranial and +a spinal portion. The cranial part is in contact with the inner table +of the skull, and is adherent along the lines of the sutures and to the +margins of the foramina, which transmit the nerves, more especially +to the foramen magnum. It forms, therefore, for these bones an +internal periosteum, and the meningeal arteries which ramify in it +are the nutrient arteries of the inner table. As the growth of bone +is more active in infancy and youth than in the adult, the adhesion +between the dura mater and the cranial bones is greater in early +life than at maturity. From the inner surface of the dura mater +strong bands pass into the cranial cavity, and form partitions +between certain of the subdivisions of the brain. A vertical longitudinal +mesial band, named, from its sickle shape, <i>falx cerebri</i>, dips +between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. A smaller sickle-shaped +vertical mesial band, the <i>falx cerebelli</i>, attached to the internal +occipital crest, passes between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum. +A large band arches forward in the horizontal plane of the cavity, +from the transverse groove in the occipital bone to the clinoid +processes of the sphenoid, and is attached laterally to the upper +border of the petrous part of each temporal bone. It separates the +cerebrum from the cerebellum, and, as it forms a tent-like covering +for the latter, is named <i>tentorium cerebelli</i>. Along certain lines the +cranial dura mater splits into two layers to form tubular passages +for the transmission of venous blood. These passages are named the +<i>venous blood sinuses</i> of the dura mater, and they are lodged in the +grooves on the inner surface of the skull referred to in the description +of the cranial bones. Opening into these sinuses are numerous veins +which convey from the brain the blood that has been circulating +through it; and two of these sinuses, called <i>cavernous</i>, which lie +at the sides of the body of the sphenoid bone, receive the ophthalmic +veins from the eyeballs situated in the orbital cavities. These blood +sinuses pass usually from before backwards: a <i>superior longitudinal</i> +along the upper border of the falx cerebri as far as the internal occipital +protuberance; an <i>inferior longitudinal</i> along its lower border +as far as the tentorium, where it joins the <i>straight sinus</i>, which +passes back as far as the same protuberance. One or two small +<i>occipital sinuses</i>, which lie in the falx cerebelli, also pass to join the +straight and longitudinal sinuses opposite this protuberance; several +currents of blood meet, therefore, at this spot, and as Herophilus +supposed that a sort of whirlpool was formed in the blood, the name +<i>torcular Herophili</i> has been used to express the meeting of these +sinuses. From the torcular the blood is drained away by two large +sinuses, named <i>lateral</i>, which curve forward and downward to the +jugular foramina to terminate in the internal jugular veins. In +its course each lateral sinus receives two <i>petrosal</i> sinuses, which pass +from the cavernous sinus backwards along the upper and lower +borders of the petrous part of the temporal bone. The dura mater +consists of a tough, fibrous membrane, somewhat flocculent externally, +but smooth, glistening, and free on its inner surface. The +inner surface has the appearance of a serous membrane, and when +examined microscopically is seen to consist of a layer of squamous +endothelial cells. Hence the dura mater is sometimes called a fibro-serous +membrane. The dura mater is well provided with lymph +vessels, which in all probability open by stomata on the free inner +surface. Between the dura mater and the subjacent arachnoid +membrane is a fine space containing a minute quantity of limpid +serum, which moistens the smooth inner surface of the dura and the +corresponding smooth outer surface of the arachnoid. It is regarded +as equivalent to the cavity of a serous membrane, and is named the +<i>sub-dural space</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Arachnoid Mater.</i>—The arachnoid is a membrane of great delicacy +and transparency, which loosely envelops both the brain and spinal +cord. It is separated from these organs by the pia mater; but +between it and the latter membrane is a distinct space, called <i>sub-arachnoid</i>. +The sub-arachnoid space is more distinctly marked +beneath the spinal than beneath the cerebral parts of the membrane, +which forms a looser investment for the cord than for the brain. At +the base of the brain, and opposite the fissures between the convolutions +of the cerebrum, the interval between the arachnoid and the pia +mater can, however, always be seen, for the arachnoid does not, like +the pia mater, clothe the sides of the fissures, but passes directly +across between the summits of adjacent convolutions. The sub-arachnoid +space is subdivided into numerous freely-communicating +loculi by bundles of delicate areolar tissue, which bundles are invested, +as Key and Retzius have shown, by a layer of squamous +endothelium. The space contains a limpid cerebro-spinal fluid, which +varies in quantity from 2 drachms to 2 oz., and is most plentiful +in the dilatations at the base of the brain known as <i>cisternae</i>. It +should be clearly understood that there is no communication between +the subdural and sub-arachnoid spaces, but that the latter communicates +with the ventricles through openings in the roof of the +fourth, and in the descending cornua of the lateral ventricles.</p> + +<p>When the skull cap is removed, clusters of granular bodies are +usually to be seen imbedded in the dura mater on each side of the +superior longitudinal sinus; these are named the <i>Pacchionian bodies</i>. +When traced through the dura mater they are found to spring from +the arachnoid. The observations of Luschka and Cleland have +proved that villous processes invariably grow from the free surface +of that membrane, and that when these villi greatly increase in size +they form the bodies in question. Sometimes the Pacchionian +bodies greatly hypertrophy, occasioning absorption of the bones of the +cranial vault and depressions on the upper surface of the brain.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:442px" src="images/img392b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">After D.J. Cunningham’s <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Front View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon +of a full-time Human Foetus.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Pia Mater.</i>—This membrane closely invests the whole outer surface +of the brain. It dips into the fissures between the convolutions, and +a wide prolongation, named <i>velum interpositum</i>, lies in the interior +of the cerebrum. With a little care it can be stripped off the brain +without causing injury to its substance. At the base of the brain +the pia mater is prolonged on to the roots of the cranial nerves. +This membrane consists of a delicate connective tissue, in which +the arteries of the brain and spinal cord ramify and subdivide into +small branches before they penetrate the nervous substance, and in +which the veins conveying the blood from the nerve centres lie before +they open into the blood sinuses of the cranial dura mater and the +extradural venus plexus of the spinal canal.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Medulla Oblongata.</i></p> + +<p>The <i>Medulla Oblongata</i> rests upon the basi-occipital. It is somewhat +pyramidal in form, about 1¼ in. long, and 1 in. broad in its widest +part. It is a bilateral organ, and is divided into a right +and a left half by shallow anterior and posterior median +fissures, continuous with the corresponding fissures in +the spinal cord; the posterior fissure ends above in the +fourth ventricle. Each half is subdivided into elongated +tracts of nervous matter. Next to, and parallel with +the anterior fissure is the <i>anterior pyramid</i> (see fig. 2). +This pyramid is continuous below with the cord, and +the place of continuity is marked by the passage across +the fissure of three or four bundles of nerve fibres, +from each half of the cord to the opposite anterior +pyramid; this crossing is called the <i>decussation of the +pyramids</i>. To the side of the pyramid, and separated +from it by a faint fissure, is the <i>olivary fasciculus</i>, +which at its upper end is elevated into the projecting +oval-shaped <i>olivary body</i>. Behind the olivary body +in the lower half of the medulla are three tracts +named from before backward the <i>funiculus of +Rolando</i>, the <i>funiculus cuneatus</i> and the <i>funiculus +gracilis</i> (see fig. 3). The two <i>funiculi graciles</i> of +opposite sides are in contact in the mid dorsal line +and have between them the <i>postero median</i> fissure. +When the fourth ventricle is reached they diverge to +form the lower limit of that diamond-shaped space +and are slightly swollen to form the <i>clavae</i>. All these +three bundles appear to be continued up into the +cerebellum as the restiform bodies or inferior cerebellar +peduncles, but really the continuity is very +slight, as the restiform bodies are formed from the +direct cerebellar tracts of the spinal cord joining with +the superficial arcuate fibres which curve back just +below the olivary bodies. The upper part of the fourth +ventricle is bounded by the superior cerebellar +peduncles which meet just before the inferior quadrigeminal +bodies are reached. Stretching across between +them is the superior medullary velum or valve of +Vieussens, forming the upper part of the roof, while the inferior +velum forms the lower part, and has an opening called the <i>foramen</i> +of Majendie, through which the sub-arachnoid space communicates +with the ventricle. The floor (see fig. 3) has two triangular +depressions on each side of a median furrow; these are the superior +and inferior <i>fovea</i>, the significance of which will be noticed in the +development of the rhombencephalon. Running horizontally across +the middle of the floor are the <i>striae acusticae</i> which are continued +into the auditory nerve. The floor of the fourth ventricle is of special +interest because a little way from the surface are the deep origins of +all the cranial nerves from the fifth to the twelfth. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nerve</a></span>, +<i>cranial</i>). If a section is made transversely through the medulla +about the apex of the fourth ventricle three important bundles of +fibres are cut close to the mid line on each side (see fig. 4). The +most anterior is the pyramid or motor tract, the decussation of +which has been seen. Behind this is the mesial fillet or sensory tract, +which has also decussated a little below the point of section, while +farther back still is the posterior longitudinal bundle which is coming +up from the anterior basis bundle of the cord. External to and +behind the pyramid is the crenated section of the olivary nucleus, +the surface bulging of which forms the olivary body.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:496px" src="images/img393a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy.</i></span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Back View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of +a full-time Human Foetus.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:638px; height:500px" src="images/img393b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy.</i></span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Transverse Section through the Human Medulla in the +Lower Olivary Region.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The grey matter of the medulla oblongata, which contains numerous +multipolar nerve cells, is in part continuous with the grey +matter of the spinal cord, and in part consists of independent masses. +As the grey matter of the cord enters the medulla it loses its crescentic +arrangement. The posterior cornua are thrown outwards +towards the surface, lose their pointed form, and dilate into rounded +masses named the grey tubercles of Rolando. The grey matter of +the anterior cornua is cut off from the rest by the decussating +pyramids and finally disappears. The <i>formatio reticularis</i> which is +feebly developed in the cord becomes well developed in the medulla. +In the lower part of the medulla a central canal continuous with +that of the cord exists, but when the clavae on the opposite sides of +the medulla diverge from each other, the central canal loses its +posterior boundary, and dilates into the cavity of the fourth ventricle. +The grey matter in the interior of the medulla appears, therefore, on +the floor of the ventricle and is continuous with the grey matter near +the central canal of the cord. This grey matter forms collections +of nerve cells, which are the centres of origin of several cranial +nerves. Crossing the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata, +immediately below the pons, in the majority of mammals is a transverse +arrangement of fibres forming the <i>trapezium</i>, which contains +a grey nucleus, named by van der Kolk the <i>superior olive</i>. In the +human brain the trapezium is concealed by the lower transverse +fibres of the pons, but when sections are made through it, as L. Clarke +pointed out, the grey matter of the superior olive can be seen. These +fibres of the <i>trapezium</i> come from the cochlear nucleus of the auditory +nerve, and run up as the lateral fillet.</p> + +<p>The <i>Pons Varolii</i> or <span class="sc">Bridge</span> is cuboidal in form (see fig. 2): its +anterior surface rests upon the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid, and is +marked by a median longitudinal groove; its inferior surface receives +the pyramidal and olivary tracts of the medulla oblongata; at its +superior surface are the two crura cerebri; each lateral surface is +in relation to a hemisphere of the cerebellum, and a peduncle passes +from the pons into the interior of each hemisphere; the posterior +surface forms in part the upper portion of the floor of the fourth +ventricle, and in part is in contact with the corpora quadrigemina.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:733px; height:638px" src="images/img394a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Section through the Lower Part of the Human Pons Varolli immediately above +the Medulla.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The pons consists of white and grey matter: the nerve fibres of +the white matter pass through the substance of the pons, in either +a transverse or a longitudinal direction. The transverse fibres go +from one hemisphere of the cerebellum to that of the opposite side; +some are situated on the anterior surface of the pons, and form its +superficial transverse fibres, whilst others pass through its substance +and form the deep transverse fibres. The longitudinal fibres ascend +from the medulla oblongata and leave the pons by emerging from +its upper surface as fibres of the two crura cerebri. The pons possesses +a median raphe continuous with that of the medulla oblongata, +and formed like it by a decussation of fibres in the mesial plane. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span> +In a horizontal section through the pons and upper part of the fourth +ventricle the superficial transverse fibres are seen most anteriorly; +then come the anterior pyramidal fibres, then the deep transverse +pontine fibres, then the fillet, while most posteriorly and close to the +floor of the fourth ventricle the posterior longitudinal bundle is +seen (see fig. 5).</p> + +<p>The grey matter of the pons is scattered irregularly through its +substance, and appears on its posterior surface; but not on the +anterior surface, composed exclusively +of the superficial transverse fibres.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Cerebellum.</i></p> + +<p>The <i>Cerebellum</i>, <span class="sc">Little Brain</span>, or +<span class="sc">After Brain</span> occupies the inferior pair +of occipital fossae, and lies below the +plane of the tentorium cerebelli. It +consists of two hemispheres or lateral +lobes, and of a median or central lobe, +which in human anatomy is called the +vermis. It is connected below with +the medulla oblongata by the two +restiform bodies which form its <i>inferior +peduncles</i>, and above with the corpora +quadrigemina of the cerebrum by two +bands, which form its <i>superior peduncles</i>; +whilst the two hemispheres +are connected together by the transverse +fibres of the pons, which form the +<i>middle peduncles</i> of the cerebellum. On +the superior or tentorial surface of the +cerebellum the median or vermiform +lobe is a mere elevation, but on its +inferior or occipital surface this lobe +forms a well-defined process, which lies +at the bottom of a deep fossa or <i>vallecula</i>; +this fossa is prolonged to the +posterior border of the cerebellum, +and forms there a deep notch which +separates the two hemispheres from +each other; in this notch the falx +cerebelli is lodged. Extending horizontally +backwards from the middle cerebellar peduncle, along the +outer border of each hemisphere is the <i>great horizontal fissure</i>, which +divides the hemisphere into its tentorial and occipital surfaces. +Each of these surfaces is again subdivided by fissures into smaller +lobes, of which the most important are the <i>amygdala</i> or <i>tonsil</i>, which +forms the lateral boundary of the anterior part of the vallecula, and +the <i>flocculus</i>, which is situated immediately behind the middle +peduncle of the cerebellum. The inferior +vermiform process is subdivided into a +posterior part or <i>pyramid</i>; an elevation +or <i>uvula</i>, situated between the two +tonsils; and an anterior pointed process +or <i>nodule</i>. Stretching between the two +flocculi, and attached midway to the sides +of the nodule, is a thin, white, semilunar-shaped +plate of nervous matter, called +the inferior <i>medullary velum</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:447px" src="images/img394b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Mesial section through the Corpus Callosum, the Mesencephalon, the Pons, Medulla and +Cerebellum. Showing the third and fourth ventricles joined by the aqueduct of Sylvius.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The whole outer surface of the cerebellum +possesses a characteristic foliated +or laminated appearance, due to its subdivision +into multitudes of thin plates +or lamellae by numerous fissures. The +cerebellum consists of both grey and +white matter. The grey matter forms +the exterior or cortex of the lamellae, +and passes from one to the other across +the bottoms of the several fissures. The +white matter lies in the interior of the +organ, and extends into the core of each +lamella. When a vertical section is made +through the organ, the prolongations of +white matter branching off into the interior +of the several lamellae give to the +section an arborescent appearance, known +by the fanciful name of <i>arbor vitae</i> (see +fig. 6). Independent masses of grey +matter are, however, found in the interior +of the cerebellum. If the hemisphere +be cut through a little to the outer +side of the median lobe, a zigzag arrangement +of grey matter, similar in appearance +and structure to the nucleus of the +olivary body in the medulla oblongata, +and known as the <i>corpus dentatum</i> of the +cerebellum, is seen; it lies in the midst +of the white core of the hemisphere, and +encloses white fibres, which leave the +interior of the corpus at its inner and +lower side. On the mesial side of this +<i>corpus dentatum</i> lie three smaller nuclei. +The white matter is more abundant in the +hemispheres than in the median lobe, and +is for the most part directly continuous with the fibres of the peduncles +of the cerebellum. Thus the restiform or inferior peduncles +pass from below upward through the white core, to end in the +grey matter of the tentorial surface of the cerebellum, more especially +in that of the central lobe; on their way they are connected with the +grey matter of the corpus dentatum. The superior peduncles, which +descend from the corpora quadrigemina of the cerebrum, form +connexions mainly with the corpus dentatum. The middle peduncles +form a large proportion of the white core, and their fibres terminate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span> +in the grey matter of the foliated cortex of the hemispheres. It +has been noticed that those fibres which are lowest in the pons go +to the upper surface of the cerebellum and vice versa.</p> + +<p><i>Histology of the Cerebellum.</i>—The white centre of the cerebellum +is composed of numbers of medullated nerve fibres coursing to and +from the grey matter of the cortex. These fibres are supported in +a groundwork of neuroglial tissue, their nutrition being supplied +by a small number of blood vessels.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:491px; height:497px" src="images/img395.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Transverse Section through a Cerebellar Folium (after +Kölliker). Treated by the Golgi method.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>P. Axon of cell of Purkinje.</p> +<p>F. Moss fibres.</p> +<p>K and K<span class="sp">1</span>. Fibres from white core + of folium ending in molecular + layer in connexion with the + dendrites of the cells of + Purkinje.</p> +<p>M. Small cell of the molecular + layer</p> +<p>GR. Granule cell.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>GR<span class="sp">1</span>. Axons of granule cells in + molecular layer cut + transversely.</p> +<p>M<span class="sp">1</span>. Basket-cells.</p> +<p>ZK. Basket-work around the + cells of Purkinje.</p> +<p>GL. Neuroglial cell.</p> +<p>N. Axon of an association + cell.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The cortex (see fig. 7) consists of a thin layer of grey material +forming an outer coat of somewhat varying thickness over the whole +external surface of the laminae of the organ. When examined +microscopically it is found to be made up of two layers, an outer +“molecular” and an inner “granular” layer. Forming a layer +lying at the junction of these two are a number of cells, the <i>cells +of Purkinje</i>, which constitute the most characteristic feature of the +cerebellum. The bodies of these cells are pear-shaped. Their inner +ends taper and finally end in a nerve fibre which may be traced into +the white centre. In their course through the granule layer they give +off a number of branching collaterals, some turning back and passing +between the cells of Purkinje into the molecular layer. Their inner +ends terminate in one or sometimes two stout processes which +repeatedly branch dichotomously, thus forming a very elaborate +dendron in the molecular layer. The branchings of this dendron +are also highly characteristic in that they are approximately restricted +to a single plane like an espalier fruit tree, and those for +neighbouring cells are all parallel to one another and at right angles +to the general direction of the folium to which they belong. In +the molecular layer are found two types of cells. The most abundant +are the so-called <i>basket cells</i> which are distributed through the +whole thickness of the layer. They have a rounded body giving +off many branching dendrons to their immediate neighbourhood +and one long neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface and to the +long axis of the lamina. In its course, this gives off numerous +collaterals which run downward to the bodies of Purkinje’s cells. +Their terminal branchings together with similar terminals of other +collaterals form the basket-work around the bodies of these cells.</p> + +<p>The granular layer is sometimes termed the rust-coloured layer +from its appearance to the naked eye. It contains two types of +nerve cells, the small granule cells and the large granule cells. The +former are the more numerous. They give off a number of short +dendrites with claw-like endings, and a fine non-medullated neuraxon +process. This runs upward to the cortex, where it divides into two +branches in the form of a T. The branches run for some distance +parallel to the axis of the folium and terminate in unbranched ends. +The large granule cells are multipolar cells, many of the branchings +penetrating well into the molecular layer. The neuraxon process +turns into the opposite direction and forms a richly branching +system through the entire thickness of the granular layer. There +is also an abundant plexus of fine medullated fibres within the granule +layer.</p> + +<p>The fibres of the white central matter are partly centrifugal, the +neuraxons of the cells of Purkinje, and partly centripetal. The +position of the cells of these latter fibres is not known. The fibres +give rise to an abundant plexus of fibrils in the granular layer, and +many reaching into the molecular layer ramify there, especially in +the immediate neighbourhood of the dendrites of Purkinje’s cells. +From the appearance of their plexus of fibrils these are sometimes +called <i>moss fibres</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Fourth Ventricle</i> is the dilated upper end of the central canal +of the medulla oblongata. Its shape is like an heraldic lozenge. Its +floor is formed by the grey matter of the posterior surfaces of the +medulla oblongata and pons, already described (see figs. 3 and 6); +its roof partly by the inferior vermis of the cerebellum, the <i>nodule</i> +of which projects into its cavity, and partly by a thin layer, called +<i>valve of Vieussens</i>, or superior <i>medullary velum</i>; its lower lateral +boundaries by the divergent clavae and restiform bodies; its upper +lateral boundaries by the superior peduncles of the cerebellum. +The <i>inferior medullary velum</i>, a reflection of the pia mater and epithelium +from the back of the medulla to the inferior vermis, closes +it in below. Above, it communicates with the <i>aqueduct of Sylvius</i>, +which is tunnelled below the substance of the corpora quadrigemina. +Along the centre of the floor is the median furrow, which terminates +below in a pen-shaped form, the so-called <i>calamus scriptorius.</i> Situated +on its floor are the fasciculi teretes, striae acusticae, and +deposits of grey matter described in connexion with the medulla +oblongata. Its epithelial lining is continuous with that of the central +canal.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Cerebrum.</i></p> + +<p>The <i>Cerebrum</i> or <span class="sc">Great Brain</span> lies above the plane of the tentorium, +and forms much the largest division of the encephalon. It +is customary in human anatomy to include under the name of cerebrum, +not only the convolutions, the corpora striata, and the optic +thalami, developed in the anterior cerebral vesicle, but also the +corpora quadrigemina and crura cerebri developed in the mesencephalon +or middle cerebral vesicle. The cerebrum is ovoid in shape, +and presents superiorly, anteriorly and posteriorly a deep <i>median +longitudinal fissure</i>, which subdivides it into two hemispheres. +Inferiorly there is a continuity of structure between the two hemispheres +across the mesial plane, and if the two hemispheres be drawn +asunder by opening out the longitudinal fissure, a broad white band, +the <i>corpus callosum</i>, may be seen at the bottom of the fissure passing +across the mesial plane from one hemisphere to the other. The +outer surface of each hemisphere is convex, and adapted in shape +to the concavity of the inner table of the cranial bones; its inner +surface, which bounds the longitudinal fissure, is flat and is separated +from the opposite hemisphere by the falx cerebri; its under surface, +where it rests on the tentorium, is concave, and is separated by that +membrane from the cerebellum and pons. From the front of the +pons two strong white bands, the <i>crura cerebri</i> or <i>cerebral peduncles</i>, +pass forward and upward (see fig. 2). Winding round the outer side +of each crus is a flat white band, the <i>optic tract</i>. These tracts converge +in front, and join to form the <i>optic commissure</i>, from which +the two <i>optic nerves</i> arise. The crura cerebri, optic tracts, and optic +commissure enclose a lozenge-shaped space, which includes—(<i>a</i>) a +grey layer, which, from being perforated by several small arteries, is +called <i>locus perforatus posticus</i>; (<i>b</i>) two white mammillae, the +<i>corpora albicantia</i>; (<i>c</i>) a grey nodule, the <i>tuber cinereum</i>, from which +(<i>d</i>) the <i>infundibulum</i> projects to join the <i>pituitary body</i>. Immediately +in front of the optic commissure is a grey layer, the <i>lamina cinerea</i> +of the third ventricle; and between the optic commissure and the +inner end of each Sylvian fissure is a grey spot perforated by small +arteries, the <i>locus perforatus anticus</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:717px; height:571px" src="images/img396a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Transverse Section through the Human Mesencephalon at the level of the +superior Quadrigeminal Body.</td></tr></table> + +<p>If a transverse section is made at right angles to the surface of +the crura cerebri it will pass right through the mesencephalon and +come out on the dorsal side through the corpora quadrigemina (see +fig. 8). The ventral part of each crus forms the crusta, which is the +continuation forward of the anterior pyramidal fibres of the medulla +and pons, and is the great motor path from the brain to the cord. +Dorsal to this is a layer of pigmented grey matter, called the <i>substantia +nigra</i>, and dorsal to this again is the tegmentum, which is a +continuation upward of the formatio reticularis of the medulla, +and passing through it are seen three important nerve bundles. +The superior cerebellar peduncle is the most internal of these and +decussates with its fellow of the opposite side so that the two tegmenta +are continuous across the middle line. More externally the +mesial fillet is seen, while dorsal to the cerebellar peduncle is the +posterior longitudinal bundle. If the section happens to pass +through the superior corpus quadrigeminum a characteristic circular +area appears between the cerebellar peduncle and the fillet, which, +from its tint, is called the red nucleus. More dorsally still the section +will pass through the Sylvian aqueduct or passage from the third to +the fourth ventricle, and this is surrounded by a mass of grey matter +in the ventral part of which are the nuclei of the third and fourth +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span> +nerves. The third nerve is seen at the level of the superior corpus +quadrigeminum running from its nucleus of origin, through the red +nucleus, to a groove on the inner side of the crus called the <i>oculo-motor</i> +groove, which marks the separation between the crusta and +tegmentum. Dorsal to the Sylvian aqueduct is a layer called the +<i>lamina quadrigemina</i> and on this the corpora quadrigemina rest. +The superior pair of these bodies is overlapped +by the pineal body and forms part of the lower +visual centres. Connexions can be traced to the +optic tract, the higher visual centre on the mesial +surface of the occipital lobe, the deep origin of +the third or oculo-motor nerve as well as to the +mesial and lateral fillet. The inferior pair of +quadrigeminal bodies are more closely in touch +with the organs of hearing, and are connected by +the lateral fillet with the cochlear nucleus of the +auditory nerve.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Surface of the Brain</i>.</p> + +<p>The peripheral part of each hemisphere, which +consists of grey matter, exhibits a characteristic +folded appearance, known as gyri (or convolutions) +of the cerebrum. These gyri are separated +from each other by <i>fissures</i> and <i>sulci</i>, some of +which are considered to subdivide the hemisphere +into lobes, whilst others separate the gyri in +each lobe from each other. In each hemisphere +of the human brain five lobes are recognized: the +temporo-sphenoidal, frontal, parietal, occipital, +and the central lobe or Island of Reil; it should, +however, be realized that these lobes do not +exactly correspond to the outlines of the bones +after which they are named. Passing obliquely +on the outer face of the hemisphere from before, +upward and backward, is the well marked <i>Sylvian +fissure</i> (fig. 9, <i>s</i>), which is the first to appear in the +development of the hemisphere. Below it lies the +temporo-sphenoidal lobe, and above and in front of +it, the parietal and frontal lobes. As soon as it +appears on the external surface of the brain the +fissure divides into three limbs, anterior horizontal +(<i>s</i><span class="sp">1</span>), ascending (s<span class="sp">2</span>), and posterior horizontal +(<i>s</i><span class="sp">3</span>), the latter being by far the longest. The place +whence these diverge is the Sylvian point and +corresponds to the pterion on the surface of the +skull (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: <i>Superficial and Artistic</i>). +Between these three limbs and the vallecula or +main stem of the fissure are four triangular +tongues or opercula; these are named, according +to their position, orbital (fig. 9, C), frontal +(pars triangularis) (B), fronto-parietal (pars +basilaris) (A) and temporal. The frontal lobe +is separated from the parietal by the <i>fissure +of Rolando</i> (fig. 9, <i>r</i>) which extends on the +outer face of the hemisphere from the +longitudinal fissure obliquely downward +and forward towards the Sylvian fissure. +About 2 in. from the hinder end of the +hemisphere is the <i>parieto-occipital fissure</i>, +which, commencing at the longitudinal +fissure, passes down the inner surface of the +hemisphere, and transversely outwards for +a short distance on the outer surface of the +hemisphere; it separates the parietal and +occipital lobes from each other.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:672px; height:412px" src="images/img396b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Gyri and Sulci, on the outer surface of the Cerebral Hemisphere.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>f</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Sulcus frontalis superior.</p> +<p><i>f</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Sulcus frontalis inferior.</p> +<p><i>f.m</i>, Sulcus frontalis medius.</p> +<p><i>p.m</i>, Sulcus paramedialis.</p> +<p>A, Pars basilaris.</p> +<p>B, Pars triangularis.</p> +<p>C, Pars orbitalis.</p> +<p>S, Sylvian fissure.</p> +<p><i>s</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Anterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure).</p> +<p><i>s</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Ascending limb (Sylvian fissure).</p> +<p><i>s</i><span class="sp">3</span>. Posterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure).</p> +<p><i>s.asc</i>, Ascending terminal part of the posterior + horizontal limb of the Sylvianfissure.</p> +<p><i>p.c.i</i>, Inferior praecentral sulcus.</p> +<p><i>p.c.s</i>, Superior praecentral sulcus.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>r</i>, Fissure of Rolando.</p> +<p><i>g.s</i>, Superior genu.</p> +<p><i>g.i</i>, Inferior genu.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Sulcus diagonalis.</p> +<p><i>t</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Superior temporal sulcus (parallel sulcus).</p> +<p><i>t</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Inferior temporal sulcus.</p> +<p><i>p</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Inferior postcentral sulcus.</p> +<p><i>p</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Superior postcentral sulcus.</p> +<p><i>p</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Ramus horizontalis.</p> +<p><i>p</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Ramus occipitalis.</p> +<p><i>s.o.t</i>, Sulcus occipitalis transversus.</p> +<p><i>occ</i>. lat, Sulcus occipitalis lateralis (the + sulcus lunatus of Elliot Smith).</p> +<p><i>c.m</i>, Calloso-marginal sulcus.</p> +<p><i>c.t.r</i>, Inferior transverse furrow.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:461px" src="images/img397a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Orbital surface of the left +frontal lobe and the island of Reil; the +tip of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe has +been removed to display the latter.<br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>17. Convolution of the margin of the + longitudinal fissure.</p> +<p>O. Olfactory fissure, over which the + olfactory peduncle and lobe are + situated.</p> +<p>TR. Orbital sulcus.</p> +<p>1″ 1″′. Convolutions on the orbital + suface.</p> +<p>1,1,1,1. Under surface of infero-frontal + convolution.</p> +<p>4. Under surface of ascending frontal; + and 5, of ascending parietal convolutions.</p> +<p>C. Central lobe or insula.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The <i>Temporo-Sphenoidal Lobe</i> presents +on the outer surface of the hemisphere +three convolutions, arranged in parallel <i>tiers</i> +from above downward, and named <i>superior, +middle and inferior temporal</i> gyri. The +fissure which separates the superior and +middle of these convolutions is called the +<i>parallel fissure</i> (fig. 9, <i>t</i><span class="sp">1</span>). The <i>Occipital +Lobe</i> also consists from above downwards +of three parallel gyri, named <i>superior, +middle and inferior occipital</i>. The <i>Frontal +Lobe</i> is more complex; immediately in +front of the fissure of Rolando, and forming +indeed its anterior boundary, is a convolution +named <i>ascending frontal</i> or pre-central, +which ascends obliquely backward and +upward from the Sylvian to the longitudinal +fissure. Springing from the front of this +gyrus, and passing forward to the anterior +end of the cerebrum, are three gyri, arranged +in parallel <i>tiers</i> from above downwards, and +named <i>superior, middle and inferior frontal</i> +gyri, which are also prolonged on to the +orbital face of the frontal lobe. The <i>Parietal +Lobe</i> is also complex; its most anterior +gyrus, named <i>ascending parietal</i> or post-central, ascends parallel +to and immediately behind the fissure of Rolando. Springing from +the upper end of the back of this gyrus is the supra-parietal lobule, +which, forming the boundary of the longitudinal fissure, extends as +far back as the parieto-occipital fissure; springing from the lower +end of the back of this gyrus is the <i>supra-marginal</i>, which forms the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span> +upper boundary of the hinder part of the Sylvian fissure; as this +gyrus occupies the hollow in the parietal bone, which corresponds +to the eminence, it may appropriately be named the <i>gyrus</i> of the +<i>parietal eminence</i>. Above and behind the gyrus of the parietal +eminence is the <i>angular +gyrus</i>, which bends round +the posterior extremity of +the parallel fissure, while +arching over the hinder end +of the inferior temporo-sphenoidal +sulcus is the +post-parietal gyrus. Lying +in the parietal lobe is the +<i>intra-parietal</i> fissure (fig. 9, +<i>p</i><span class="sp">3</span> and <i>p</i><span class="sp">4</span>), which separates +the gyrus of the parietal +eminence from the supra-parietal +lobule.</p> + +<p>The <i>Central Lobe</i> of the +hemisphere, more usually +called the <i>insula</i> or <i>island +of Reil</i>, does not come to the +surface of the hemisphere, +but lies deeply within the +Sylvian fissure, the opercula +forming the margin of +which, conceal it. It consists +of four or five short +gyri, which radiate from +the <i>locus perforatus anticus</i>, +situated at the inner end of +the fissure. This lobe is +almost entirely surrounded +by a deep sulcus called +the limiting sulcus of Reil, +which insulates it from +the adjacent gyri. It lies +opposite the upper part of +the ali-sphenoid, where it +articulates with the parietal +and squamous-temporal.</p> + +<p>In front of the central +lobe, on the base of the +brain, are the <i>orbital gyri</i>, +which are separated from +one another by the <i>orbital +sulcus</i>. This is usually +H-shaped, and the gyri +are therefore anterior, +posterior, external and internal. +Bisecting the internal +orbital gyrus is an +antero-posteripr sulcus (<i>s. rectus</i>), beneath which lies the olfactory +lobe, bulbous in front, for the olfactory nerves to arise from.</p> + +<p>On the mesial surface of the hemisphere, as seen when the brain is +longitudinally bisected and the cerebellum and medulla removed by +cutting through the crus cerebri (see fig. 11), the +divided corpus callosum is the most central +object, while below it are seen the fornix, septum +lucidum and third ventricle, the description of +which will follow. The cerebral surface, above +and in front of the corpus callosum, is divided +into two by a sulcus, the contour of which +closely resembles that of the upper margin of +the corpus callosum. This is the <i>calloso-marginal +sulcus</i>, so called because it separates the callosal +gyrus, which lies between it and the corpus +callosum, from the marginal gyri nearer the +margin of the brain. When the sulcus reaches +a point vertically above the hind end of the +corpus callosum it turns sharply upward and so +forms the hinder limit of the marginal gyri, the +posterior inch or two of which is more or less +distinctly marked off to form the <i>paracentral +lobule</i>, where the upper part of the central fissure +of Rolando turns over the margin of the brain. +The callosal gyrus, which is also called the +gyrus fornicatus from its arched appearance, is +continued backward round the posterior end of +the corpus callosum, and so to the mesial surface +of the temporal lobe. Behind the upturned end +of the calloso-marginal sulcus there is a square +area which is called the <i>precuneus</i> or <i>quadrate +lobe</i>; it is bounded behind by the deeply cut +internal parieto-occipital fissure and this runs +from the margin of the brain downward and +forward to join another fissure, the calcarine, at an acute angle, +thus enclosing a wedge-shaped piece of brain called the <i>cuneus</i> +between them. The <i>calcarine</i> fissure is fairly horizontal, and is +joined about its middle by the internal parieto-occipital, so that the +part in front of the junction is called the <i>pre-calcarine</i>, and that behind +the <i>post-calcarine</i> fissure. The internal parieto-occipital and calcarine +are real fissures, because they cause an elevation in the +interior of the brain, known as the hippocampus minor. Just in +front of the anterior end of the calcarine fissure the callosal gyrus is +constricted to form the isthmus which connects it with the hippocampal +or uncinate gyrus. Below the calcarine fissure is a gyrus +called the <i>gyrus lingualis</i>, and this is bounded below by another +true fissure, the <i>collateral</i>, which runs parallel to the calcarine, but +is continued much farther forward into the temporal lobe and so +forms the lower boundary of the hippocampal gyrus. It will thus +be seen that the hippocampal gyrus is continuous posteriorly with +the callosal gyrus above by means of the isthmus, and with the gyrus +lingualis below. The hippocampal gyrus is bounded above by the +dentate or hippocampal fissure which causes the hippocampus major +in the descending cornu and so is a complete fissure. If its lips are +separated the fascia dentata or gyrus dentatus and the fimbria +continued from the posterior pillar of the fornix are seen. Anteriorly +the fissure is arrested by the recurved process of the upper part of the +hippocampal gyrus, called the <i>uncus</i>, and in front of this a slight +sulcus, the <i>incisura temporalis</i>, marks off the temporal pole or tip +of the temporal lobe from the region of the uncus. It will be seen +that the callosal gyrus, isthmus, and hippocampal gyrus form +nearly a complete ring, and to this the name of <i>limbic lobe</i> is given.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Interior of the Cerebrum</i>.</p> + +<p>If a horizontal slice be removed from the upper part of each +hemisphere (see fig. 12), the peripheral grey matter of the gyri will +be seen to follow their various windings, whilst the core of each gyrus +consists of white matter continuous with a mass of white matter +in the interior of the hemisphere. If a deeper slice be now made +down to the plane of the corpus callosum, the white matter of that +structure will be seen to be continuous with the white centre of +each hemisphere known as the centrum ovale. The <i>corpus callosum</i> +does not equal the hemispheres in length, but approaches nearer to +their anterior than their posterior ends. It terminates behind in a +free rounded end, named the splenium (see fig. 11), whilst in front +it forms a knee-shaped bend, and passes downwards and backwards +as far as the lamina cinerea. If the dissection be performed on a +brain which has been hardened in spirit, the corpus callosum is seen +to consist almost entirely of bundles of nerve fibres, passing transversely +across the mesial plane between the two hemispheres; these +fibres may be traced into the white cores and grey matter of the +gyri, and connect the gyri, though by no means always corresponding +ones, in the opposite hemispheres. Hence the corpus callosum is a connecting +or commissural structure, which brings the gyri of the two +hemispheres into anatomical and physiological relation with each +other. On the surface of the corpus callosum a few fibres, the <i>striae +longitudinales</i>, run in the antero-posterior or longitudinal direction +(see fig. 12, <i>b</i>). Their morphological interest is referred to in the +section below on <i>Comparative Anatomy</i>. In the sulcus between the +corpus callosum and the limbic lobe a narrow band of fibres called +the <i>cingulum</i> is seen, most of its fibres only run a short distance in +it and link together adjacent parts of the brain. If the corpus +callosum be now cut through on each side of its mesial line, the large +cavity or <i>lateral ventricle</i> in each hemisphere will be opened into.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:682px; height:393px" src="images/img397b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-The book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—The Gyri and Sulci on the Mesial Aspect of the Cerebral Hemisphere, +<i>r</i>, Fissure of Rolando. <i>r</i>, <i>o</i>, Rostral sulcus. <i>i</i>, <i>t</i>, Incisura temporalis.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The lateral ventricle is subdivided into a <i>central space</i> or body, +and three bent prolongations or <i>cornua</i>; the <i>anterior cornu</i> extends +forward, outward and downward into the frontal lobe; the <i>posterior +cornu</i> curves backward, outward and inward into the occipital lobe; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span> +the <i>descending cornu</i> curves backward, outward, downward, forward +and inward, behind and below the optic thalamus into the temporo-sphenoidal +lobe. On the floor of the central space may be seen +from before backward the grey upper surface of the pear-shaped +caudate nucleus of the <i>corpus striatum</i> (figs. 12 and 13, <i>f</i>), and to its +inner and posterior part a small portion of the <i>optic thalamus</i>, whilst +between the two is the curved flat band, the <i>taenia semicircularis</i> +(figs. 12 and 13, <i>g</i>). Resting on the upper surface of the thalamus +is the vascular fringe of the velum interpositum, named <i>choroid +plexus</i>, and immediately internal to this fringe is the free edge of the +white <i>posterior pillar of the fornix</i>. The anterior cornu has the anterior +end of the corpus striatum projecting into it. The posterior +cornu has an elevation on its floor, the <i>hippocampus minor</i> (fig. 12, <i>n</i>), +and between this cornu and the descending cornu is the elevation +called <i>eminentia collateralis</i>, formed by the collateral fissure (fig. 12, <i>o</i>).</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:416px; height:515px" src="images/img398a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—To show the Right Ventricle and the left half of the +Corpus Callosum.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Transverse fibres, and</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Longitudinal fibres of corpus callosum.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Anterior, and</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Posterior cornua of lateral ventricle.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Septum lucidum.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Corpus striatum.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>g</i>, Taenia semicircularis.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Optic thalamus.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Choroid plexus.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Taenia hippocampi.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Hippocampus major.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Hippocampus minor.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Eminentia collateralis.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Extending down the descending cornu and following its curvature +is the <i>hippocampus major</i>, which terminates below in a nodular end, +the <i>pes hippocampi</i>; on its inner border is the white <i>taenia hippocampi</i>, +continuous above with the posterior pillar of the fornix. +If the taenia be drawn to one side the hippocampal fissure is exposed, +at the bottom of which the grey matter of the gyrus hippocampi +may be seen to form a well-defined dentated border (the so-called +<i>fascia dentala</i>). The choroid plexus of the pia mater turns round the +gyrus hippocampi, and enters the descending cornu through the +lateral part of the great transverse fissure between the taenia hippocampi +and optic thalamus. The lateral ventricle is lined by a +ciliated epithelium called the <i>ependyma.</i> This lining is continuous +through the foramen of Monro with that of the third ventricle, +which again is continuous with the lining of the fourth ventricle +through the aqueduct of Sylvius. A little fluid is contained in the +cerebral ventricles, which, under some pathological conditions, may +increase greatly in quantity, so as to occasion considerable dilatation +of the ventricular cavities.</p> + +<p>If the corpus callosum be now divided about its middle by a +transverse incision, and the posterior half of this structure be turned +back (see fig. 13), the body of the fornix on which the corpus callosum +rests is exposed. If the anterior half of the corpus callosum be now +turned forward, the grey partition, or <i>septum lucidum</i>, between the +two lateral ventricles is exposed. This septum fits into the interval +between the under surface of the corpus callosum and the upper +surface of the anterior part of the fornix. It consists of two layers +of grey matter, between which is a narrow vertical mesial space, +the <i>fifth ventricle</i> (fig. 13, <i>e</i>), and this space does not communicate +with the other ventricles nor is it lined with ependyma. If the +septum be now removed, the anterior part of the fornix is brought +into view.</p> + +<p>The <i>fornix</i> is an arch-shaped band of nerve fibres extending in the +antero-posterior direction. Its anterior end forms the <i>anterior</i> +pillars of the arch, its posterior end the <i>posterior pillars</i>, whilst the +intermediate <i>body</i> of the fornix forms the crown of the arch. It +consists of two lateral halves, one belonging to each hemisphere. +At the summit of the arch the two lateral halves are joined to form +the <i>body</i>; but in front the two halves separate from each other, +and form two anterior pillars, which descend in front of the third +ventricle to the base of the cerebrum, where they form the <i>corpora +albicantia</i>, and from these some white fibres called the bundle of +Vicq d’Azyr ascend to the optic thalamus (see fig. 11). Behind the +body the two halves diverge much more from each other, and form +the posterior pillars, in the triangular interval between which is a +thin lamina of commissural fibres called the <i>lyra</i> (fig. 13, <i>a</i>). Each +posterior pillar curves downward and outward into the descending +cornu of the ventricle, and, under the name of <i>taenia hippocampi</i>, +forms the mesial free border of the hippocampus major (fig. 13, <i>l</i>). +Eventually it ends in the substance of the hippocampus and in the +uncus of the temporal lobe. If the body of the fornix be now +divided by a transverse incision, its anterior part thrown forward, +and its posterior part backward, the great transverse fissure of the +cerebrum is opened into, and the velum interpositum lying in that +fissure is exposed.</p> + +<p>The <i>velum interpositum</i> is an expanded fold of pia mater, which +passes into the anterior of the hemispheres through the great transverse +fissure. It is triangular in shape; its base is a line with the +posterior end of the corpus callosum, where it is continuous with the +external pia mater; its lateral margins are fringed by the choroid +plexuses, which are seen in the bodies and descending cornua of the +lateral ventricles, where they are invested by the endothelial lining +of those cavities. Its apex, where the two choroid plexuses blend +with each other, lies just behind the anterior pillars of the fornix. +The interval between the apex and these pillars is the aperture of +communication between the two lateral ventricles and the third, +already referred to as the foramen of Monro. The choroid plexuses +contain the small <i>choroidal arteries</i>; and the blood from these is +returned by small veins, which join to form the <i>veins of Galen.</i> +These veins pass along the centre of the velum, and, as is shown +in fig. 1, open into the straight sinus. If the velum interpositum +be now carefully raised from before backward, the optic thalami, +third ventricle, pineal body and corpora quadrigemina are exposed.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:416px; height:524px" src="images/img398b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—A deeper dissection of the Lateral Ventricle, and of the +Velum Interpositum.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Lyra, turned back.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, Posterior pillars of the fornix, turned back.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, Anterior pillars of the fornix.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Velum interpositum and veins of Galen.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Fifth ventricle.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, Corpus striatum.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>g</i>, <i>g</i>, Taenia semicircularis.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, <i>h</i>, Optic thalamus.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Choroid plexus.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Taenia hippocampi.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Hippocampus major in descending cornu.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Hippocampus minor.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Eminentia collateralis.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The <i>optic thalamus</i> is a large, somewhat ovoid body situated behind +the corpus striatum, and above the crus cerebri. Its upper surface +is partly seen in the floor of the body of the lateral ventricle, but is +for the most part covered by the fornix and velum interpositum. +Its postero-inferior surface forms the roof of the descending cornu +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span> +of the ventricle, whilst its inner surface forms the side wall of the +third ventricle. At its outer and posterior part are two slight elevations, +in close relation to the optic tract, and named respectively +corpus geniculatum internum and externum.</p> + +<p>The posterior knob-like extremity of the thalamus is called the +<i>pulvinar</i>; this, as well as the two corpora geniculata and the superior +corpus quadrigeminum, is connected with the optic tract.</p> + +<p>The <i>third ventricle</i> (see fig. 6) is a cavity situated in the mesial +plane between the two optic thalami. Its roof is formed by the velum +interpositum and body of the fornix; its floor by the posterior +perforated space, corpora albicantia, tuber cinereum, infundibulum, +and optic commissure; its anterior boundary by the anterior +pillars of the fornix, anterior commissure and lamina cinerea; its +posterior boundary by the corpora quadrigemina and posterior +commissure. The cavity of this ventricle is of small size in the living +head, for the inner surfaces of the two thalami are connected together +by intermediate grey matter, named the <i>middle</i> or <i>soft commissure</i>. +Immediately in front of the corpora quadrigemina, the white fibres +of the <i>posterior commissure</i> pass across between the two optic thalami. +If the anterior pillars of the fornix be separated from each other, the +white fibres of the <i>anterior commissure</i> may be seen lying in front of +them.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:570px; height:807px" src="images/img399.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—Horizontal Section through the Right Cerebral Hemisphere +at the Level of the Widest Part of the Lenticular Nucleus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>pineal body</i> is a reddish cone-shaped body situated upon the +anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina (see figs. 3 and 6). From +its broad anterior end two white bands, the <i>peduncles</i> of the <i>pineal +body</i>, pass forward, one on the inner side of each optic thalamus. +Each peduncle joins, along with the taenia semicircularis, the +anterior pillar of the fornix of its own side. In its structure this +body consists of tubular gland tissue containing gritty calcareous +particles, constituting the <i>brain sand</i>. Its morphology will be +referred to later.</p> + +<p>A general idea of the internal structure of the brain is best obtained +by studying a horizontal section made just below the level of the +Sylvian point and just above the great transverse fissure (see fig. 14). +Such a section will cut the corpus callosum anteriorly at the genu +and posteriorly at the splenium, but the body is above the plane of +section. Behind the genu the fifth ventricle is cut, and behind that +the two pillars of the fornix which here form the anterior boundary +of the third ventricle. At the posterior end of this is the pineal +body, which the section has just escaped. To the outer side of the +fornix is seen the foramen of Munro, leading into the front of the body +and anterior horn of the lateral ventricle. It will be seen that the +lateral boundary of this horn is the cut caudate nucleus of the corpus +striatum, while the lateral boundary of the third ventricle is the cut +optic thalamus, both of which bodies have been already described, +but external to these is a third triangular grey mass, with its apex +directed inward, which cannot be seen except in a section. This is +the lenticular nucleus of the corpus striatum, the inner or apical +half of which is of a light colour and is called the <i>globus pallidus</i>, +while the basal half is reader and is known as the <i>putamen.</i> External +to the putamen is a long narrow strip of grey matter called the +<i>claustrum</i>, which is sometimes regarded as a third nucleus +of the corpus striatum. These masses of grey matter, taken +together, are the basal nuclei of the brain. Internal to the +lenticular nucleus, and between it and the caudate nucleus +in front and the thalamus behind, is the <i>internal capsule</i>, +through which run most of the fibres connecting the cerebral +cortex with the crus cerebri. The capsule adapts itself to the +contour of the lenticular nucleus and has an anterior limb, +a bend or genu, and a posterior limb. Just behind the genu +of the internal capsule is a very important region, for here the +great motor tract from the Rolandic region of the cortex +passes on its way to the crusta and spinal cord. Besides this +there are fibres passing from the cortex to the deep origins of +the facial and hypo-glossal nerves. Behind the motor tracts +are the sensory, including the fillet, the superior cerebellar +peduncle and the inferior quadrigeminal tract, while quite at +the back of the capsule are found the auditory and optic +radiations linking up the higher (cortical) and lower auditory +and visual centres. Between the putamen and the claustrum +is the <i>external capsule</i>, which is smaller and of less importance +than the internal, while on the lateral side of the claustrum +is the white and then the grey matter of the central lobe. +As the fibres of the internal capsule run up toward the cortex +they decussate with the transverse fibres of the corpus callosum +and spread out to form the <i>corona radiata.</i> It has only been +possible to deal with a few of the more important bundles of +fibres here, but it should be mentioned that much of the white +matter of the brain is formed of association fibres which link +up different cortical areas, and which become medullated +and functional after birth.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Weight of the Brain.</i></p> + +<p>This has been the subject of a great deal of research, but +the results are not altogether conclusive; it seems, however, +that, although the male brain is 4 to 5 oz. heavier than that of +the female, its relative weight to that of the body is about the +same in the two sexes. An average male brain weighs about +48 oz. and a female 43½ oz. The greatest absolute weight is +found between twenty-five and thirty-five years of age in the +male and a little later in the female. At birth the brain weighs +comparatively much more than it does later on, its proportion +to the body weight being about 1 to 6. At the tenth year it +is about 1 to 14, at the twentieth 1 to 30, and after that about +1 to 36.5. In old age there is a further slight decrease in +proportion. In many men of great intellectual eminence the +brain weight has been large—Cuvier’s brain weighed 64½ oz., +Goodsir’s 57½, for instance—but the exceptions are numerous. +Brains over 60 oz. in weight are frequently found in quite +undistinguished people, and even in idiots 60 oz. has been +recorded. On the other hand, microcephalic idiots may have +a brain as low as 10 or even 8½ oz., but it is doubtful whether +normal intelligence is possible with a brain weighing less than +32 oz. The taller the individual the greater is his brain weight, +but short people have proportionally heavier brains than tall. +The weight of the cerebellum is usually one-eighth of that of +the entire brain. Attempts have been made to estimate the surface +area of the grey matter by dissecting it off and measuring it, and +also by covering it with gold leaf and measuring that. The results, +however, have not been conclusive.</p> + +<p>Further details of the brain, abundantly illustrated, will be found +in the later editions of any of the standard text-books on anatomy, +references to which will be found in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: <i>Modern +Human. Das Menschenhirn</i>, by G. Retzius (Stockholm, 1896), and +numerous recent memoirs by G. Elliot Smith and D.J. Cunningham +in the <i>Journ. Anat. and Phys.</i> and <i>Anatomisch Anzeig.</i>, may be +consulted.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Histology of Cerebral Cortex.</i></p> + +<p>The cerebral cortex (see fig. 15) consists of a continuous sheet of +grey matter completely enveloping the white matter of the hemispheres. +It varies in thickness in different parts, and becomes +thinner in old age, but all parts show a somewhat similar microscopic +structure. Thus, in vertical section, the following layers may be +made out:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span></p> + +<p>1. <i>The Molecular Layer (Stratum zonale).</i>—This is made up of a +large number of fine nerve branchings both medullated and non-medullated. +The whole forms a close network, the fibres of which +run chiefly a tangential course. The cells of this layer are the so-called +<i>cells of Cajal</i>. They possess an irregular body, giving off 4 or +5 dendrites, which terminate within the molecular layer and a long +nerve fibre process or neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface of +the convolution.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Layer of small Pyramidal Cells.</i>—The typical cells of this +layer are pyramid-shaped, the apices of the pyramids being directed +towards the surface. The apex terminates in a dendron which +reaches into the molecular layer, giving off several collateral +horizontal branches in its course. The final branches in the molecular +layer take a direction parallel to the surface. Smaller dendrites +arise from the lateral and basal surfaces of these cells, but do not +extend far from the body of the cell. The neuraxon always arises +from the base of the cell and passes towards the central white +matter, thus forming one of the nerve-fibres of that substance. In +its path it gives off a number of collaterals at right angles, which +are distributed to the adjacent grey matter.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:504px; height:751px" src="images/img400a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Diagram to illustrate Minute Structure of the Cerebral Cortex.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A. Neuroglia cells.</p> +<p>B.    ”    ”</p> +<p>C. Cell with short axon (N) which breaks up in a free arborization.</p> +<p>D. Spindle-shaped cell in stratum zonale.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>E. Small pyramidal cell.</p> +<p>F. Large pyramidal cell.</p> +<p>G. Cell of Martinotti.</p> +<p>H. Polymorphic cell.</p> +<p>K. Corticipetal fibres.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">3. <i>The Layer of large Pyramidal Cells.</i>—This is characterized by +the presence of numbers of cells of the same type as those of the +preceding layer, but of larger size. The nerve-fibre process becomes +a medullated fibre of the white matter.</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Layer of Polymorphous Cells.</i>—The cells of this layer are +irregular in outline, and give off several dendrites branching into the +surrounding grey matter. The neuraxon gives off a number of +collaterals, and then becomes a nerve-fibre of the central white matter.</p> + +<p>Scattered through these three layers there are also a number of +cells (<i>cells of Golgi</i>) whose neuraxon divides at once, the divisions +terminating within the immediate vicinity of the cell-body. Some +cells are also found in which the neuraxon, instead of running into +the white matter of the brain, passes toward the surface; these are +called <i>cells of Martinotti</i>.</p> + +<p>The medullated nerve-fibres of the white matter when traced +into the cortex are seen to enter in bundles set vertically to the +surface. These bundles taper and are resolved into isolated fibres +in the upper parts of the pyramidal layers. The fibres constituting +the bundles form two sets. (a) The centrifugal fibres consist as +above described of the fibre processes of the pyramidal and polymorphous +cells. (b) The centripetal fibres ascend through the cortex +to terminate within the molecular layer by horizontally running +branches. As they pass through they give off a number of collaterals. +The position of the cells from which these fibres arise is not known. +In addition to the radially arranged bundles of fibres, networks are +formed by the interlacement with them of large numbers of fine +medullated fibres running tangentially to the surface. These are +derived chiefly from the collaterals of the pyramidal cells and of the +centripetal fibres. They form two specially marked bundles, one +within the layer of the polymorphous cells known as the <i>inner +band of Baillarger</i>, and another in the layer of large pyramidal cells +called the <i>outer band of Baillarger</i>. This latter is very thick in the +calcarine region, and forms the <i>white stria of Gennin</i>, while the inner +band is best seen in the precentral gyrus. As both these strands +cross the already mentioned radial bundles at right angles, they are +regarded as specialized parts of an <i>interradial reticulum</i> of fibres, but, +nearer the surface than the radial bundles penetrate, tangential +fibres are found, and here they are called the <i>supraradial reticulum</i>. +In certain parts of the brain the fibres of this reticulum are more +closely set, and form the <i>band of Bechterew</i> in the superficial part of +the small pyramidal cell zone.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:350px" src="images/img400b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>The Museum Catalogue of the Royal College of Surgeons of England</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Brain of <i>Petromyzon marinus</i> (dorsal view). +A, Brain; B, choroid plexus removed.</td></tr></table> + +<p>For further information on the structure of the cerebral cortex, +see A.W. Campbell, <i>Proc. R. Soc.</i> vols. lxxii. and lxxiv.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i></p> + +<p>A useful introduction to the study of the vertebrate brain is that +of the Amphioxus, one of the lowest of the Chordata or animals +having a notochord. Here the brain is a very slightly modified +part of the dorsal tubular nerve-cord, and, on the surface, shows no +distinction from the rest of that cord. When a section is made the +central canal is seen to be enlarged into a cavity, the neurocoele, +which, in the young animal, communicates by an opening, the +neuropore, with the bottom of the olfactory pit, and so with the +exterior. More ventrally another slight diverticulum probably +represents the infundibulum. The only trace of an eye is a patch +of pigment at the anterior end of the brain, and there are no signs +of any auditory apparatus. There are only two pairs of cerebral +nerves, both of which are sensory (Willey, <i>Amphioxus</i>, 1894). In the +Cyclostomata, of which the lamprey (Petromyzon) is an example, +the minute brain is much more complex, though it is still only a very +slight enlargement of the anterior end of the cord. The single cavity +seen in Amphioxus is here subdivided into three: an anterior or +prosencephalon, a middle or mesencephalon, and a hinder or +rhombencephalon. The rhombencephalon has a very slight transverse +thickening in the fore-part of its roof, this is the rudimentary cerebellum +(<i>Cer.</i>); the rest of this part of the brain is taken up by the +large medulla, the cavity of which is the <i>fossa rhomboidalis</i> or fourth +ventricle. This fossa is roofed over by the epithelium lining the +cavity of the ventricle, by pia mater and blood-vessels constituting +a choroid plexus (fig. 16, B). The fourth ventricle communicates +with the parts in front by means of a passage known as the aqueduct +of Sylvius.</p> + +<p>The mesencephalon or mid-brain, when looked at from the dorsal +surface, shows a pair of large hollow swellings, the optic lobes or +<i>corpora bigemina</i>. Their cavities open out from the aqueduct of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span> +Sylvius, and from the nervous tissue in their walls the optic nerves +derive their fibres. From the front of the prosencephalon or anterior +vesicle the olfactory nerves come off, and at the base of each of these +are two hollow swellings; the larger and more anterior is the olfactory +bulb, the smaller and more posterior the cerebral hemisphere. +Both these swellings must be regarded as lateral outgrowths from +the blind front end of the original single vesicle of the brain as seen +in Amphioxus, and from the anterior subdivision or prosencephalon +in the lamprey. The anterior vesicle, however, is now again subdivided, +and that part from which the cerebral hemispheres +bud out, and the hemispheres themselves, is called the +telencephalon, while the posterior part of the original +prosencephalon is known as the thalamencephalon, or more +rarely the diencephalon. On the dorsal surface of the +thalamencephalon are two nervous masses called the +ganglia habenulae; the right is much larger than the left, +and from it a stalk runs forward and upward to end in +the vestigial pineal body (or epiphysis), which contains +rudiments of a pigmented retina and of a lens, and +which is usually regarded as the remains of one of a pair +of median eyes, though it has been suggested that it may +be an organ for the appreciation of temperature. From the +small left ganglion habenulae a still more rudimentary +pineal stalk projects, and there are signs of a third outgrowth +(paraphysis) in front of these. On the floor of the +thalamencephalon the blind pouch-like infundibulum is +in contact with the pituitary body, an outgrowth from +the combined pituitary and olfactory pouch, which in the +adult opens on to the top of the head just in front of the +pineal area. The anterior closed end of the nerve-tube, in +front of the foramina of Munro or openings from which the +hemispheres have grown out, is known as the <i>lamina +terminalis</i>, and in this is seen a little white commissure, +connecting the hemispheres of opposite sides and belonging +entirely to the telencephalon, known as the anterior commissure. +The roof of the telencephalon is mainly epithelial, and contains +no traces of cortical structure. In the posterior part of the +roof of the thalamencephalon is the small posterior commissure +(Ahlborn, <i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> Bd. xxxix., 1883, p. 191). In the +Elasmobranch Fish, such as the sharks and rays, the cerebellum +(<i>Cer</i>. fig. 17) is very large and contains the layers found in all the +higher vertebrates. In the mesencephalon fibres corresponding +with those of the fillet of higher vertebrates can be seen, and there is +a nucleus in the hinder part of the <i>corpora bigemina</i> foreshadowing +the separation into corpora quadrigemina. There is only one pineal +stalk in the roof of the thalamencephalon, and the ganglia habenulae—very +constant structures in the vertebrate brain—are not so +marked as in Petromyzon, but are, as usual, connected with the +olfactory parts of the cerebrum, with the surface of the optic lobes +(<i>tectum opticum</i>), and with the <i>corpus interpedunculare</i> (Meynert’s +bundle). They are united across the middle line by a small <i>superior</i> +or <i>habenular commissure</i>. In the floor of the thalamencephalon are +two masses of ganglionic tissue, the optic thalami. The infundibulum +dilates into two rounded bodies, the <i>lobi inferiores</i>, while the +pituitary body or <i>hypophysis cerebri</i> has two lateral diverticula +known as <i>sacci vasculosi</i>. Ganglia geniculata are found for the first +time in connexion with the optic tracts in the lower part of the +thalamus. The olfactory lobes (fig. 17, <i>Olf. Bulb</i>) are very large and +often separated by long stalks from the cerebral hemispheres, +which are comparatively much larger than those of the Cyclostomata; +their roof or pallium is nervous, but devoid of cortical +structure, while in the floor in some species large anterior basal +ganglia or <i>corpora striata</i> are found (Miklucho-Maclay, <i>Beiträge z. +vergl. Neurol.</i>, 1870; Edinger, <i>Arch. mikr. Anat.</i> Bd. lviii., 1901, +p. 661, “Cerebellum”). The Teleostean Fish are chiefly remarkable +for the great development of the optic lobes and suppression of the +olfactory apparatus. The pallium is non-nervous, and the optic +tracts merely cross one another instead of forming a commissure. +A process of the cerebellum called <i>valvula cerebelli</i> projects into the +cavity of each optic lobe (Rabl. Ruckhard, <i>Arch. Anat. u. Phys</i>., +1898, p. 345 [Pallium]; Haller, <i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> Bd. xxvi., 1898, +p. 632 [Histology and Bibliography]). The brain of the Dipnoi, or +mud fish, shows no very important developments, except that the +anterior pineal organ or paraphysis is large (Saunders, <i>Ann. and +Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 6, vol. iii., 1889, p. 157; Burkhardt, <i>Centralnervensystem +v. Protopterus</i>, Berlin, 1892).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:595px; height:207px" src="images/img401a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—Section of the Brain of Porbeagle Shark (<i>Lamna</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the Amphibia the brain is of a low type, the most marked +advances on that of the fish being that the anterior commissure is +divided into a dorsal and ventral part, of which the ventral is the +true anterior commissure of higher vertebrates, while the dorsal is +a hippocampal commissure and coincides in its appearance with +the presence of a small mass of cells in the outer layer of the median +wall of the pallium, which is probably the first indication of a +hippocampal cortex or cortex of any kind (Osborn, <i>Journ. Morph.</i> +vol. ii., 1889, p. 51).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:585px; height:312px" src="images/img401b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—Section of Brain of Turtle (<i>Chelone</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the Reptilia the medulla has a marked flexure with a ventral +convexity, and an undoubted cerebral cortex for the first time makes +its appearance. The mesial wall of the cerebral hemisphere is divided +into a large dorsal hippocampal area (fig. 18, <i>Hip.</i>) and a smaller +ventral olfactory tubercle. Between these two a narrow area of +ganglionic matter runs forward from the side of the <i>lamina terminalis</i> +and is known as the paraterminal or precommissural area (Elliot +Smith, <i>Journ. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. xxxii. p. 411). To the upper +lateral part of the hemisphere Elliot Smith has given the name of +<i>neopallium</i>, while the lower lateral part, imperfectly separated from +it, is called the <i>pyriform lobe</i>. In the Lacertilia the pineal eye, if it +be an eye, is better developed than in any existing vertebrate, +though even in them there is no evidence of its being used for sight. +Behind the so-called pineal eye and its stalk is the <i>epiphysis</i> or pineal +body, and sometimes there is a dorsal sac between them (see fig. 18).<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +The middle or soft commissure appears in certain reptiles (<i>Crocodilia</i> +and <i>Chelonia</i>), as does also the <i>corpus mammillare</i> (Edinger, +Senckenberg, <i>Naturf. Gesell.</i> Bd. xix., 1896, and Bd. xxii., 1899; +Haller, <i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> Bd. xxviii., 1900, p. 252). Among the birds +there is great unity of type, the cerebellum is large and, by its forward +projection, presses the optic lobes down toward the ventro-lateral +part of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres are also large, owing +chiefly to the great size of the <i>corpora striata</i>, which already show +a differentiation into caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus. +The pallium is reptilian in character, though its cortical area is more +extensive. The geniculate bodies are very large (Bumm, +<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> Bd. xxxviii., 1883, p. 430; Brandis, <i>Arch. +mikr. Anat.</i> Bd. xli., 1893, p. 623, and xliii., 1894, p. 96, +and xliv., 1895, p. 534; Boyce and Warrington, <i>Phil. +Trans.</i> vol. cxci., 1899, p. 293).</p> + +<p>Among the Mammalia the Monotremata have a cerebellum +which shows, in addition to the central lobe of the lower +vertebrates, a flocculus on each side, and the two halves of +the cerebellum are united by a ventral commissure, the +<i>pons varolii</i>. The pallium is reptilian in its arrangement, +but that part of it which Elliot Smith has named the neopallium +is very large, both in the Ornithorynchus and +Echidna, a fact very difficult to account for. In the latter +animal the cortical area is so extensive as to be thrown +into many and deep sulci, and yet the Echidna is one +of the lowliest of mammals in other respects. A well-marked +rhinal fissure separates the pyriform lobe from +the neopallium, while, on the mesial surface, the hippocampal +fissure separates the neopallium from the hippocampal area. Just +below the hippocampal fissure a specially coloured tract indicates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span> +the first appearance of the fascia dentata (see fig. 20). The anterior +commissure is divided, as in reptiles, into dorsal and ventral parts, of +which the latter is the larger (fig. 20, <i>Comm. V. and D</i>.), while just +behind the dorsal part is the first appearance of the fimbria or fornix. +In addition to the two fissures already named, there is, in the Echidna, +one which in position and mode of formation corresponds with the +Sylvian fissure of higher mammals. Elliot Smith, however, wisely +refuses to homologize it absolutely with that fissure, and proposes +the name of pseudosylvian for it. The pineal body is rudimentary, +and the optic lobes are now, and throughout the Mammalia, subdivided +into four <i>corpora quadrigemina</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:243px" src="images/img402a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Ventral and Dorsal Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the Marsupialia the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus) gives +a very good idea of a generalized mammalian brain, and shows a +large development of the parts concerned in the sense of smell. +The most important advance on the monotreme brain is that the +calcarine fissure has now appeared on the posterior part of the mesial +surface and causes a bulging into the ventricle, called the <i>calcar +avis</i> or hippocampus minor, just as the hippocampal fissure causes +the <i>hippocampus major</i> (Gervais, <i>Nuov. Arch. Mus</i>. tom. v., 1869; +Ziehen, <i>Jenaische Denkschr</i>. Bd. vi., 1897).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:581px; height:142px" src="images/img402b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:587px; height:164px" src="images/img402c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2l.—Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of the Tasmanian Devil +(<i>Sarcophilus</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the Eutheria or mammals above the marsupials, the cerebellum +gradually becomes more complex, owing to the appearance of lateral +lobes between the flocculus and the vermis, as well as the paraflocculus +on the outer side of the flocculus. The corpus callosum +now first appears as a bridge between the neopallia, and its development +leads to the stretching of the hippocampal formation, so that +in the higher mammals the hippocampus is only found in the lower +and back part of the ventricle, while the rudiments of the dorsal +part remain as the <i>striae longitudinals</i> on the corpus callosum. +The dorsal part of the original anterior commissure becomes the +fornix, and the paraterminal area is modified to form the septum +lucidum. The first appearance of the fissure of Rolando is probably +in some of the Carnivora, in which, as the <i>sulcus crucialis</i>, it forms +the posterior boundary of the “ursine lozenge” described by Mivart +(<i>Journ. Linn. Soc</i>. vol. xix., 1886) (see fig. 22, <i>Sulc. Cru</i>.). In the +higher apes or Anthropoidea the human fissures and sulci are largely +recognizable, so that a gibbon’s brain, apart from all question of +comparative anatomy, forms a useful means of demonstrating to a +junior class the main gyri and sulci of Man in a simple and diagrammatic +way. The main points of difference, apart from greater +simplicity, are that the central lobe or island of Reil is exposed on +the surface of the brain, as it is in the human foetus, and that the +anterior part of the occipital lobe has a well-marked vertical sulcus, +called the simian sulcus or <i>Affenspalte</i>; this often has a semilunar +shape with its convexity forward, and is then called the <i>sulcus +lunatus</i>. It is usually concealed in European brains by the overgrowth +of the surrounding gyri, but it occasionally remains, though less +frequently than in the brains of Egyptian fellaheen. Its relation to +the <i>white stria of Gennari</i> is especially interesting, and is +recorded by Elliot Smith in the <i>Anatomischer Anzeiger</i>, Bd. +xxiv., 1904, p. 436. The rhinal fissure, which is so characteristic +a feature of the lower mammals, almost disappears +in Man, and is only represented by the <i>incisura temporalis</i> +(see fig. 11, <i>i.t</i>). The hippocampal fissure persists with little +modification all through the mammalian class. The calcarine +fissure remains with many modifications from the +marsupials to man, and in view of the famous controversy of +1864, in which Owen, Huxley and the then bishop of +Oxford took part, it is interesting to note that its hippocampus +minor can now be clearly demonstrated, even +in the Marsupialia. Another very ancient and stable sulcus +is the <i>orbital</i>, which is a simple antero-posterior line until Man +is reached (see fig. 23, <i>Sulc. Orb.</i>). The great point of importance, +however, in the evolution of the mammalian brain is the gradual +suppression of the olfactory region, and the development of the neopallium, +a development which takes a sudden stride between the +Anthropoid apes and Man. (For further particulars of this and other +points in the comparative anatomy of the brain, see <i>Catalogue of the +Physiological Series</i> of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons +of England, vol. ii. 2nd ed., by R.H. Burne and G. Elliot +Smith, London, 1902.)</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:417px; height:567px" src="images/img402d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.—Dorsal and Lateral Views of the Brain of a Ratel +(<i>Mellivora indica</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Embryology.</i></p> + +<p>The brain, like the rest of the nervous system, is developed +from the ectoderm or outer layer of the embryo by the +formation of a groove in the mid-dorsal line. The lips of this +<i>medullary groove</i> unite to form a canal beginning at the +place where the neck of the embryo is to be. The part of +the neural canal in front of the earliest union forms the brain +and very early becomes constricted into three vesicles, to +which the names of <i>prosencephalon</i>, <i>mesencephalon</i> and +<i>rhombencephalon</i> are now usually given. The simple tubular +brain we have seen as a permanent arrangement in Amphioxus, +but the stage of the three vesicles is a transitory one, +and is not found in the adult of any existing animal. From the +sides of the prosencephalon, the optic vesicles grow out before the +neural tube is completely closed, and eventually form the optic +nerves and retinae, while, soon after this, the cerebral hemispheres +bulge from the antero-dorsal part of the first primary vesicle, their +points of evagination being the <i>foramina of Munro</i>. From the +ventral parts of these cerebral hemispheres the olfactory lobes are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span> +constricted off, while just behind the openings of the foramina of +Munro a constriction occurs which divides the prosencephalon into +two secondary vesicles, the anterior of which, containing the foramina +of Munro, is called the <i>telencephalon</i>, while the posterior is the +<i>thalamencephalon</i> or <i>diencephalon</i>. A constriction also occurs in the +hind vesicle or <i>rhombencephalon</i>, dividing it into an anterior part, +the <i>metencephalon</i>, from which the cerebellum is developed, and a +posterior or <i>myelencephalon</i>, the primitive <i>medulla oblongata</i>. At this +stage the general resemblance of the brain to that of the lamprey is +striking.</p> + +<p>Before the secondary constrictions occur three vertical flexures +begin to form. The first is known as the <i>cephalic</i>, and is caused by the +prosencephalon bending sharply downward, below and in front of +the mesencephalon. The second is the <i>cervical</i>, and marks the place +where the brain ends and the spinal cord begins; the concavity of +this flexure is ventral. The third to appear has a ventral convexity +and is known as the <i>pontine</i>, since it marks the site of the future +<i>pons Varolii</i>; it resembles the permanent flexure in the reptilian +brain.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:604px; height:301px" src="images/img403.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span> +<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.—Lateral view of cerebral hemisphere of Gorilla (<i>Anthropopithecus +gorilla</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>It will now be seen that the original neural canal, which is lined +by ciliated epithelium, forms the ventricles of the brain, while +superficial to this epithelium (<i>ependyma</i>) the grey and white matter +is subsequently formed. It has been shown by His that the whole +neural tube may be divided into <i>dorsal</i> or <i>alar</i>, and <i>ventral</i> or <i>basal</i> +laminae, and, as the cerebral hemispheres bud out from the dorsal +part of the anterior primary vesicle, they consist entirely of alar +laminae. The most characteristic feature of the human and anthropoid +brain is the rapid and great expansion of these hemispheres, +especially in a backward direction, so that the mesencephalon and +metencephalon are hidden by them from above at the seventh +month of intra-uterine life. At first the foramina of Munro form +a communication not only between the third and lateral ventricles, +but between the two lateral ventricles, so that the cavity of each +hemisphere is continuous with that of the other; soon, however, +a median longitudinal fissure forms, into which the mesoderm grows +to form the falx, and so the foramina of Munro are constricted into +a V-shaped canal. In the floor of the hemispheres the corpora +striata are developed at an early date by a multiplication of nerve +cells, and on the external surface a depression, called the <i>Sylvian +fossa</i>, marks the position of the future central lobe, which is afterwards +hidden as the lips of the fossa (<i>opercula</i>) gradually close in +on it to form the Sylvian fissure. The real fissures are complete +infoldings of the whole thickness of the vesicular wall and produce +swellings in the cavity. Some of them, like the choroidal on the +mesial surface, are developed very early, while the vesicle is little +more than epithelial, and contain between their walls an inpushing +of mesoderm to form the choroid plexus. Others, like the hippocampal +and calcarine, appear in the second and third months and +correspond to invaginations of the nervous tissue, the hippocampus +major and minor. The sulci appear later than the fissures and do +not affect the internal cavity; they are due to the rapid growth of +the cortex in certain areas. The corpus callosum and fornix appear +about the third month and their development is somewhat doubtful; +they are probably modifications of the lamina terminalis, but they +may be secondary adhesions between the adjacent surfaces of the +cerebral hemispheres where the cortical grey matter has not covered +the white. They begin at their antero-ventral part near the genu +of the corpus callosum and the anterior pillars of the fornix, and these +are the parts which first appear in the lower mammals. The original +anterior vesicle from which the hemispheres evaginate is composed, +as already shown, of an anterior part or telencephalon and a posterior +or thalamencephalon; the whole forming the third ventricle in the +adult. Here the alar and basal laminae are both found, but the +former is the more important; from it the optic thalami are derived, +and more posteriorly the geniculate bodies. The anterior wall, of +course, is the lamina terminalis, and from it are formed the <i>lamina +cinerea</i>, the <i>corpus callosum</i>, <i>fornix</i> and <i>septum lucidum</i>. The roof +largely remains epithelial and is invaginated into the ventricle by +the mesoderm to form the <i>choroid plexuses</i> of the third ventricle, +but at the posterior part it develops the <i>ganglia habenulae</i> and the +pineal body, from a structure just in front of which both a lens +and retinal elements are derived in the lower forms. This is one +great difference between the development of this organ and that +of the true eyes; indeed it has been suggested that the pineal is an +organ of thermal sense and not the remains of a median eye at all. +The floor of the third ventricle is developed from the basal laminae, +which here are not very important and from which the <i>tuber cinereum</i> +and, until the fourth month, single <i>corpus mammillare</i> are developed. +The <i>infundibulum</i> or stalk of the posterior part of the pituitary +body at first grows down in front of the <i>tuber cinereum</i> and, according +to Gaskel’s theory, represents an ancestral mouth to which the +ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the cord acted as the +stomach and intestine (<i>Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci.</i> 31, p. 379; and +<i>Journ. of Phys.</i> v. 10, p. 153). The reason why the basal lamina is +here small is because it contains the nuclei of no cranial nerves. +The anterior and posterior commissures appear before the middle +and the middle before the <i>corpus callosum</i>, as they do in phylogeny. +In connexion with the thalamencephalon, though not really belonging +to it, may be mentioned the anterior lobes of the pituitary body; +these begin as an upward <i>diverticulum</i> from the posterior wall of the +primitive pharynx or <i>stomatodaeum</i> about the fourth week. This +<i>pouch of Rathke</i>, as it is called, becomes nipped off by the developing +base of the skull, and its bifid blind end meets and becomes applied +to the posterior part of the body, which comes down from the brain. +In the mesencephalon the alar laminae form the <i>corpora quadrigemina</i>; +these at first are bigeminal and hollow as they are in the +lower vertebrates. The basal laminae thicken to form the <i>crura +cerebri</i>. In the rhombencephalon the division into basal +and alar laminae is better marked than in any other +part; there is a definite groove inside the fourth ventricle, +which remains in the adult as the superior and +inferior <i>fovea</i> and which marks the separation between +the two laminae. In the basal laminae are found the +deep origins of most of the motor cranial nerves, while +those of the sensory are situated in the alar laminae. +The roof of the fourth ventricle widens out very much +and remains largely epithelial as the superior and +inferior medullary vela. The cerebellum develops in the +anterior part of the roof of the rhombencephalon as two +lateral rudiments which unite in the mid line and so +form a transverse bar similar to that seen in the adult +lamprey; at the end of the second month the flocculus +and paraflocculus become marked, and later on a series +of transverse fissures occur dividing the various lobes. +Of the cerebellar peduncles the inferior develops first +(third month), then the middle forming the <i>pons</i> (fourth +month), and lastly the <i>superior</i> (fifth month) (Elliot +Smith, <i>Review of Neurology and Psychiatry</i>, October 1903; +W. Kuithan, “Die Entwicklung des Kleinhirns bei Säugetieren,” +<i>Munchener Med. Abhandl.</i>, 1895; B. Stroud, +“Mammalian cerebellum,” <i>Journ. of Comp. Neurology</i>, +1895). Much of our knowledge of the tracts of fibres in the brain is +due to the fact that they acquire their white sheaths at different +stages of development, some long after birth.</p> + +<p>For further details and references see Quain’s <i>Anat</i>. vol. i. (1908); +Minot’s <i>Human Embryology</i> (New York); W. His, <i>Anat. menschlicher +Embryonen</i> (Leipzig, 1881); Marshall’s <i>Vertebrate Embryology</i>; +Kölliker, <i>Grundriss der Entwickelungsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1880); +A. Keith, <i>Human Embryology and Morphology</i> (London, 1904); +O. Hertwig, <i>Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen Entwickelungslehre +der Wirbeltiere</i>, Bd. 2, part 3 (Jena, 1902-1906); +<i>Development of the Human Body</i>, J.P. McMurrich (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. P.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">2. Physiology</p> + +<p>The nervous system has as its function the co-ordinating of +the activities of the organs one with another. It puts the organs +into such mutual relation that the animal reacts as a whole with +speed, accuracy and self-advantage, in response to the environmental +agencies which stimulate it. For this office of the +nervous system there are two fundamental conditions. The +system must be thrown into action by agencies at work in the +environment. Light, gravity, mechanical impacts, and so on, +which are conditions significant for animal existence, must find +the system responsive and through it evoke appropriate activity +in the animal organs. And in fact there have been evolved +in the animal a number of structures called receptive organs +which are selectively excitable by different environmental +agencies. Connected with these receptive organs lies that +division of the nervous system which is termed <i>afferent</i> because +it conducts impulses inwards towards the nervous centres. +This division consists of elongated nerve-cells, in man some two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span> +million in number for each half of the body. These are living +threads of microscopic tenuity, each extending from a receptive +organ to a central nervous mass. These central nervous masses +are in vertebrates all fused into one, of which the part which +lies in the head is especially large and complex, because directly +connected with particularly important and delicate receptive +organs. The part of the central nervous organ which lies in +the head has, in consequence of its connexion with the most +important receptive organs, evolved a dominant importance in +the nervous system, and this is especially true of the higher +animal forms. This head part of the central nervous organ is +sufficiently different from the rest, even to anatomical examination, +to have received a separate name, the <i>brain</i>. But the fact +of its having received a separate name ought not to obscure the +singleness and solidarity of the whole central nervous organ +as one entity. The functions of the whole central nervous +organ from region to region are essentially similar throughout. +One of its essential functions is reception, via afferent nerves, +of nervous impulses generated in the receptive organs by environmental +agents as stimuli. In other words, whatever the +nature of the agent, its result on the receptive organs enters the +central nervous organ as a nervous impulse, and all segments +of the central nervous organ receive impulses so generated. +Further, it is not known that nervous impulses present qualitative +differences among themselves. It is with these impulses that +the central nervous organ whether spinal cord or brain has to +deal.</p> + +<p><i>Material and Psychical Signs of Cerebral Activity.</i>—In the +central nervous organ the action resulting from entrant impulses +has issue in three kinds of ways. The reaction may die out, be +suppressed, and so far as discoverable lead to nothing; or the +impulses may evoke effect in either or both of two forms. Just +as from the receptive organs, nerves lead into the central nervous +organ, so conversely from the central organ other nerves, termed +<i>efferent</i>, lead to various organs of the body, especially glands and +muscles. The reaction of the central nervous organ to impulses +poured into it commonly leads to a discharge of impulses from +it into glands and muscles. These centrifugal impulses are, so +far as is known, qualitatively like the centripetal impulses. +On reaching the glands and muscles they influence the activity +of those organs. Since those organs are therefore the mechanisms +in which the ultimate effect of the nervous reaction takes place, +they are often termed from this point of view <i>effector organs</i>. +A change ensuing in effector organs is often the only sign an +observer has that a nervous reaction has occurred, unless the +nervous system under observation be the observer’s own.</p> + +<p>If the observer turns to his own nervous system for evidence +of reaction, he meets at once in numberless instances with +<i>sensation</i> as an outcome or sign of its reaction. This effect he +cannot show to any being beside himself. He can only describe +it, and in describing it he cannot strictly translate it into any +term of material existence. The unbridged gulf between sensation +and the changes produced in effector organs necessitates a +separate handling of the functions of the nervous system according +as their office under consideration is sensation or material +effect. This holds especially in the case of the brain, and for the +following reasons.</p> + +<p><i>Psychosis and the Fore-Brain.</i>—Hippocrates wrote, “It is +through the brain that we become mad, that delirium seizes us, +that fears and terrors assail us.” “We know that pleasure and +joy on the one hand and pain and grief on the other are referable +to the brain. It is in virtue of it that we think, understand, see, +hear, know ugliness and beauty, evil and good, the agreeable +and the disagreeable.” Similarly and more precisely Descartes +indicated the brain, and the brain alone, as the seat of consciousness. +Finally, it was Flourens who perhaps first definitely +insisted on the restriction of the seat of consciousness in higher +animals to that part of the brain which is the fore-brain. A +functional distinction between the fore-brain and the remainder +of the nervous system seems, in fact, that consciousness and physical +reactions are adjunct to the fore-brain in a way in which +they are not to the rest of the system. After transection of the +spinal cord, or of the brain behind the fore-brain, psychical +phenomena do not belong to the reactions of the nervous arcs +posterior to the transection, whereas they do still accompany +reactions of the nervous arcs in front and still connected with the +fore-brain. A man after severance of the spinal cord does not +possess in the strict sense consciousness of the limbs whose +afferent nerves lie behind the place of spinal severance. He can +see them with his eyes, and if the severance lie between the arms +and the legs, can feel the latter with his hands. He knows them +to be a part of his body. But they are detached from his consciousness. +Sensations derived from them through all other +channels of sense than their own do not suffice to restore them +in any adequate measure to his consciousness. He must have +the sensations so called “resident” in them, that is, referred to +them, without need of any logical inference. These can be yielded +only by the receptive organs resident in the part itself, its skin, +its joints, its muscles, &c., and can only be yielded by those +receptive organs so long as the nerve impulses from them have +access to the fore-brain. Consciousness, therefore, does not seem +to attach to any portion of the nervous system of higher animals +from which the fore-brain has been cut off. In the dog it has +been found that no sign of memory, let alone intelligence, has +been forthcoming after removal of the greater part of the fore-brain.</p> + +<p>In lower vertebrates it is not clear that consciousness in +primitive form requires always the co-operation of the fore-brain. +In them the fore-brain does not seem a <i>conditio sine qua non</i> for +psychosis—so far as we may trust the rather hazardous inferences +which study of the behaviour of fish, &c., allows. And +the difference between higher and lowlier animal forms in respect +of the fore-brain as a condition for psychosis becomes more +marked when the Arthropoda are examined. The behaviour +of some Insecta points strongly to their possessing memory, +rudimentary in kind though it may be. But in them no homologue +of the fore-brain of vertebrates can be indisputably made +out. The head ganglia in these Invertebrates may, it is true, +be analogous in function in certain ways to the brain of vertebrates. +Some experiments, not plentiful, indicate that destruction +of these head ganglia induces deterioration of behaviour +such as follows loss of psychical functions in cases of destruction +of the fore-brain in vertebrates. Though, therefore, we cannot +be clear that the head ganglia of these Invertebrates are the +same structure morphologically as the brain of vertebrates, +they seem to hold a similar office, exercising analogous functions, +including psychosis of a rudimentary kind. We can, therefore, +speak of the head ganglia of Arthropods as a brain, and in doing +so must remember that we define by physiological evidence +rather than by morphological.</p> + +<p><i>Cerebral Control over Lower Nervous Centres.</i>—There accrues +to the brain, especially to the fore-brain of higher Vertebrates, +another function besides that of grafting psychical qualities upon +the reactions of the nervous system. This function is exhibited +as power to control in greater or less measure the pure reflexes +enacted by the system. These pure reflexes have the character +of fatality, in the sense that, given a particular stimulus, a +particular reaction unvaryingly follows; the same group of +muscles or the same gland is invariably thrown into action in +the same way. Removal of the fore-brain, <i>i.e.</i> of that portion of +the central nervous organ to which psychosis is adjunct, renders +the nervous reactions of the animal more predictable and less +variable. The animal, for instance, a dog, is given over more +completely to simple reflexes. Its skin is touched and it scratches +the spot, its jaw is stroked and it yawns, its rump is rubbed and +it shakes itself, like a dog coming out of water; and these +reactions occur fatally and inopportunely, for instance, when +food is being offered to it, when the dog normally would allow +no such insignificant skin stimuli as the above to defer his +appropriate reaction. Goltz relates the behaviour of a dog +from which almost the whole fore-brain had been removed. +The animal lived healthily under the careful treatment accorded +it. At feeding time a little quinine (bitter) added to its sop of +meat and milk led to the morsels, after being taken into the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span> +mouth, being at once and regularly rejected. None was ever +swallowed, nor was the slightest hesitation in their rejection +ever obtained by any coaxing or command, or encouragement +of the animal by the attendant who constantly had charge of it. +On the other hand, directly an undoctored piece had entered +the mouth it was swallowed at once. Goltz threw to his own +house-dog a piece of the same doctored meat. The creature +wagged its tail and took it eagerly, then after receiving it into +its mouth pulled a wry face and hesitated, astonished. But on +encouragement to go on eating it the dog did so. Perhaps it +deemed it unseemly to appear ungrateful to the giver and reject +the gift. It overcame its reflex of rejection, and by its self-control +gave proof of the intact cerebrum it possessed.</p> + +<p>There seems a connexion between consciousness and the +power to modify reflex action to meet the exigencies of the +occasion. Pure reflexes are admirably adapted to certain ends. +They are reactions which have long proved advantageous to the +phylum of which the existent animal is the representative +embodiment. But the reflexes have a machine-like fatality, +and conscious aim does not forerun their execution. The subject +as active agent does not direct them. Yet they lie under the +control of higher centres. The cough, the eye-closure, the +<span class="correction" title="amended from impluse">impulse</span> to smile, all these can be suppressed. The innate respiratory +rhythm can be modified to meet the requirements of vocal +utterance. In other words, the reaction of reflex arcs is controllable +by the mechanism to whose activity consciousness is +adjunct. The reflexes controlled are often reactions but slightly +affecting consciousness, but consciousness is very distinctly +operative with the centres which exert the control. It may be +that the primary aim, object and purpose of consciousness is +control. “Consciousness in a mere automaton,” writes Professor +Lloyd Morgan, “is a useless and unnecessary epiphenomenon.” +As to <i>how</i> this conscious control is operative on reflexes, how it +intrudes its influence on the running of the reflex machinery, +little is known.</p> + +<p><i>The Cerebrum an Organ giving Adaptation and Readjustment of +Motor Acts.</i>—The exercise of this control and the acquirement +of skilled actions have obviously elements in common. By +skilled actions, we understand actions not innately given, +actions acquired by training in individual experience. The +controlling centres pick out from an ancestral motor action some +part, and isolate and enhance that until it becomes a skilled act. +The motor co-ordination ancestrally provided for the ring finger +gives an extending of it only in company with extension of the +fingers on either side of it. The isolated lifting of the ring finger +can, however, soon be acquired by training. In such cases the +higher centre with conscious effort is able to dissociate a part +from an ancestral co-ordination, and in that way to add a +skilled adapted act to the powers of the individual.</p> + +<p>The nervous organs of control form, therefore, a special instrument +of adaptation and of readjustment of reaction, for better +accommodation to requirements which may be new. The attainment +of more precision and speed in the use of a tool, or the +handling of a weapon, means a process in which nervous organs +of control modify activities of reflex centres themselves already +perfected ancestrally for other though kindred actions. This +process of learning is accompanied by conscious effort. The +effort consists not so much in any course of reasoning but rather +in the acquiring of new sensorimotor experience. To learn +swimming or skating by simple cogitation or mere visual observation +is of course impossible. The new ideas requisite cannot be +constructed without motor experience, and the training must +include that motor experience. Hence the training for a new +skilled motor manoeuvre must be simply <i>ad hoc</i>, and is of itself +no training for another motor co-ordination.</p> + +<p>The more complex an organism the more points of contact +does it have with its environment, and the more does it need +readjustment amid an environment of shifting relationships. +Hence the organs of consciousness and control, being organs of +adaptation and readjustment of reaction, will be more pronounced +the farther the animal scale is followed upward to its +crowning species, man. The cerebrum and especially the cerebral +cortex may be regarded as the highest expression of the nervous +organ of individual adaptation of reactions. Its high development +in man makes him the most successful animal on earth’s +surface at the present epoch. The most important part of all +this adjustment in his case, as he stands now, consists doubtless +in that nervous activity which is intellectual. The mentality +attached to his cerebrum includes reason in higher measure than +is possessed by the mentality of other animals. He, therefore, +more than they, can profitably forecast the future and act +suitably to meet it from memory of the past. The cerebrum has +proved itself by his case the most potent weapon existent for +extending animal dominance over the environment.</p> + +<p><i>Means and Present Aims of Physiological Study of the Brain.</i>—The +aspects of cerebral activity are therefore twofold. There is +the contribution which it makes to the behaviour of the animal +as seen in the creature’s doings. On the other hand there is its +product in the psychical life of the animal. The former of these +is subject matter for physiology; the latter is especially the +province of psychology. Physiology does, however, concern +itself with the psychical aspect of cerebral functions. Its scope, +embracing the study of the bodily organs in regard to function, +includes the psychic as well as the material, because as just +shown the former inextricably interlace with the latter. But the +relation between the psychic phenomena and the working of the +brain in regard to any data of fundamental or intimate character +connecting the two remains practically as unknown to us as to +the Greek philosophers. What physiology has at present to be +content with in this respect is the mere assigning of certain kinds +of psychic events to certain local regions of the cerebrum. This +primitive quest constitutes the greater part of the “neurology” +of our day, and some advance has been made along its lines. +Yet how meagre are really significant facts will be clear from +the brief survey that follows. Before passing finally from these +general considerations, we may note that it becomes more and +more clear that the brain, although an organ than can be treated +as a whole, is complex in the sense that separable functions belong +in some measure to its several parts.</p> + +<p>The means principally adopted in studying the functions of +the brain—and it must be remembered that this study in its +present phase is almost exclusively a mere search for localization—are +four. These are the physiological, the clinico-pathological, +the histological and the zoological. The first named proceeds +by observing the effects of artificial excitation, chiefly electric, +of various parts of the brain, and the defects produced by +destruction or removal of circumscribed portions. The clinico-pathological +proceeds by observing the disturbances of body +and mind occurring in disease or injury, and ascertaining the +extent of the disease or injury, for the most part <i>post mortem</i>. +The histological method examines the microscopic structure of +the various regions of the brain and the characters and arrangement +of the nerve-cells composing it. The zoological follows and +compares the general features of the brain, as represented +in the various types of animal creation.</p> + +<p>It is on the functions of the fore-brain that interest now +mainly focuses, for the reasons mentioned above. And the +interest in the fore-brain itself chiefly attaches to the functions +of its cortex. This is due to several causes. In man and the +animals nearest him the cortex forms by far the larger part of +the whole cerebral hemisphere. More than any other part it +constitutes the distinctively human feature. It lies accessible +to various experimental observations, as also to traumatic +lesions and to the surgeon’s art. It is composed of a great +unbroken sheet of grey matter; for that reason it is a structure +wherein processes of peculiar interest for the investigation in +view are likely to occur. To make this last inference more +clear a reference to the histology of nervous tissue must be made. +The whole physiological function of the nervous system may +be summed up in the one word “conduction.” This “conduction” +may be defined as the transmission of states of excitement +(nerve-impulses) along the neural arcs composing the +system. The whole nervous system is built up of chains of nerve-cells +(neurones) which are nervous conductors, the chains often +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> +being termed arcs. Each neurone is an elongated cell which +transmits nerve-impulses from its one end to its other, without +so far as is known modifying the impulses in transit, unless +in that part of the nerve-cell where the nucleus lies. That part +of the neurone or nerve-cell is called the perikaryon or cell-body, +and from that part usually many branches of the cell (each +branch being a nerve-fibre) ramify. There is no evidence that +impulses are modified in transit along a branch of a nerve-cell, +but there is clear evidence of manifold modification of nerve-impulses +in transit along the nerve-arcs of the nervous system. +These nerve-arcs are neurone-chains. In them one neurone +continues the line of conduction where the immediately foregoing +neurone left it. That is, the neurones are laid in conductive +series, the far end of one apposed to the near end of its precursor. +The place of juxtaposition of the end of one neurone against +the beginning of another is called the <i>synapse</i>. At it the conduction +which has so far been wholly intra-neuronic is replaced +by an inter-neuronic process, in which the nerve impulse passes +from one neurone to the next. The process there, it is natural to +think, must be physiologically different from that conductive +process that serves for transmission merely within the neurone +itself. It may be that to this inter-neuronic conduction are due +the differences between conduction in nerve-<i>arcs</i> and nerve-<i>trunks</i> +(nerve-fibres) respectively. Significant of the former +are changes in rhythm, intensity, excitability and modifications +by summation and inhibition; in fact a number of the main +features of nervous reaction. These characters impressed upon +conduction in nerve arcs (neurone-chains) would therefore be +traceable to the intercalation of perikarya and synapses, for +both these structures are absent from nerve-trunks. It is +therefore probably to perikarya and synapses that the greater +part of the co-ordination, elaboration and differentiation of +nervous reactions is due. Now, perikarya and synapses are +not present in the <i>white</i> matter of the central nervous organ, +any more than they are in nerve-trunks. They are confined +exclusively to those portions of the central organ which consist +of <i>grey</i> matter (so called from its naked-eye appearance). Hence +it is to the great sheet of grey matter which enfolds the cerebrum +that the physiologist turns, as to a field where he would expect +to find evidences of the processes of cerebral co-ordination at +work. It is therefore to items regarding the functions of the +great sheet of cerebral cortex that we may now pass.</p> + +<p><i>The Cerebral Cortex and its Functions.</i>—The main question +which vexed the study of the physiology of the cerebral hemispheres +in the 19th century was whether differences of function +are detectible in the different regions of the hemisphere and +especially in those of its cortex. One camp of experimenters +and observers held that the cortex was identical in function +throughout its extent. These authorities taught that the +various faculties and senses suffer damage in proportion to the +amount of cortex removed or injured, and that it is a matter of +indifference what may be the particular region wherein the +destruction takes place. Against this an opposed set of observers +held that different regions perform different functions, and +this latter “differential” view was raised in two wholly dissimilar +forms in the first and last quarters of the 19th century +respectively. In the first quarter of the century, a school, with +which the name of Gall is prominently associated, held that +each faculty of a set of particular so-called “faculties,” which +it assumed constituted intelligence, has in the brain a spatially +separate organ proper to itself. Gall’s doctrine had two fundamental +propositions. The first was that intelligence resides +exclusively in the brain: the second, that intelligence consists +of twenty-seven “faculties,” each with a separate local seat +in the brain. The first proposition was not new. It is met with +in Hippocrates, and it had been elaborated by Descartes and +others. But Bichat in his <i>Anatomie generale</i> had partly wandered +from the gradually established truth and referred the emotions +to the visceral organs, returning to a naive view popularly +prevalent. Gall’s first proposition was probably raised especially +in reaction against Bichat. But Gall’s proposition was retrograde +from the true position of the science of his time. Flourens +and others of his contemporaries had already shown not only +that intelligence was resident exclusively in the brain, but that +it was resident exclusively in that part of the brain which is +the fore-brain. Now Gall placed certain of his twenty-seven +intellectual faculties in the cerebellum, which is part of the +hind-brain.</p> + +<p><i>Phrenology.</i>—As to Gall’s second proposition, the set of +faculties into which he analysed intelligence shows his power +of psychological analysis to have been so weak that it is matter +of surprise his doctrine could obtain even the ephemeral vogue +it actually did. Among his twenty-seven faculties are, for +instance, “<i>l’amour de la progéniture, l’instinct carnassier, l’amitié, +la ruse, la sagacité comparative, l’esprit métaphysique, le talent +poétique, la mimique</i>,” &c. Such crudity of speculation is remarkable +in one who had undoubtedly considerable insight into +human character. Each of the twenty-seven faculties had its +seat in a part of the brain, and that part of the brain was called +its “organ.” The mere spatial juxtaposition or remoteness +of these organs one from another in the brain had, according +to Gall, an influence on the constitution of the mind. “<i>Comme +l’organe des arts est placé loin de l’organe du sens des couleurs, +cette circonstance explique pourquoi les peintres d’histoire ont été +rarement coloristes</i>.” All these “faculty-organs” were placed +by Gall at the surface of the brain. “This explains the correspondence +which exists between craniology and the doctrine +of the functions of the brain (cerebral physiology), the single +aim of my researches.” Gall wrote that he found the bump of +pride (<i>la bosse de l’orgueil</i>) as far down in the animal series as +the goat. Broussais traced the “organ” of veneration as far +down as the sheep. Gall found the bump of murder (<i>bosse du +meurtre</i>) in the carnivora. Later it was traced also in herbivora. +Broussais added apologetically that “the herbivora cause a +real destruction of plants.”</p> + +<p>Gall’s doctrine enjoyed enormous vogue. He himself had the +gifts and the demerits of quackery. His doctrine possessed, +apart from its falsity, certain other mischievous qualities. +“<i>Que ces hommes si glorieux, qui font égorger les nations par +millions, sachent qu’ils n’agissent point de leur propre chef, que +c’est la nature qui a placé dans leur coeur la rage de la destruction</i>.” +One of his scientific opponents rejoined, “Nay, it is not that +which they should know. What they should know is that if +providence has allowed to man the possibility of doing evil, it +has also endowed him with the power to do good.” The main +cause of the success of phrenology (<i>q.v.</i>) has been no doubt the +common desire of men to read the characters and hidden thoughts +of others by external signs. Each bump or “bosse” on the +cranium was supposed to indicate the existence and degree of +development of one or other of the twenty-seven “faculties.” +One such “bosse” showed the development of the organ of +“goodness,” and another the development of the organ of +“murder.” Such an easy means to arrive at information so +curious delighted many persons, and they were not willingly +undeceived.</p> + +<p><i>Modern Localization Doctrines.</i>—The crude localization of the +phrenologists is therefore too clumsy to possess an interest it +might otherwise have had as an early expression of belief in +cerebral localization, a belief which other labours have subsequently +justified, although on facts and lines quite different +from these imagined by Gall and his followers. Patient scientific +toil by the hands of E. Hitzig and D. Ferrier and their followers +has slowly succeeded in obtaining certain facts about the <i>cortex +cerebri</i> which not only show that different regions of it are concerned +with different functions, but, for some regions at least, +outline to some extent the kind of function exercised. It is true +that the greater part of the cortex remains still <i>terra incognita</i> +unless we are content with mere descriptive features concerning +its coarse anatomy. For several scattered regions some +knowledge of their function has been gained by physiological +investigation. These scattered regions are the <i>visual</i>, the +<i>auditory</i>, the <i>olfactory</i> and the <i>precentral</i>.</p> + +<p>The grey matter of the cerebral cortex is broadly characterized +histologically by the perikarya (nerve-cells bodies) which lie in it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> +possessing a special shape; they are pyramidal. The dendrite +fibres of these cells—that is, their fibres which conduct <i>towards</i> +the perikarya—are branches from the apex and corners of the +pyramid. From the base often near its middle arises one large +fibre—the axone fibre, which conducts impulses away from the +perikaryon. The general appearance and arrangement of the +neurones in a particle of cortical grey matter are shown in fig. 15, +above. The apices of the pyramidal perikarya are turned +towards the free surface of the cortex. The figure as interpreted +in terms of functional conduction means that the cortex is beset +with conductors, each of which collects nerve-impulses, from +a minute but relatively wide field by its branched dendrites, +and that these nerve-impulses converge through its perikaryon, +issue by its axone, and are carried whithersoever the axone runs. +In some few cells the axone breaks up into branches in the immediate +neighbourhood of its own perikaryon in the cortex. +In most cases, however, the axone runs off into the subjacent +white matter, leaving the cortex altogether. On reaching the +subjacent white matter it mingles with other fibres and takes one +of the following courses:—(1) to the grey matter of the cortex of +the same hemisphere, (2) to the grey matter of the cortex of the +opposite hemisphere, (3) to the grey matter of the pons, (4) to +the grey matter of the bulb or spinal cord. It is noteworthy +that the dendrite fibres of these cortical neurones do not transgress +the limits of the grey cortex and the immediate neighbourhood +of the perikaryon to which they belong; whereas the discharging +or axone fibre does in the vast majority of cases transgress +the limits of the grey matter wherein its perikaryon lies. +The cortical neurone therefore collects impulses in the region of +cortex just about its perikaryon and discharges them to other +regions, some not cortical or even cerebral, but spinal, &c. One +question which naturally arises is, do these cells spontaneously +generate their impulses or are they stirred to activity by impulses +which reach them from without? The tendency of physiology +is to regard the actions of the cortex as reactions to impulses +communicated to the cortical cells by nerve-channels reaching +them from the sense organs. The neurone conductors in the +cortex are in so far considered to resemble those of reflex centres, +though their reactions are more variable and complex than in the +use of the spinal. The chains of neurones passing through the +cortex are more complex and connected with greater numbers of +associate complex chains than are those of the spinal centres. +But just as the reflex centres of the cord are each attached to +afferent channels arriving from this or that receptive-organ, for +instance, tactile-organs of the skin, or spindles of muscle-sense, +&c., so the regions of cortex whose function is to-day with some +certainty localized seem to be severally related each to some +particular sense-organ. The localization, so far as ascertained, +is a localization which attaches separate areas of cortex to the +several species of sense, namely the visual, the auditory, the +olfactory, and so on. This being so, we should expect to find the +sensual representation in the cortex especially marked for the +organs of the great distance-receptors, the organs which—considered +as <i>sense</i> organs—initiate sensations having the quality +of projicience into the sensible environment. The organs of +distance-receptors are the olfactory, the visual and the auditory. +The environmental agent which acts as stimulus in the case of +the first named is chemical, in the second is radiant, and in the +last is mechanical.</p> + +<p><i>Olfactory Region of Cortex.</i>—There is phylogenetic evidence +that the development of the <i>cortex cerebri</i> first occurred in connexion +with the distance-receptors for chemical stimuli—that is, +expressed with reference to psychosis, in connexion with olfaction. +The olfactory apparatus even in mammals still exhibits a neural +architecture of primitive pattern. The cell which conducts +impulses to the brain from the olfactory membrane in the nose +resembles cells in the skin of the earthworm, in that its cell-body +lies actually amid the epithelium of the skin-surface and is not +deeply buried near or in the central nervous organ. Further, it +has at its external end tiny hairlets such as occur in specially +receptive-cells but not usually in purely nervous cells. Hence +we must think that one and the same cell by its external end +receives the environmental stimulus and by its deep end excites +the central nervous organ. The cell under the stimulation of the +environmental agent will therefore generate in itself a nervous +impulse. This is the clearest instance we have of a neurone being +actually excited under natural circumstances by an agent of the +environment <i>directly</i>, not indirectly. The deep ends of these +olfactory neurones having entered the central nervous organ +come into contact with the <span class="correction" title="amended from dentrites">dendrites</span> of large neurones, called, +from their shape, mitral. In the dog, an animal with high +olfactory sense, the axone of each olfactory neurone is connected +with five or six mitral cells. In man each olfactory neurone is +connected with a single mitral cell only. We may suppose that +the former arrangement conduces to intensification of the central +reaction by summation. At the same time it is an arrangement +which could tend to smother sharp differentiation of the central +reaction in respect to locality of stimulus at the receptive surface. +Considering the diffuse way in which olfactory stimuli are applied +in comparison, for instance, with visual, the exact localization of +the former can obviously yield little information of use for +locating the exact position of their source. On the other hand, in +the case of visual stimuli the locus of incidence, owing to the +rectilinear propagation of light, can serve with extraordinary +exactitude for inferences as to the position of their source. The +adaptation of the neural connexions of the two organs in this +respect is therefore in accord with expectation.</p> + +<p>The earliest cerebral cortex is formed in connexion with the +neurone-chains coming into the central nervous organ from the +patch of olfactory cells on the surface of the head. The region of +cerebrum thus developed is the so-called olfactory lobe and +hippocampal formation. The greater part of the cerebral hemisphere +is often termed the <i>pallium</i>, because as its development +extends it folds cloak-wise over the older structures at the base +of the brain. The olfactory lobe, from its position, is sometimes +called the <i>pallium basale</i>, and the hippocampal formation the +<i>pallium marginale</i>; and these two parts of the pallium form +what, on account of their phylogenetic history, Elliott Smith +well terms the <i>archipallium</i>. A fissure, the limbic fissure, marks +off more or less distinctly this archipallium from the rest of the +pallium, a remainder which is of later development and therefore +designated by Elliott Smith the <i>neopallium</i>. Of the archipallium, +the portion which constitutes the olfactory lobe is well formed +in the selachian fish. In the reptilian cerebrum the hippocampal +region, the pallium marginale, coexists in addition. These are +both of them olfactory in function. Even so high up in the +animal scale as the lowest mammals they still form one half of +the entire pallium. But in the higher apes and in man the +olfactory portion of the pallium is but a small fraction of the +pallium as a whole. It is indeed so relatively dwarfed and +obscured as to be invisible when the brain is regarded from the +side or above. The olfactory part of the pallium exhibits little +variation in form as traced up through the higher animals. It is +of course small in such animals as Cetaceans, which are <i>anosmatic</i>. +In highly osmatic such as the dog it is large. The <i>uncus</i>, and +<i>subiculum cornu ammonis</i> of the human brain, belong to it. +Disease of these parts has been accompanied by disturbance of +the sense of smell. When stimulated electrically (in the rabbit) +the olfactory pallium occasions peculiar torsion of the nose and +lips (Ferrier), and change, often slowing or arrested, of the +respiratory rhythm. P.E. Flechsig has shown that the nerve-fibres +of this part of the pallium attain the final stage of their +growth, that is to say, acquire their sheaths of myelin, early in +the ontogenetic development of the brain. In the human brain +they are myelinate before birth. This is significant from the +point of view of function, for reasons which have been made +clear especially by the researches of Flechsig himself.</p> + +<p>The completion of the growth of the nerve-fibres entering and +leaving the cortex occurs at very various periods in the growth +of the brain. Study of the development of the fibres entering +and leaving the various regions of the pallium in the human +brain, discovers that the regions may be conveniently grouped +into those whose fibres are perfected before birth and those +whose fibres are perfected during the first post-natal month, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span> +and those whose fibres are perfected after the first but before the +end of the fourth post-natal month. The regions thus marked +out by completion before birth are five in number, and are each +connected, as also shown by collateral evidence, with one or +other particular species of sense-organ. And these regions have +another character in common recognizable in the nerve-fibres +entering and leaving them, namely, they possess fibres projected +to or from parts of the nervous system altogether outside the +cortex itself. These fibres are termed “projection” fibres. +Other regions of the cortex possess fibres coming from or going +to various regions of the cortex itself, but do not possess in +addition, as do the five primitive cortical fields, the fibres of +projection. So that the facts established by Flechsig for the +regions of pallium, which other evidence already indicated as +connected with the sense-organ of smell, support that evidence +and bring the olfactory region of cortex into line with certain +other regions of cortex similarly primarily connected with organs +of sense.</p> + +<p>It will be noted that what has been achieved by these various +means of study in regard to the region of the cortex to which +olfactory functions are attributed amounts at present to little +more than the bare ascertainment of the existence there of +nervous mechanisms connected with olfaction, and to the delimiting +roughly of their extent and of their ability to influence +certain movements, and in man sensations, habitually associated +with exercise of the olfactory organ. As to what part the cortical +mechanism has in the elaboration or association of mental +processes to which olfaction contributes, no evidence worth the +name seems as yet forthcoming. In this respect our knowledge, +or rather our want of knowledge, of the functions of the olfactory +region of the cortex, is fairly typical of that to which we have +to confess in regard to the other regions of the cortex, even the +best known.</p> + +<p><i>Visual Region of the Cortex.</i>—There is a region of the cortex +especially connected with vision. The <i>optic nerve</i> and <i>tract</i> +constitute the second link in the chain of neurones joining the +retina to the brain. They may therefore be regarded as the +equivalent of an intraspinal tract connecting the deep ends of +the afferent neurones from the skin with higher nervous centres. +In the bony fishes the optic tract reaches the grey matter of the +optic lobe, a part of the mid-brain, to which the so-called anterior +colliculus is equivalent in the mammalian brain. In the optic +lobe the axones of the neurones of the optic tract meet neurones +whose axones pass in turn to the motor neurones of the muscles +moving the eyeballs, and also to other motor neurones. But in +these fish the optic tract has no obvious connexion with the +fore-brain or with any cerebral pallium. Ascending, however, +to the reptilian brain is found an additional arrangement: a +small portion of the optic tract passes to grey matter in front of +the optic lobe. This grey matter is the lateral geniculate body. +From this geniculate body a number of neurones extend to the +pallial portion of the cerebrum, for in the reptilian brain the +pallium is present. The portion of pallium connected with the +lateral geniculate body lies above and behind the olfactory or +archipallium. It is a part of what was mentioned above as +neopallium.</p> + +<p>In the mammalian brain the portion of the optic tract which +goes to the optic lobe (<i>ant. colliculus</i> of the mammal) is dwarfed +by great development of the part which goes to the geniculate +body and an adjoining grey mass, the pulvinar (part of the optic +thalamus). From these latter pass large bands of fibres to the +occipital region of the neopallium. In mammals this visual +region of the cortex is distinguished in its microscopic features +from the cortex elsewhere by a layer of myelinate nerve-fibres, +many of which are the axones of neurones of the geniculate body +and pulvinar. Thus, whereas in the bony fishes all the third +links of the conductive chain from the retina lead exclusively +to the final neurones of motor centres for muscles, in the mammal +the majority of the third links conduct to grey matter of the +cortex cerebri.</p> + +<p>The application of electric stimuli to the surface of the cortex +does not for the greater part of the extent of the cortex evoke +in higher mammalian brains any obvious effect; no muscular +act is provoked. But from certain limited regions of the cortex +such stimulation does evoke muscular acts, and one of these +regions is that to which the neurones forming the third link of +the conductive chain from the retina pass. The muscular acts +thus provoked from that region are movements of the eyeballs +and of the neck turning the head. In the monkey the movement +is the turning of both eyeballs and the head away from the side +stimulated. In short, the gaze is directed as to an object on +the opposite side. The newer conductive chain traceable through +the cortex does therefore, after all, like the older one through +the optic lobe, lead ultimately to the motor neurones of the eye +muscles and the neck, only it takes a longer course thither and +is undoubtedly much more complex. What gain is effected by +this new and as it were alternative and longer route, which takes +a path up to the cerebral cortex and down again, we can only +conjecture, but of one point we may rest well assured, namely, +that a much richer inter-connexion with other arcs of the nervous +system is obtained by the path that passes via the cortex. The +functional difference between the old conductive circuit and the +new can at present hardly indeed be stated even in outline. +A natural inference might be that the phylogenetically older and +less complex path is concerned with functions purely reflex-motor, +not possessing sensation as an attribute. But fish, which +possess only the older path, can be trained to seize bait of one +colour and not of another colour, even against what appeared +to be an original colour-preference in them. Such discrimination +individually acquired seems to involve memory, though it may +be rudimentary in kind. Where motor reaction to visual stimuli +appears to involve memory—and without memory the training +could hardly be effective—some germ of consciousness can hardly +be denied to the visual reactions, although the reactions occurred +in complete absence of a cortical path and indeed of a visual +cortex altogether.</p> + +<p>Removal of the visual pallium in the tortoise produces little +or no obvious defect in vision; but in the bird such a lesion +greatly impairs the vision of the eye of the side opposite to the +lesion. The impairment does not, however, amount to absolute +blindness. Schrader’s hawk, after removal of the pallium, +reacted to movements of the mice with which it was caged. +But the reactions were impaired: they lacked the sustained +purpose of the normal reactions. The bird saw the mice; that +was certain, for their movements across its field of vision made +it turn its gaze towards them. But on their ceasing to move, +the reaction on the part of the bird lapsed. Neither did their +continuing to move excite the attack upon them which would +have been the natural reaction on the part of the bird of prey +towards its food. The bird apparently did not recognize them as +prey, but saw them merely as moving objects. It saw them perhaps +as things to which mental association gave no significance. +Similarly, a dog after ablation of the occipital lobes of the cortex +is able to see, for it avoids obstacles in its path; but if food is +offered to it or the whip held up to it, it does not turn towards +the food or away from the whip. It sees these things as if it saw +them for the first time, but without curiosity, and as if it had no +experience of their meaning. It gives no hint that it any longer +understands the meaning of even familiar objects so long as these +are presented to it through the sense of vision. Destruction of +the visual cortex of one hemisphere alone produces in the dog +impairment of vision, not as in the bird practically exclusively +in the opposite eye, but in one lateral half of each eye, and that +half the half opposite the hemisphere injured. Thus when the +cortex destroyed is of the right cerebral hemisphere, the resultant +visual defect is in the left half of the field of vision of both eyes. +And this is so in man also.</p> + +<p>In man disturbances of sensation can be better studied +because it is possible to obtain from him his description of his +condition. The relation of the <i>cortex cerebri</i> to human vision +can be summarized briefly as follows. The visual cortex is distinguishable +in higher mammals by a thin white stripe, the stripe +of Gennari, seen in its grey matter when that is sectioned. This +stripe results from a layer of nerve-fibres, many of which are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span> +axones from the neurones of the lateral geniculate body and the +pulvinar, the grey masses directly connected with the optic +nerve-fibres. In the dog, and in such monkeys as the Macaque, +the region of cortex containing this stripe traceable to optic +fibres forms practically the whole occipital lobe. But in the man-like +apes and in man this kind of cortex is confined to one region +of the occipital lobe, namely, that of the calcarine fissure and the +<i>cuneus</i> behind that. This region of cortex thus delimited in man +is one of Flechsig’s areas of earlier myelinization. It is also one +of his areas possessing projection fibres; and this last fact +agrees with the yielding by this area, when under electrical +stimulation, of movements indicating that impulses have been +discharged from it into the motor neurones of the muscles of +the eyes and neck. Evidence from cases of disease show that +destruction of the cortex of the upper lip of the calcarine fissure, +say in the right half of the brain, causes in man impairment in +the upper right-hand quadrant of both retinae: destruction of +the lower lip of the fissure causes impairment in the lower right-hand +quadrants. Destruction of the calcarine region of one +hemisphere produces therefore “crossed hemianopia,” that is, +loss of the opposite half of the field of vision. But in this +hemianopia the region of central vision is always spared. That +is, the piece of visual field which corresponds with the yellow +spot of the retina is not affected in either eye, unless the calcarine +regions of both hemispheres are destroyed. This central point +of vision is connected therefore not with one side of the brain +only but with both.</p> + +<p>The impairment of sight is more severe in men than in lower +animals. Where the destruction of the visuo-sensory cortex +in one calcarine region is complete, a candle-flame offered in the +hemianopic field cannot even be perceived. It may hardly +excite a reflex contraction of the pupil. In such cases the visual +defect amounts to blindness. But this is a greater defect than +is found in the dog even after entire removal of both occipital +lobes. The dog still avoids obstacles as it walks. Its defect +is rather, as said above, a complete loss of interest in the visual +images of things. But a dog or monkey after loss of the visual +cortex hesitates more and avoids obstacles less well in a familiar +place than it does when entirely blind from loss of the peripheral +organ of vision. In man extensive destruction of the visual +cortex has as one of its symptoms loss of memory of localities, +thus, of the paths of a garden, of the position of furniture, and +of accustomed objects in the patient’s own room. This loss of +memory of position does not extend to spatial relations ordinarily +appreciated by touch, such as parts of the patient’s own person +or clothing. There is nothing like this in the symptoms following +blindness by loss of the eye itself. Those who lose their sight by +disease of the retina retain good memorial pictures of positions +and directions appreciated primarily by vision.</p> + +<p>Cases of disease are on record in which loss of visual memory +has occurred without hemianopia. Visual hallucinations referred +to the hemianopic side have been observed. This suggests +that the function of visual memory in regard to certain kinds +of percepts must belong to localities of cortex different from +those pertaining to other visual percepts. The area of cortex +characterized by the stripe of Gennari occupies in man, as +mentioned, the calcarine and cuneate region. It is surrounded by +a cortical field which, though intimately connected with it by +manifold conducting fibres, &c., is yet on various grounds distinct +from it. This field of cortex surrounding the visuo-sensory +of the calcarine-cuneate region is a far newer part of the neopallium +than the region it surrounds. Both in the individual +(Flechsig) and in the phylum (Bolton, Campbell, Mott) its development +occurs far later than that of the visuo-sensory which it +surrounds. Flechsig finds that it has no “projection” fibres, +that is, that it receives none of the optic radiations from the +lower visual centres and gives no centrifugal fibres in the reverse +direction. This field encompassing the visuo-sensory region +differs from the latter in its microscopic structure by absence +of the lower layer of stellate cells and by the presence in it of a +third or deep layer of pyramidal cells (Mott). Its fibres are +on the average smaller than are those of the visuo-sensory +(W.A. Campbell). This zonal field is small in the lower apes, and +hardly discoverable in the dog. In the anthropoid apes it is +much larger. In man it is relatively much larger still. The +impairment of visual memory and visual understanding in regard +to direction and locality is said to be observed in man only when +the injury of the cortex includes not only the calcarine-cuneate +region but a wide area of the occipital lobe. From this it is +argued that the zonal field is concerned with memories and +recognitions of a kind based on visual perceptions. It has +therefore been termed the <i>visuo-psychic</i> area. It is one of +Flechsig’s “association-areas” of the cortex.</p> + +<p>Adjoining the antero-lateral border of the just-described +<i>visuo-psychic area</i> lies another region separate from it and yet +related to it. This area is even later in its course of development +than is the visuo-psychic. It is one of Flechsig’s “terminal +fields,” and its fibres are among the last to ripen in the whole +cortex. This terminal field is large in man. It runs forward in +the parietal lobe above and in the temporal lobe below. Its +wide extent explains, in the opinion of Mott, the displacement +of the visuo-sensory field from the outer aspect of the hemisphere +in the lower monkeys to the median aspect in man. To this +terminal field all the more interest attaches because it includes +the angular gyrus, which authorities hold to be concerned +with the visual memory of words. Study of diseased conditions +of speech has shown that the power to understand <i>written</i> words +may be lost or severely impaired although the words may be +perfectly distinct to the sight and although the power to understand +<i>heard</i> words remains good. This condition is asserted +by many physicians to be referable to destruction of part of +the angular gyrus. Close beneath the cortex of the angular +gyrus runs a large tract of long fibres which pass from the visual +cortex (see above) to the auditory cortex (see below) in the +superior temporal gyrus and to the lower part of the frontal +lobe. This lower part of the frontal lobe is believed—and has +long been believed—to be concerned intimately with the production +of the movements of speech. A difficulty besetting +the investigation of the function of the angular gyrus is the +fact that lesion of the cortex there is likely to implicate the +underlying tract of fibres in its damage. It cannot be considered +to have been as yet clearly ascertained whether the condition +of want of recognition of seen words—”word-blindness”—is +due to cortical injury apart from subcortical, to the angular +gyrus itself apart from the underlying tract. Word-blindness +seems, in the right-handed, to resemble the aphasia believed +to be connected with the lower part of the frontal lobe, in that +it ensues upon lesions of the left hemisphere, not of the right. +In left-handed persons, on the contrary, it seems to attach to +the right hemisphere.</p> + +<p><i>Auditory Region of the Cortex.</i>—Besides the two great organs +of distance-receptors, namely, the nose and eye, whose cerebral +apparatus for sensation has just been mentioned, those of a +third great distance-receptor have to be considered. The agents +of stimulation of the two former are respectively chemical +(olfactory) and radiant (visual); the mode of stimulation of the +third is mechanical, and the sensations obtained by it are termed +auditory. Their cerebral localization is very imperfectly ascertained. +Electric stimuli applied to a part of the uppermost +temporal gyrus excites movements of the ears and eyes in the +dog. Destruction of the same region when executed on both +hemispheres is argued by several observers to impair the sense +of hearing. To this region of cortex fibres have been traced from +the lower centres connected with the nerve-fibres coming from +the cochlea of the ear. From each cochlear nerve a path has been +traced which passes to the <i>insulae</i> and the above-mentioned +<i>temporal</i> region of cortex of both the cerebral hemispheres. +The insula is a deeper-seated area of cortex adjoining the uppermost +temporal convolution. To it Flechsig’s chronological +studies also impute a connexion with the nerves of the ear. +Early myelinization of fibres, presence of ascending and descending +“projection” tracts to and from lower centres outside the +cortex, calibre of fibres, microscopic characters of its cortical +cells, all those kinds of indirect items of evidence that obtain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span> +for the visual cortex likewise mark out this insular-temporal +area as connected fairly directly with a special sense-organ, +as in fact a sensory field of the cortex; and the suspicion is that +it is auditory. Clinical observation supports the view in a +striking way, but one requiring, in the opinion of some, further +confirmation. It is widely believed that destruction of the +upper and middle part of the uppermost temporal convolution +produces “word-deafness,” that is, an inability to recognize +familiar words when heard, although the words are recognized +when seen.</p> + +<p>More precise information regarding this auditory region of +the cortex has recently been obtained by the experiments of +Kalischer. These show that after removal of this region from +both sides of the brain in the dog the animal shows great defect +in answering to the call of its master. Whereas prior to the +operation the animal will prick its ears and attend at once +to the lightest call, it requires after the removal of the auditory +regions great loudness and insistence of calling to make it attend +and react as it did. This is the more striking in view of other +experimental results obtained. Kalischer trained a number of +his dogs not to take meat offered them except at the sound +of a particular note given by an organ pipe or a harmonium. +The dogs rapidly learned not to take the food on the sounding +of notes of other pitch than the one taught them as the permissive +signal. This reaction on the part of the animal was not +impaired by the removal of the so-called auditory regions of +the cortex. Kalischer suggests that this reaction taught by +training is not destroyed by the operation which so greatly +impairs the common reaction to the master’s call, because the +former is a simpler process more allied to reflex action. In +it the attention of the dog is already fastened upon the object, +namely the food, and the stimulus given by the note excites a +reaction which simply allows the act of seizing the food to take +place, or on the other hand stops it. In the case of answering +the call of the master the stimulus has to excite attention, to +produce perception of the locality whence it comes, and to +invoke a complicated series of movements of response. He +finds that destruction of the posterior colliculi of the mid-brain, +which have long been known to be in some way connected with +hearing, likewise destroys the response to the call of the master, +but did not destroy the trick taught to his dogs of taking meat +offered at the sound of a note of one particular pitch but not +at notes of other pitch given by the same instrument.</p> + +<p><i>Other Senses and Localization in the Cortex Cerebri.</i>—Turning +now to the connexion between the function of the cortex and +the senses other than those of the great distance-receptors just +dealt with, even less is known. Disturbance and impairment of +skin sensations are observable both in experiments on the cerebrum +of animals and in cases of cerebral disease in man. But the +localization in the cortex of regions specially or mainly concerned +with cutaneous sensation has not been made sufficiently clear to +warrant statement here. Still less is there satisfactory knowledge +regarding the existence of cortical areas concerned with sensations +originated in the alimentary canal. The least equivocal of +such evidence regards the sense of taste. There is some slight +evidence of a connexion between this sense and a region of the +hippocampal gyrus near to but behind that related to smell.</p> + +<p>As to the sensations excited by the numerous receptors which +lie not in any of the surface membranes of the body but embedded +in the masses of the organs and between them, the <i>proprioceptors</i>, +buried in muscles, tendons and joints, there is little +doubt that these sensations may be disturbed or impaired by +injury of the <i>cortex cerebri</i>. They may probably also be excited +by cortical stimulation. But evidence of localization of their +seat in, and their details of connexion with, the cortex, is at +present uncertain. Many authorities consider it probable that +sensations of touch and the sensations initiated by the proprioceptors +of muscles and joints (the organs of the so-called muscular +sense) are specially related to the post-central gyrus and perhaps +to the pre-central gyrus also. The clearest items on this point are +perhaps the following.</p> + +<p>Besides the regions instanced above, in the limbic (olfactory), +occipital (visual), and temporal (auditory) lobes, as exhibiting +precocity of development, there is a region showing similar +precocity in the fronto-parietal portion of the hemisphere. This +is the region which in the Primates includes the large <i>central +fissure</i> (sometimes called the fissure of Rolando). To it fibres +are traced which seem to continue a path of conduction that +began with afferent tracts belonging to the spinal cord, and tracts +which there is reason to think conduct impulses from the receptor-organs +of skin and muscles. The part of the cortex immediately +behind the <i>central fissure</i> seems to be the main cortical goal for +these upward-conducting paths. That <i>post-central</i> strip of cortex +would in this view bear to these paths a relation similar to that +which the occipital and temporal regions bear to afferent tracts +from the retina and the cochlea. There are observations which +associate impaired tactual sense and impaired perception of +posture and movement of a limb with injury of the <i>central region</i> +of the cortex. But there are a number also which show that the +motor defect which is a well-ascertained result of injury of the +<i>pre-central</i> gyrus is sometimes unaccompanied by any obvious +defect either of touch or of muscular sense. It seems then that +the motor centres of this region are closely connected with the +centres for cutaneous and muscular sense, yet are not so closely +interwoven with them that mechanical damage inflicted on the +one of necessity heavily damages the other as well. There is +evidence that the sensory cortex in this region lies posterior to +that which has been conveniently termed the “motor.” These +latter in the monkey and the man-like apes and man lie in front +of the central fissure: the sensory lie probably behind it. A.W. +Campbell has found changes in the cortex of the post-central +convolution ensuing in the essentially sensory disease, <i>tabes +dorsalis</i>, a disease in which degeneration of sensory nerve-fibres +of the muscular sense and of the skin senses is prominent. He +considers that in man and the man-like apes the part of the post-central +gyrus which lies next to and enters into the <i>central fissure</i> +is concerned with simpler sensual recognitions, while the adjoining +part of that convolution farther back is a “psychic region” +concerned with more complex psychosis connected with the +senses of skin and muscle. His subdivision of the post-central +gyrus is based on histological differences which he discovers +between its anterior and its posterior parts and on the above-described +analogous differentiation of a “sensory” from a +“psychic” part in the visual region of cortex.</p> + +<p>It will be noted that although certain regions of the cortex are +found connected closely with certain of the main sense organs, +there are important receptive organs which do not appear to +have any special region of cortex assigned to their sensual +products. Thus, there is the “vestibular labyrinth” of the ear. +This great receptive organ, so closely connected in function with +the movements and adjustment of the postures of the head and +eyes, and indeed of the whole body, is prominent in the co-ordination +necessary for the equilibrium of the body, an essential +part of the fundamental acts of progression, standing, &c. Yet +neither structural nor functional connexion with any special +region of the cortex has been traced as yet for the labyrinthine +receptors. Perceptions of the position of the head and of the +body are of course part of our habitual and everyday experience. +It may perhaps be that these perceptions are almost entirely +obtained through sense organs which are not labyrinthine, but +visual, muscular, tactual, and so on. The labyrinth may, though +it controls and adjusts the muscular activities which maintain +the balance of the body, operate reflexly without in its operation +exciting of itself sensations. The results of the unconscious +reflexes it initiated and guided would be perceptible through other +organs of sense. But against this purely unconscious functioning +of the labyrinth and its nervous apparatus stands the fact that +galvanic stimulation of the labyrinth is accompanied by well-known +distinctive sensations—including giddiness, &c. Moreover, +the prominent factor in sea-sickness, a disorder richly +suffused with sensations, is probably the labyrinth. Yet there is +marked absence of evidence of any special and direct connexion +between the <i>cortex cerebri</i> and the labyrinth organs.</p> + +<p>Also there is curiously little evidence of connexion of the cortex +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span> +with the nervous paths of conduction concerned with pain. As +far as the present writer can find from reference to books and +from the clinical experience of others, “pain” is unknown as an +<i>aura</i> in cortical epilepsy, or at most is of equivocal occurrence.</p> + +<p>The preceding brief exposition of some of the main features +of the localization of function in the <i>cortex cerebri</i>, gradually +deciphered by patient inquiry, shows that the scheme of partition +of function so far perceptible does not follow the quaint lines of +analysis of the phrenologists with their supposed mental entities, +so-called “faculties.” On the contrary it is based, as some of +those who early favoured a differential arrangement of function +in the cerebrum had surmised, on the <i>separateness of the incoming +channels from peripheral organs of sense</i>. These organs fall into +groups separate one from another not only by reason of their +spatial differentiation at the surface and in the thickness of the +body, but also because each group generates sensations which +introspection tells us are of a species unbridgeably separate from +those generated by the other groups. Between sensations of +hearing and sensations of sight there is a dissimilarity across +which no intermediate series of sensual phenomena extend. The +two species of sensations are wholly disparate. Similarly +there is a total and impassable gap between +sensations of touch and sensations of sight and sound. +In other words the sensations fall into groups which +are wholly disparate and are hence termed species. +But within each species there exist multifold varieties +of the specific sensation, <i>e.g.</i> sensations of red, of yellow, +&c. We should expect, therefore, that the conducting +paths from the receptive organs which in their function +as sense-organs yield wholly disparate sensations would +in so far as subserving sensation diverge and pass to +separate neural mechanisms. That these sense-organs +should in fact be found to possess in the cortex of the +cerebrum separate fields for their sensual nervous +apparatus is, therefore, in harmony with what would +be the <i>a priori</i> supposition.</p> + +<p>But, as emphasized at the beginning of this article, +the receptive organs belonging to the surfaces and +the depths of the body and forming the starting-points +for the whole system of the afferent nerves, +have two functions more or less separate. One of +these functions is to excite sensations and the other is +to excite movements, by reflex action, especially in +glands and muscles. In this latter function, namely +the reflexifacient, all that the receptive organs effect is +effected by means of the efferent nerves. They all have +to use the efferent, especially the motor, nerves of +the body. So rich is the connexion of the receptive organs +with the efferent nerves that it is not improbable that, +through the central nervous organ, each receptive organ is +connected with every motor nerve of the whole nervous system,—the +facts of strychnine poisoning show that if this is not literally +true it is at least approximately so. Hence one of the goals to +which each afferent fibre from a receptive organ leads is a number +of motor nerves. Their conducting paths must, therefore, converge +in passing to the starting-points of the motor nerves; +because these latter are instruments common to the use of a +number of different receptive organs in so far as they excite +reflex actions. On the other hand those of their conducting +paths which are concerned in the genesis of sensation, instead of +converging, diverge, at least as far as the <i>cortex cerebri</i>, or if not +divergent, remain separate. These considerations would make it +appear likely that the conducting path from each receptive +organ divides in the central nervous system into two main lines, +one of which goes off to its own particular region of the <i>cortex +cerebri</i> whither run conductors only of similar sensual species to +itself, while the other main line passes with many others to a +great motor station where, as at a telephone exchange, coordinate +use of the outgoing lines is assured to them all. Now +there is in fact a portion of the cortex in mammals the functions +of which are so pre-eminently motor, as judged by our present +methods, that it is commonly designated the <i>motor cortex</i> (see +fig. 24). This region of the cortex occupies in the Primates, +including Man, the pre-central gyrus. Among the items of evidence +which reveal its motor capabilities are the following.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:597px; height:479px" src="images/img411.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of Foci in the +Motor Field of Chimpanzee.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The Precentral or Motor Region of the Cortex.</i>—The application +to it of electric currents excites movements in the skeletal muscles. +The movements occur in the half of the body of the side crossed +from that of the hemisphere excited. The “motor representation,” +as it is termed, is in the cortex better described as a +representation of definite actions than of particular muscles. +The actions “represented” in the top part of the gyrus, namely +next the great longitudinal fissure, move the leg; those in the +lowest part of the gyrus belong to the tongue and mouth. The +topical distribution along the length of the gyrus may be described +in a general way as following a sequence resembling that +of the motor representation in the spinal cord, the top of the +gyrus being taken as corresponding with the caudal end of the +spinal cord. The sequence as the gyrus is followed downwards +runs: perineum, foot, knee, hip, abdomen, chest, shoulder, elbow, +wrist, hand, eyelids and ear, nose, mouth and tongue. The +nature of the movement is very fairly constant for separate +points of this motor cortex as observed both in the same and in +similar experiments. Thus flexion of the arm will be excitable +from one set of points, and extension of the arm from another set +of points; opening of the jaw from one set and closure from +another, and so on. These various movements if excited strongly +tend to have characters like those of the movements seen in an +epileptic convulsion. Strong stimulation excites in fact a convulsion +like that of epilepsy, beginning with the movement +usual for the point stimulated and spreading so as to assume the +proportions of a convulsion affecting the entire skeletal musculature +of one half or even of the whole body. The resemblance +to an epileptic seizure is the closer because the movement before +it subsides becomes clonic (rhythmic) as in epilepsy. The +determination of the exact spots of cortex in which are represented +the various movements of the body has served a useful +practical purpose in indicating the particular places in the cortex +which are the seat of disease. These the physician can localize +more exactly by reason of this knowledge. Hence the surgeon, +if the nature of the disease is such as can be dealt with by surgical +means, can without unnecessarily damaging the skull and brain, +proceed directly to the point which is the seat of the mischief.</p> + +<p>The motor representation of certain parts of the body is much +more liberal than is that of others. There is little correspondence +between the mere mass of musculature involved and the area of +the cortex devoted to its representation. Variety of movement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span> +rather than force or energy of movement seems to demand +extent of cortex. The cortical area for the thumb is larger than +those for the whole abdomen and chest combined. The cortical +area for the tongue is larger than that for the neck. Different +movements of one and the same part are very unequally represented +in the cortex. Thus, flexion of the leg is more extensively +represented than is extension, opening of the jaw has a much +larger cortical area than has closure of the jaws. It is interesting +that certain agents, for instance strychnine, and the poison of the +bacilli which cause the disease known as tetanus or lock-jaw, +upset this normal topography, and replace in the cortex flexion +of the limb by extension of the limb, and opening of the jaw by +closure of the jaw. There is, however, no evidence that they do +this by changing in any way the cortical mechanisms themselves. +It is more likely that their action is confined to the lower centres, +bulbar and spinal, upon which the discharge excited from the +cortex plays. The change thus induced in the movement excited +by the cortex does, however, show that the point of cortex +which causes for instance opening of the mouth is connected +with the motor nerves to the closing muscles as well as with +those of the opening muscles. This is an item of evidence that +the “centres” of the cortex are connected with the motor nerves +of antagonistic muscles in such a way that when the “centre” +excites one set of the muscles to contract, it simultaneously +under normal circumstances causes inhibition of the motor +neurones of the opposed set of muscles (reciprocal innervation). +In the great majority of movements excited from the motor +cortex of a single hemisphere of the cerebrum, the movement +evoked is confined to one side of the body, namely to that opposite +to the hemisphere stimulated. There are, however, important +exceptions to this. Thus, adduction of both vocal cords is +excited from the cortex of either hemisphere. The movement of +closure of the eyelids is usually bilateral, unless the stimulation +be very weak; then the movement is of the eyelids of the opposite +side only. The same holds true for the movements of the jaw. +It, therefore, seems clear that with many movements which are +usually bilaterally performed in ordinary life, such as opening +of the jaw, blinking, &c., the symmetrical areas of the motor +regions of both hemispheres are simultaneously in action.</p> + +<p>In regard to all these movements elicitable by artificial stimuli +from the motor cortex it is obvious that were there clearer evidence +that the pallial region from which they are elicitable is +fairly directly connected with corticopetal paths subserving +cutaneous sensation or “muscular sense,” the movements might +be regarded as falling into the category of higher reflexes connected +with the organs of touch, muscular sense, &c., just as the +movements of the eyeball excitable from the visual cortex may +be regarded as higher reflexes connected with vision. The evidence +of the connexion of the reactions of the motor cortex with +cutaneous and muscular senses appears, however, scarcely +sufficient to countenance at present this otherwise plausible view, +which has on general grounds much to commend it.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that movements of the eyeball itself, <i>i.e.</i> +apart from movement of the lids, are not in the category of +movements elicitable from the precentral gyrus, the “motor” +cortex. They are found represented in a region farther forward, +namely in front of the precentral gyrus altogether, and occupying +a scattered set of points in the direction frontal from the areas +for movements of arm and face. This frontal area yields on +excitation conjugate movements of both eyeballs extremely like +if not exactly similar to those yielded by excitation of the +occipital (visual) region of the cortex. It is supposed by some +that this frontal area yielding eye-movements has its function +in this respect based upon afferent conductors from other parts +of the eyeball than the retina, for instance upon kinaesthetic +(Bastian) impressions or upon sensual impressions derived from +the cornea and the coats of the eyeball including the ciliary +and iris muscles. The ocular muscles are certainly a source of +centripetal impulses, but their connexion with the cortex is not +clear as to either their nature or their seat. The question seems +for the present to allow no clearer answer. It is certain, however, +that the frontal area of eye movements has corticofugal paths +descending from it to the lower motor centres of the eyeballs +quite independent of those descending from the occipital (visual) +area of eye-movements. Further, it seems clear that in many +animals there is another cortical region, a third region, the region +which we saw above might be considered auditory, where movements +of the eyeball similar to those elicitable in the occipital +and frontal cortex can be provoked. A. Tschermak is inclined +to give the eyeball movements of the frontal region the significance +of reflex movements which carry the visual field in various +directions in answer to demands made by sensory data derived +from touch, &c., as for instance from the hand. The movements +of the eyeballs elicitable from the occipital region of the cortex +he regards as probably concerned with directing the gaze toward +something seen, for instance, in the peripheral field of vision. +The occipital movement would, therefore, be excited through the +retina, and would result in bringing the yellow spot region of +the retinae of both eyes to bear upon the object. This view has +much to justify it. The movements of the eyeballs excited +from the cortex of the auditory region would in a similar way +be explicable as bringing the gaze to bear upon a direction in +which a sound had been located, auditory initiation replacing +the visual and tactual of the occipital and the frontal regions +respectively.</p> + +<p>Turning from these still speculative matters to others less +suggestive but of actual ascertainment, we find that the motor +nature of the precentral cortex as ascertained by electric stimuli +is further certified by the occurrence of disturbance and impairment +of motor power and adjustment following destruction of +that region of the cortex. The movements which such a part +as a limb executes are of course manifold in purpose. The hind +limb of a dog is used for standing, for stepping, for scratching, +for squatting, and, where a dog, for instance, has been trained +to stand or walk on its hind legs alone, for skilled acts requiring +a special training for their acquisition. It is found that when +the motor area of the brain has been destroyed, the limb is at +first paralysed for all these movements, but after a time the limb +recovers the ability to execute some of them, though not all. +The scratching movement suffers little, and rapid improvement +after cerebral injury soon effaces the impairment, at first somewhat +pronounced, in the use of the limb for walking, running, +&c., and ordinary movements of progression. Even when both +hemispheres have been destroyed the dog can still stand and +walk and run. Destruction of the motor region of the cortex +renders the fore limbs of the dog unable to execute such skilled +movements as the steadying of a bone for gnawing or the trained +act of offering the paw in answer to the command of the master. +Skilled acts of the limb, apart from conjoined movements in +which it, together with all the other limbs, takes part, assume of +course a larger share of the office of the limb in the Primates +than in the dog; and this is especially true for the fore limb. +It is when the fore-foot becomes a hand that opportunity is given +for its more skilled individual use and for its training in movements +as a tool, or for the handling of tools and weapons. It is +these movements which suffer most heavily and for the longest +period after injury of the motor region of the cortex. Hence +the disablement ensuing upon injury to the cortex would be +expected to be most apparent in the Primates; and it is so, +and most of all in Man. Further, in Man there ensues a condition +called “contracture,” which is not so apparent or frequent a +result in other animals,—indeed, does not occur at all in other +animals except the monkey. In contracture the muscles of the +paretic limb are not flaccid, as they are usually in paralysis, +but they are tense and the limb is more or less rigidly fixed by +them in a certain position, usually one of flexion at elbow and +wrist. This condition does not occur at first, but gradually +supervenes in the course of a number of weeks. In Man the +destruction of the motor area of the cortex cripples the limb +even for the part it should play in the combined limb movements +of walking, &c., and cripples it to an extent markedly contrasting +with the slight disturbances seen in the lower mammals, <i>e.g.</i> the +dog.</p> + +<p>As regards the recovery of motor power after lesions of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span> +motor cortex, two processes seem at work which are termed +respectively <i>restitution</i> and <i>compensation</i>. By the former is +understood the recovery obtained when a part of a “centre” +is destroyed, and the rest of the centre, although thrown out of +function at first, recovers and supplements the deficiency later. +An example of restitution would be the recovery from temporary +hemianopia caused by a small injury in one occipital lobe. By +compensation is understood the improvement of an impaired +nervous function, traceable to other centres different from those +destroyed supplying means to compass the reaction originally +dependent on the centres subsequently destroyed. Instances +of such compensation are the recovery of taxis for equilibrium +subsequent to destruction of the labyrinth of the ear, where +the recovery is traceable to assistance obtained through the eye. +It will be noted that these instances of recovery by restitution +and by compensation respectively are taken, from cases of injury +inflicted on receptive rather than on motor centres. It is doubtful +how far they really apply to the undoubted improvement +that does within certain limits progress and succeed in partially +effacing the paresis immediately consequent on lesions of the +motor area. It has to be remembered that in all cases of traumatic +injury to the nervous system, especially where the trauma +implicates the central nervous organ, the first effects and impairment +of function resulting are due to a mixed cause, namely +on the one hand the mechanical rupture of conducting +paths actually broken by solution of their continuity, and on +the other hand the temporary interruption of conducting +paths by “shock.” Shock effects are not permanent: they +pass off. They are supposed to be due to a change at the +synapses connecting neurone with neurone in the grey matter. +They amount in effect to a long-lasting and gradually subsiding +inhibition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For diseases of the brain see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skull</a></span> +(<i>Surgery</i>), &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. S. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The literature of the pineal region is enormous. Studnicka +(in <i>Oppels Vergleichende mikrosk. Anat.</i> Teile 4-5, 1904, 1905) gives +285 references. The present conception of the generalized arrangement +is: (α) A single glandular median organ from the fore-brain +called the paraphysis. (β) A pouch of the ependymal roof of the +ventricle called the dorsal sac. (γ) A right and left epiphysis, one +of which may be wholly or partially suppressed. These may change +their position to anterior and posterior in some animals.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAINERD, DAVID<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1718-1747), American missionary +among the Indians, was born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the +20th of April 1718. He was orphaned at fourteen, and studied +for nearly three years (1739-1742) at Yale. He then prepared +for the ministry, being licensed to preach in 1742, and early in +1743 decided to devote himself to missionary work among the +Indians. Supported by the Scottish “Society for Promoting +Christian Knowledge,” he worked first at Kaunaumeek, an +Indian settlement about 20 m. from Stockbridge, Massachusetts, +and subsequently, until his death, among the Delaware Indians +in Pennsylvania (near Easton) and New Jersey (near Cranbury). +His heroic and self-denying labours, both for the spiritual and +for the temporal welfare of the Indians, wore out a naturally +feeble constitution, and on the 19th of October 1747 he died +at the house of his friend, Jonathan Edwards, in Northampton, +Massachusetts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Journal</i> was published in two parts in 1746 by the Scottish +Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; and in 1749, at +Boston, Jonathan Edwards published <i>An Account of the Life of the +Late Rev. David Brainerd, chiefly taken from his own Diary and other +Private Writings</i>, which has become a missionary classic. A new +edition, with the <i>Journal</i> and Brainerd’s letters embodied, was +published by Sereno E. Dwight at New Haven in 1822; and in +1884 was published what is substantially another edition, <i>The +Memoirs of David Brainerd</i>, edited by James M. Sherwood.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAINERD,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Crow Wing county, +Minnesota, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about +127 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 5703; (1900) 7524, +of whom 2193 were foreign-born; (1905) 8133; (1910) 8526. +It is served by the Minnesota & International and the Northern +Pacific railways. The latter maintains here large car and repair +shops, and a sanatorium for its employees. There are also the +Sisters of St Joseph hospital, a county court house, a public +library and a Y.M.C.A. building. A dam across the Mississippi +provides water power (about 60,000 H.P.) which is utilized +extensively for manufacturing purposes. Lumbering is an +important industry, and there are saw mills and planing mills, +and an extensive creosote plant for treating railway ties and +timber. There are also flour mills, paper and pulp mills, cigar +factories, a brewery, a large foundry and a grain elevator. In +1906 large quantities of iron ore were discovered in the vicinity, +the new range, the Cuyuna, running through the city from +north-east to south-west. Brainerd, named in honour of David +Brainerd, was settled in 1870, and chartered as a city in 1883.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAINTREE,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a market town in the Maldon parliamentary +division of Essex, England; 45 m. N.E. of London by a branch +line from Witham of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of +urban district, 5330. The parish church of St Michael is a +fine edifice of Early English work with later additions. A corn +exchange, mechanics’ institute and public hall may also be +mentioned. The bishops of London had formerly a palace in +the town, but there are no remains of the building. The manufactures +of silk and crape have superseded that of woollen cloth, +which was introduced by the Flemings who fled to England to +escape the persecution of the duke of Alva. Matting and +brushes are also made. On the north lies the large village of +BOCKING, with the Perpendicular parish church of St Mary, +similar industries, and a population of 3347.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAINTREE,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., on the Monatiquot river about 10 m. S. of Boston. Pop. +(1890) 4848; (1900) 598l, including 1250 foreign-born; (1905, state +census) 6879; (1910) 8066. The New York, New Haven & Hartford +railway crosses the town and has stations at its villages of +Braintree, South Braintree and East Braintree, which are also +served by suburban electric railways. In South Braintree are +the Thayer Academy (co-educational; opened 1877) and the +Thayer public library, both founded by and named in honour +of General Sylvanus Thayer (1785-1872), a well-known military +engineer born in Braintree, who was superintendent of the +United States Military Academy in 1817-1833 and has been +called the “father of West Point.” There are large shoe factories +and other manufactories. Bog iron was early found in Braintree, +and iron-works, among the first in America, were established +here in 1644. Braintree was first incorporated in 1640 from +land belonging to Boston and called Mount Wollaston, and +was named from the town in England. At Merry Mount, in +that part of Braintree which is now Quincy, a settlement was +established by Thomas Morton in 1625, but the gay life of the +settlers and their selling rum and firearms to the Indians greatly +offended the Pilgrims of Plymouth, who in 1627 arrested Morton; +soon afterward Governor John Endecott of Massachusetts +Bay visited Merry Mount, rebuked the inhabitants and cut +down their Maypole. Later the place was abandoned, and in +1634 a Puritan settlement was made here. In 1708 the town +was divided into the North Precinct and the South Precinct, +and it was in the former, now Quincy, that John Adams, John +Hancock and John Quincy Adams were born. Quincy was +separated from Braintree in 1792 (there were further additions to +Quincy from Braintree in 1856), and Randolph in 1793.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See D.M. Wilson, <i>Quincy, Old Braintree and Merry Mount</i> (Boston, +1906); C.F. Adams, Jr., <i>Three Episodes of Massachusetts History</i> +(Boston, 1892 and 1896); W.S. Pattee, <i>History of Old Braintree +and Quincy</i> (Quincy, 1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAKE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Oldenburg, +on the left bank of the Weser, about halfway between Bremen +and the mouth of the river. Pop. 5000. It was for centuries +the port of Bremen; and though, since the founding of Bremerhaven, +it no longer possesses a monopoly of the river traffic as +before, it still continues to flourish. Large docks have been +constructed, and the place has a considerable import trade in +English coal. Shipbuilding and weaving are carried on to some +extent.</p> + +<p>Brake in Oldenburg must be distinguished from the village of +the same name in the principality of Lippe, known as Brake bei +Limgo, which gave its name to the cadet line of the counts of +Lippe-Brake (1621-1709).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAKE.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1) A term for rough-tangled undergrowth, connected, +according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, with “break,” +to separate. The “brake-fern” (<i>Pteris aquilina</i>) is the common +“bracken,” and is a shortened form of that northern Eng. +word, derived from a Scand. word for “fern” (cf. Swed. <i>bräken</i>), +though often confused with “brake,” undergrowth. (2) A term +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span> +applied to many implements and mechanical and other appliances, +often spelled “break.” Here there are probably several +words, difficult to separate in origin, connected either with +“break,” to separate, and its derived meanings, or with the Fr. +<i>braquer</i> (appearing in such expressions as <i>braquer un canon</i>, to +turn or point a gun), from O. Fr. <i>brac</i>, modern <i>bras</i>, an arm, Lat. +<i>bracchium</i>. The word is thus used of a toothed instrument for +separating the fibre of flax and hemp; of the “break-rolls” +employed in flour manufacture; of a heavy wheeled vehicle +used for “breaking in” horses, and hence of a large carriage of +the wagonette type; of an arm or lever, and so of the winch of a +crossbow and of a pump handle, cf. “brake-pump”; of a curb +or bridle for a horse; and of a mechanical appliance for checking +the speed of moving vehicles, &c. It is noteworthy that the +two last meanings are also possessed by the Fr. <i>frein</i> and the +Ger. <i>Bremse</i>.</p> + +<p>Brakes, in engineering, are instruments by means of which +mechanical energy may be expended in overcoming friction. +They are used for two main classes of purpose: (1) to limit or +decrease the velocity of a moving body, or to bring it completely +to rest; and (2) to measure directly the amount of frictional +resistance between two bodies, or indirectly the amount of energy +given out by a body or bodies in motion. Machines in which +brakes are employed for purposes of the second class are commonly +known as dynamometers (<i>q.v.</i>). The other class is exemplified +in the brakes used on wheeled vehicles and on cranes, lifts, +&c. Here a body, or system of bodies, originally at rest, has +been set in motion and has received acceleration up to a certain +velocity, the work which has been done in that acceleration +being stored up as “actual energy” in the body itself. Before +the body can be brought to rest it must part with this energy, +expending it in overcoming some external resistance. If the +energy be great in proportion to the usual resistance tending to +stop the body, the motion will continue for a long time, or through +a long distance, before the energy has been completely expended +and the body brought to rest. But in certain cases considerations +of safety or convenience require that this time or distance be +greatly shortened, and this is done by artificially increasing the +external resistance for the time being, by means of a brake.</p> + +<p>A simple method of obtaining this increased resistance is by +pressing a block or shoe of metal or wood against the rim of a +moving wheel, or by tightening a flexible strap or band on a +rotating pulley or drum. In wheeled road vehicles, a wheel +may be prevented from rotating by a chain passed through its +spokes and attached to the body of the vehicle, when the resistance +is increased by the substitution of a rubbing for a rolling +action; or the same effect may be produced by fixing a slipper +or skid under the wheel. Other forms of brake depend, not on +the friction between two solid bodies, but on the frictional +resistance of a fluid, as in “fan” and “pump” brakes. Thus +the motion of revolving blades may be opposed by the resistance +of the air or of a liquid in which they are made to work, or the +motion of a plunger fitting tightly in a cylinder filled with a +fluid may be checked by the fluid being prevented from escape +except through a narrow orifice. The fly used to regulate the +speed of the striking train in a clock is an example of a fan brake, +while a pump brake is utilized for controlling the recoil of guns +and in the hydraulic buffers sometimes fitted at terminal railway +stations to stop trains that enter at excessive speed. On electric +tramcars a braking effect is sometimes obtained by arranging +the connexions of the motors so that they act as generators +driven by the moving car. In this way a counter-torque is +exerted on the axles. The current produced is expended by +some means, as by being made to operate some frictional braking +device, or to magnetize iron shoes carried on the car just over, +but clear of, the running rails, to which they are then magnetically +attracted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Traction</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The simplest way of applying a brake is by muscular force, +exerted through a hand or foot lever or through a screw, by +which the brake block is pressed against the rim of the wheel or +the band brake tightened on its drum. This method is sufficient +in the case of most road vehicles, and is largely used on railway +vehicles. But the power thus available is limited, and becomes +inadequate for heavy vehicles moving at high speeds. Moreover, +on a train consisting of a number of vehicles, the hand brakes on +each of which are independent of all others, either a brakesman +must be carried on each, or a number of the brakes must be left +unused, with consequent loss of stopping power; while even if +there is a brakesman on every vehicle it is impossible to secure +that all the brakes throughout the train are applied with the +promptness that is necessary in case of emergency.</p> + +<p>Considerations of this sort led to the development of power +brakes for railway trains. Of these there are five main classes:—</p> + +<p>(1) Mechanical brakes, worked by springs, friction wheels on +the axle, chains wound on drums, or other mechanical devices, +or by the force produced when, by reason of a sudden +checking of the speed of the locomotive, the momentum +<span class="sidenote">Railway power brakes.</span> +of the cars causes pressure on the draw-bars or buffing +devices. (2) Hydraulic brakes, worked by means of +water forced through pipes into proper mechanism for transmitting +its force to the brake-shoes. (3) Electric brakes. (4) Air +and vacuum brakes, worked by compressed air or by air at +atmospheric pressure operating on a vacuum. (5) Brakes worked +by steam or water from the boiler of the engine, operating by +means of a cylinder; the use of these is generally limited to the +locomotive. Of this kind is the counter-pressure or water brake +of L. le Chatelier. If the valve gear of a locomotive in motion +be reversed and the steam regulator be left open, the cylinders +act as compressors, pumping air from the exhaust pipe into the +boiler against the steam pressure. A retarding effect is thus +exercised, but at the cost of certain inconveniences due to the +passage of hot air and cinders from the smoke box through the +cylinders. To remedy these, le Chatelier arranged that a jet of +hot water from the boiler should be delivered into the exhaust +pipe, so that steam and not the hot flue gases should be pumped +back.</p> + +<p>Power brakes may be either continuous or independent—continuous +if connected throughout the train and with the +locomotive by pipes, wires, &c., as the compressed air, vacuum +and electric brakes; independent if not so connected, as the +buffer-brakes and hand-brakes. Continuous brakes may be +divided into two other great classes—automatic and non-automatic. +The former are so arranged that they are applied +automatically on all the coaches of the train if any important +part of the apparatus is broken, or the couplings between cars are +ruptured; in an emergency they can be put on by the guard, or +(in some cases) by a passenger. Non-automatic brakes can be +applied only by the person (usually the engine-driver) to whom +the management of them is given; they may become inoperative +on all the coaches, and always on those which have become +detached, if a coupling or other important and generally essential +part is broken. Many mechanical and several hydraulic and +electrical continuous brakes have been invented and tried; but +experience has shown them so inadequate in practice that they +have all practically disappeared, leaving the field to the air and +the vacuum brakes. At first these were non-automatic, but in +1872 the automatic air-brake was invented by George Westinghouse, +and the automatic vacuum-brake was developed a few +years later.</p> + +<p>Those respects in which non-automatic brakes are inadequate +will be understood from the following summary of the requirements +most important in a train-braking apparatus: (1) It +must be capable of application to every wheel throughout the +train. (2) It must be so prompt in action that the shortest +possible time shall elapse between its first application and the +moment when the full power can be exerted throughout the train. +(3) It must be capable of being applied by the engine-driver or +by any of the officials in charge of the train, either in concert or +independently. (4) The motion of the train must be arrested +in the shortest possible distance. (5) The failure of a vital part +must declare itself by causing the brake to be applied and to +remain applied until the cause of failure is removed. (6) The +breaking of the train in two or more parts must cause immediate +automatic application of the brakes on all the coaches. (7) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span> +When used in ordinary service stops it must be capable of gradual +and uniform application (followed, if necessary, by a full emergency +application at any part of the service application) and of +prompt release under all conditions of application. (8) It must +be simple in operation and construction, not liable to derangement, +and inexpensive in maintenance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Westinghouse non-automatic or “straight” air-brake, +patented in 1869, consists in its simplest form of a direct-acting, +steam-driven air-pump, carried on the locomotive, which +forces compressed air into a reservoir, usually placed +<span class="sidenote">Simple air-brake.</span> +under the foot-plate of the locomotive. From this reservoir +a pipe is led through the engine cab, where it is fitted with a +three-way cock, to the rear of the locomotive tender, where it terminates +in a flexible hose, on the end of which is a coupling. The +coaches are furnished with a similar pipe, having hose and coupling +at each end, which communicates with one end of a cylinder containing +a piston, to the rod of which the brake-rods and levers are +connected. The application of the brakes is effected by the engine-driver +turning the three-way cock, so that compressed air flows +through the pipe and, acting against one side of the brake-cylinder +piston, applies the brake-shoes to the wheels by the movement of +this piston and the rods and levers connected to it. To release the +brakes the three-way cock is turned to cut off communication +between the main reservoir and the train-pipe, and to open a port +permitting the escape of the compressed air in the train-pipe and +brake-cylinders. This brake was soon found defective and inadequate +in many ways. An appreciable time was required for the air +to flow through the pipes from the locomotive to the car-cylinders, +and this time increased quickly with the length of the trains. Still +more objectionable, however, was the fact that on detached coaches +the air-brakes could not be applied, the result being sometimes +serious collisions between the front and rear portions of the train.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:293px" src="images/img415.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Westinghouse Air-Brake. +<br />Section through Triple-Valve and Brake-Cylinder.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the Westinghouse “ordinary” automatic air-brake a main +air reservoir on the engine is kept charged with compressed air at +80 ℔ per sq. in. by means of the steam-pump, which may +be controlled by an automatic governor. On electric +<span class="sidenote">Automatic air-brake.</span> +railways a pump, driven by an electric motor, is generally +employed; but occasionally, on trains which run short distances, +no pump is carried, the main reservoir being charged at the terminal +points with sufficient compressed air for the journey. Conveniently +placed to the driver’s hand is the driver’s valve, by means of which +he controls the flow of air from the main reservoir to the train-pipe, +or from the train-pipe to the atmosphere. A reducing-valve is +attached to the driver’s valve, and in the normal or running position +of the latter reduces the pressure of the air flowing from the main +reservoir to the train-pipe by 10 or 15 ℔ per sq. in. From the engine +a train-pipe runs the whole length of the train, being rendered +continuous between each vehicle and between the engine and the +rest of the train by flexible hose couplings. Each vehicle is provided +with a brake-cylinder H (fig. 1), containing a piston, the movement +of which applies the brake blocks to the wheels, an “auxiliary air-reservoir” +G, and an automatic “triple-valve” F. The auxiliary +reservoir receives compressed air from the train-pipe and stores it +for use in the brake-cylinder of its own vehicle, and both the auxiliary +reservoir and the triple-valve are connected directly or indirectly +with the train-pipe through the pipe E. The automatic action of +the brake is due to the construction of the triple-valve, the principal +parts of which are a piston and slide-valve, so arranged that the air +in the auxiliary reservoir acts at all times on the side of the piston +to which the slide-valve is attached, while the air in the train-pipe +exerts its pressure on the opposite side. So long as the brakes are +not in operation, the pressures in the train-pipe, triple-valve and +auxiliary reservoir are all equal, and there is no compressed air in the +brake-cylinder. But when, in order to apply the brake, the driver +discharges air from the train-pipe, this equilibrium is destroyed, +and the greater pressure in the auxiliary reservoir forces the +triple-valve to a position which allows air from the auxiliary reservoir +to pass directly into the brake-cylinder. This air forces out the +piston of the brake-cylinder and applies the brakes, connexion being +made with the brake-rigging at R. The purpose of the small groove +<i>n</i> which establishes communication between the two sides of the +piston when the brakes are off, is to prevent their unintended +application through slight leakage from the train-pipe. To release +the brakes, the driver, by moving the handle of his valve to the +release position, admits air from the main reservoir to the train-pipe, +the pressure in which thus becomes greater than that in the auxiliary +reservoir; the piston and slide-valve of the triple-valve are thereby +forced back to their normal position, the compressed air in the +brake-cylinder is discharged, and the piston is brought back by the +coiled spring, thus releasing the brakes. At the same time the +auxiliary reservoir is recharged.</p> + +<p>With this “ordinary” brake, since an appreciable time is required +for the reduction of pressure to travel along the train-pipe from the +engine, the brakes are applied sensibly sooner at the front +than at the end of the train, and with long trains this +<span class="sidenote">Quick-acting air-brake.</span> +difference in the time of application becomes a matter of +importance. The “quick-acting” brake was introduced to +remedy this defect. For it the triple valve is provided with a supplementary +mechanism, which, when the air pressure in the train-pipe is +suddenly or violently reduced, opens a passage whereby air from the +train-pipe is permitted to enter the brake-cylinder directly. The result +is twofold: not only is the pressure from the auxiliary reservoir acting +in the brake-cylinder reinforced by the pressure in the train-pipe, but +the pressure in the train-pipe is reduced locally in every vehicle +in extremely rapid succession instead of at the engine only, and +in consequence all the brakes are applied almost simultaneously +throughout the train. The same effect is produced should the train +break in two, or a hose or any part of the train-pipe burst; but +during ordinary or “service” stops the triple-valve acts exactly +as in the ordinary brake, the quick-acting portion, that is, the +vertical piston and valve seen in fig. 1, not coming into operation. +When the handle Z is turned to the position X the quick-acting +mechanism is rendered inoperative, and when it is at Y the brake +on the vehicle concerned is wholly cut out of action.</p> + +<p>A further improvement introduced in the Westinghouse brake in +1906 was designed to give quick action for service as well as emergency +stops. In this the triple-valve is substantially the same as in +the ordinary brake. The additional mechanism of the quick-acting +portion is dispensed with, but instead, a small chamber, normally +containing air at atmospheric pressure, is provided on each vehicle, +and is so arranged that it is put into communication with the train-pipe +by the first movement of the triple-valve. As soon, therefore, +as the driver, by lowering the pressure in the train-pipe, causes the +triple-valve in the foremost vehicle of the train to operate, a certain +quantity of air rushes out of the train-pipe into the small chamber; +a further local reduction in the pressure of the train-pipe in that +vehicle is thereby effected, and this almost instantaneously actuates +the triple-valve of the succeeding vehicle, and so on throughout +the train. In this way, on a train 1800 ft. long, consisting of sixty +30-ft. vehicles, the brake-blocks may be applied, with equal force, +on the last vehicle about 2½ seconds later than on the first.</p> + +<p>Brake-blocks can be applied, without skidding the wheels, +with greater pressure at high speeds than at low. Advantage is +taken of this fact in the design of the Westinghouse +“high-speed” brake, invented in 1894, which consists of +<span class="sidenote">High-speed air-brake.</span> +attachments enabling the pressure in the train-pipe and +reservoirs to be increased at the will of the driver. The +increased pressure acting in the brake-cylinder increases in the same +proportion the pressure of the brake-shoes against the wheels. +Attached to the brake cylinder is a valve for automatically reducing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span> +the pressure therein proportionately to the reduction in speed, until +the maximum pressure under which the brakes are operated in +making ordinary stops is reached, when this valve closes and the +maximum safe pressure for operating the brakes at ordinary speeds +is retained until a stop is made.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:607px" src="images/img416.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2—Automatic Vacuum-Brake, showing its general arrangement.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the automatic vacuum-brake, the exhausting apparatus generally +consists of a combined large and small ejector (a form of jet-pump) +worked by steam and under the control of the +driver, though sometimes a mechanical air-pump, driven +<span class="sidenote">Automatic Vacuum-Brake.</span> +from the crosshead of the locomotive, is substituted for +the small ejector. These ejectors, of which the small +one is at work continuously while the large one is only employed +when it is necessary to create vacuum quickly, <i>e.g.</i> to take off the +brakes after a short stop, produce in the train-pipe a vacuum equal +to about 20 in. of mercury, or in other words reduce the pressure +within it to about one-third of an atmosphere. The train-pipe +extends the whole length of the train and communicates under each +vehicle with a cylinder, to the piston of which, by suitable rods and +levers, the brake-shoes are connected. The communication between +the train-pipe and the cylinder is controlled by a ball-valve, one form +of which is shown in fig. 2. The release-valve is for the purpose of +withdrawing the ball from its seat when it is necessary to take off +the brakes by hand; it is made air-tight by a small diaphragm, the +pressure of which, when there is vacuum in the pipe, pulls in the +spindle and allows the ball to fall freely into its seat. When air is +exhausted through the train-pipe it travels out from below the +piston direct, and from above it past the ball, which is thus forced +off its seat, to roll back again when the exhaustion is complete. In +this state of affairs the piston is held in equilibrium and the brake-blocks +are free of the wheels. To apply them, air is admitted to the +train-pipe, either purposely by the guard or driver, or accidentally +by the rupture of the train-pipe or coupling-hose between the vehicles. +The air passes to the lower side of the piston, but is prevented from +gaining access to the upper side by the ball-valve which blocks the +passage; hence the pressure becomes different on the two sides of +the piston, which in consequence is forced upwards and thus applies +the brakes. They are released by the re-establishment of equilibrium +(by the use of the large ejector if necessary); when this is done the +piston falls and the brakes drop off. The general arrangement of +the apparatus is shown in fig. 2. To render the application of the +brakes nearly simultaneous throughout a long train, the valve in +the guard’s van is arranged to open automatically when the driver +suddenly lets in air to the train-pipe. This valve has a small hole +through its stem, and is secured at the top by a diaphragm to a small +dome-like chamber, which is exhausted when a vacuum is created +in the train-pipe. A gradual application destroys the vacuum in +the chamber as quickly as in the pipe and the diaphragm remains +unmoved; but with a sudden one the vacuum below the valve +is destroyed more quickly, and with the difference of pressure the +diaphragm lifts the valve and admits air. A rapid-acting valve +(fig. 3) is sometimes interposed between the train-pipe and the +cylinder on each vehicle. In the normal or running position, a +vacuum is maintained below the valve A and above the diaphragm +B, while the chamber below B and above A is at atmospheric pressure. +For an emergency application of the brake, air is suddenly admitted +to the train-pipe and thus to the lower side of A, and the pressure +acting on the under side of B is sufficient to cause it to lift the valve +A, and to admit air from the atmosphere, both to the brake-cylinder +and the train-pipe, through the clappet-valve D, which also rises +because of the difference of pressure on its two sides. In a graduated +application, neither D nor A rises from its seat, but air from the +train-pipe finds access to the brake-cylinder by passing around the peg +C, which is so proportioned as to allow the necessary amount of air to +enter the brake-cylinder, and so obtain simultaneous action of the +brake throughout the train. When the handle E is turned so as to +prevent the clappet D from rising, the rapid action is cut out and +the brake acts as an ordinary vacuum automatic brake. A modification +of the device for obtaining accelerated action, described +above in connexion with the Westinghouse brake, is also applicable. +Accelerating chambers, again containing air at atmospheric pressure, +are provided on each vehicle and are connected with the train-pipe +by valves which open as the vacuum in the latter begins to decrease +with the operation of the driver’s valve. The air thus admitted +into the train-pipe effects a still further local reduction of the +vacuum, which is sufficient to actuate the accelerating valve of each +next succeeding vehicle and is thus rapidly propagated throughout +the train.</p> + +<p>Famous tests of railway brakes were those made by Sir Douglas +Galton and Mr George Westinghouse on the London, Brighton +and South Coast railway, in England, in 1878, and by +a committee of the Master Car Builders’ Association, +<span class="sidenote">Brake trials.</span> +near Burlington, Iowa, in 1886 and 1887. The object +of the former series (for accounts of which see <i>Proc. Inst. Mech. +Eng.</i>, 1878, 1879) was to determine the co-efficient of friction between +the brake-shoe and the wheel, and between the wheel and rail at +different velocities when the wheels were revolving and when skidded, +<i>i.e.</i> stopped in their rotation and caused to slide. These experiments +were the first of their kind ever undertaken, and for many years their +results furnished most of the trustworthy data obtainable on the +friction of motion. It was found that the co-efficient of friction +between cast-iron shoes and steel-tired wheels increased as the speed +of the train decreased, varying from 0.111 at 55 m. an hour to 0.33 +when the train was just moving. It also decreased with the time +during which the brakes were applied; thus at 20 m. an hour the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span> +co-efficient was at the beginning 0.182, after ten seconds 0.133, +after twenty seconds 0.099. Generally speaking, especially at +moderate speeds, the decrease in the co-efficient of friction due to +time is less than the increase due to decrease of speed, although +when the time is long the reverse may be true. When the wheels are +skidded the retardation of the train is always reduced; therefore, +for the greatest braking effect, the pressures on the brake-shoes +should never be sufficient to cause the wheels to slide on the rails. +The Burlington brake tests were undertaken to determine the +practicability of using power brakes on long and heavy freight trains. +In the 1886 tests there were five competitors—three buffer-brakes, +one compressed-air brake, and one vacuum-brake. The tests comprised +stops with trains of twenty-five and fifty vehicles, at 20 and +40 m. an hour, on the level and on gradients of 1 in 100. They +demonstrated that the buffer-brakes were inadequate for long trains, +and that considerable improvements in the continuous brakes, both +compressed-air and vacuum, would be needed to make them act +quickly enough to avoid excessive shocks in the rear vehicles. In +1887 the trials of the year before were repeated by the same committee, +and at the same place. Trains of fifty vehicles, about +2000 ft. long and fitted with each brake, were again provided, and +there were again five competitors, but they all entered continuous +brakes—three compressed-air brakes, one vacuum and one electric. +The results of the first day’s test of the train equipped with Westinghouse +brakes are shown in Table I., the distances in which are the +feet run by the train after the brakes were set, and the times the +seconds that elapsed from the application of the brakes to full stop.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:312px" src="images/img417.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3—Rapid-acting Vacuum-Brake Valve.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I</span>.—<i>Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1887</i>— +<i>Automatic Air-Brakes.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Speed in<br />Miles per<br />Hour.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance in<br />Feet.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Time in<br />Seconds.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Equivalent Distance<br />at 20 m. and 40.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">19½</td> <td class="tcc rb">186</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">196</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">19¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">215</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">233</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">36½</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">588</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">693</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The remarkable shortness of these stops is the more evident when +they are compared with the best results obtained in 1886, as shown +in Table II.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table II</span>.—<i>Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1886</i>— +<i>Automatic Air-Brakes.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Speed in<br />Miles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance in<br />Feet.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Time in<br />Seconds.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Equivalent Distance<br />at 20 m. and 40.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">23.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">424</td> <td class="tcc rb">17½</td> <td class="tcc rb">307</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">20.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">354</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">340</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">40 </td> <td class="tcc rb">922</td> <td class="tcc rb">22½</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">922</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">40 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">927</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">927</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The time that elapsed between the application of the brakes on +the engine and on the fiftieth vehicle was almost twice as great in +1886 as in 1887, being in the latter tests only five to six seconds, and +in 1887 the stops were made in less than two-thirds the distance +required in 1886. Still, violent shocks were caused by the rear +vehicles running against those in front, before the brakes on the +former were applied with sufficient force to hold them, and these +shocks were so severe as to make the use of the brakes in practice +impossible on long trains. When the triple-valves were actuated +electrically, however, the stops were still further improved, as shown +in Table III.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table III</span>.—<i>Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars— +Electric Application of Air-Brakes</i>.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Speed in<br />Miles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance in<br />Feet.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Time in<br />Seconds.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Equivalent Distance<br />at 20 m. and 40.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">21½</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">139</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">23 </td> <td class="tcc rb">183</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">138</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">38 </td> <td class="tcc rb">475</td> <td class="tcc rb">14½</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">519</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">36½</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">460</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">545</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Although the same levers, shoes, rods and other connexions were +used, there were no shocks in the fiftieth car of the train on any stop, +whether on the level or on a gradient. The committee in charge +reported that the best type of brake for long freight trains was one +operated by air, in which the valves were actuated by electricity, but +they expressed doubt of the practicability of using electricity on +freight trains. The Westinghouse Company then proceeded to +quicken the action of the triple-valve, operated by air only, so that +stops with fifty-car trains could be made without shock, and without +electrically operated valves; and they were so successful in this +respect that, towards the end of the same year, 1887, with a train +of fifty vehicles, stops were made without shock, fully equalling in +quickness and shortness of distance run any that had been made +at the trials by the electrically operated brakes.</p> + +<p>In 1889 some further tests were made by Sir Douglas Galton with +the automatic vacuum-brake, on a practically level portion of the +Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (now the Great Central). +The train was composed of an engine, tender and forty carriages, the +total length over buffers being 1464 ft., and the total weight 574 tons, +of which 423 tons were braked. At a speed of about 32 m. an hour +this train was brought to a standstill in twelve seconds after the +application of the brakes, in a distance of 342 ft.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (<i>fl</i>. 1200), English monk, and +author of a chronicle narrating the fortunes of the monastery +of Bury St Edmunds between 1173 and 1202. He is only +known to us through his own work. He was a native of +Bury St Edmunds; he served his novitiate under Samson of +Tottington, who was at that time master of the novices, but +afterwards sub-sacrist, and, from 1182, abbot of the house. +Jocelyn took the habit of religion in 1173, during the time of +Abbot Hugo (1157-1180), through whose improvidence and +laxity the abbey had become impoverished and the inmates dead +to all respect for discipline. The fortunes of the abbey changed +for the better with the election of Samson as Hugo’s successor. +Jocelyn, who became abbot’s chaplain within four months of +the election, describes the administration of Samson at considerable +length. He tells us that he was with Samson night and day +for six years; the picture which he gives of his master, although +coloured by enthusiastic admiration, is singularly frank and +intimate. It is all the more convincing since Jocelyn is no +stylist. His Latin is familiar and easy, but the reverse of classical. +He thinks and writes as one whose interests are wrapped up +in his house; and the unique interest of his work lies in the +minuteness with which it describes the policy of a monastic +administrator who was in his own day considered as a model.</p> + +<p>Jocelyn has also been credited with an extant but unprinted +tract on the election of Abbot Hugo (Harleian MS. 1005, fo. +165); from internal evidence this appears to be an error. He +mentions a (non-extant) work which he wrote, before the +<i>Cronica</i>, on the miracles of St Robert, a boy whom the Jews of +Bury St Edmunds were alleged to have murdered (1181).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the editions of the <i>Cronica Jocelini de Brakelonda</i> by T. Arnold +(in <i>Memorials of St Edmund’s Abbey</i>, vol. i. Rolls series, 1890), and +by J.G. Rokewood (Camden Society, 1840); also Carlyle’s <i>Past +and Present</i>, book ii. A translation and notes are given in T.E. +Tomlin’s <i>Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century in the +Chronicle of Jocelyn de Brakelond</i> (1844). There is also a translation +of Jocelyn by Sir E. Clarke (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAMAH, JOSEPH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1748-1814), English engineer and inventor, +was the son of a farmer, and was born at Stainborough, +Yorkshire, on the 13th of April 1748. Incapacitated for agricultural +labour by an accident to his ankle, on the expiry of his +indentures he worked as a cabinet-maker in London, where he +subsequently started business on his own account. His first +patent for some improvements in the mechanism of water-closets +was taken out in 1778. In 1784 he patented the lock +known by his name, and in 1795 he invented the hydraulic +press. For an important part of this, the collar which secured +water-tightness between the plunger and the cylinder in which it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span> +worked, he was indebted to Henry Maudslay, one of his workmen, +who also helped him in designing machines for the manufacture +of his locks. In 1806 he devised for the Bank of England a +numerical printing machine, specially adapted for bank-notes. +Other inventions of his included the beer-engine for drawing +beer, machinery for making aerated waters, planing machines, +and improvements in steam-engines and boilers and in paper-making +machinery. In 1785 he suggested the possibility of +screw propulsion for ships, and in 1802 the hydraulic transmission +of power; and he constructed waterworks at Norwich in 1790 +and 1793. He died in London on the 9th of December 1814.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAMANTE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bramante Lazzari</span> (<i>c.</i> 1444-1514), Italian +architect and painter, whose real name was Donate d’Augnolo, +was born at Monte-Asdrualdo in Urbino, in July 1444. He +showed a great taste for drawing, and was at an early age placed +under Fra Bartolommeo, called Fra Carnavale. But though +he afterwards gained some fame as a painter, his attention was +soon absorbed by architecture. He appears to have studied +under Scirro Scirri, an architect in his native place, and perhaps +under other masters. He then set out from Urbino, and proceeded +through several of the towns of Lombardy, executing works of +various magnitudes, and examining patiently all remains of +ancient art. At last, attracted by the fame of the great Duomo, +he reached Milan, where he remained from 1476 to 1499. He +seems to have left Milan for Rome about 1500. He painted +some frescoes at Rome, and devoted himself to the study of the +ancient buildings, both in the city and as far south as Naples. +About this time the Cardinal Caraffa commissioned him to +rebuild the cloister of the Convent della Pace. Owing to the +celerity and skill with which Bramante did this, the cardinal +introduced him to Pope Alexander VI. He began to be consulted +on nearly all the great architectural operations in Rome, and +executed for the pope the palace of the Cancelleria or chancery. +Under Julius II., Alexander’s successor, Bramante’s talents +began to obtain adequate sphere of exercise. His first large +work was to unite the straggling buildings of the palace and the +Belvedere. This he accomplished by means of two long galleries +or corridors enclosing a court. The design was only in part +completed before the death of Julius and of the architect. So +impatient was the pope and so eager was Bramante, that the +foundations were not sufficiently well attended to; great part of +it had, therefore, soon to be rebuilt, and the whole is now so much +altered that it is hardly possible to decipher the original design.</p> + +<p>Besides executing numerous smaller works at Rome and +Bologna, among which is specially mentioned by older writers a +round temple in the cloister of San Pietro-a-Montorio, Bramante +was called upon by Pope Julius to take the first part in one of +the greatest architectural enterprises ever attempted—the +rebuilding of St Peter’s. Bramante’s designs were complete, +and he pushed on the work so fast that before his death he +had erected the four great piers and their arches, and completed +the cornice and the vaulting in of this portion. He also +vaulted in the principal chapel. After his death on the 11th of +March 1514, his design was much altered, in particular by +Michelangelo.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pungileoni, <i>Memoire intorno alla vita ed alle opere di Bramante</i> +(Rome, 1836); H. Semper, <i>Donato Bramante</i> (Leipzig, 1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1817-1907), +English judge, was born at Hitchin, on the 14th of September +1817. He received his education at Bedford school. The son +of a solicitor, he was early familiarized with legal principles. +Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1843, he at once joined +the old home circuit, and after enjoying a lucrative practice as +a junior, took silk in 1859. His name is identified with many +of the famous trials of the reign of Queen Victoria. He was +engaged in the Simon Bernard case (of the Orsini plot celebrity), +in that of <i>Roupell</i> v. <i>Waite</i>, and in the Overend-Gurney prosecutions. +The two <i>causes célèbres</i>, however, in which Hawkins +attained his highest legal distinction were the Tichborne trials +and the great will case of <i>Sugden</i> v. <i>Lord St Leonards</i>. In both +of these he was victorious. In the first his masterly cross-examination +of the witness Baigent was one of the great features +of the trial. He did a lucrative business in references and +arbitrations, and acted for the royal commissioners in the +purchase of the site for the new law courts. Election petitions +also formed another branch of his extensive practice. Hawkins +was raised to the bench in 1876, and was assigned to the then +exchequer division of the High Court, not as baron (an appellation +which was being abolished by the Judicature Act), but with the +title of Sir Henry Hawkins. He was a great advocate rather +than a great lawyer. His searching voice, his manner, and the +variety of his facial expression, gave him an enormous influence +with juries, and as a cross-examiner he was seldom, if ever, +surpassed. He was an excellent judge in chambers, where he +displayed a clear and vigorous grasp of details and questions +of fact. His knowledge of the criminal law was extensive and +intimate, the reputation he gained as a “hanging” judge making +him a terror to evil-doers; and the court for crown cases reserved +was never considered complete without his assistance. In +1898 he retired from the bench, and was raised to the peerage +under the title of Baron Brampton. He frequently took part +in determining House of Lords appeals, and his judgments were +distinguished by their lucidity and grasp. He held for many +years the office of counsel to the Jockey Club, and as an active +member of that body found relaxation from his legal and judicial +duties at the leading race meetings, and was considered a capable +judge of horses. In 1898 he was received into the Roman +Catholic Church, and in 1903 he presented, in conjunction with +Lady Brampton (his second wife), the chapel of SS. Augustine +and Gregory to the Roman Catholic cathedral of Westminster, +which was consecrated in that year. In 1904 he published his +<i>Reminiscences</i>. He died in London on the 6th of October 1907, +and Lady Brampton in the following year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAMPTON,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a market town in the Eskdale parliamentary +division of Cumberland, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Carlisle, on a +branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2494. It is +picturesquely situated in a narrow valley opening upon that of +the Irthing. The town has an agricultural trade, breweries, and +manufactures of cotton and tweeds. The neighbourhood is +rich in historical associations. Two miles N.E. of Brampton is +the castle of Naworth, a fine example of a Border fortress. It +was built in the reign of Edward III., by a member of the family +of Dacre, who for many generations had had their stronghold +here. Overlooking a deep wooded ravine, with streams to the +east and west, the great quadrangular castle was naturally +defended except on the south, where it was rendered secure by a +double moat and drawbridge. By marriage in 1577 with Lady +Elizabeth Dacre it passed into the hands of William Howard, +afterwards lord warden of the Marches, the “Belted Will” of +Sir Walter Scott and the Border ballads, who acquired great +fame by his victories over the Scottish moss-troopers. The +castle, the walls of which have many secret passages and hiding-places, +is inhabited, and in its hall are numerous fine pictures, +including a portrait of Charles I. by Van Dyck. Not far distant +is Lanercost Priory, where in 1169 an Augustinian monastery +was established. In 1311 Robert Bruce and his army were +quartered here, and the priory was pillaged in 1346 by David, +king of Scotland. From this time its prosperity declined, and +at its dissolution under Henry VIII. it consisted only of a prior +and seven canons. The Early English church has a restored +nave, but retains much fine carving. The chancel is ruined, but +the interesting crypt is preserved.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1808-1892), English judge, was born in London on the +12th of June 1808, being the eldest son of George Bramwell, +of the banking firm of Dorrien, Magens, Dorrien & Mello. He +was educated privately, and at the age of sixteen he entered +Dorriens’ bank. In 1830 he gave up this business for the +law, being admitted as a student at Lincoln’s Inn in 1830, and +at the Inner Temple in 1836. At first he practised as a special +pleader, but was eventually called to the bar at both Inns in +1838. He soon worked his way into a good practice both in +London and the home circuit, his knowledge of law and procedure +being so well recognized that in 1850 he was appointed a member +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span> +of the Common Law Procedure Commission, which resulted in +the Common Law Procedure Act of 1852. This act he drafted +jointly with his friend Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Willes, and +thus began the abolition of the system of special pleading. In +1851 Lord Cranworth made Bramwell a queen’s counsel, and the +Inner Temple elected him a bencher—he had ceased to be a +member of Lincoln’s Inn in 1841. In 1853 he served on the +royal commission to inquire into the assimilation of the mercantile +laws of Scotland and England and the law of partnership, which +had as its result the Companies Act of 1862. It was he who, +during the sitting of this commission, suggested the addition of +the word “limited” to the title of companies that sought to +limit their liability, in order to prevent the obvious danger to +persons trading with them in ignorance of their limitation of +liability. As a queen’s counsel Bramwell enjoyed a large +and steadily increasing practice, and in 1856 he was raised to +the bench as a baron of the court of exchequer. In 1867, +with Mr Justice Blackburn and Sir John Coleridge, he was made +a member of the judicature commission. In 1871 he was one of +the three judges who refused the seat on the judicial committee +of the privy council to which Sir Robert Collier, in evasion of +the spirit of the act creating the appointment, was appointed; +and in 1876 he was raised to the court of appeal, where he sat +till the autumn of 1881. As a puisne judge he had been conspicuous +as a sound lawyer, with a strong logical mind unfettered +by technicalities, but endowed with considerable respect for the +common law. His rulings were always clear and decisive, +while the same quality marked his dealings with fact, and, +coupled with a straightforward, unpretentious manner, gave +him great influence with juries. In the court of appeal he +was perhaps not so entirely in his element as at <i>nisi prius</i>, but +the same combination of sound law, strong common sense and +clear expression characterized his judgments. His decisions +during the three stages of his practical career are too numerous +to be referred to particularly, although <i>Ryder</i> v. <i>Wombwell</i> +(L. R. 3 Ex. 95); <i>R.</i> v. <i>Bradshaw</i> (14 Cox C. C. 84); <i>Household +Fire Insurance Company</i> v. <i>Grant</i> (4 Ex. Div. 216); <i>Stonor</i> v. +<i>Fowle</i> (13 App. Cas. 20), <i>The Bank of England</i> v. <i>Vagliano +Brothers</i> (App. Cas. 1891) are good examples. Upon his retirement, +announced in the long vacation of 1881, twenty-six judges +and a huge gathering of the bar entertained him at a banquet in +the Inner Temple hall. In December of the same year he was +raised to the peerage, taking the title Baron Bramwell of Hever, +from his home in Kent. In private life Bramwell had simple +tastes and enjoyed simple pleasures. He was musical and fond +of sports. He was twice married: in 1830 to Jane (d. 1836), +daughter of Bruno Silva, by whom he had one daughter, and in +1861 to Martha Sinden. He died on the 9th of May 1892.</p> + +<p>His younger brother, Sir Frederick Bramwell (1818-1903), +was a well-known consulting engineer and “expert witness.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>At all times Lord Bramwell had been fond of controversy and +controversial writing, and he wrote constant letters to <i>The +Times</i> over the signature B. (he also signed himself at different times +Bramwell, G.B. and L.L.). He joined in 1882 the Liberty and +Property Defence League, and some of his writings after that date +took the form of pamphlets published by that society.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAN,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> in Celtic legend, the name of (1) the hero of the Welsh +<i>Mabinogi of Branwen</i>, who dies in the attempt to avenge his +sister’s wrongs; he is the son of Llyr (= the Irish sea-god Ler), +identified with the Irish Bran mac Allait, Allait being a synonym +of Ler; (2) the son of Febal, known only through the 8th-century +Irish epic, <i>The Voyage of Bran</i> (to the world below); (3) the dog +of Ossian’s Fingal. Bran also appears as a historical name, +Latinized as <i>Brennus</i>. See Kuno Meyer and D. Nutt, <i>The +Voyage of Bran</i> (London, 1895).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAN,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> the ground husk of wheat, oats, barley or other cereals, +used for feeding cattle, packing and other purposes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour</a></span>). +The word occurs in French <i>bren</i> or <i>bran</i>, in the dialects of other +Romanic languages, and also in Celtic, cf. Breton <i>brenn</i>, Gaelic +<i>bran</i>. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> considers these Celtic forms +to be borrowed from French or English. In modern French +<i>bren</i> means filth, refuse, and this points to some connexion with +Celtic words, <i>e.g.</i> Irish <i>brean</i>, manure. If so, the original meaning +would be refuse. “Bran-new,” <i>i.e.</i> quite new, is now the +common form of “brand-new,” that which is fresh from the +“brand,” the branding-iron used for marking objects, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANCH<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>branche</i>, late Lat. <i>branca</i>, an animal’s +paw), a limb of a tree; hence any offshoot, <i>e.g.</i> of a river, railway, +&c., of a deer’s antlers, of a family or genealogical tree, and +generally a subdivision or department, as in “a branch of learning.” +The phrase, to destroy “root and branch,” meaning to +destroy utterly, taken originally from Malachi iv. 1, was made +famous in 1641 by the so-called “Root and Branch” Bill and +Petition for the abolition of episcopal government, in which +petition occurred the sentence, “That the said government, +with all its dependencies, roots and branches, be destroyed.” +Among technical senses of the word “branch” are: the certificate +of proficiency given to pilots by Trinity House; and in siege-craft +a length of trench forming part of a zigzag approach.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANCO,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Parima</span>, a river of northern Brazil and tributary +of the Rio Negro, formed by the confluence of the Takutú, or +“Upper Rio Branco,” and Uraricoera, about 3° N. lat. and +60° 28′ W. long., and flowing south by west to a junction +with the Negro. It has rapids in its upper course, but the +greater part of its length of 348 m. is navigable for steamers +of light draught. The Takutú rises in the Roraima and Coïrrit +ranges on the Guiana frontier, while the Uraricoera rises in the +Serra de Parima, on the Venezuelan frontier, and has a length +of 360 m. before reaching the Branco. These are white water +rivers, from which the Branco (white) derives its name, and at +its junction with the Negro the two differently-coloured streams +flow side by side for some distance before mingling.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANCOVAN,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brancoveanu</span>, the name of a family which +has played an important part in the history of Rumania. It was +of Servian origin and was connected with the family of Branko +or Brankovich. Constantine Brancovan, the most eminent +member of the family, was born in 1654, and became prince of +Walachia in 1689. In consequence of his anti-Turkish policy of +forming an alliance first with Austria and then with Russia, he +was denounced to the Porte, deposed from his throne, brought +under arrest to Constantinople and imprisoned (1710) in the +fortress of Yedi Kuleh (Seven Towers). Here he was tortured by +the Turks, who hoped thus to discover the fortune of £3,000,000, +which Constantine was alleged to have amassed. He was beheaded +with his four sons on the 26th of August 1714. His +faithful friend Enake Vacarescu shared his fate. Constantine +Brancovan became, through his tragic death, the hero of +Rumanian popular ballads. His family founded and endowed the +largest hospital in Walachia, the so-called Spital Brancovanescu.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See O.G. Lecca, <i>Familiile Boereşti Române</i> (Bucharest, 1899), +p. 90, sqq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAND, JOHN<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1744-1806), English antiquary, was born on +the 19th of August 1744 at Washington, Durham, where his +father was parish clerk. His early years were spent at Newcastle-on-Tyne +with his uncle, a cordwainer, to whom he was apprentice +in his fourteenth year. Showing promise, however, at Newcastle +grammar school, friends interested themselves in him and assisted +him to go to Oxford. It was not, however, until his twenty-eighth +year that he matriculated at Lincoln College, but before +this he had been ordained, holding in succession the curacies of +Bolam, Northumberland, of St Andrew’s, Newcastle, and of +Cramlington, 8 m. from the county town. He graduated in +1775 and two years later was elected fellow of the Society of +Antiquaries. Having for a short time been under-usher at the +Newcastle grammar school, the duke of Northumberland, a +former patron, gave him in 1784 the rectory of the combined +parishes of St Mary-at-Hill and St Mary Hubbard, London. +Appointed secretary to the Society of Antiquaries in the same +year, he was annually re-elected until his death in 1806. He was +buried in the chancel of his church. His most important work is +<i>Observations on Popular Antiquities: including the whole of Mr +Bourne’s “Antiquitates Vulgares,” with addenda to every chapter +of that work</i>. This was published in London in 1777, and after +Brand’s death, a new edition embodying the MSS. left by him, +was published by Sir Henry Ellis in 1813. Brand also published +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span> +a poem entitled: <i>On Illicit Love, written among the ruins of +Godstow Nunnery, near Oxford</i> (1775, Newcastle); <i>The History +and Antiquities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne</i> (2 vols., London, 1789), +and many papers in the <i>Archaeologia</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1823-1888), president of the +Orange Free State, was the son of Sir Christoffel Brand, speaker +of the House of Assembly of the Cape Colony. He was born at +Cape Town on the 6th of December 1823, and was educated at +the South African College in that city. Continuing his studies at +Leiden, he took the degree of D.C.L. in 1845. He was called to +the English bar from the Inner Temple in 1849, and practised as +an advocate in the supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope +from that year until 1863. In 1858 he was appointed professor of +law in the South African College. He was elected president of +the Orange Free State in 1863, and subsequently re-elected for +five years in 1869, 1874, 1879 and 1884. In 1864 he resisted the +pressure of the Basuto on the Free State boundary, and after +vainly endeavouring to induce Moshesh, the Basuto chief, to +keep his people within bounds, he took up arms against them in +1865. This first war ended in the treaty of Thaba Bosigo, signed +on the 3rd of April 1866; and a second war, caused by the +treachery of the Basuto, ended in the treaty of Aliwal North, +concluded on the 12th of February 1869. In 1871 Brand was +solicited by a large party to become president of the Transvaal, +and thus unite the two Dutch republics of South Africa; but as +the project was hostile to Great Britain he declined to do so, and +maintained his constant policy of friendship towards England, +where his merits were recognized in 1882 by the honour of the +G.C.M.G. He died on the 14th of July 1888. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange +Free State</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1788-1866), English chemist, +was born in London on the 11th of January 1788. After leaving +Westminster school, he was apprenticed, in 1802, to his brother, +an apothecary, with the view of adopting the profession of +medicine, but his bent was towards chemistry, a sound knowledge +of which he acquired in his spare time. In 1812 he was +appointed professor of chemistry to the Apothecaries’ Society, +and delivered a course of lectures before the Board of Agriculture +in place of Sir Humphry Davy, whom in the following year he +succeeded in the chair of chemistry at the Royal Institution, +London. His <i>Manual of Chemistry</i>, first published in 1819, +enjoyed wide popularity, and among other works he brought out +a <i>Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art</i> in 1842, on a new +edition of which he was engaged when he died at Tunbridge +Wells on the 11th of February 1866.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDENBURG,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> the name of a margraviate and electorate +which played an important part in German history, and afterwards +grew into the kingdom of Prussia. During the early years +of the Christian era, the district was inhabited by the Semnones, +and afterwards by various Slavonic tribes, who were partially +subdued by Charlemagne, but soon regained their independence. +The history of Brandenburg begins when the German king, +Henry the Fowler, defeated the Havelli, or Hevelli, and took +their capital, Brennibor, from which the name Brandenburg is +derived. It soon came under the rule of Gero, margrave of the +Saxon east mark, who pressed the campaign against the Slavs +with vigour, while Otto the Great founded bishoprics at Havelberg +and Brandenburg. When Gero died in 965, his mark was +divided into two parts, the northern portion, lying along both +banks of the middle Elbe, being called the north or old mark, +and forming the nucleus of the later margraviate of Brandenburg. +After Otto the Great died, the Slavs regained much of +their territory, Brandenburg fell again into their hands, and a +succession of feeble margraves ruled only the district west of the +Elbe, together with a small district east of that river.</p> + +<p>A new era began in 1106 when Lothair, count of Supplinburg, +became duke of Saxony. Aided by Albert the Bear, count of +Ballenstädt, he renewed the attack on the Slavs, and +in 1134 appointed Albert margrave of the north mark. +<span class="sidenote">Albert the Bear.</span> +The new margrave continued the work of Lothair, and +about 1140 made a treaty with Pribislaus, the childless duke of +Brandenburg, by which he was recognized as the duke’s heir. +He took at once the title margrave of Brandenburg, but when +Pribislaus died in 1150, a stubborn contest followed with Jazko, +a relation of the late duke, which was terminated in 1157 in +Albert’s favour. Albert was the real founder of Brandenburg. +Under his rule Christianity and civilization were extended, +bishoprics were restored and monasteries founded. The country +was colonized with settlers from the lower Rhineland, land was +brought under cultivation, forts were built, German laws and +customs introduced, and gradually the woods and marshes +were converted into lands of comparative fertility.</p> + +<p>When Albert died in 1170, Brandenburg fell to his eldest son, +Otto I. (<i>c</i>. 1130-1184), who compelled the duke of Pomerania to +own his supremacy, and slightly increased by conquest the area +of the mark. Otto’s son, Otto II., was the succeeding margrave, +and having quarrelled with his powerful neighbour, Ludolf, +archbishop of Magdeburg, was forced to own the archbishop’s +supremacy over his allodial lands. He died in 1205, and was +followed by his step-brother, Albert II. (<i>c</i>. 1174-1220), who +assisted the emperor Otto IV. in various campaigns, but later +transferred his allegiance to Otto’s rival, Frederick of Hohenstaufen, +afterwards the emperor Frederick II. His sons, John I. +and Otto III., ruled Brandenburg in common until the death of +John in 1266, and their reign was a period of growth and prosperity. +<span class="sidenote">Otto III.</span> +Districts were conquered or purchased from +the surrounding dukes; the marriage of Otto with +Beatrice, daughter of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, in 1253, added +upper Lusatia to Brandenburg; and the authority of the +margraves was extended beyond the Oder. Many monasteries +and towns were founded, among them Berlin; the work of +Albert the Bear was continued, and the prosperity of Brandenburg +formed a marked contrast to the disorder which prevailed +elsewhere in Germany. Brandenburg appears about this time to +have fallen into three divisions—the old mark lying west of the +Elbe, the middle mark between the Elbe and the Oder, and the +new mark, as the newly conquered lands beyond the Oder began +to be called. When Otto died in 1267, the area of the mark had +been almost doubled, and the margraves had attained to an +influential position in the Empire. The <i>Sachsenspiegel</i>, written +before 1235, mentions the margrave as one of the electors, by +virtue of the office of chamberlain, which had probably been +conferred on Albert the Bear by the German king Conrad III.</p> + +<p>In 1258 John and Otto had agreed upon a division of their +lands, but the arrangement only took effect on Otto’s death +in 1267, when John’s son, John II., received the +electoral dignity, together with the southern part +<span class="sidenote">Otto IV.</span> +of the margraviate, which centred around Stendal, and Otto’s +son, John III., the northern or Saltzwedel portion. John II.’s +brother, Otto IV., who became elector in 1281, had passed his +early years in struggles with the archbishop of Magdeburg, +whose lands stretched like a wedge into the heart of Brandenburg. +In 1280 he was wounded in the head with a dart, and as he +retained there a part of the weapon for a year, he was called +“Otto with the dart.” He secured the appointment of his +brother Eric as archbishop of Magdeburg in 1283, and was +afterwards engaged in various feuds. Songs attributed to him +are found in F.H. von der Hagen’s <i>Minnesinger</i>. Otto was +succeeded in 1309 by his nephew, Valdemar, who, assisted by +other members of his family, conquered Pomerellen, which +he shared with the Teutonic order in 1310, and held his own +in a struggle with the kings of Poland, Sweden and Denmark +and others, over the possession of Stralsund.</p> + +<p>In order to pay for these wars, and to meet the expenses +of a splendid court, the later margraves had sold various rights +to the towns and provinces of Brandenburg, and so aided the +development of local government. John III. of Saltzwedel had +shared his possessions with his brothers, but in 1303 they were +reunited by his nephew Hermann, who purchased lower Lusatia +in the same year. Hermann’s daughter Agnes married the +elector Valdemar, and on the death of her only brother, John VI., +in 1317, the possessions of the Saltzwedel branch of the family +passed to Valdemar, together with Landsberg and the Saxon +Palatinate, which had been purchased from Albert the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span> +Degenerate, landgrave of Thuringia. Valdemar thus gathered +the whole of the mark under his rule, together with upper and +lower Lusatia, and various outlying districts. He died childless +in 1319, and was succeeded by his nephew Henry II., who died +in 1320, when the Ascanian family, as the descendants of Albert +the Bear were called, from the Latinized form of the name of +their ancestral castle of Aschersleben, became extinct.</p> + +<p>Brandenburg now fell into a deplorable condition, portions +were seized by neighbouring princes, and the mark itself was +disputed for by various claimants. In 1323 King +Louis IV. took advantage of this condition to bestow +<span class="sidenote">Wittelsbach dynasty.</span> +the mark upon his young son, Louis, and thus Brandenburg +was added to the possessions of the Wittelsbach +family, although Louis did not receive the extensive lands of +the Ascanian margraves. Upper and lower Lusatia, Landsberg, +and the Saxon Palatinate had been inherited by female members +of the family, and passed into the hands of other princes, the +old mark was retained by Agnes, the widow of Valdemar, who +was married again to Otto II., duke of Brunswick, and the +king was forced to acknowledge these claims, and to cede districts +to Mecklenburg and Bohemia. During the early years of the +reign of Louis, who was called the margrave Louis IV. or V., +Brandenburg was administered by Bertold, count of Henneberg, +who established the authority of the Wittelsbachs in the middle +mark, which, centring round Berlin, was the most important +part of the margraviate. The quarrel between King Louis +and Pope John XXII. was inimical to the interests of Brandenburg, +which was ravaged by the Poles, torn by the strife of +contending clerical factions, and alternately neglected and +oppressed by the margrave. Trade and commerce were at a +standstill, agriculture was neglected, the privileges and estates +of the margrave passed into private hands, the nobles were +virtually independent, and the towns sought to defend themselves +by means of alliances. During the struggle between the +families of Wittelsbach and Luxemburg, which began in 1342, +there appeared in Brandenburg an old man who claimed to be +the margrave Valdemar. He was gladly received by the king +of Poland, and other neighbouring princes, welcomed by a large +number of the people, and in 1348 invested with the margraviate +by King Charles IV., who eagerly seized this opportunity to deal +a blow at his enemy. This step compelled Louis to make peace +with Charles, who abandoned the false Valdemar, invested +Louis and his step-brothers with Brandenburg, and in return +was recognized as king. Louis recovered the old mark in 1348, +drove his opponent from the land, and in 1350 made a treaty +with his step-brothers, Louis the younger and Otto, at Frankfort-on-Oder, +by which Brandenburg was handed over to Louis +the younger and Otto. Louis, who then undertook the government, +made peace with his neighbours, finally defeated the +false Valdemar, and was recognized by the Golden Bull of +1356 as one of the seven electors. The emperor Charles IV. +took advantage of a family quarrel over the possessions of Louis +the elder, who died in 1361, to obtain a promise from Louis the +younger and Otto, that the margraviate should come to his own +son, Wenceslaus, in case the electors died childless. Louis +the younger died in 1365, and when his brother Otto, who had +married a daughter of Charles IV., wished to leave Brandenburg +to his own family Charles began hostilities; but in 1373 an +arrangement was made, and Otto, by the treaty of Fürstenwalde, +abandoned the margraviate for a sum of 500,000 gold gulden.</p> + +<p>Under the Wittelsbach rule, the estates of the various provinces +of Brandenburg had obtained the right to coin money, to build +fortresses, to execute justice, and to form alliances +with foreign states. Charles invested Wenceslaus +<span class="sidenote">Imperial control.</span> +with the margraviate in 1373, but undertook its +administration himself, and passed much of his time at a castle +which he built at Tangermünde. He diminished the burden of +taxation, suppressed the violence of the nobles, improved +navigation on the Elbe and Oder, and encouraged commerce +by alliances with the Hanse towns, and in other ways. He +caused a <i>Landbook</i> to be drawn up in 1375, in which are recorded +all the castles, towns and villages of the land with their estates +and incomes. When Charles died in 1378, and Wenceslaus +became German and Bohemian king, Brandenburg passed to +the new king’s half-brother Sigismund, then a minor, and a +period of disorder ensued. Soon after Sigismund came of age, +he pledged a part of Brandenburg to his cousin Jobst, margrave +of Moravia, to whom in 1388 he handed over the remainder of +the electorate in return for a large sum of money, and as the +money was not repaid, Jobst obtained the investiture in 1397 +from King Wenceslaus. Sigismund had also obtained the new +mark on the death of his brother John in 1396, but sold this +in 1402 to the Teutonic order. Jobst paid very little attention +to Brandenburg, and the period was used by many of the noble +families to enrich themselves at the expense of the poorer and +weaker towns, to plunder traders, and to carry on feuds with +neighbouring princes. When in 1410 Sigismund and Jobst +were rivals for the German throne, Sigismund, anxious to obtain +another vote in the electoral college, declared the bargain with +Jobst void, and empowered Frederick VI. of Hohenzollern, +burgrave of Nuremberg, to exercise the Brandenburg vote at +the election. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick I.</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Elector of Brandenburg</a></span>.) +In 1411 Jobst died and Brandenburg reverted to Sigismund, +who appointed Frederick as his representative to govern the +margraviate, and a further step was taken when, on the 30th of +April 1415, the king invested Frederick of Hohenzollern and his +heirs with Brandenburg, together with the electoral privilege +and the office of chamberlain, in return for a payment of 400,000 +gold gulden, but the formal ceremony of investiture was +delayed until the 18th of April 1417, when it took place at +Constance.</p> + +<p>During the century which preceded the advent of the Hohenzollerns +in Brandenburg its internal condition had become +gradually worse and worse, and had been accompanied +by a considerable loss of territory. The central power +<span class="sidenote">Condition before the Hohenzollern rule.</span> +had become weakened and the central organization +relaxed, while the electorate had lost most of the +advantages which formerly distinguished it from other +German fiefs. Under the rule of the earliest margraves, it was the +official side of their position that was prominent, and it was not +forgotten that they were technically only the representatives +of the emperor. But in the 13th century this feeling began to +disappear, and Brandenburg enjoyed an independence and +carried out an independent policy in a way that was not paralleled +by any other German state. The emperor was still suzerain +indeed, but his relations with the mark were so insignificant that +they exercised practically no influence on its development; +and so the power of the Ascanian margraves was virtually +unlimited. This independence was enhanced by the fact that +few great nobles had followed Albert the Bear in his work of +conquest, and that consequently there were few large lordships +with their crowd of dependents. The towns, the village communities +and the knights held their lands and derived their +rights directly from the margraves. The towns and villages +had generally been laid out by contractors or <i>locatores</i>, men +not necessarily of noble birth, who were installed as hereditary +chief magistrates of the communities, and received numerous +encouragements to reclaim waste lands. This mode of colonization +was especially favourable to the peasantry, who seem in +Brandenburg to have retained the disposal of their persons and +property at a time when villenage or serfdom was the ordinary +<i>status</i> of their class elsewhere. The dues paid by these contractors +in return for the concessions formed the main source of the +revenue of the margraves. Gradually, however, the expenses +of warfare, liberal donations to the clergy, and the maintenance of +numerous and expensive households, compelled them to pledge +these dues for sums of ready money. This proceeding gave the +barons and knights an opportunity to buy out the village magistrates +and to replace them with nominees of their own. Thus the +condition of the peasants grew worse, and their freedom was practically +destroyed when the emperor Louis IV. recognized the jurisdiction +of the nobles over their estates. Henceforth the power +of the nobles steadily increased at the expense of the peasants, +who soon sank into servitude. Instead of communicating +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span> +directly with the margrave through his burgraves and bailiffs, +or <i>vogts</i>, the village communities came to be represented by the +nobles who had obtained possession of their lands. Many of the +towns were forced into the same position. Others were able +to maintain their independence, and to make use of the pecuniary +needs of the margraves to become practically municipal republics. +Their strength, however, was perhaps more usefully shown in their +ability to resist the nobles, a proceeding which saved industry +and commerce from extinction at a time of unbridled lawlessness. +In the pecuniary embarrassments of the margraves also originated +the power of the <i>Stände</i>, or estates, consisting of the nobles, +the clergy and the towns. The first recorded instance of the +<i>Stände</i> co-operating with the rulers occurred in 1170; but it +was not till 1280 that the margrave solemnly bound himself not +to raise a <i>bede</i> or special voluntary contribution without the +consent of the estates. In 1355 the <i>Stände</i> secured the appointment +of a permanent councillor, without whose concurrence +the decrees of the margraves were invalid. In the century +which followed the extinction of the Ascanian house, liberty +degenerated into licence, and the country was given over to +anarchy. Only the most powerful towns were able to maintain +their independence; others, together with the clergy, regularly +paid blackmail to the neighbouring nobles. Under these conditions +it is no wonder that the electorate not only completely +lost its political importance, but also suffered a considerable +diminution of territory. Upper and lower Lusatia, the new mark +of Brandenburg, and other outlying districts had been shorn +away, and the electorate now consisted of the old mark, the +middle mark with Priegnitz, Uckermark and Sternberg, a total +area of not more than 10,000 sq.m.</p> + +<p>Such was the condition and extent of Brandenburg in 1411 +when Frederick of Hohenzollern became the representative of +King Sigismund therein. Entering the electorate with +a strong force in June 1412, his authority was quickly +<span class="sidenote">Frederick of Hohenzollern, 1412.</span> +recognized in the middle mark, but the nobles of the +old mark and of Priegnitz refused to follow this example. +The two succeeding years were skilfully used by Frederick to +make peace with the neighbouring princes, and having thus isolated +his domestic enemies, he turned his arms against them early in +1414. Their strongholds were stormed, and in a few weeks their +leaders were either prisoners or fugitives. A general peace was +then declared at Tangermünde which enabled Frederick to leave +the mark to the rule of his wife, Elizabeth, and to turn his +attention elsewhere. Returning to Brandenburg as elector in +1416, the last flickers of the insurrection were extinguished; +and when Frederick was invested at Constance in April 1417 +his authority over the mark was undisputed. His next difficulty +was with Pomerania, which had been nominally under the +suzerainty of Brandenburg since 1181. The revival of this +claim by the elector provoked an invasion of the mark by an +army of Pomeranians with their allies in 1420, when Frederick +inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Angermünde; but in +1424 a temporary coolness between the elector and the emperor +Sigismund led to a renewal of the attack which Frederick was +unable to repulse. This reverse, together with the pressure of +other business, induced him to leave Brandenburg in January +1426, after handing over its government to his eldest son, John. +John, called the “Alchemist,” who was born in 1403, had been +disappointed in his hope of obtaining the vacant electoral duchy +of Saxe-Wittenberg in 1423. Lacking the diplomatic and military +qualities of his father, his difficulties were augmented by the +poverty of the country, and the evils which Frederick had suppressed +quickly returned. The feeling of security vanished, +the towns banded themselves together for defensive purposes, +the rights of the margrave were again pledged to provide money, +and in 1432 the land was ravaged by the Hussites. John never +attained to the electoral dignity; for, in 1437, his father in +arranging a division of his territories decided that Brandenburg +should pass to his second and fourth sons, both of whom were +named Frederick. The elder of the two took up the government +at once, whereupon John left the mark for South Germany, where +he remained until his death in 1464.</p> + +<p>Frederick II., who became elector on his father’s death in +September 1440, was born on the 19th of November 1413, and +earned the surname of “Iron” through his sternness +to his country’s enemies. He had little difficulty +<span class="sidenote">Frederick II.</span> +in repressing the turbulence of the nobles which had +been quickened into life during the regency of his brother, but +found it less easy to deal with the towns. Three strong leagues +had been formed among them about 1431, and the spirit of +municipal independence was most prominently represented +by the neighbouring and allied towns of Berlin and Cöln. In +his conflict with the towns over his refusal to ratify all their +privileges the elector’s task was lightened by a quarrel between +the magistrates and the burghers of Berlin, which he was called +in to decide in 1442. He deposed the governing oligarchy, +changed the constitution of the town, forbade all alliances and +laid the foundations of a castle. The inhabitants soon chafed +under these restrictions. A revolt broke out in 1447, but the +power of the elector overawed the people, who submitted their +case to the estates, with the result that the arrangement of 1442 +was re-established. In 1447 Frederick was compelled to cede +the old mark and Priegnitz to his younger brother, Frederick, +under whose feeble rule they quickly fell into disorder. In 1463, +however, when the younger Frederick died childless, the elector +united them again with his own possessions and took measures +to suppress the prevailing anarchy. In his dealings with neighbouring +rulers Frederick pursued a peaceful and conciliatory +policy. In 1442 he obtained some small additions to his territory, +and the right of succession to the duchy of Mecklenburg in +case the ducal family should die out. In 1445 an old feud with +the archbishop of Magdeburg was settled, and in 1457 a treaty +of mutual succession was made with the houses of Saxony and +Hesse. Cottbus and Peitz in Lusatia were acquired, and retained +after a quarrel with George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and the +new mark of Brandenburg was purchased from the Teutonic +order in 1454. An attempt, however, to secure the duchy of +Pomerania-Stettin failed, and the concluding years of this reign +were troubled by warfare with the Pomeranians.</p> + +<p>The general success of Frederick’s rule was secured by the +sedulous care with which he confined himself to the work of +government. He is said to have refused the thrones of Poland +and Bohemia; and although he made pilgrimages to the Holy +Land and to Rome, his interest in ecclesiastical questions +was mainly directed towards quickening the religious life of +his people. He obtained important concessions from Pope +Nicholas V. with regard to the appointment of bishops and other +ecclesiastical matters in 1447, and in general maintained cordial +relations with the papacy. About 1467 his only son, John, died, +and increasing infirmity led him to contemplate abdication. +An arrangement was made with his brother, Albert Achilles, +to whom early in 1470 the mark was handed over, and Frederick +retired to Plassenburg where he died on the 10th of February 1471.</p> + +<p>Albert appeared in Brandenburg early in the same year, and +after receiving the homage of his people took up the struggle +with the Pomeranians, which he soon brought to a +satisfactory conclusion; for in May 1472 he not only +<span class="sidenote">Albert Achilles.</span> +obtained the cession of several districts, but was +recognized as the suzerain of Pomerania and as its future ruler. +The expenses of this war led to a quarrel with the estates. A +subsidy was granted which the elector did not regard as adequate, +and by a dexterous use of his power he established his right to +take an excise on beer. Albert’s most important contribution +to the history of Brandenburg was the issue on the 24th of +February 1473 of the <i>Dispositio Achillea</i>. By this instrument +the elector decreed that the electoral mark should pass in its +entirety to his eldest son, an establishment of primogeniture +which had considerable influence on the future development of +the country. He then entrusted the government to his eldest +son, John, and left Brandenburg. Handicapped by poverty, +John had to face attacks from two quarters. The Pomeranians, +inspired by the declaration of the emperor Frederick III. that +their land was a direct fief of the Empire, and aided by Matthias +Corvinus, king of Hungary, took up arms; and a quarrel broke +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span> +out with John, duke of Sagan, over the possessions of John’s +brother-in-law, Henry XI., duke of Glogau. To deal with these +difficulties Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, and during +his stay drove back the Pomeranians, and added Crossen and +other parts of duke Henry’s possessions to the electorate. Again +left in charge of the country, John beat back a fresh attack made +by John of Sagan in 1482; and he became elector on his father’s +death in March 1486. He added the county of Zossen to his +possessions in 1490, and in 1493 made a fresh treaty with the +duke of Pomerania. Although he brought a certain degree of +order into the finances, his poverty and the constant inroads of +external enemies prevented him from seriously improving the +condition of the country. John, who was called “Cicero,” +either on account of his eloquence, or of his knowledge of Latin, +was interested in learning, welcomed Italian scholars to the +electorate, and strove to improve the education of his people. +He died at Arneburg on the 9th of January 1499, and was +succeeded by his son Joachim I.</p> + +<p>When Joachim undertook the government of Brandenburg +he had to deal with an amount of disorder almost as great as +that which had taxed the energies of Frederick I. a +century before. Highway robbery was general, the +<span class="sidenote">Joachim.</span> +lives and property of traders were in continual jeopardy, and +the machinery for the enforcement of the laws was almost at a +standstill. About 1504 an attack of unusual ferocity on some +Frankfort traders aroused the elector’s wrath, and during the +next few years the execution of many lawbreakers and other +stern measures restored some degree of order. In this and in +other ways Joachim proved himself a sincere friend to the towns +and a protector of industry. Following the economic tendencies +of the time he issued sumptuary laws and encouraged manufactures; +while to suppress the rivalry among the towns he +established an order of precedence for them. Equally important +was his work in improving the administration of justice, and in +this direction he was aided by scholars from the university which +he had founded at Frankfort-on-Oder in 1506. He gave a new +organization to the highest court of justice, the <i>Kammergericht</i>, +secured for himself an important voice in the choice of its +members, and ordered that the local law should be supplemented +by the law of Rome. He did not largely increase the area of +Brandenburg, but in 1524 he acquired the county of Ruppin, +and in 1529 he made a treaty at Grimnitz with George and +Barnim XI., dukes of Pomerania, by which he surrendered the +vexatious claim to suzerainty in return for a fresh promise of +the succession in case the ducal family should become extinct. +Joachim’s attitude towards the teaching of Martin Luther which +had already won many adherents in the electorate, was one of +unrelenting hostility. The Jews also felt the weight of his +displeasure, and were banished in 1510.</p> + +<p>Ignoring the <i>Dispositio Achillea</i>, the elector bequeathed +Brandenburg to his two sons. When he died in July 1535 the +elder, Joachim II., became elector, and obtained the +old and middle marks, while the younger, John, received +<span class="sidenote">Joachim II.</span> +the new mark. John went definitely over to the side +of the Lutherans in 1538, while Joachim allowed the reformed +doctrines free entrance into his dominions in 1539. The elector, +however, unlike his brother, did not break with the forms of the +Church of Rome, but established an ecclesiastical organization +independent of the pope, and took up a position similar to that +of King Henry VIII. in England. Many of the monasteries were +suppressed, a consistory was set up to take over the functions +of the bishops and to act as the highest ecclesiastical court of +the country. In 1541 the new ecclesiastical system was confirmed +by the emperor Charles V. With regard to this policy +the elector was probably influenced by considerations of greed. +The bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus were +secularized; their administration was entrusted to members +of the elector’s family; and their revenues formed a welcome +addition to his impoverished exchequer. Nor did Joachim +neglect other opportunities for adding to his wealth and possessions. +In 1537 he had concluded a treaty with Frederick III., +duke of Liegnitz, which guaranteed to the Hohenzollerns the +succession to the Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau +in the event of the ducal family becoming extinct; this arrangement +is important as the basis of the claim made by Frederick +the Great on Silesia in 1740. The treaty was declared invalid +by the German king, Ferdinand I.; but the elector insisted on +its legality, and in 1545 strengthened his position by arranging +a double marriage between members of his own family and that +of Duke Frederick. Of more immediate consequence was an +arrangement made in 1569 with the representatives of Joachim’s +kinsman, Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, after which the +elector obtained the joint investiture of the duchy of Prussia from +Sigismund II., king of Poland, and was assured of the succession +if the duke’s family became extinct. Joachim’s luxurious habits, +his partiality for adventurers, and his delight in building, led +him to incur such a heavy expenditure that after pledging many +of his lands and rights he was compelled in 1540 to appeal for +help to the estates. Taking advantage of his difficulties, the +estates voted him a sum of money as the price of valuable concessions, +the most important of which was that the elector +should make no alliance without their consent. Fresh liabilities +were soon incurred, and in spite of frequent contributions from +the estates Joachim left at his death in January 1571 a heavy +burden of debt to his son and successor, John George.</p> + +<p>The elector’s death was followed ten days later by that of his +brother, John, and as John left no sons the whole of Brandenburg, +together with the districts of Beeskow and Storkow +which had been added by purchase to the new mark, +<span class="sidenote">John George.</span> +were united under the rule of his nephew, John George. +Born on the 11th of September 1525 this prince had served in +the field under Charles V., and, disliking his father’s policy and +associates, had absented himself from Berlin, and mainly confined +his attention to administering the secularized bishopric of +Brandenburg which he had obtained in 1560. When he became +elector he hastened to put his ideas into practice. His father’s +favourites were exiled; foreigners were ousted from public +positions and their places taken by natives; and important +economies were effected, which earned for John George the +surname of <i>Oekonom</i>, or steward. To lighten the heavy burden +of debt left by Joachim the elector proposed a tax on wheat and +other cereals. Some opposition was shown, but eventually the +estates of both divisions of the mark assented; only, however +at the price of concessions to the nobles, predominant in the diet, +which thrust the peasantry into servitude. Thus the rule of +John George was popular with the nobles, and to some extent +with the towns. Protestant refugees from France and the +Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Brandenburg, and a +period of peace was beneficial to a land, the condition of which +was still much inferior to that of other parts of Germany. In +religion the elector was a follower of Luther, whose doctrines were +prevalent among his people. He had accepted the <i>Formula +Concordiae</i>, a Lutheran document promulgated in June 1580, +and sought to prevent any departure from its tenets. His +dislike of Calvinism, or his antipathy to external complications, +however, prevented him from taking any serious steps to defend +Protestantism from the attacks of the counter-reformation. +He did indeed join the league of Torgau, which voted assistance +to Henry IV. of France in 1591; but he refused to aid the United +Provinces, or even to give assistance to his eldest son, Joachim +Frederick, administrator of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, +whose claim to sit and vote in the imperial diet was contested, +or to his grandson, John George, whose election to the bishopric +of Strassburg was opposed by a Roman Catholic minority in the +chapter. This indifference to the welfare of the Protestants +added to the estrangement between the elector and his eldest son, +which was further accentuated when John George, ignoring the +<i>Dispositio Achillea</i>, bequeathed the new mark to one of his +younger sons. He died on the 8th of January 1598.</p> + +<p>Joachim Frederick, who now became elector, was born on the +27th of January 1546. Since 1553 he had held the bishopric of +Havelberg, since 1555 that of Lebus; he had been administrator +of Magdeburg since 1566, and of Brandenburg since +1571. Resigning these dignities in 1598, he contested his father’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span> +will, and was successful in preventing a division of the electorate. +An agreement with George Frederick, the childless margrave of +<span class="sidenote">Joachim Frederick.</span> +Ansbach and Bayreuth, paved the way for an +arrangement with the elector’s younger brothers, who +after the margrave’s death in April 1603, shared +his lands in Franconia, and were compensated in other ways +for surrendering all claims on Brandenburg. This agreement, +known as the Gera Bond, ratified the <i>Dispositio Achillea</i>. By +George Frederick’s death, Joachim became administrator of +the duchy of Prussia, ruled nominally by the weak-minded +Albert Frederick, but he had some difficulty in asserting his +position. In Brandenburg he made concessions to the nobles +at the expense of the peasantry, and admitted the right of the +estates to control taxation. In religious matters he was convinced +of the necessity of a union between Lutherans and +Calvinists, and took steps to bring this about. Public opinion, +however, in Brandenburg was too strong for him, and he was +compelled to fall back upon the Lutheran <i>Formula</i> and the +religious policy of his father. Joachim seems to have been a +wise ruler, who improved in various ways the condition of the +mark. He married Catherine, daughter of John, margrave of +Brandenburg-Cüstrin, and when he died, on the 18th of July +1608, was succeeded by his eldest son John Sigismund.</p> + +<p>The new elector, born on the 8th of November 1572, had +married in 1594 Anna, daughter of Albert Frederick of Prussia, +a union which not only strengthened the pretensions +of the electors of Brandenburg to the succession in +<span class="sidenote">John Sigismund.</span> +that duchy, but gave to John Sigismund a claim on +the duchies of Cleves, Jülich and Berg, and other +Rhenish lands should the ruling family become extinct. In +March 1609 the death of Duke John William left these duchies +without a ruler, and by arrangement they were occupied jointly +by the elector and by his principal rival, Wolfgang, son of Philip +Louis, count palatine of Neuburg. This proceeding aroused +some opposition, and, complicated by religious considerations +and by the excited state of European politics, almost precipitated +a general war. However, in November 1614 the dispute was +temporarily settled by the treaty of Xanten. Brandenburg +obtained the duchy of Cleves with the counties of Mark and +Ravensberg, but as the Dutch and Spanish garrisons were not +withdrawn, these lands were only nominally under the elector’s +rule. In 1609, John Sigismund had joined the Evangelical +Union, probably to win support in the Rhineland, and the same +consideration was doubtless one reason why, in 1613, he forsook +the Lutheran doctrines of his family, and became an adherent +of the reformed, or Calvinist, faith. This step aroused grave +discontent in the electorate, and, quickly abandoning his +attempts to proselytize, the elector practically conceded religious +liberty to his subjects. Over the Cleves-Jülich succession, John +Sigismund had incurred heavy expenses, and the public debt +had again mounted up. He was thus obliged to seek aid from +the estates, and in return for grants to make concessions to the +nobles. The elector spent much of his time in Prussia striving +to assert his authority in that duchy, and in August 1618, according +to the arrangement of 1569, became duke by the death of +Albert Frederick. He only enjoyed this dignity for a short time, +as he died on the 23rd of December 1619. He was succeeded +by his eldest son, George William.</p> + +<p>The new elector, born on the 3rd of November 1597, proved +a weak and incapable ruler. He had married Elizabeth, daughter +of Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine, and +sister of the elector Frederick V., afterwards king of +<span class="sidenote">George William.</span> +Bohemia, and before his accession had acted as his +father’s representative in Cleves. Although a Protestant he +was under the influence of Adam, count of Schwarzenberg, who +was a Roman Catholic of imperialist sympathies. As a result +the elector remained neutral during the early years of the Thirty +Years’ War in spite of his relationship with Frederick of the +Palatinate, and the obvious danger to his Rhenish lands. This +attitude was not successful. Brandenburg was ravaged impartially +by both parties, and in 1627 George William attacked his +brother-in-law, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who was using +Prussia as a base of operations for his war against Poland. This +campaign was short and inglorious for Brandenburg, and the +elector was soon compelled to make peace. Although alarmed +by the edict of restitution of 1629, George William took no steps +to help the Protestants. In 1631, however, Gustavus Adolphus +marched on Berlin, compelled the elector to cede the fortress of +Spandau, and to aid him with men and money. The Brandenburg +troops then assisted the Swedes until after the death of +Gustavus in 1632, and the Swedish defeat at Nördlingen in 1634, +when the elector assented to the treaty of Prague, which was +made in May 1635 between the emperor Ferdinand II. and John +George I., elector of Saxony. The imperialists did nothing, +however, to drive the Swedes from Brandenburg, and the +unfortunate land was entirely at the mercy of the enemy. This +was the principal reason why the elector was unable to annex +Pomerania when its last duke, Bogislaus XIV., died in 1637. +In 1638 George William transferred his residence to Königsberg, +leaving Schwarzenberg to administer the electorate. Although +his harsh measures aroused some irritation, the count did something +to rid the land of the Swedes and to mitigate its many evils; +but its condition was still very deplorable when George William +died at Königsberg on the 1st of December 1640, leaving an only +son, Frederick William. The most important facts in the internal +history of Brandenburg during the 16th century were the +increase in the power of the estates, owing chiefly to the continuous +pecuniary needs of the electors; the gradual decline in +the political importance of the towns, due mainly to intestine +feuds; and the lapse of the peasantry into servitude. These +events gave a preponderance of power to the nobles, but concurrently +a number of circumstances were silently preparing +the way for a great increase of authority on the part of the ruler. +The substitution of the elector for the pope as head of the church; +the introduction of Roman law with its emphasis on a central +authority and a central administration; the determined and +successful efforts to avoid any partition of the electorate; and +the increasing tendency of the separate sections of the diet to +act independently; all tended in this direction. This new order +was heralded in 1604 by the establishment of a council of state, +devoted to the interests of the elector, which strengthened his +authority, and paved the way for a bureaucratic government.</p> + +<p>When Frederick William, the “Great Elector,” became ruler +of Brandenburg in 1640 he found the country in a very deplorable +condition. Trade and agriculture were almost +destroyed, and the inhabitants, compelled to support +<span class="sidenote">Frederick William, the “Great Elector.”</span> +the Swedish army of occupation, suffered also from +the disorderly conduct of the native soldiers. Although +the young elector spent the two first years of his reign +mainly in Prussia, he was by no means forgetful of Brandenburg, +and began resolutely to root out the many evils which had sprung +up during the feeble rule of his father. The powers of Schwarzenberg +were curtailed; the state council was restored; and the +licence of the soldiers was restrained, while their numbers were +reduced. Then turning his attention to the Swedes a truce was +arranged, and soon afterwards, in return for an indemnity, they +agreed to evacuate the electorate. Having returned to Brandenburg +in 1643, Frederick William remained neutral during the +concluding years of the Thirty Years’ War, and set to work to +organize an army and to effect financial reforms. About the +same time diplomatic methods freed Cleves, Mark and +Ravensberg from foreign troops, but the estates of these lands +gained a temporary victory when the elector attacked their +privileges. However, in 1647 his title was formally admitted +by Wolfgang, count palatine of Neuburg.</p> + +<p>The terms of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 are the best +commentary on the general success of the elector’s policy. +Although he was obliged to give up his claim to the western part +of Pomerania in favour of Sweden, he secured the eastern part +of that duchy, together with the secularized bishoprics of +Halberstadt, Minden and Kammin, and other lands, the whole +forming a welcome addition to the area of Brandenburg. He +was also promised the archbishopric of Magdeburg when its +administrator, Augustus, duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, should die. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span> +This event happened in 1680 when he secured the lands of the +archbishopric. The elector did not, however, take possession +of the newly-acquired territories at once. Fresh difficulties +arose with Sweden, and it was not until 1653 that eastern +Pomerania was freed from her soldiers. Meanwhile a new +quarrel had broken out with Wolfgang of Neuburg. In 1650 +Frederick William attacked his rival, but a variety of circumstances, +among others a change of government in the Netherlands, +and the resistance of the estates of Cleves, thwarted his plans, +and he was compelled to listen to the mediating powers, and to +acquiesce in the <i>status quo</i>.</p> + +<p>Profiting by these reverses the elector then undertook a series +of internal reforms, tending to strengthen the central authority, +and to mitigate the constant lack of money, which was perhaps +his chief obstacle to success; a work in which he was aided by +George, count of Waldeck (1620-1692), who became his chief +adviser about this time. In 1651 the powers of the state council +were extended to include all the lands under the elector’s rule; +and a special committee was appointed to effect financial +economies, and so to augment the electoral resources. In +imperial politics Frederick William supported the election of +Ferdinand, son of the emperor Ferdinand III., as king of the +Romans in 1653; but when the emperor failed to fulfil his +promises, influenced by Waldeck, he acted in opposition to the +imperial interests, and even formed a plan for a great alliance +against the Habsburgs. These projects were disturbed by the +war which broke out in 1655 between Sweden and Poland. In +this struggle the elector fought first on one side and then on the +other; but the important consequences of his conduct belong +rather to the history of the duchy of Prussia (<i>q.v.</i>). The transfer +of the elector’s support from Sweden to Poland in 1656 was +followed by the fall from power of Waldeck, who was succeeded +by Otto von Schwerin (1616-1679), under whose influence the +elector’s relations with the emperor became more cordial.</p> + +<p>The increase in the prestige of Brandenburg was due chiefly +to his army, which was gradually brought to a high state of +efficiency. A proper organization was established to superintend +the pay and maintenance of the soldiers, and they were commanded +by experienced officers, among others by Georg +Derfflingen (1606-1695), and Otto von Sparr (1605-1668). The +general poverty, however, made the estates reluctant to support +a standing army, and after the peace of Oliva in 1660, it was +reduced to about 3500 men. The continual difficulties with the +estates of his different dominions had harassed and hampered +the elector, and the general peace which followed the treaty of +Oliva offered a favourable opportunity to curtail their powers. +Undaunted by two previous rebuffs he attacked the estates of +Cleves, and by a display of force gained a substantial victory. +Some important privileges were annulled, and he obtained a +considerable sum of money. The <i>Landtag</i> of Brandenburg was +not cowed so easily into submission, but an increase of revenue +was obtained, and the stubborn struggle which ensued in Prussia +ended in a victory for the ruler. This increased income enabled +the elector to take a more considerable part in European politics. +In 1663 he assisted the imperialists in their struggle with the +Turks; in 1666 the dispute over Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg +was finally settled, and Brandenburg were confirmed in the +possession of these lands; and in the same year a reconciliation +was effected with Sweden. Several disputes which threatened +to disturb the peace of the Empire were settled through his +mediation, and he compelled the citizens of Magdeburg to do +homage to him. In religious matters he interceded with the +emperor and the diet for the Protestants, and sought, but without +success, to bring about a reconciliation between Lutherans and +Calvinists in Brandenburg.</p> + +<p>The elector’s relations with Louis XIV. of France are full of +interest. After the conclusion of the war of devolution in 1667, +he allied himself with Louis, and together they agreed to support +the candidature of Wolfgang of Neuburg for the vacant Polish +throne. In 1668, moreover, he refused to join the triple alliance +against France, but soon afterwards became aware of the danger +to his country from the aggressive policy of Louis. The United +Provinces were bound to him by religious interests, political +considerations, and family ties alike, and he could not be indifferent +when their position was threatened by France. In spite +of tempting offers from Louis, he was the first to join the Dutch +when they were attacked by Louis in 1672, and conducted an +ineffectual campaign on the Rhine until June 1673, when he was +forced to make peace. In July 1674, however, he joined the +Empire, the United Provinces and Spain, and in return for a +subsidy, fought against France in Alsace. Meanwhile Louis had +instigated the Swedes to invade Brandenburg, which had been +left to the care of John George II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau. +Hastening from Franconia to defend the electorate, Frederick +William gained a complete victory over a superior number of +the enemy at Fehrbellin on the 28th of June 1675, a great and +glorious day for the arms of Brandenburg. Aided by the +imperialists and the Danes, he followed up this success, and +cleared Brandenburg and Pomerania of the Swedes, capturing +Stettin in 1677 and Stralsund in 1678, while an attack made by +Sweden on Prussia was successfully repelled. The general peace +of Nijmwegen was followed by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye +in June 1679 between Sweden and Brandenburg. Owing, +however, to the insistence of Louis XIV. and the indifference, +or weakness, of the emperor Leopold I., the elector was forced +to restore western Pomerania to Sweden, in return for the payment +of 300,000 crowns by France. This feebleness on the part +of his ally induced Frederick William to listen more readily to +the overtures of Louis, and in 1679, and again in 1681, he bound +himself to support the interests of France. He had, moreover, +a further grievance against the emperor as Leopold refused to +recognize his right to the Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and +Wohlau, which had been left without a ruler in 1675. About +1684, however, the foreign policy of Brandenburg underwent +another change. Disliking the harshness shown by Louis to the +Protestants, the elector concluded an alliance with William, +prince of Orange, in August 1685; and entered into more friendly +relations with the emperor. Further incensed against France +by the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, he made an +alliance with Leopold in January 1686, agreeing in return for +a subsidy to send troops against the Turks. Soon afterwards he +received Schwiebus to compensate him for abandoning his claim +on the Silesian duchies, and in a secret treaty made promises +of support to Leopold. The great elector died in May 1688, +leaving his territories to his eldest son, Frederick.</p> + +<p>The remarkable services of Frederick William to his country +can best be judged by comparing its condition in 1640 with that +in 1688. At his accession the greater part of his territory was +occupied by strangers and devastated by war, and in European +politics Brandenburg was merely an appendage of the empire. +Its army was useless; its soil was poor; its revenue was insignificant. +At his death the state of Brandenburg-Prussia was a +power to be reckoned with in all European combinations. +Inferior to Austria alone among the states of the Empire, it was +regarded as the head of the German Protestantism; while the fact +that one-third of its territory lay outside the Empire added to +its importance. Its area had been increased to over 40,000 +sq. m.; its revenue had multiplied sevenfold; and its small +army was unsurpassed for efficiency. The elector had overthrown +Sweden and inherited her position on the Baltic, and had offered +a steady and not ineffectual resistance to the ambition of France.</p> + +<p>While thus winning for himself a position in the councils of +Europe, Frederick William was not less active in strengthening +the central authority within his own dominions. He found +Brandenburg a constitutional state, in which the legislative +power was shared between the elector and the diet; he left it +to his successor substantially an absolute monarchy. Many +circumstances assisted to bring about this change, among the +chief of which were the want of harmonious action on the part +of the estates, and the decline in the political power of the towns. +The substitution of a permanent excise for the subsidies granted +from time to time by the estates also tended to increase his +independence, and the officials or <i>Steuerräthe</i>, appointed by him +to collect this tax in the towns, gradually absorbed many of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> +the administrative functions of the local authorities. The nobles +and prelates generally preferred to raise their share of the revenue +by the old method of a <i>bede</i>, or contribution, thus weakening +the remaining bond between them and the burghers.</p> + +<p>In matters of general administration Frederick William showed +himself a prudent and careful ruler, and laid the foundation of +the future greatness of Prussia in almost every department. +The wounds inflicted by the Thirty Years’ War were in a great +measure healed, and the finances and credit of the state were +established on a firm basis. Agriculture and commerce were +improved and encouraged by a variety of useful measures, and +in this connexion the settlement of a large number of Flemings, +and the welcome extended to French Protestants, both before +and after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, were of incalculable +service. A small but efficient navy was founded, and strict +economy, together with increasing resources, enabled a disciplined +army to be maintained. Education was not neglected, +a trading company was established, and colonies were founded +on the west coast of Africa. In religious matters Calvinists and +Lutherans were placed upon an equality, but the elector was +unable to impress his own spirit of tolerance upon the clergy, +who were occupied with ecclesiastical squabbles while the state +of education and of public morals left much to be desired. The +condition of the peasantry, however, during this reign reached +its lowest point, and the “recess,” or charter, of 1653 practically +recognizes the existence of villenage. While the nobles had been +losing power with regard to the ruler they had been increasing +it at the expense of the peasants. The Thirty Years’ War afforded +them frequent opportunities of replacing the village <i>Schulzen</i>, +or magistrates, with officials of their own; and the fact that their +share of taxation was wholly wrung from the peasants made the +burden of the latter much heavier than that of the townsmen.</p> + +<p>The new elector, Frederick III., followed in general the policy +of his father. Having persuaded his step-brothers to surrender +the principalities bequeathed to them by the great +elector, he assisted William of Orange to make his +<span class="sidenote">Frederick III.</span> +descent on England; then in 1688 allied himself with +other German princes against Louis XIV., and afterwards +fought for the Empire against both France and Turkey. Before +he became elector Frederick had promised the emperor that he +would restore Schwiebus, and he was now called upon to fulfil +this engagement, which after some murmuring he did in 1695. +This fact, however, together with some slights put upon him at +the peace of 1697, led him to look with less favour upon imperial +interests. Frederick’s chief adviser about this time was Eberhard +Danckelmann (1643-1722), whose services in continuing the +reforming work of the great elector were very valuable; but +having made many enemies, the electress Sophia among them, +he fell from power in 1697, and was imprisoned for several years. +The most important work of the elector was to crown the labours +of his father by securing the kingly title for himself and his +descendants. Broached in 1692 this matter was brought up +again in 1698 when the emperor and his ministers, faced with +the prospect of a fight over the Spanish succession, were anxious +to conciliate Brandenburg. It was at length decided that the +title should be taken from Prussia rather than from Brandenburg +as the former country lay outside the Empire, and in return +Frederick promised to assist Leopold with 8000 men. The +coronation ceremony took place at Königsberg on the 18th of +January 1701. The territorial additions to Brandenburg during +this reign were few and unimportant, but the comparative wealth +and prosperity enabled the elector to do a good deal for education, +and to spend some money on buildings. In 1694 the university +of Halle was founded; academies for arts and sciences were +established, and Berlin was greatly improved. The subsequent +history of Brandenburg is merged in that of Prussia (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—H. Brosien, <i>Geschichte der Mark Brandenburg +in Mittelalter</i> (Leipzig, 1887); G.G. Küster, <i>Bibliotheca historica +Brandenburgensis</i> (Breslau, 1743); and <i>Accessiones</i> (Breslau, 1768), +and <i>Collectio opusculorum historiam marchicam illustrantium</i> +(Breslau, 1731-1733); A. Voss and G. Stimming, <i>Vorgeschichtliche +Alterthümer aus der Mark Brandenburg</i> (Berlin, 1886-1890); F. +Voigt, <i>Geschichte des brandenburgisch-preussischen Staats</i> (Berlin, +1878); E. Berner, <i>Geschichte des preussischen Staats</i> (Berlin, 1890-1891); +A.F. Riedel, <i>Codex diplomaticus Brandenburgensis</i> (Berlin, +1838-1865); J. Heidemann, <i>Die Reformation in der Mark Brandenburg</i> +(Berlin, 1889); <i>Forschungen zur brandenburgischen und +preussischen Geschichte</i>, edited by R. Koser (Leipzig, 1888 fol.); +T. Carlyle, <i>History of Frederick the Great</i>, vol. i. (London, 1858); +J.G. Droysen, <i>Geschichte der preussischen Politik</i> (Berlin, 1855-1886); +E. Lavisse, <i>Étude sur une des origines de la monarchie prussienne</i> +(Paris, 1875); B. Gebhardt, <i>Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte</i>, +Band ii. (Leipzig, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDENBURG,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> the central and one of the largest provinces +of Prussia, consisting of a part of the former electorate of +Brandenburg from which it derives its name. With the other +territories of the elector of Brandenburg, it was merged in 1701 +in the kingdom of Prussia, and when the administration of +Prussia was reformed in 1815, Brandenburg became one of the +provinces of Prussia. The boundaries of the new province, +however, differed considerably from those of the old district. +The old mark, the district on the left bank of the Elbe, was added +to the province of Saxony, and in return a district to the south, +taken from the kingdom of Saxony, was added to the province +of Brandenburg. It has an area of 15,382 sq. m., and is +divided into the two governments of Potsdam and Frankfort-on-Oder; +the capital, Berlin, forming a separate jurisdiction. +The province is a sandy plain interspersed with numerous fertile +districts and considerable stretches of woodland, mostly pine and +fir. Its barrenness was formerly much exaggerated, when it +was popularly described as the “sandbox of the Holy Roman +Empire.” It is generally well watered by tributaries of its two +principal rivers, the Elbe and the Oder, and is besides remarkable +for the number of its lakes, of which it contains between 600 and +700. The mineral products comprise lignite, limestone, gypsum, +alum and potter’s earth; barley and rye are the usual cereals; +fruits and vegetables are abundant; and considerable quantities +of hemp, flax, hops and tobacco are raised. The breeding of +sheep receives much attention, and the province exports wool in +considerable quantity. Bees are largely kept, and there is an +abundance of game. The rivers and lakes also furnish fish, +particularly carp, of excellent quality. The climate is cold and +raw in winter, excessively hot in summer, and there are +frequently violent storms of wind. The manufacturing industry +of the province is both varied and extensive, but is for the most +part concentrated in the principal towns. The most important +branches are the spinning and weaving of wool and cotton, the +manufacturing of paper, and the distillation of brandy. Pop. +(1895) 2,821,695; (1905) 3,529,839.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDENBURG,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a town of Germany, capital of the district +and province of same name, on the river Havel, 36 m. S.W. +from Berlin, on the main line to Magdeburg and the west. Pop. +(1905) 51,251, including 3643 military. The town is enclosed by +walls, and is divided into three parts by the river—the old town +on the right and the new town on the left bank, while on an +island between them is the “cathedral town,”—and is also called, +from its position, “Venice.” Many of the houses are built on +piles in the river. There are five old churches (Protestant), all +more or less noteworthy. These are the Katharinenkirche (nave +1381-1401, choir c. 1410, western tower 1583-1585), a Gothic +brick church with a fine carved wooden altar and several interesting +medieval tombs; the Petrikirche (14th century Gothic); the +cathedral (Domkirche), originally a Romanesque basilica (1170), +but rebuilt in the Gothic style in the 14th century, with a good +altar-piece (1465), &c., and noted for its remarkable collection of +medieval vestments; the Gothardskirche, partly Romanesque +(1160), partly Gothic (1348); the Nikolaikirche (12th and 13th +centuries), now no longer used. There is also a Roman Catholic +church. Of other buildings may be mentioned the former town +hall of the “old town” (Altstadt Rathaus), built in the 13th and +14th centuries, now used as government offices; the new Real-gymnasium; +and the town hall in the Neustadt, before which, in +the market-place, stands a Rolandssäule, a colossal figure 18 ft. +in height, hewn out of a single block of stone. A little north of +the town is the Marienberg, or Harlungerberg, on which the +heathen temple of Triglaff and afterwards the church and convent +of St Mary were built. On the top stands a lofty monument +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span> +to the soldiers from the Mark who fell in the wars of 1864, +1866 and 1870-71. The town has a considerable trade, with +manufactures of woollens, silks, linens, hosiery and paper, as well +as breweries, tanneries, boat-building and bicycle factories.</p> + +<p>Brandenburg, originally <i>Brennaburg</i> (<i>Brennabor</i>) or <i>Brendanburg</i>, +was originally a town of the Slavic tribe of the Hevelli, +from whom it was captured (927-928) by the German king +Henry I. In 948 Otto I. founded a bishopric here, which was +subordinated first to the archdiocese of Mainz, but from 968 +onwards to the newly created archbishopric of Magdeburg. It +was, however, destroyed by the heathen Wends in 983, and was +only restored when Albert the Bear recaptured the town from +them in 1153. In 1539 the bishop of Brandenburg, Matthias +von Jagow, embraced the Lutheran faith, and five years +later the Protestant worship was established in the cathedral. +The see was administered by the elector of Brandenburg until +1598 and then abolished, its territories being for the most part +incorporated in the electoral domains. The cathedral chapter, +however, survived, and though suppressed in 1810, it was restored +in 1824. It consists of twelve canons, of whom three only are +spiritual, the other nine prebends being held by noblemen; all +are in the gift of the king of Prussia.</p> + +<p>The “old” and “new” towns of Brandenburg were for +centuries separate towns, having been united under a single +municipality so late as 1717.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Schillmann, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Brandenburg</i> (Brandenburg, +1874-1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDER, GUSTAVUS<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1720-1787), English naturalist, who +came of a Swedish family, was born in London in 1720, and was +brought up as a merchant, in which capacity he achieved success +and became a director of the Bank of England. His leisure time +was occupied in scientific pursuits, and at his country residence +at Christchurch in Hampshire he became interested in the fossils +so abundant in the clays of Hordwell and Barton. A set of +these was presented by him to the British Museum, and they +were described by D.C. Solander in the beautifully illustrated +work entitled <i>Fossilia Hantoniensia collecta, et in Musaeo Britannico +deposita a Gustavo Brander</i> (London, 1766). Brander was +elected F.R.S. in 1754, and he was also a trustee of the British +Museum. He died on the 21st of January 1787.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1842-  ), Danish +critic and literary historian, was born in Copenhagen on the +4th of February 1842. He became a student in the university +in 1859, and first studied jurisprudence. From this, however, his +maturer taste soon turned to philosophy and aesthetics. In 1862 +he won the gold medal of the university for an essay on <i>The +Nemesis Idea among the Ancients</i>. Before this, indeed since 1858, +he had shown a remarkable gift for verse-writing, the results of +which, however, were not abundant enough to justify separate +publication. Brandes, indeed, did not collect his poems till so late +as 1898. At the university, which he left in 1864, Brandes was +much under the influence of the writings of Heiberg in criticism +and Sören Kierkegaard in philosophy, influences which have +continued to leave traces on his work. In 1866 he took part in +the controversy raised by the works of Rasmus Nielsen in a +treatise on “Dualism in our Recent Philosophy.” From 1865 +to 1871 he travelled much in Europe, acquainting himself with +the condition of literature in the principal centres of learning. +His first important contribution to letters was his <i>Aesthetic +Studies</i> (1868), in which, in several brief monographs on Danish +poets, his maturer method is already foreshadowed. In 1870 +he published several important volumes, <i>The French Aesthetics +of Our Days</i>, dealing chiefly with Taine, <i>Criticisms and Portraits</i>, +and a translation of <i>The Subjection of Women</i> of John Stuart Mill, +whom he had met that year during a visit to England. Brandes +now took his place as the leading critic of the north of Europe, +applying to local conditions and habits of thought the methods +of Taine. He became <i>docent</i> or reader in <i>Belles Lettres</i> at the +university of Copenhagen, where his lectures were the sensation +of the hour. On the professorship of Aesthetics becoming vacant +in 1872, it was taken as a matter of course that Brandes would +be appointed. But the young critic had offended many susceptibilities +by his ardent advocacy of modern ideas; he was +known to be a Jew, he was convicted of being a Radical, he was +suspected of being an atheist. The authorities refused to elect +him, but his fitness for the post was so obvious that the chair +of Aesthetics in the university of Copenhagen remained vacant, +no one else daring to place himself in comparison with Brandes. +In the midst of these polemics the critic began to issue the most +ambitious of his works, <i>Main Streams in the Literature of the +Nineteenth Century</i>, of which four volumes appeared between +1872 and 1875 (English translation, 1901-1905). The brilliant +novelty of this criticism of the literature of the chief countries +of Europe at the beginning of the 19th century, and his description +of the general revolt against the pseudo-classicism of the +18th century, at once attracted attention outside Denmark. The +tumult which gathered round the person of the critic increased +the success of the work, and the reputation of Brandes grew +apace, especially in Germany and Russia. Among his later +writings must be mentioned the monographs on <i>Sören Kierkegaard</i> +(1877), on <i>Esaias Tegnér</i> (1878), on <i>Benjamin Disraeli</i> +(1878), <i>Ferdinand Lassalle</i> (in German, 1877), <i>Ludvig Holberg</i> +(1884), on <i>Henrik Ibsen</i> (1899) and on <i>Anatole France</i> (1905). +Brandes has written with great fulness on the main contemporary +poets and novelists of his own country and of Norway, and he +and his disciples have long been the arbiters of literary fame in +the north. His <i>Danish Poets</i> (1877), containing studies of Carsten +Hauch, Ludwig Bödtcher, Christian Winther, and Paludan-Müller, +his <i>Men of the Modern Transition</i> (1883), and his <i>Essays</i> +(1889), are volumes essential to the proper study of modern +Scandinavian literature. He wrote an excellent book on <i>Poland</i> +(1888; English translation, 1903), and was one of the editors of +the German version of <i>Ibsen</i>. In 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen +and settled in Berlin, taking a considerable part in the aesthetic +life of that city. His political views, however, made Prussia +uncomfortable for him, and he returned in 1883 to Copenhagen, +where he found a whole new school of writers and thinkers eager +to receive him as their leader. The most important of his recent +works has been his study of Shakespeare (1897-1898), which was +translated into English by William Archer, and at once took a +high position. It was, perhaps, the most authoritative work on +Shakespeare, not principally intended for an English-speaking +audience, which had been published in any country. He was +afterwards engaged on a history of modern Scandinavian literature. +In his critical work, which extends over a wider field than +that of any other living writer, Brandes has been aided by +a singularly charming style, lucid and reasonable, enthusiastic +without extravagance, brilliant and coloured without affectation. +His influence on the Scandinavian writers of the ’eighties was very +great, but a reaction, headed by Holger Drachmann, against +his “realistic” doctrines, began in 1885 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>). +In 1900 he collected his works for the first time in a complete +and popular edition, and began to superintend a German +complete edition in 1902.</p> + +<p>His brother Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), also a well-known +critic, was the author of a number of plays, and of two psychological +novels: <i>A Politician</i> (1889), and <i>Young Blood</i> (1899).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDING<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from Teutonic <i>brinnan</i>, to burn), in criminal law +a mode of punishment; also a method of marking goods or +animals; in either case by stamping with a hot iron. The +Greeks branded their slaves with a Delta, Δ, for <span class="grk" title="doulos">Δοῦλος</span>. +Robbers and runaway slaves were marked by the Romans with +the letter F (<i>fur</i>, <i>fugitivus</i>); and the toilers in the mines, and +convicts condemned to figure in gladiatorial shows, were branded +on the forehead for identification. Under Constantine the face +was not permitted to be so disfigured, the branding being on +the hand, arm or calf. The canon law sanctioned the punishment, +and in France galley-slaves could be branded “TF” (<i>travaux +forcés</i>) until 1832. In Germany, however, branding was illegal. +The punishment was adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, and the +ancient law of England authorized the penalty. By the Statute +of Vagabonds (1547) under Edward VI. vagabonds, gipsies and +brawlers were ordered to be branded, the first two with a large +V on the breast, the last with F for “fraymaker.” Slaves, too, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span> +who ran away were branded with S on cheek or forehead. This +law was repealed in 1636. From the time of Henry VII. branding +was inflicted for all offences which received benefit of clergy (<i>q.v.</i>), +but it was abolished for such in 1822. In 1698 it was enacted +that those convicted of petty theft or larceny, who were entitled +to benefit of clergy, should be “burnt in the most visible part of +the left cheek, nearest the nose.” This special ordinance was +repealed in 1707. James Nayler, the mad Quaker, who in the +year 1655 claimed to be the Messiah, had his tongue bored +through and his forehead branded B for blasphemer.</p> + +<p>In the Lancaster criminal court a branding-iron is still preserved +in the dock. It is a long bolt with a wooden handle at +one end and an M (malefactor) at the other. Close by are two +iron loops for firmly securing the hands during the operation. +The brander, after examination, would turn to the judge and +exclaim, “A fair mark, my lord.” Criminals were formerly +ordered to hold up their hands before sentence to show if they +had been previously convicted.</p> + +<p>Cold branding or branding with cold irons became in the +18th century the mode of nominally inflicting the punishment +on prisoners of higher rank. “When Charles Moritz, a young +German, visited England in 1782 he was much surprised at this +custom, and in his diary mentioned the case of a clergyman who +had fought a duel and killed his man in Hyde Park. Found +guilty of manslaughter he was <i>burnt</i> in the hand, if that could +be called burning which was done with a cold iron” (Markham’s +<i>Ancient Punishments of Northants</i>, 1886). Such cases led to +branding becoming obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except +in the case of deserters from the army. These were marked with +the letter D, not with hot irons but by tattooing with ink or +gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were also branded with +BC (bad character). By the British Mutiny Act of 1858 it was +enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other penalty, +may order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 in. below +the armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than 1 in. +long. In 1879 this was abolished.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Andrews, <i>Old Time Punishments</i> (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle, +<i>Curious Punishments of Bygone Days</i> (London, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1790-1867), German +philologist and historian of philosophy, was born at Hildesheim +and educated at Kiel University. In 1812 he graduated at +Copenhagen, with a thesis <i>Commentationes Eleaticae</i> (a collection +of fragments from Xenophanes, Parmenides and Melissus). For +a time he studied at Göttingen, and in 1815 presented as his +inaugural dissertation at Berlin his essay <i>Von dem Begriff der +Geschichte der Philosophie</i>. In 1816 he refused an extraordinary +professorship at Heidelberg in order to accompany B.G. Niebuhr +to Italy as secretary to the Prussian embassy. Subsequently +he assisted I. Bekker in the preparation of his edition of Aristotle. +In 1821 he became professor of philosophy in the newly founded +university of Bonn, and in 1823 published his <i>Aristotelius et +Theophrasti Metaphysica</i>. With Boeckh and Niebuhr he edited +the <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, to which he contributed important +articles on Socrates (1827, 1829). In 1836-1839 he was tutor +to the young king Otho of Greece. His great work, the <i>Handbuch +der Geschichte der griechisch-röm. Philos</i>. (1835-1866; republished +in a smaller and more systematic form, <i>Gesch. d. Entwickelungen +d. griech. Philos</i>., 1862-1866), is characterized by sound criticism. +Brandis died on the 21st of July 1867.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Trendelenburg, <i>Zur Erinnerung an C. A. B</i>. (Berlin, 1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDON,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a city and port of entry of Manitoba, Canada, on +the Assiniboine river, and the Canadian Pacific and Canadian +Northern railways, situated 132 m. W. of Winnipeg, 1184 ft. +above the sea. Pop. (1891) 3778; (1907) 12,519. It is in one +of the finest agricultural sections and contains a government +experimental farm, grain elevators, saw and grist mills. It was +first settled in 1881, and incorporated as a city in 1882.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDON,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a market town in the Stowmarket parliamentary +division of Suffolk, England, on the Little Ouse or Brandon +river, 86½ m. N.N.E. from London by the Ely-Norwich line of +the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2327. The church of +St Peter is Early English with earlier portions; there is a free +grammar school founded in 1646; and the town has some +carrying trade by the Little Ouse in corn, coal and timber. +Rabbit skins of fine texture are dressed and exported. Extensive +deposits of flint are worked in the neighbourhood, and the work +of the “flint-knappers” has had its counterpart here from the +earliest eras of man. Close to Brandon, but in Norfolk across +the river, at the village of Weeting, are the so-called Grimes’ +Graves, which, long supposed to show the foundations of a +British village, and probably so occupied, were proved by excavation +to have been actually neolithic flint workings. The pits, +though almost completely filled up (probably as they became +exhausted), were sunk through the overlying chalk to the depth +of 20 to 60 ft., and numbered 254 in all. Passages branched out +from them, and among other remains picks of deer-horn were +discovered, one actually bearing in the chalk which coated it +the print of the workman’s hand.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDY,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> an alcoholic, potable spirit, obtained by the distillation +of grape wine. The frequently occurring statement +that the word “brandy” is derived from the High German +<i>Branntwein</i> is incorrect, inasmuch as the English word (as +Fairley has pointed out) is quite as old as any of its continental +equivalents. It is simply an abbreviation of the Old English +<i>brandewine</i>, <i>brand-wine</i> or <i>brandy wine</i>, the word “brand” being +common to all the Teutonic languages of northern Europe, meaning +a thing burning or that has been burnt. John Fletcher’s +<i>Beggar’s Bush</i> (1622) contains the passage, “Buy brand wine”; +and from the Roxburgh <i>Ballads</i> (1650) we have “It is more fine +than brandewine.” The word “brandy” came into familiar +use about the middle of the 17th century, but the expression +“brandywine” was retained in legal documents until 1702 +(Fairley). Thus in 1697 (<i>View Penal Laws</i>, 173) there occurs +the sentence, “No aqua vitae or brandywine shall be imported +into England.” The <i>British Pharmacopoeia</i> formerly defined +French brandy, which was the only variety mentioned (officially +<i>spiritus vini gallici</i>), as “Spirit distilled from French wine; it has +a characteristic flavour, and a light sherry colour derived from +the cask in which it has been kept.” In the latest edition the +Latin title <i>spiritus vini gallici</i> is retained, but the word <i>French</i> +is dropped from the text, which now reads as follows: “A +spirituous liquid distilled from wine and matured by age, and +containing not less than 36½% by weight or 43½% by volume +of ethyl hydroxide.” The <i>United States Pharmacopoeia</i> (1905), +retains the Latin expression <i>spiritus vini gallici</i> (English title +<i>Brandy</i>), defined as “an alcoholic liquid obtained by the distillation +of the fermented, unmodified juice of fresh grapes.”</p> + +<p>Very little of the brandy of commerce corresponds exactly to +the former definition of the <i>British Pharmacopoeia</i> as regards +colouring matter, inasmuch as trade requirements necessitate +the addition of a small quantity of caramel (burnt sugar) colouring +to the spirit in the majority of cases. The object of this is, as +a rule, not that of deceiving the consumer as to the apparent +age of the brandy, but that of keeping a standard article of +commerce at a standard level of colour. It is practically +impossible to do this without having recourse to caramel colouring, +as, practically speaking, the contents of any cask will always +differ slightly, and often very appreciably, in colour intensity +from the contents of another cask, even though the age and +quality of the spirits are identical.</p> + +<p>The finest brandies are produced in a district covering an area +of rather less than three million acres, situated in the departments +of Charente and Charente Inférieure, of which the centre is the +town of Cognac. It is generally held that only brandies produced +within this district have a right to the name “cognac.” The +Cognac district is separated into district zones of production, +according to the quality of the spirit which each yields. In the +centre of the district, on the left bank of the Charente, is the +<i>Grande Champagne</i>, and radiating beyond it are (in order of merit +of the spirit produced) the <i>Petite Champagne</i>, the <i>Borderies</i> (or +<i>Premiers Bois</i>), the <i>Fins Bois</i>, the <i>Bons Bois</i>, the <i>Bois Ordinaires</i>, +and finally the <i>Bois communs dits à terroir</i>. Many hold that the +brandy produced in the two latter districts is not entitled to +the name of “cognac,” but this is a matter of controversy, as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span> +is also the question as to whether another district called the +<i>Grande Fine Champagne</i>, namely, that in the immediate neighbourhood +of the little village of Juillac-le-Coq, should be added to +the list. The pre-eminent quality of the Cognac brandies is largely +due to the character of the soil, the climate, and the scientific +and systematic cultivation of the vines. For a period—from the +middle ’seventies to the ’nineties of the 19th century—the cognac +industry was, owing to the inroads of the phylloxera, threatened +with almost total extinction, but after a lengthy series of +experiments, a system of replanting and hybridizing, based on the +characteristics of the soils of the various districts, was evolved, +which effectually put a stop to the further progress of the disease. +In 1907 the area actually planted with the vine in the Cognac +district proper was about 200,000 acres, and the production of +cognac brandy, which, however, varies widely in different years, +may be put down at about five million gallons per annum. The +latter figure is based on the amount of wine produced in the two +Charentes (about forty-five million gallons in 1905).</p> + +<p class="pt2">Brandy is also manufactured in numerous other districts in +France, and in general order of commercial merit may be +mentioned the brandies of Armagnac, Marmande, Nantes and Anjou. +The brandies commanding the lowest prices are broadly known +as the <i>Trois-Six de Monlpellier</i>. In a class by themselves are the +<i>Eaux-de-vie de Marc</i>, made from the wine pressings or from the +solid residues of the stills. Some of these, particularly those made +in Burgundy, have characteristic qualities, and are considered +by many to be very fine. The consumption is chiefly local. +Brandy of fair quality is also made in other wine-producing +countries, particularly in Spain, and of late years colonial +(Australian and Cape) brandies have attracted some attention. +The comsumption of brandy in the United Kingdom amounts to +about two million gallons.</p> + +<p>Brandy, in common with other potable spirits, owes its flavour +and aroma to the presence of small quantities of substances +termed secondary or by-products (sometimes “impurities”). +These are dissolved in the ethyl alcohol and water which form +over 99% of the spirit. The nature and quantity of all of these +by-products have not yet been fully ascertained, but the knowledge +in this direction is rapidly progressing. Ch. Ordonneau +fractionally distilled 100 litres of 25-year-old cognac brandy, +and obtained the following substances and quantities thereof:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tccm">Grammes in<br />100 Litres.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Normal propyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">40.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Normal butyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">218.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Amyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">83.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hexyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">0.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Heptyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">1.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ethyl acetate</td> <td class="tcr">35.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ethyl propionate, butyrate and caproate</td> <td class="tcr">3.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oenanthic ether (about)</td> <td class="tcr">4.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aldehyde</td> <td class="tcr">3.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acetal</td> <td class="tcr">traces</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Amines</td> <td class="tcr">traces</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Most of the above substances, in fact probably all of them, +excepting the oenanthic ether, are contained in other spirits, +such as whisky and rum. The oenanthic ether (ethyl pelargonate) +is one of the main characteristics which enable us +chemically to differentiate between brandy and other distilled +liquors. Brandy also contains a certain quantity of free acid, +which increases with age, furfural, which decreases, and small +quantities of other matters of which we have as yet little +knowledge.</p> + +<p>The table gives analyses, by the present author (excepting +No. 3, which is by F. Lusson), of undoubtedly genuine commercial +cognac brandies of various ages.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Genuine Cognac Brandies.</p> + +<p class="center">(Excepting the alcohol, results are expressed in grammes per 100 litres of absolute alcohol.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Age, &c.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Alcohol<br />% by vol.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Acid.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Non-<br />volatile<br />Acid.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Esters.</td> <td class="tccm allb">“Higher<br />Alcohols.”</td> <td class="tccm allb">Aldehyde.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Furfural.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1. <i>New</i> 1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">61.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcc rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2. <i>New</i>, still heated by steam coil</td> <td class="tcc rb">56.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3. <i>New</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">67.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">51</td> <td class="tcr rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">158</td> <td class="tcc rb">152</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">4. <i>Five years old</i>, 1900 vintage</td> <td class="tcc rb">57.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">5. <i>1875 vintage</i>, pale</td> <td class="tcc rb">46.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">177</td> <td class="tcc rb">261</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">6. <i>1848 vintage</i>, brown</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">38.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">254</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">190</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">488</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.1</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Note.</i>—In the above table the acid is expressed in terms of acetic +acid, the esters are expressed as ethyl acetate, and the aldehyde as +acetaldehyde. The “Higher Alcohol” figures do not actually represent these +substances, but indicate the relative coloration obtained with sulphuric +acid when compared with an iso-butyl standard under certain conditions.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Storage and Maturation.</i>—Brandy is stored in specially selected +oak casks, from which it extracts a certain quantity of colouring +matter and tannin, &c. Commercial cognac brandies are generally +blends of different growths and vintages, the blending being +accomplished in large vats some little time prior to bottling. +The necessary colouring and sweetening matter is added in the +vat. In the case of pale brandies very little colouring and +sweetening are added, the usual quantity being in the neighbourhood +of ½ to 1%. Old “brown brandies,” which are nowadays +not in great demand, require more caramel and sugar than do +the pale varieties. The preparation of the “liqueur,” as the +mixed caramel and sugar syrup is termed, is an operation requiring +much experience, and the methods employed are kept strictly +secret. Fine “liqueur” is prepared with high-class brandy, +and is stored a number of years prior to use. Brandy, as is well +known, improves very much with age (for chemical aspects of +maturation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spirits</a></span>), but this only holds good when the spirit +is in <i>wood</i>, for there is no material appreciation in quality +after bottling. It is a mistake to believe, however, that brandy +improves indefinitely, even when kept in wood, for, as a matter +of fact, after a certain time—which varies considerably according +to the type of brandy, the vintage, &c.—there is so much evaporation +of alcohol that a number of undesirable changes come about. +The brandy begins to “go back,” and becomes, as it is called, +“worn” or “tired.” It is necessary, therefore, that the bottling +should not be deferred too long. Sometimes, for trade reasons, +it is necessary to keep brandy in cask for a long period, and +under these conditions the practice is to keep a series of casks, +which are treated as follows:—The last cask is kept filled by +occasionally adding some spirit from the cask next in order, +the latter is filled up by spirit taken from the third cask from the +end, and so on, until the first cask in the row is reached. The +latter is filled up or “topped” with some relatively fresh spirit.</p> + +<p>Brandy is much employed medicinally as a food capable of +supplying energy in a particularly labile form to the body, as +a stimulant, carminative, and as a hypnotic.</p> + +<p><i>Adulteration.</i>—A good deal has been written about the +preparation of artificial brandy by means of the addition of essential +oils to potato or beetroot spirit, but it is more than doubtful +whether this practice was really carried on on a large scale +formerly. What undoubtedly did occur was that much beet, +potato or grain spirit was used for blending with genuine grape +spirit. Prosecutions under the Food and Drugs Act, by certain +English local authorities in the year 1904, resulted in the practical +fixation of certain chemical standards which, in the opinion of +the present writer, have, owing to their arbitrary and unscientific +nature, resulted in much adulteration of a type previously +non-existent. There is no doubt that at the present time +artificial esters and higher alcohols, &c., are being used on an +extensive scale for the preparation of cheap brandies, and the +position, in this respect, therefore, has not been inproved. +Where formerly fraud was practically confined to the blending +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span> +of genuine brandy with spirit other than that derived from the +grape, it is now enhanced by the addition of artificial essences +to the blend of the two spirits.</p> +<div class="author">(P. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANDYWINE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> the name of a stream in Pennsylvania and +Delaware, U.S.A., which runs into the Delaware river a few +miles east of Wilmington, Delaware. It is famous as the scene of +the battle of Brandywine in the American War of Independence, +fought on the 11th of September 1777 about 10 m. north-west of +Wilmington, and a few miles inside the Pennsylvania border. +Sir William Howe, the British commander-in-chief, while opposed +to Washington’s army in New Jersey, had formed the plan of +capturing Philadelphia from the south side by a movement by +sea to the head of Delaware Bay. But contrary winds and +accidents delayed the British transports so long that Washington, +who was at first puzzled, was able to divine his opponents’ +intentions in time; and rapidly moving to the threatened point +he occupied a strong entrenched position at the fords over the +Brandywine, 25 m. south-west of Philadelphia. Here on the +11th of September the British attacked him. Howe’s plan, +which was carefully worked out and exactly executed, was to +deliver an energetic feint attack against the American front, +to take a strong column 12 m. up the stream, and crossing +beyond Washington’s right to attack his entrenchments in rear. +Washington was successfully held in play during the movement, +and General Sullivan, the commander of the American right +wing, misled by the conflicting intelligence which reached him +from up-stream, was surprised about noon by definite information +as to the approach of Cornwallis on his right rear. Changing +front “right back” in the dense country, he yet managed to +oppose a stubborn resistance to the flanking attack, and with +other troops that were hurried to the scene his division held its +ground for a time near Birmingham meeting-house. But Howe +pressed his attack sharply and drove back the Americans for +2 m.; the holding attack of the British right was converted into +a real one, and by nightfall Washington was in full retreat northward +toward Chester, protected by General Greene and a steady +rear-guard, which held off Howe’s column for the necessary time. +The British were too exhausted to pursue, and part of Howe’s +force was inextricably mixed up with the advancing troops of +the frontal attack. The American loss in killed, wounded and +prisoners was about 1000; that of the British less than 600. +Howe followed up his victory, and on the 27th of September +entered Philadelphia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANFORD,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a township, including a borough of the same +name, in New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., at the mouth +of the Branford river and at the head of a short arm of Long +Island Sound, about 7 m. E.S.E. of New Haven. Pop. of the +township (1890) 4460; (1900) 5706 (1968 foreign-born);(1910) +6047; of the borough (1910) 2560. The borough is served by +the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by an +electric line connecting with New Haven. A range of rocky hills +commands fine views of the Sound, the shore is deeply indented, +the harbour and bays are dotted with islands, and the harbour +is deep enough for small craft, and these natural features attract +many visitors during the summer season. In Branford is the +James Blackstone Memorial library (1896), designed by Solon +Spencer Beman (b. 1853) in the Ionic style (the details being +taken from the Erechtheum at Athens). On the interior of the +dome which covers the rotunda are a series of paintings by Oliver +Dennett Grover (b. 1861) illustrating the evolution of book-making, +and between the arches are medallion portraits, by the +same artist, of New England authors—Longfellow, Emerson, +Hawthorne, Lowell, Bryant, Whittier, Holmes and Mrs Stowe. +The library was erected by Timothy B. Blackstone (1829-1900), +a native of Branford, and president of the Chicago & Alton +railway from 1864 to 1899—as a memorial to his father, a +descendant of William Blackstone (d. 1675), the New England +pioneer. The principal industries of Branford are the +manufacture of malleable iron fittings, locks and general +hardware, the quarrying of granite, and oyster culture.</p> + +<p>The territory of Totoket (now the township of Branford) was +purchased from the Indians by the New Haven Plantation, in +December 1638, for eleven coats of trucking cloth and one coat +of English cloth, but with the reservation for a few Indians of +what is still known as Indian Neck. In 1640 the general court +of New Haven granted it to the Rev. Samuel Eaton (1596?-1665), +a brother of Theophilus Eaton, on condition that he brought +friends from England to settle it. As Eaton went to England +and did not return, Totoket was granted in 1644 to settlers +mostly from Wethersfield, Conn., on condition that they should +organize a church state after the New Haven model and join +the New Haven Jurisdiction. The settlement was made in +the same year, and about two years later several new families +came from Southampton, Long Island, under the leadership of +the Rev. Abraham Pierson (<i>c.</i> 1608-1678), an ardent advocate of +the church state, who was chosen pastor at Totoket. The present +name of the township, derived from Brentford, England, was +adopted about 1645. After the members of the New Haven +Jurisdiction had submitted to Connecticut, Pierson, in 1666-1667, +led the most prominent citizens of Branford to New Jersey, +where they were leaders in founding Newark. The borough of +Branford was incorporated in 1893.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E.C. Baldwin, <i>Branford Annals</i>, in Papers of New Haven +Colony Historical Society (New Haven, 1882 and 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANGWYN, FRANK<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1867-  ), English painter, was born +at Bruges, and received his first instruction from his father, the +owner of an establishment for church embroideries and kindred +objects, who took a leading part in the Gothic revival under +Pugin. When the family moved to England, Brangwyn attracted +the attention of William Morris by a drawing on which he was +engaged at South Kensington museum. He worked for some +time in Morris’s studio, and then travelled more than once to the +East, whereby his sense of colour and the whole further development +of his art became deeply influenced. Indeed, the impressions +he then received, and his love of Oriental decorative art—tiles +and carpets—exercised a greater influence on him than any +early training or the works of any European master. His whole +tendency is essentially decorative: a colour-sense of sumptuous +richness is wedded to an equally strong sense of well-balanced, +harmonious design. These qualities, together with a summary +suppression of the details which tie a subject to time and place, +give his compositions a nobly impressive and universal character, +such as may be seen in his decorative panel “Modern Commerce” +in the ambulatory of the Royal Exchange, London. Among +other decorative schemes executed by him are those for “L’Art +nouveau” in the rue de Provence, Paris; for the hall of the +Skinners’ Company, London; and for the British room at the +Venice International Exhibition, 1905. The Luxembourg +museum has his “Trade on the Beach”; the Venice municipal +museum, the “St Simon Stylites”; the Stuttgart gallery, the +“St John the Baptist”; the Munich Pinakothek, the “Assisi”; +the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburg, his “Sweetmeat Seller”; +the Prague gallery, his “Turkish Boatmen”; and the National +Gallery of New South Wales, “The Scoffers.” Brangwyn +embarked successfully in many fields of applied art, and made +admirable designs for book decoration, stained glass, furniture, +tapestry, metal-work and pottery. He devoted himself extensively +to etching, and executed many plates of astonishing vigour +and dramatic intensity. He was elected associate of the Royal +Academy in 1904.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANKS,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (probably akin to Irish <i>brancas</i>, a halter; Ger. +<i>Pranger</i>, fetter, pillory), or <span class="sc">Scolding-Bridle</span>, a contrivance +formerly in use throughout England and Scotland for the +punishment of scolding women. It is said to have originated in +the latter country. It seems to have never been a legalized form +of punishment; but corporations and lords of manors in England, +town councils, kirk-sessions and barony courts in Scotland +assumed a right to inflict it. While specially known as the +“Gossip’s or Scold’s Bridle” the branks was also used for women +convicted of petty offences, breaches of the peace, street-brawling +and abusive language. It was the equivalent of the male punishments +of the stocks and pillory. In its earliest form it consisted +of a hoop head-piece of iron, opening by hinges at the side so as +to enclose the head, with a flat piece of iron projecting inwards +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span> +so as to fit into the mouth and press the tongue down. Later +it was made, by a multiplication of hoops, more like a cage, the +front forming a mask of iron with holes for mouth, nose and eyes. +Sometimes the mouth-plate was armed with a short spike. With +this on her head the offending woman was marched through the +streets by the beadle or chained to the market-cross to be gibed +at by passers. The date of origin is doubtful. It was used at +Edinburgh in 1567, at Glasgow in 1574, but not before the 17th +century in any English town. A brank in the church of Walton-on-Thames, +Surrey, bears date 1633; while another in a private +collection has the crowned cipher of William III. The Ashmolean +Museum at Oxford, the Scottish National Museum of Antiquities +at Edinburgh, the towns of Lichfield, Shrewsbury, Leicester +and Chester have examples of the brank. As late as 1856 it +was in use at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Andrews, <i>Old Time Punishments</i> (Hull, 1890); A.M. +Earle, <i>Curious Punishments of Bygone Days</i> (Chicago, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANT, JOSEPH<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1742-1807), American Indian chief of the +Mohawk tribe, known also by his Indian name, <span class="sc">Thayendanegea</span>, +was born on the banks of the Ohio river in 1742. In early youth +he attracted the attention of Sir William Johnson, who sent him +to be educated by Dr Eleazar Wheelock at Lebanon, Conn., in +Moor’s Indian charity school, in which Dartmouth College had +its origin. He took part, on the side of the English, in the French +and Indian War, and in 1763 fought with the Iroquois against +Pontiac. Subsequently he settled at Canajoharie, or Upper +Mohawk Castle (in what is now Montgomery county, New York), +where, being a devout churchman, he devoted himself to +missionary work, and translated the Prayer Book and St Mark’s +Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (1787). When Guy Johnson +(1740-1788) succeeded his uncle, Sir William, as superintendent +of Indian affairs in 1774, Brant became his secretary. At the +outbreak of the War of Independence, he remained loyal, was +commissioned colonel, and organized and led the Mohawks and +other Indians allied to the British against the settlements on +the New York frontier. He took part in the Cherry Valley +Massacre, in the attack on Minisink and the expedition of General +St Leger which resulted in the battle of Oriskany on the 6th of +August 1777. After the war he discouraged the continuance of +Indian warfare on the frontier, and aided the commissioners of +the United States in securing treaties of peace with the Miamis +and other western tribes. Settling in Upper Canada, he again +devoted himself to missionary work and in 1786 visited England, +where he raised funds with which was erected the first Episcopal +church in Upper Canada. His character was a peculiar compound +of the traits of an Indian warrior—with few rivals for daring +leadership—and of a civilized politician and diplomat of the +more conservative type. He died on an estate granted him by +the British government on the banks of Lake Ontario on the 24th +of November 1807. A monument was erected to his memory +at Brantford, Ontario, Canada (named in his honour) in 1886.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.L. Stone, <i>Life of Joseph Brant</i> (2 vols., New York, 1838; +new ed., Albany, 1865); Edward Eggleston and Elizabeth E. Seelye, +<i>Brant and Red Jacket</i> in “Famous American Indians” (New York, +1879); and a <i>Memoir</i> (Brantford, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANT, SEBASTIAN<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1457-1521), German humanist and +satirist, was born at Strassburg about the year 1457. He studied +at Basel, took the degree of doctor of laws in 1489, and for some +time held a professorship of jurisprudence there. Returning to +Strassburg, he was made syndic of the town, and died on the +10th of May 1521. He first attracted attention in humanistic +circles by his Latin poetry, and edited many ecclesiastical and +legal works; but he is now only known by his famous satire, +<i>Das Narrenschiff</i>(1494), a work the popularity and influence +of which were not limited to Germany. Under the form of an +allegory—a ship laden with fools and steered by fools to the fools’ +paradise of Narragenia—Brant here lashes with unsparing vigour +the weaknesses and vices of his time. Although, like most of the +German humanists, essentially conservative in his religious views, +Brant’s eyes were open to the abuses in the church, and the +<i>Narrenschiff</i> was a most effective preparation for the Protestant +Reformalion. Alexander Barclay’s <i>Ship of Fools</i> (1509) is a +free imitation of the German poem, and a Latin version by +Jacobus Locher (1497) was hardly less popular than the German +original. There is also a large quantity of other “fool literature.” +Nigel, called Wireker (fl. 1190), a monk of Christ Church Priory, +Canterbury, wrote a satirical <i>Speculum stultorum</i>, in which the +ambitious and discontented monk figured as the ass Brunellus, +who wanted a longer tail. Brunellus, who has been educated at +Paris, decides to found an order of fools, which shall combine the +good points of all the existing monastic orders. <i>Cock Lovell’s +Bote</i> (printed by Wynkyn de Worde, c. 1510) is another imitation +of the <i>Narrenschiff</i>. Cock Lovell is a fraudulent currier who +gathers round him a rascally collection of tradesmen. They sail +off in a riotous fashion up hill and down dale throughout England. +Brant’s other works, of which the chief was a version of Freidank’s +<i>Bescheidenheit</i> (1508), are of inferior interest and importance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Brant’s <i>Narrenschiff</i> has been edited by F. Zarncke (1854); by +K. Goedeke (1872); and by F. Bobertag (Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche +Nationalliteratur</i>, vol. xvi., 1889). A modern German translation +was published by K. Simrock in 1872. On the influence of Brant +in England see especially C.H. Herford, <i>The Literary Relations of +England and Germany in the 16th Century</i> (1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANTFORD,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, +on the Grand river, and on the Grand Trunk, and Toronto, +Hamilton & Buffalo railways. The river is navigable to within +2½ m. of the town; for the remaining distance a canal has been +constructed. Agricultural implements, plough, engine, bicycle +and stove works, potteries and large railway shops constitute +the important industrial establishments. It contains an institute +for the education of the blind, maintained by the provincial +government, and a women’s college. The city is named in honour +of the Mohawk Indian chief, Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), +who settled in the neighbourhood after the American War +of Independence, in which he had led the Six Nations (Iroquois) +on the British side. The amalgamated tribes of the Six Nations +still make it their headquarters, and a monument to Brant has +been erected in Victoria Square. Brantford is one of the most +flourishing industrial towns of the province, and its population +rose from 9616 in 1881 to 20,713 in 1907.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (d. 1394), English lord +treasurer and bishop of Exeter, came of a Durham family. +An older relative, Ralph de Brantingham, had served Edward II. +and Edward III., and Thomas was made a clerk in the treasury. +Edward III. obtained preferment for him in the church, and from +1361 to 1368 he was employed in France in responsible positions. +He was closely associated with William of Wykeham, and while +the latter was in power as chancellor, Brantingham was lord +treasurer (1369-1371, and 1377-1381), being made bishop of +Exeter in 1370. He continued to play a prominent part in +public affairs under Richard II., and in 1389 was again lord +treasurer for a few months. He died in 1394 and was buried +in Exeter cathedral.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANTÔME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur and +Abbé de</span> (<i>c.</i> 1540-1614), French historian and biographer, was +born in Périgord about 1540. He was the third son of the baron +de Bourdeille. His mother and his maternal grandmother were +both attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois, and at her +death in 1549 he went to Paris, and later (1555) to Poitiers, to +finish his education. He was given several benefices, the most +important of which was the abbey of Brantôme (see below), but +he had no inclination for an ecclesiastical career. At an early +age he entered the profession of arms. He showed himself +a brave soldier, and was brought into contact with most of +the great leaders who were seeking fame or fortune in the +wars that distracted the continent. He travelled much in +Italy; in Scotland, where he accompanied Mary Stuart (then +the widow of Francis I.); in England, where he saw Queen +Elizabeth (1561, 1579); in Morocco (1564); and in Spain and +Portugal. He fought on the galleys of the order of Malta, and +accompanied his great friend, the French commander Philippe +Strozzi (grandson of Filippo Strozzi, the Italian general, and +nephew of Piero), in his expedition against Terceira, in which +Strozzi was killed (1582). During the wars of religion under +Charles IX. he fought in the ranks of the Catholics, but he +allowed himself to be won over temporarily by the ideas of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span> +reformers, and though he publicly separated himself from +Protestantism it had a marked effect on his mind. A fall from +his horse compelled him to retire into private life about 1589, +and he spent his last years in writing his <i>Memoirs</i> of the illustrious +men and women whom he had known. He died on the 15th of July +1614.</p> + +<p>Brantôme left distinct orders that his manuscript should +be printed; a first edition appeared, however, late (1665-1666) +and not very complete. Of the later editions the most valuable +are: one in 15 volumes (1740); another by Louis Jean Nicolas +Monmerqué (1780-1860) in 8 volumes (1821-1824), reproduced +in Buchan’s <i>Panthéon littéraire</i>; that of the Bibliothèque elzévirienne, +begun (1858) by P. Mérimée and L. Lacour, and finished, +with vol. xiii., only in 1893; and Lalanne’s edition for the +Société de l’Histoire de France (12 vols., 1864-1896). Brantôme +can hardly be regarded as a historian proper, and his <i>Memoirs</i> +cannot be accepted as a very trustworthy source of information. +But he writes in a quaint conversational way, pouring forth his +thoughts, observations or facts without order or system, and +with the greatest frankness and naïveté. His works certainly +gave an admirable picture of the general court-life of the time, +with its unblushing and undisguised profligacy. There is not +a <i>homme illustre</i> or a <i>dame galante</i> in all his gallery of portraits +who is not stained with vice; and yet the whole is narrated +with the most complete unconsciousness that there is anything +objectionable in their conduct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The edition of L. Lalanne has great merit, being the first to indicate +the Spanish, Italian and French sources on which Brantôme drew, +but it did not utilize all the existing MSS. It was only after Lalanne’s +death that the earliest were obtained for the Bibliothèque Nationale. +At Paris and at Chantilly (Musée Condé) all Brantôme’s original +MSS., as revised by him several times, are now collected (see the +<i>Bibliothèque de l’école des Chartes</i>, 1904), and a new and definitive +edition has therefore become possible. Brantôme’s poems (which +amount to more than 2200 verses) were first published in 1881; see +Lalanne’s edition.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANTÔME,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a town of south-western France, in the department +of Dordogne, 20 m. N. by W. of Périgueux by steam-tramway. +Pop. (1906) 1230. The town is built, in great part, +on an island in the river Dronne. It is well known for the remains +of an abbey founded by Charlemagne about 770 and afterwards +destroyed by the Normans. The oldest existing portion is a +square tower dating from the 11th century, built upon a rock +beside the church which it overlooks. It communicates by a +staircase with the church, a rectangular building partly Romanesque, +partly Gothic, to the west of which are the remains of a +cloister. The abbey buildings date from the 18th century, and +now serve as hôtel-de-ville, magistrature and schools. Caves in +the neighbouring rocks were inhabited by the monks before the +building of the abbey; one of them, used as an oratory, contains +curious carvings, representing the Last Judgment and the +Crucifixion. In the middle of the 16th century Pierre de Bourdeille +came into possession of the abbey, from which he took the +name of Brantôme.</p> + +<p>Brantôme has some old houses and a church of the 15th +century, which was once fortified and is now used as a market. +Truffles are the chief article of commerce; and there are quarries +of freestone in the neighbourhood. The dolmen which is known +as Pierre-Levée, to the east of the town, is the most remarkable +in Périgord.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANXHOLM,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Branksome</span>, a feudal castle, now modernized, +and an ancient seat of the Buccleuchs, on the Teviot, +3 m. S.W. of Hawick, Roxburgh, Scotland. It was at Branksome +Hall that Sir Walter Scott laid the scene of <i>The Lay of the Last +Minstrel</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRANXTON,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brankston</span>, a village of Northumberland, +England, 10½ m. E. by N. of Kelso, and 2 m. E.S.E. of Coldstream, +and 10 m. N.W. of Wooler. It was on Branxton Hill, immediately +south of the village, that the battle of Flodden (<i>q.v.</i>) was +fought between the English and the Scots on the 9th of September +1513. During the fight the Scots centre pushed as far as +Branxton church, but “the King’s Stone,” which lies N.W. of +the church and is popularly supposed to mark the spot where +James IV. fell, is some three-quarters of a mile from the scene +of the battle; it is believed in reality to mark the sepulchre +of a chieftain, whose name had already perished in the 16th +century. Branxton church, dedicated to St Paul, was rebuilt +in 1849 in Norman style. Of the older building nothing +remains save the chancel arch.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (d. 1211), lord of Brecknock, Radnor +and Limerick, spent the early part of his life fighting the Welsh +in Radnorshire. He was high in King John’s favour, received a +large number of honours, and was even given the custody of +Prince Arthur. But John and he quarrelled, probably over +money (1207). In 1208 John began to suspect the fidelity of the +whole family, and William had to fly to Ireland. After a number +of attempted reconciliations, he was outlawed (1210) and died +at Corbeil (1211). It is said that his wife and son were starved +to death by John.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Foedera</i>, i. 107; <i>Histoire des ducs</i> (ed. Michel), Wendover; +Kate Norgate’s <i>John Lackland</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>A descendant, William de Braose (d. 1326), lord of Gower, +was a devoted follower of Edward I., and in 1299 was summoned +to parliament as baron de Braose; and his nephew Thomas +de Braose (d. 1361) also distinguished himself in the wars and +was summoned as baron de Braose in 1342. This latter barony +became extinct in 1399; but a claim to the barony of William +de Braose, which, as he had no son, fell into abeyance between +his two daughters and co-heirs, Alina (wife of Lord Mowbray) +and Joan (wife of John de Bohun), or their descendants, may +still be traced by careful genealogists in various noble English +families.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1804-1867), French +painter, was born at Bordeaux, and studied art in Paris, where +in 1825 he won a <i>prix de Rome</i> with a picture (“Chasse de +Méléagre”) now in the Bordeaux gallery. He went to Italy +and painted a number of landscapes which were exhibited +between 1827 and 1835; but subsequently he devoted himself +mainly to animal-painting, in which his reputation as an artist +was made. His “Lutte de taureaux” (1837), in the <i>musée</i> +at Nantes, and his “Vache attaquée par des loups” (1845), +in the Leipzig museum, were perhaps the best of his pictures; +but he was remarkable for his accuracy of observation and +correct drawing. He was elected a member of the Institute +in 1846. He died at Paris on the 28th of February 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAS D’OR,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a landlocked and tideless gulf or lake of high +irregular outline, 50 m. long by 20 m. broad, almost separating +Cape Breton Island (province of Nova Scotia, Canada) into +two parts. A ship canal across the isthmus (about 1 m. wide) +completes the severance of the island. The entrance to the +gulf is on the N.E. coast of the island, and it is connected with +the Atlantic by the Great and Little Bras d’Or channels, which +are divided by Boulardeire Island. One channel is 25 m. long +and from ¼ m. to 3 m. broad, but is of little depth, the other +(used by shipping) is 22 m. long, 1 to 1½ m. wide, and has a depth +of 60 fathoms. The gulf or lake is itself divided into two basins, +the inner waters being known as the Great Bras d’Or Lake. +The waters are generally from 12 to 60 fathoms deep, but in +the outer basin (known as the Little Bras d’Or Lake) are soundings +said to reach nearly 700 ft. The shores of the gulf are very +picturesque and well wooded and have attracted many tourists. +Sea fishing (cod, mackerel, &c.) is the chief industry. The +name is said to be a corruption of an Indian word, but it assumed +its present form during the French occupation of Cape Breton +Island.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASDOR, PIERRE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1721-1799), French surgeon, was born +in the province of Maine. He took his degree in Paris as master +of surgery in 1752, and was appointed regius professor of anatomy +and director of the Academy of Surgery. He was a skilful operator, +whose name was long attached to a ligature of his invention; +and he was an ardent advocate of inoculation. He died in Paris +on the 28th of September 1799.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASIDAS<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (d. 422 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a Spartan officer during the first +decade of the Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Tellis and +Argileonis, and won his first laurels by the relief of Methone, +which was besieged by the Athenians (431 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span> +following year he seems to have been eponymous ephor (Xen. +<i>Hell</i>. ii. 3, 10), and in 429 he was sent out as one of the three +commissioners (<span class="grk" title="symbouloi">σύμβουλοι</span>) to advise the admiral Cnemus. As +trierarch he distinguished himself in the assault on the Athenian +position at Pylos, during which he was severely wounded (Thuc. +iv. n. 12).</p> + +<p>In the next year, while Brasidas mustered a force at Corinth +for a campaign in Thrace, he frustrated an Athenian attack on +Megara (Thuc. iv. 70-73), and immediately afterwards marched +through Thessaly at the head of 700 helots and 1000 Peloponnesian +mercenaries to join the Macedonian king Perdiccas. +Refusing to be made a tool for the furtherance of Perdiccas’s +ambitions, Brasidas set about the accomplishment of his main +object, and, partly by the rapidity and boldness of his movements, +partly by his personal charm and the moderation of his demands, +succeeded during the course of the winter in winning over the +important cities of Acanthus, Stagirus, Amphipolis and Torone +as well as a number of minor towns. An attack on Eion was +foiled by the arrival of Thucydides, the historian, at the head +of an Athenian squadron. In the spring of 423 a truce was concluded +between Athens and Sparta, but its operation was at once +imperilled by Brasidas’s refusal to give up Scione, which, the +Athenian partisans declared, revolted two days after the truce +began, and by his occupation of Mende shortly afterwards. An +Athenian fleet under Nicias and Nicostratus recovered Mende +and blockaded Scione, which fell two years later (421 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Meanwhile Brasidas joined Perdiccas in a campaign against +Arrhabaeus, king of the Lyncesti, who was severely defeated. +On the approach of a body of Illyrians, who, though summoned +by Perdiccas, unexpectedly declared for Arrhabaeus, the Macedonians +fled, and Brasidas’s force was rescued from a critical +position only by his coolness and ability. This brought to a head +the quarrel between Brasidas and Perdiccas, who promptly +concluded a treaty with Athens, of which some fragments have +survived (<i>I.G.</i> i. 42).</p> + +<p>In April 422 the truce with Sparta expired, and in the same +summer Cleon was despatched to Thrace, where he stormed +Torone and Galepsus and prepared for an attack on Amphipolis. +But a carelessly conducted reconnaissance gave Brasidas the +opportunity for a vigorous and successful sally. The Athenian +army was routed with a loss of 600 men and Cleon was slain. +On the Spartan side only seven men are said to have fallen, but +amongst them was Brasidas. He was buried at Amphipolis +with impressive pomp, and for the future was regarded as the +founder (<span class="grk" title="oikistaes">οἰκιστής</span>) of the city and honoured with yearly games +and sacrifices (Thuc. iv. 78-v. 11). At Sparta a cenotaph was +erected in his memory near the tombs of Pausanias and Leonidas, +and yearly speeches were made and games celebrated in their +honour, in which only Spartiates could compete (Paus. in. 14).</p> + +<p>Brasidas united in himself the personal courage characteristic +of Sparta with those virtues in which the typical Spartan was +most signally lacking. He was quick in forming his plans and +carried them out without delay or hesitation. With an oratorical +power rare amongst the Lacedaemonians he combined a conciliatory +manner which everywhere won friends for himself and +for Sparta (Thuc. iv. 81).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See in particular Thucydides, ii.-v.; what Diodorus xii. adds is +mainly oratorical elaboration or pure invention. A fuller account +will be found in the histories of Greece (<i>e.g.</i> those of Grote, Beloch, +Busolt, Meyer) and in G. Schimmelpfeng, <i>De Brasidae Spartani +rebus gestis atque ingenio</i> (Marburg, 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASS,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a river, town and district of southern Nigeria, British +West Africa. The Brass river is one of the deltaic branches of +the Niger, lying east of the Rio Nun or main channel of the river. +From the point of divergence from the main stream to the sea +the Brass has a course of about 100 m., its mouth being in +6° 20′ E., 4° 35′ N. Brass town is a flourishing trading settlement +at the mouth of the river. It is the headquarters of a district +commissioner and the seat of a native court. Its most +conspicuous building is a fine church, the gift of a native chief. +The capital of the Brass tribes is Nimbé, 30 m. up river.</p> + +<p>The Brass river, called by its Portuguese discoverers the Rio +Bento, is said to have received its English name from the brass +rods and other brass utensils imported by the early traders in +exchange for palm-oil and slaves. The Brass natives, of the pure +negro type, were noted for their savage character. In 1856 their +chiefs concluded a treaty with Great Britain agreeing to give +up the slave-trade in exchange for a duty on the palm-oil +exported. Finding their profitable business as middlemen +between the up-river producer and the exporter threatened by +the appearance of European traders, they made ineffective +complaints to the British authorities. The establishment of the +Royal Niger Company led to further loss of trade, and on the +29th of January 1895 the natives attacked and sacked the +company’s station at Akassa on the Rio Nun, over forty +prisoners being killed and eaten as a sacrifice to the fetish gods. +In the following month a punitive expedition partially destroyed +Nimbé, and a heavy fine was paid by the Brass chiefs. Since +then the country has settled down under British administration. +The trade regulations of which complaint had been made were +removed in 1900 on the establishment of the protectorate of +Southern Nigeria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Valuable information concerning the country and people will be +found in the <i>Report by Sir John Kirk on the Disturbances at Brass +(Africa</i>, No. 3, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASS<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>braes</i>), an alloy consisting mainly if not +exclusively of copper and zinc; in its older use the term was +applied rather to alloys of copper and tin, now known as bronze +(<i>q.v.</i>)Thus the brass of the Bible was probably bronze, and so +also was much of the brass of later times, until the distinction +between zinc and tin became clearly recognized. The Latin +word <i>aes</i> signifies either pure copper or bronze, not brass, but +the Romans comprehended a brass compound of copper and zinc +under the term <i>orichalcum</i> or <i>aurichalcum</i>, into which Pliny +states that copper was converted by the aid of cadmia (a mineral +of zinc).</p> + +<p>In England there is good evidence of the manufacture of +brass with zinc at the end of the 16th century, for Queen +Elizabeth by patent granted to William Humfrey and Christopher +Schutz the exclusive right of working calamine and making +brass. This right subsequently devolved upon a body called the +“Governors, Assistants and Societies of the City of London of +and for the Mineral and Battery Works,” which continued to +exercise its functions down to the year 1710.</p> + +<p>When a small percentage of zinc is present, the colour of brass +is reddish, as in <i>tombac</i> or red brass, which contains about 10%. +With about 20% the colour becomes more yellow, and a series +of metals is obtained which simulate gold more or less closely; +such are <i>Dutch metal, Mannheim gold, similar</i> and <i>pinchbeck</i>, the +last deriving its name from a London clockmaker, Christopher +Pinchbeck, who invented it in 1732. Ordinary brass contains +about 30% of zinc, and when 40% is present, as in <i>Muntz, +yellow</i> or <i>patent</i> metal (invented by G.F. Muntz in 1832), the +colour becomes a full yellow. When the proportion of zinc is +largely increased the colour becomes silver-white and finally +grey. The limit of elasticity increases with the percentage of +zinc, as also does the amount of elongation before fracture, the +maximum occurring with 30%. The tenacity increases with the +proportion of zinc up to a maximum with 45%; then it decreases +rapidly, and with 50% the metals are fragile. By varying the +proportion between 30 and 43% a series of alloys may be prepared +presenting very varied properties. The most malleable +of the series has an elongation of about 60%, with a tensile +strength of 17.5 tons per sq. in. Increase in the proportion of +zinc gives higher tensile strength, accompanied, however, by a +smaller percentage of elongation and a materially increased +tendency to produce unsound castings. The quality of copper-zinc +alloys is improved by the addition of a small quantity of +iron, a fact of which advantage is taken in the production of +Aich’s metal and delta metal. Of the latter there are several +varieties, modified in composition to suit different purposes. +Some of them possess high tensile strength and ductility. They +are remarkably resistant to corrosion by sea-water, and are well +suited for screw-propellers as well as for pump-plungers, pistons +and glands. Heated to a dull red delta metal becomes malleable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span> +and can be worked under the hammer, press or stamps. By +such treatment an ultimate tensile strength of 30 tons per sq. in. +may be obtained, with an elongation of 32% in 2 in. and a contraction +of area of 30%.</p> + +<p>In the arts brass is a most important and widely used alloy. +As compared with copper its superior hardness makes it wear +better, while being more fusible it can be cast with greater +facility. It is readily drawn into fine wire, and formed into +rolled sheets and rods which are machined into a huge number +of useful and ornamental articles. It is susceptible of a fine +polish, but tarnishes with exposure to the air; the brilliancy of +the surface can, however, be preserved if the metal is thoroughly +cleansed by “dipping” in nitric acid and “lacquered” with a +coating of varnish consisting of seed-lac dissolved in spirit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASSES, MONUMENTAL,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a species of engraved sepulchral +memorials which in the early part of the 13th century began to +take the place of tombs and effigies carved in stone. Made of +hard <i>latten</i> or sheet brass, let into the pavement, and thus +forming no obstruction in the space required for the services of +the church, they speedily came into general use, and continued +to be a favourite style of sepulchral memorial for three centuries. +Besides their great value as historical monuments, they are +interesting as authentic contemporary evidence of the varieties +of armour and costume, or the peculiarities of palaeography +and heraldic designs, and they are often the only authoritative +records of the intricate details of family history. Although the +intrinsic value of the metal has unfortunately contributed to the +wholesale spoliation of these interesting monuments, they are +still found in remarkable profusion in England, and they were at +one time equally common in France, Germany and the Low +Countries. In France, however, those that survived the troubles +of the 16th century were totally swept away during the reign of +terror, and almost the only evidence of their existence is now +supplied by the collection of drawings bequeathed by Gough to +the Bodleian library. The fine memorials of the royal house of +Saxony in the cathedrals of Meissen and Freiberg are the most +artistic and striking brasses in Germany. Among the 13th-century +examples existing in German churches are the full-length +memorials of Yso von Welpe, bishop of Verden (1231), and of +Bernard, bishop of Paderborn (1340). Many fine Flemish +specimens exist in Belgium, especially at Bruges. Only two or +three examples, and these of late date, are known in Scotland, +among which are the memorials of Alexander Cockburn (1564) +at Ormiston; of the regent Murray (1569) in the collegiate +church of St Giles, Edinburgh; and of the Minto family (1605) +in the south aisle of the nave of Glasgow cathedral. England is +the only country which now possesses an extensive series of +these interesting memorials, of which it is calculated that there +may be about 4000 still remaining in the various churches. +They are most abundant in the eastern counties, and this fact +has been frequently adduced in support of the opinion that they +were of Flemish manufacture. But in the days when sepulchral +brasses were most in fashion the eastern counties of England were +full of commercial activity and wealth, and nowhere do the engraved +memorials of civilians and prosperous merchants more +abound than in the churches of Ipswich, Norwich, Lynn and +Lincoln. Flemish brasses do occur in England, but they were +never numerous, and they are readily distinguished from those +of native workmanship. The Flemish examples have the figures +engraved in the centre of a large plate, the background filled in +with diapered or scroll work, and the inscription placed round +the edge of the plate. The English examples have the figures +cut out to the outline and inserted in corresponding cavities in +the slab, the darker colour of the stone serving as a background. +This is not an invariable distinction, however, as “figure-brasses” +of Flemish origin are found both at Bruges and in +England. But the character of the engraving is constant, the +Flemish work being more florid in design, the lines shallower, +and the broad lines cut with a chisel-pointed tool instead of the +lozenge-shaped burin. The brass of Robert Hallum, bishop of +Salisbury, the envoy of Henry V. to the council of Constance, +who died and was interred there in 1416, precisely resembles +the brasses of England in the peculiarities which distinguish +them from continental specimens. Scarcely any of the brasses +which now exist in England can be confidently referred to the +first half of the 13th century, though several undoubted examples +of this period are on record. The full-sized brass of Sir John +d’Aubernon at Stoke d’Abernon in Surrey (<i>c</i>. 1277) has the +decorations of the shield filled in with a species of enamel. +Other examples of this occur, and the probability is, that, in +most cases, the lines of the engraving were filled with colouring-matter, +though brass would scarcely bear the heat requisite to +fuse the ordinary enamels. A well-known 13th-century example +is that of Sir Roger de Trumpington (<i>c</i>. 1290), who accompanied +Prince Edward in his expedition to Palestine and is represented +cross-legged. About half a dozen instances of this peculiarity +are known. The 14th-century brasses are much more numerous, +and present a remarkable variety in their details. The finest +specimen is that of Nicholas Lord Burnell (1315) in the church of +Acton Burnell, Shropshire. In the 15th century the design and +execution of monumental brasses had attained their highest +excellence. The beautiful brass of Thomas Beauchamp, earl of +Warwick (d. 1401), and his wife Margaret, which formerly covered +the tomb in St Mary’s church, Warwick, is a striking example. +One of the best specimens of plate armour is that of Sir Robert +Stantoun (1458) in Castle Donnington church, Leicestershire, +and one of the finest existing brasses of ecclesiastics is that of +Abbot de la Mare of St Albans. It is only in the 16th century +that the engraved representations become portraits. Previous to +that period the features were invariably represented conventionally, +though sometimes personal peculiarities were given. A +large number of brasses in England are <i>palimpsests</i>, the back of +an ancient brass having been engraved for the more recent +memorial. Thus a brass commemorative of Margaret Bulstrode +(1540) at Hedgerley, on being removed from its position, was +discovered to have been previously the memorial of Thomas +Totyngton, abbot of St Edmunds, Bury (1312). The abbey was +only surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1539, so that before the year +was out the work of spoliation had begun, and the abbot’s brass +had been removed and re-engraved to Margaret Bulstrode. In +explanation of the frequency with which ancient brasses have +thus been stolen and re-erected after being engraved on the +reverse, as at Berkhampstead, it may be remarked that all the +sheet brass used in England previous to the establishment of a +manufactory at Esher by a German in 1649, had to be imported +from the continent.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:522px" src="images/img434a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:238px; height:522px" src="images/img434b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:169px; height:519px" src="images/img434c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:178px; height:523px" src="images/img434d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 1.—Sir John D’Abernon, 1277.<br /> +Stoke D’Abernon Surrey.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 2.—Margaret de Camoys. 1310.<br /> +Trotton, Sussex.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 3.—Henry de Grofhurst, c. 1330<br /> +Horsemonden, Kent.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 4.—Sir Nicholas Burnell, 1382.<br /> +Acton Burnell, Shropshire.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:522px" src="images/img434e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:295px; height:521px" src="images/img434f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:278px; height:519px" src="images/img434g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 5.—Margaret Lady Cobham,<br /> +1385. Cobham, Kent.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 6.—Sir John Corp and Eleanor, his grand-daughter<br /> +1391, 1361. Stoke Fleming, Devonshire.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 7.—Sir Symon de Felbrigge and Margaret his wife,<br /> +1400. Felbrigge, Norfolk.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption">Figs. 1 and 6 from Waller’s <i>Monumental Brasses.</i></td> +<td class="caption">Figs. 5 and 7 from Boutell’s <i>Monumental Brasses.</i></td> +<td class="caption">Figs. 2, 3, and 4 by permission of the <i>Monumental Brass Society</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:283px; height:518px" src="images/img434h.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:221px; height:520px" src="images/img434i.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:251px; height:522px" src="images/img434j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 1.—Thomas de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick and Lady,<br /> +1406 and 1401. St. Mary’s Church, Warwick.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 2.—Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin,<br /> +1417. New College, Oxford.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 3.—Sir William Vernon and Lady, 1467.<br /> +Tong Church, Shropshire.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:306px; height:520px" src="images/img434k.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:207px; height:520px" src="images/img434l.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:300px; height:522px" src="images/img434m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 4.—John Shelley, Esq., 1526, and his wife Elizabeth, 1513.<br /> +Clapham, Sussex.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 5.—Dame Margaret Chute, 1614.<br /> +Mardon, Herefordshire.</td> +<td class="caption">Fig. 6.—Sir Edward Filmer and Lady, 1638.<br /> +East Sutton, Kent.</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc f90"> +Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 6 from Waller’s <i>Monumental Brasses</i>.</td> + +<td class="tcc f90"> +Figs. 4 and 5 by permission of the <i>Monumental Brass Society</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—(1) General: <i>Manual for the Study of Monumental +Brasses</i> (Oxford, 1848); Boutell’s <i>Monumental Brasses of England</i>, +engravings on wood, folio (London, 1849); <i>Manual of Monumental +Brasses</i>, by H. Haines (2 vols. 8vo, 1861); Waller’s <i>Series of Monumental +Brasses in England</i> (London and Oxford, Parkers, 1863); +<i>Monumental Brasses</i>, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, 1890); <i>The Brasses +of England</i>, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, London, 1907). (2) English +Counties: Cotman’s <i>Engravings of the most Remarkable of the Sepulchral +Brasses of Norfolk</i> (4to, London, 1813-1816); and second +edition, with plates and notes by Meyrick, Albert Way and Sir Harris +Nicholas (2 vols. folio, London, 1839); <i>Illustrations of Monumental +Brasses in Cambridge</i> (4to, Camden Society, 1846); <i>Monumental +Brasses of Northamptonshire</i>, by F. Hudson (folio, 1853); <i>The +Monumental Brasses of Wiltshire</i>, by G. Kite (8vo, London, 1860); +<i>Architectural and Historical Notes of the Churches of Cambridgeshire</i>, +by A.C. Hill (8vo, 1880); <i>Monumental Brasses of Cornwall</i>, by +E.H.W. Dunken (4to, London, 1882); <i>Monumental Brasses of +Worcestershire and Herefordshire</i>, ed. by C.T. Davis (1884); <i>Kentish +Brasses</i>, by W.D. Belcher (4to, London, 1888); <i>List of Monumental +Brasses in the County of Norfolk</i>, by the Rev. E. Farrer (Norwich, +1890); <i>The Monumental Brasses of Lancashire and Cheshire</i>, by +James Thornby (8vo, Hull, 1893); <i>Monumental Brasses in the +Bedfordshire Churches</i>, by Grace Isherwood (8vo, London, 1906), +a large collection of rubbings of special interest and value. (3) +Foreign: <i>Monumental Brasses and Incised Slabs in Belgium</i> (8vo, +1849); <i>Books of Facsimiles of Monumental Brasses of the Continent +of Europe</i>, folio (1884), by the Rev. W.F. Greeny.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ÉTIENNE<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1814-1874), +Belgian ethnographer, was born at Bourbourg, near +Dunkirk, on the 8th of September 1814. He entered the Roman +Catholic priesthood, was professor of ecclesiastical history in the +Quebec seminary in 1845, vicar-general at Boston in 1846, and +from 1848 to 1863 travelled as a missionary, chiefly in Mexico +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span> +and Central America. He gave great attention to Mexican +antiquities, published in 1857-1859 a history of Aztec civilization, +and from 1861 to 1864 edited a collection of documents in the +indigenous languages. In 1863 he announced the discovery of +a key to Mexican hieroglyphic writing, but its value is very +questionable. In 1864 he was archaeologist to the French military +expedition in Mexico, and his <i>Monuments anciens du Mexique</i> +was published by the French Government in 1866. Perhaps his +greatest service was the publication in 1861 of a French translation +of the <i>Popol Vuh</i>, a sacred book of the Quiché Indians, +together with a Quiché grammar, and an essay on Central +American mythology. In 1871 he brought out his <i>Bibliothèque +Mexico-Guatemalienne</i>, and in 1869-1870 gave the principles of +his decipherment of Indian picture-writing in his <i>Manuscrit +Troano, études sur le système graphique et la langue des Mayas.</i> +He died at Nice on the 8th of January 1874. His chief merit is +his diligent collection of materials; his interpretations are +generally fanciful.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASSEY, THOMAS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1805-1870), English railway contractor, +was born at Buerton, near Chester, on the 7th of November 1805. +His father, besides cultivating land of his own, held a large farm +of the marquess of Westminster; his ancestors, according to +family tradition, having been settled for several centuries at +Bulkeley, near Malpas, Cheshire, before they went to Buerton +in 1663. Thomas Brassey received an ordinary commercial +education at a Chester school. At the age of sixteen he was +apprenticed to a surveyor, and on the completion of his term +became the partner of his master, eventually assuming the sole +management of the business. In the local surveys to which he +devoted his attention during his early years he acquired the +knowledge and practical experience which were the necessary +foundation of his great reputation. His first engagement as +railway contractor was entered upon in 1835, when he undertook +the execution of a portion of the Grand Junction railway, on the +invitation of the distinguished engineer Joseph Locke, who soon +afterwards entrusted him with the completion of the London and +Southampton railway, a task which involved contracts to the +amount of £4,000,000 sterling and the employment of a body of +3000 men. At the same time he was engaged on portions of +several other lines in the north of England and in Scotland. In +conjunction with his partner, W. Mackenzie, Brassey undertook, +in 1840, the construction of the railway from Paris to Rouen, of +which Locke was engineer. He subsequently carried out the +extension of the same line. A few years later he was engaged with +his partner on five other French lines, and on his own account +on the same number of lines in England, Wales and Scotland. +Brassey was now in control of an industrial army of 75,000 men, +and the capital involved in his various contracts amounted to +some £36,000,000. But his energy and capacity were equal to +still larger tasks. He undertook in 1851 other works in England +and Scotland; and in the following year he engaged in the +construction of railways in Holland, Prussia, Spain and Italy. +One of his largest undertakings was the Grand Trunk railway of +Canada, 1100 m. in length, with its fine bridge over the St +Lawrence. In this work he was associated with Sir M. Peto and +E.L. Betts. In the following years divisions of his industrial +army were found in almost every country in Europe, in India, +in Australia and in South America. Besides actual railway +works, he originated and maintained a great number of subordinate +assistant establishments, coal and iron works, dockyards, +&c., the direction of which alone would be sufficient to +strain the energies of an ordinary mind. His profits were, of +course, enormous, but prosperity did not intoxicate him; and +when heavy losses came, as sometimes they did, he took them +bravely and quietly. Among the greatest of his pecuniary +disasters were those caused by the fall of the great Barentin +viaduct on the Rouen and Havre railway, and by the failure +of Peto and Betts. Brassey was one of the first to aim at improving +the relations between engineers and contractors, by +setting himself against the corrupt practices which were common. +He resolutely resisted the “scamping” of work and the +bribery of inspectors, and what he called the “smothering of +the engineer”; and he did much in this way to bring about +a better state of things. Large-hearted and generous to a +rare degree, modest and simple in his taste and manners, he +was conscious of his power as a leader in his calling, and knew +how to use it wisely and for noble ends. Honours came to him +unsought. The cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred +on him. From Victor Emmanuel he received the cross of +the Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus; and from the emperor +of Austria the decoration of the Iron Crown, which it is said had +not before been given to a foreigner. He died at St Leonards +on the 8th of December 1870. His life and labours are commemorated +in a volume by Sir Arthur Helps (1872).</p> + +<p>He left three sons, of whom the eldest, <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (b. 1836), +was knighted and afterwards (1886) created <span class="sc">Baron Brassey</span>. +Lord Brassey, who was educated at Rugby and Oxford, entered +parliament as a liberal in 1865, and devoted himself largely +to naval affairs. He was civil lord of the admiralty (1880-1883), +and secretary to the admiralty (1883-1885); and both before +and after his elevation to the peerage did important work on +naval and statistical inquiries for the government. In 1893-1805 +he was president of the Institution of Naval Architects. In +1894 he was a lord-in-waiting, and from 1895 to 1900 was governor +of Victoria. In 1908 he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque +Ports. His voyages in his yacht “Sunbeam” from 1876 onwards, +with his first wife (d. 1887), who published an interesting book +on the subject, took him all over the world. Lord Brassey +married a second time in 1890. Among other publications, his +inauguration of the <i>Naval Annual</i> (1886 onwards), and his +volumes on <i>The British Navy</i>, are the most important. His +eldest son Thomas, who edited the <i>Naval Annual</i> (1890-1904), +and unsuccessfully contested several parliamentary constituencies, +was born in 1862.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRASSÓ<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Kronstadt</i>; Rumanian, <i>Braşov</i>), a town of +Hungary, in Transylvania, 206 m. S.E. of Kolozsvár by rail. +Pop. (1900) 34,511. It is the capital of the comitat (county) +of the same name, also known as Burzenland, a fertile country +inhabited by an industrious population of Germans, Magyars +and Rumanians. Brassó is beautifully situated on the slopes +of the Transylvanian Alps, in a narrow valley, shut in by mountains, +and presenting only one opening on the north-west towards +the Burzen plain. The town is entirely dominated by the Zinne +of Kapellenberg, a mountain rising 1276 ft. above the town +(total altitude 3153 ft.), from which a beautiful view is obtained +of the lofty mountains around and of the carefully cultivated +plain of the Burzenland, dotted with tastefully built and well-kept +villages. On the summit of the mountain is one of the +numerous monuments erected in 1896 in different parts of the +country to commemorate the thousandth anniversary of the +foundation of the Hungarian state. It is known as Árpád’s +Monument, and consists of a Doric column erected on a circular +pedestal, which supports the bronze figure of a warrior from the +time of Árpád.</p> + +<p>Brassó consists of the inner town, which is the commercial +centre, and the suburbs of Blumenau, Altstadt and Obere Vorstadt +or Bolgárszeg, inhabited respectively by Germans, Magyars +and Rumanians. To the east of the inner town rises the Schlossberg, +crowned by the citadel, which was erected in 1553, and +constitutes the principal remaining fragment of the old fortifications +with which Brassó was encircled. The most interesting +building in the town is the Protestant church, popularly called +the Black Church, owing to its smoke-stained walls, caused +by the great fire of 1689. This church, the finest in Transylvania, +is a Gothic edifice with traces of Romanesque influence, and +was built in 1385-1425. In the square in front of it is the statue +of Johannes Honterus (1498-1549), “the apostle of Transylvania,” +who was born in Brassó, and established here the +first printing-press in Transylvania. In the principal square +of the inner town stands the town hall, built in 1420 and restored +in the 18th century, with a tower 190 ft. high. Brassó is the +most important commercial and manufacturing town of Transylvania. +Lying near the frontier of Rumania, with easy access +through the Tömös pass, it developed from the earliest time an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span> +active trade with that country and with the whole of the Balkan +states. Its chief industries are iron and copper works, wool-spinning, +turkey-red dyeing, leather goods, paper, cement and +petroleum refineries. The timber industry in all its branches, +with a speciality for the manufacture of the wooden bottles +largely used by the peasantry in Hungary and in the Balkan +states, as well as the dairy industry, and ham-curing are also +fully developed. A peculiarity of Brassó, which constitutes a +survival of the old methods of trade with the Balkan states, +is the number of money-changers who ply their trade at small +movable tables in the market-place and in the open street. +Brassó is the most populous town of Transylvania, and its +population is composed in about equal numbers of Germans, +Magyars and Rumanians. The town, especially on market +days, presents an animated and picturesque aspect. Here are +seen Germans, Szeklers, Magyars, Rumanians, Armenians and +Gipsies, each of them wearing their distinctive national costume, +and talking and bargaining in their own special idiom.</p> + +<p>Amongst the places of interest round Brassó is the watering-place +Zaizon, 15 m. to the east, with ferruginous and iodine +waters; while about 17 m. to the south-west lies the pretty +Rumanian village of Zernest, where in 1690 the Austrian general +Heussler was defeated and taken prisoner by Imre (Emerich) +Tököly, the usurper of the Transylvanian throne.</p> + +<p>Brassó was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1211, and soon +became a flourishing town. Through the activity of Honterus +it played a leading part in the introduction of the Reformation +in Transylvania in the 16th century. The town was almost completely +destroyed by the big fire of 1689. During the revolution +of 1848-1849 it was besieged by the Hungarians under General +Bern from March to July 1849, and several engagements between +the Austrian and the Hungarian troops took place in its neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRATHWAIT, RICHARD<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1588-1673), English poet, son of +Thomas Brathwait, was born in 1588 at his father’s manor of +Burneshead, near Kendal, Westmorland. He entered Oriel +College, Oxford, in 1604, and remained there for some years, +pursuing the study of poetry and Roman history. He removed +to Cambridge to study law and afterwards to London to the +Inns of Court. Thomas Brathwait died in 1610, and the son +went down to live on the estate he inherited from his father. +In 1617 he married Frances Lawson of Nesham, near Darlington. +On the death of his elder brother, Sir Thomas Brathwait, in 1618, +Richard became the head of the family, and an important +personage in the county, being deputy-lieutenant and justice +of the peace. In 1633 his wife died, and in 1639 he married +again. His only son by this second marriage, Sir Stafford +Brathwait, was killed in a sea-fight against the Algerian pirates. +Richard Brathwait’s most famous work is <i>Barnabae Itinerarium +or Barnabees Journall</i> [1638], by “Corymbaeus,” written in +English and Latin rhyme. The title-page says it is written for +the “travellers’ solace” and is to be chanted to the old tune of +“Barnabe.” The story of “drunken Barnabee’s” four journeys +to the north of England contains much amusing topographical +information, and its gaiety is unflagging. Barnabee rarely visits +a town or village without some notice of an excellent inn or a +charming hostess, but he hardly deserves the epithet “drunken.” +At Banbury he saw the Puritan who has become proverbial,</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Hanging of his cat on Monday</p> +<p class="i05">For killing of a Mouse on Sunday.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Brathwait’s identity with “Corymbaeus” was first established +by Joseph Haslewood. In his later years he removed to Catterick, +where he died on the 4th of May 1673. Among his other works +are: <i>The Golden Fleece</i> (1611), with a second title-page announcing +“sonnets and madrigals,” and a treatise on the <i>Art of Poesy</i>, +which is not preserved; <i>The Poets Willow; or the Passionate +Shepheard</i> (1614); <i>The Prodigals Teares</i> (1614); <i>The Schollers +Medley, or an intermixt Discourse upon Historicall and Poeticall +relations</i> (1614), known in later editions as a <i>Survey of History</i> +(1638, &c.); a collection of epigrams and satires entitled <i>A +Strappado for the Divell</i> (1615), with which was published incongruously +<i>Loves Labyrinth</i> (edited, 1878, by J.W. Ebsworth); +<i>Natures Embassie; or, the wildemans measures; danced naked +by twelve satyres</i> (1621), thirty satires finding antique parallels +for modern vices; with these are bound up <i>The Shepheards Tales</i> +(1621), a collection of pastorals, one section of which was reprinted +by Sir Egerton Brydges in 1815; two treatises on +manners, <i>The English Gentleman</i> (1630) and <i>The English Gentlewoman</i> +(1631); <i>Anniversaries upon his Panarete</i> (1634), a poem +in memory of his wife; <i>Essaies upon the Five Senses</i> (1620); +<i>The Psalmes of David ... and other holy Prophets, paraphras’d +in English</i> (1638); <i>A Comment upon Two Tales of ... Jeffray +Chaucer</i> (1665; edited for the Chaucer Soc. by C. Spurgeon, +1901). Thomas Hearne, on whose testimony (MS. collections +for the year 1713, vol. 47, p. 127) the authorship of the <i>Itinerarium</i> +chiefly rests, not inappropriately called him “the scribler +of those times,” and the list just given of his works, published +under various pseudonyms, is by no means complete.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full bibliography is given in Joseph Haslewood’s edition of +<i>Barnabee’s Journall</i> (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1876). See also J. Corser, +<i>Collectanea</i> (Chetham Soc., 1860, &c.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRATIANU<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bratiano</span>), <span class="bold">ION C.</span> (1821-1891), Rumanian +statesman, was born at Pitesci in Walachia on the 2nd of June +1821. He entered the Walachian army in 1838, and visited +Paris in 1841 for purposes of study. Returning to Walachia, +he took part, with his friend C.A. Rosetti and other prominent +politicians, in the Rumanian rebellion of 1848, and acted as +prefect of police in the provisional government formed in that +year. The restoration of Russian and Turkish authority shortly +afterwards drove him into exile. He took refuge in Paris, and endeavoured +to influence French opinion in favour of the proposed +union and autonomy of the Danubian principalities. In 1854, +however, he was sentenced to a fine of £120 and three months’ +imprisonment for sedition, and later confined in a lunatic +asylum; but in 1856 he returned home with his brother, Dimitrie +Bratianu, afterwards one of his foremost political opponents. +During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Bratianu figured +prominently as one of the Liberal leaders. He assisted in 1866 +in the deposition of Cuza and the election of Prince Charles of +Hohenzollern, under whom he held several ministerial appointments +during the next four years. He was arrested for complicity +in the revolution of 1870, but soon released. In 1876, aided +by C.A. Rosetti, he formed a Liberal cabinet, which remained +in power until 1888. For an account of his work in connexion +with the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the Berlin congress, the +establishment of the Rumanian kingdom, the revision of the +constitution, and other reforms, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rumania</a></span>. After 1883 +Bratianu acted as sole leader of the Liberals, owing to a quarrel +with C.A. Rosetti, his friend and political ally for nearly forty +years. His long tenure of office, without parallel in Rumanian +history, rendered Bratianu extremely unpopular, and at its +close his impeachment appeared inevitable. But any proceedings +taken against the minister would have involved charges +against the king, who was largely responsible for his policy; +and the impeachment was averted by a vote of parliament in +February 1890. Bratianu died on the 16th of May 1891. Besides +being the leading statesman of Rumania during the critical years +1876-1888, he attained some eminence as a writer. His French +political pamphlets, <i>Mémoire sur l’empire d’Autriche dans la +question d’Orient</i> (1855), <i>Réflexions sur la situation</i> (1856), +<i>Mémoire sur la situation de la Moldavie depuis le traité de Paris</i> +(1857), and <i>La Question religieuse en Roumanie</i> (1866), were all +published in Paris.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For his other writings and speeches see <i>Din Scrierile şi cuvîntarile +lui I.C. Bratianu</i>, 1821-1891 (Bucharest, 1903, &c.), edited with a +biographical introduction by D.A. Sturza. A brief anonymous +biography, <i>Ion C. Bratianu</i>, appeared at Bucharest in 1893.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRATLANDSDAL<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> Bratland valley), a gorge of southern +Norway in Stavanger <i>amt</i> (county), formed by the Bratland +river, a powerful torrent issuing into Lake Suldal. A remarkable +road traverses the gorge by means of cuttings and a tunnel, +and the scenery is among the most magnificent in Norway. It +is usually approached from Stavanger by way of Sand and Lake +Suldal, and the road divides above the gorge, branches running +north to Odde and south-east through Telemarken. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span> +junction of the roads is near Breifond, 13 m. above Naes at the +mouth of the river, on the west shore of Lake Roldal, which +is fed by the snowfield to the west, north and east, and is drained +by the Bratland river.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRATTISHING,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brandishing</span> (from the Fr. <i>bretèche</i>), in +architecture, a sort of crest or ridge on a parapet, or species +of embattlement. The term, however, is generally employed +to describe the ranges of flowers which form the crests of so +many parapets in the Tudor period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRATTLEBORO,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a village of Windham county, Vermont, +U.S.A., in a township (pop. 1910, 7541) of the same name, in the +south-east part of the state, 60 m. N. of Springfield, Massachusetts, +on the Connecticut river. Pop. (1890) 5467; (1900) +5297 (686 foreign-born); (1910) 6517. It is served by the Central +Vermont and the Boston & Maine railways. Situated in a hilly, +heavily wooded country, it is an attractive place, with a few +houses dating from the 18th century. Among the manufactures +are toys, furniture, overalls and organs, the Estey and the +Carpenter organs being made there. First settled about 1753, +Brattleboro took its name from one of the original patentees, +William Brattle (1702-1776), a Massachusetts loyalist. It was +incorporated ten years later.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Burnham, <i>Brattleboro</i> (Brattleboro, 1880), and H.M. +Burt, <i>The Attractions of Brattleboro, Glimpses of Past and Present</i> +(Brattleboro, 1866).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAUNAU<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (Czech <i>Broumov</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria, +139 m. E.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7622, chiefly +German. The town is built on a rocky eminence on the right +bank of the Steine. It has an imposing Benedictine abbey, once +a castle, but converted into a religious house in 1322, when +Ottakar I. gave the district to the Benedictines. Noteworthy +also is the great church of Saints Wenceslaus and Adalbert, +built between 1683 and 1733. This stands on the site where, in +1618, the Protestants attempted to build a church, the forcible +prevention of which by Abbot Wolfgang Solander was the +immediate cause of the protest of the Bohemian estates and the +“defenestration” of the ministers Martinic and Slavata, which +opened the Thirty Years’ War. After the battle of the White +Hill, near Prague (1620), the town was deprived of all its privileges, +which were, however, in great part restored nine years +later. It is now a manufacturing centre (cloth, woollen and +cotton stuffs, &c.) and has a considerable trade.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAUNSBERG,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, +38 m. by rail S.W. of Königsberg, on the Passarge, 4 m. from its +mouth in the Frisches Haff. Pop. (1900) 12,497. It possesses +numerous Roman Catholic institutions, of which the most +important is the Lyceum Hosianum (enjoying university rank), +founded in 1564 by the cardinal bishop Stanislaus Hosius. +Brewing, tanning, and the manufactures of soap, yeast, carriages +and bricks are the most important industries of the town, which +also carries on a certain amount of trade in corn, ship timber and +yarn. The river is navigable for small vessels. The castle of +Braunsberg was built by the Teutonic knights in 1241, and the +town was founded ten years later. Destroyed by the Prussians +in 1262, it was restored in 1279. The town, which was the seat +of the bishops of Ermeland from 1255 to 1298, was granted the +“law of Lübeck” by its bishop in 1284, and admitted to the +Hanseatic League. After numerous vicissitudes it fell into +the hands of the Poles in 1520, and in 1626 it was captured +by Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedes kept possession till 1635. +It fell to Prussia by the first partition of Poland in 1772.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAVO<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (Ital. for “brave”), the name for hired assassins +such as were formerly common in Italy. The word had at first +no evil meaning, but was applied to the retainers of the great +noble houses, or to the cavalier-type of swashbucklers familiar in +fiction. In later Italian history, especially in that of Venice, +the <i>bravi</i> were desperate ruffians who for payment were ready +to commit any crime, however foul.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAWLING<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (probably connected with Ger. <i>brallen</i>, to roar, +shout), in law, the offence of quarrelling, or creating a disturbance +in a church or churchyard. During the early stages +of the Reformation in England religious controversy too often +became converted into actual disturbance, and the ritual lawlessness +of the parochial clergy very frequently provoked popular +violence. To repress these disturbances an act was passed in +1551, by which it was enacted “that if any person shall, by +words only, quarrel, chide or brawl in any church or churchyard, +it shall be lawful for the ordinary of the place where the same +shall be done and proved by two lawful witnesses, to suspend +any person so offending, if he be a layman, from the entrance of +the church, and if he be a clerk, from the ministration of his +office, for so long as the said ordinary shall think meet, according +to the fault.” An act of 1553 added the punishment of +imprisonment until the party should repent. The act of 1551 +was partly repealed in 1828 and wholly repealed as regards +laymen by the Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860. +Under that act, which applies to Ireland as well as to England, +persons guilty of riotous, violent or indecent behaviour, in +churches and chapels of the Church of England or Ireland, or in +any chapel of any religious denomination, or in England in any +place of religious worship duly certified, or in churchyards or +burial-grounds, are liable on conviction before two justices to a +penalty of not more than £5, or imprisonment for any term not +exceeding two months. This enactment applies to clergy as well +as to laity, and a clergyman of the Church of England convicted +under it may also be dealt with under the Clergy Discipline Act +of 1892 (<i>Girt v. Fillingham</i>, 1901, L.R. Prob. 176). When Mr +J. Kensit during an ordination service in St Paul’s cathedral +“objected” to one of the candidates for ordination, on grounds +which did not constitute an impediment or notable crime within +the meaning of the ordination service, he was held to have +unlawfully disturbed the bishop of London in the conduct of the +service, and to be liable to conviction under the act of 1860 +(<i>Kensit</i> v. <i>Dean and Chapter of St Paul’s</i>, 1905, L.R. 2 K.B. 249). +The public worship of Protestant Dissenters, Roman Catholics +and Jews in England had before 1860 been protected by a series +of statutes beginning with the Toleration Act of 1689, and ending +with the Liberty of Religious Worship Act 1855. These enactments, +though not repealed, are for practical purposes superseded +by the summary remedy given by the act of 1860. In Scotland +disturbance of public worship is punishable as a breach of the +peace (<i>Dougall</i> v. <i>Dykes</i>, 1861, 4 Irvine 101).</p> + +<p>In British possessions abroad interference with religious worship +is usually dealt with by legislation, and not as a common-law +offence. In India it is an offence voluntarily to cause disturbance +to any assembly lawfully engaged in the performance +of religious worship or religious ceremonies (Penal Code, s. 296). +Under the Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (s. 207) penalties +are imposed on persons who wilfully and without lawful justification +or excuse (the proof of which lies on them) disquiet or +disturb any meeting of persons lawfully assembled for religious +worship, or assault any forces lawfully officiating at such meeting, +or any of the persons there assembled.</p> + +<p>In the United States disturbance of religious worship is treated +as an offence under the common law, which is in many states +supplemented by legislation (see Bishop, <i>Amer. Crim. Law</i>, +8th ed. 1892, vol. i. s. 542, vol. ii. ss. 303-305; California +Penal Code, s. 302; <i>Revised Laws of Massachusetts</i>, 1902, +chap. 212, s. 30.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAY, SIR REGINALD<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (d. 1503), British statesman and +architect, was the second son of Sir Richard Bray, one of the +privy council of Henry VI. Reginald was born in the parish +of St John Bedwardine, near Worcester, but the date of his +birth is uncertain. He was receiver-general and steward of the +household to Sir Henry Stafford, second husband of Margaret, +countess of Richmond, whose son afterwards became King +Henry VII. The accession of the king Henry VII. favoured +the fortunes of Reginald Bray, who was created a knight of the +Bath at the coronation and afterwards a knight of the Garter. +In the first year of Henry VII.’s reign he was given a grant +of the constableship of Oakham Castle in Rutland, and was +appointed joint chief justice with Lord Fitz Walter of all the forest +south of Trent and chosen of the privy council. Subsequently +he was made high treasurer and chancellor of the duchy of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span> +Lancaster. In October 1494 he became high steward of the +university of Oxford, and he was a member of the parliament +summoned in the 11th year of Henry VII’s reign. In June +1497 he was at the battle of Blackheath, and his services in +repressing the Cornish rebels were rewarded with a gift of estates +and the title of knight banneret. His taste and skill in architecture +are attested by Henry VII.’s chapel at Westminster +and St George’s chapel at Windsor. He directed the building +of the former, and the finishing and decoration of the latter, +to which, moreover, he was a liberal contributor, building at +his own expense a chapel still called by his name and ornamented +with his crest, the initial letters of his name, and a device representing +the hemp-bray, an instrument used by hemp manufacturers. +He died in 1503, before the Westminster chapel was +completed, and was interred in St George’s chapel.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAY, THOMAS<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1656-1730), English divine, was born at +Marton, Shropshire, in 1656, and educated at All Souls’ College, +Oxford. After leaving the university he was appointed vicar +of Over-Whitacre, and rector of Sheldon in Warwickshire, +where he wrote his famous <i>Catechetical Lectures</i>. Henry Compton, +bishop of London, appointed him in 1696 as his commissary to +organize the Anglican church in Maryland, and he was in that +colony in 1699-1700. He took a great interest in colonial +missions, especially among the American Indians, and it is to +his exertions that the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel +owes its existence. He also projected a successful scheme +for establishing parish libraries in England and America, out +of which grew the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. +From 1706 till his death in February 1730 he was rector of St +Botolph-Without, Aldgate, London, being unceasingly engaged +in philanthropic and literary pursuits.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAY,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division +of Berkshire, England, beautifully situated on the west (right) +bank of the Thames, 1 m. S. of Maidenhead Bridge. Pop. (1901) +2978. There are numerous riverside residences in the locality. +The church of St Michael has portions of various dates from +the Early English period onward, and is much restored. It +contains a number of brasses of the 14th, 15th, 16th and 17th +centuries. A well-known ballad, “The Vicar of Bray,” tells +how a vicar held his position by easy conversions of faith according +to necessity, from the days of Charles II. until the accession +of George I. and the foundation of “the illustrious house of +Hanover” (1714). One Francis Carswell, who is buried in the +church, was vicar for forty-two years, approximately during +this period, dying in 1709; but the legend is earlier, and the name +of the vicar who gave rise to it is not certainly known. That of +Simon Aleyn, who held the office from c. 1540 to 1588, is generally +accepted, as, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary +and Elizabeth, he is said to have been successively Papist, +Protestant, Papist and Protestant. The name of Simon Simonds +is also given on the authority of the vicar of the parish in 1745; +Simonds died a canon of Windsor in 1551, but had been vicar of +Bray. Tradition ascribes the song to a soldier in Colonel Fuller’s +troop of dragoons in the reign of George I.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAY,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a seaport and watering-place of Co. Wicklow, +Ireland, 12 m. S.S.E. of Dublin on the Dublin & South-Eastern +railway, situated on both sides of the river Bray. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 7424. For parliamentary purposes it is divided +between the eastern division of county Wicklow and the southern +of county Dublin. A harbour was constructed by the urban +district council (the harbour authority) which accommodates +ships of 400 tons. There is some industry in brewing, milling +and fishing, but the town, which is known as the “Irish Brighton,” +is almost wholly dependent for its prosperity on visitors from +Dublin and elsewhere. It therefore possesses all the equipments +of a modern seaside resort; there is a fine sea-wall with esplanade +upwards of a mile in length; the bathing is good, and race +meetings are held. The town is rapidly increasing in size. +The coast, especially towards the promontory of Bray Head, +offers beautiful sea-views, and some of the best inland scenery +in the county is readily accessible, such as the Glens of the Dargle +and the Downs, the demesne of Powerscourt, the Bray river, +with its loughs, and the pass of the Scalp. The demesne of +Kilruddery, the seat of the earls of Meath, is specially beautiful. +About 1170 Bray was bestowed by Richard de Clare or Strongbow, +earl of Pembroke and Strigul, on Walter de Reddesford, +who took the title of baron of Bray, and built a castle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1773-1854), English +antiquary and topographer, was born at Lambeth, London, in +1773. He was apprenticed to the enamelling trade, but early +developed literary tastes. He formed a close friendship with +John Britton, which lasted for sixty-five years. They entered +into a literary partnership, and after some small successes at +song and play writing they became joint editors of <i>The Beauties +of England and Wales</i>, themselves writing many of the volumes. +Long after he had become famous as a topographer, Brayley +continued his enamel work. In 1823 he was elected a fellow of +the Society of Antiquaries. He died in London on the 23rd of +September 1854. His other works include <i>Sir Reginalde or the +Black Tower</i> (1803); <i>Views in Suffolk, Norfolk and Northamptonshire, +illustrative of works of Robt. Bloowifield</i> (1806); +<i>Lambeth Palace</i> (1806); +<i>The History of the Abbey Church of Westminster</i> (2 vols., 1818); +<i>Topographical Sketches of Brighthelmstone</i> (1825); +<i>Historical and Descriptive Accounts of Theatres of London</i> (1826); +<i>Londiniana</i> (1829); <i>History of Surrey</i> (5 vols., 1841-1848).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZIER<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>brasier</i>, which comes from <i>braise</i>, +hot charcoal), a metal receptacle for holding burning coals or +charcoal, much used in southern Europe and the East for +warming rooms. Braziers are often elegant in form, and highly +artistic in ornamentation, with chased or embossed feet and +decorated exteriors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brasil</span>, a legendary island in the Atlantic Ocean. +The name connects itself with the red dye-woods so called in the +middle ages, possibly also applied to other vegetable dyes, and +so descending from the <i>Insulae Purpurariae</i> of Pliny. It first +appears as the <i>I. de Brazi</i> in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco +(1436), where it is found attached to one of the larger islands +of the Azores. When this group became better known and was +colonized, the island in question was renamed Terceira. It is +probable that the familiar existence of “Brazil” as a geographical +name led to its bestowal upon the vast region of South +America, which was found to supply dye-woods kindred to those +which the name properly denoted. The older memory survived +also, and the Island of Brazil retained its place in mid-ocean, +some hundred miles to the west of Ireland, both in the traditions +of the forecastle and in charts. In J. Purdy’s <i>General Chart of +the Atlantic</i>, “corrected to 1830,” the “Brazil Rock (high)” is +marked with no indication of doubt, in 51° 10′ N. and 15° 50′ W. +In a chart of currents by A.G. Findlay, dated 1853, these names +appear again. But in his 12th edition of Purdy’s <i>Memoir +Descriptive and Explanatory of the N. Atlantic Ocean</i> (1865), the +existence of Brazil and some other legendary islands is briefly +discussed and rejected. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Atlantis</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a republic of South America, the largest political +division of that continent and the third largest of the western +hemisphere. It is larger than the continental United States +excluding Alaska, and slightly larger than the great bulk of +Europe lying east of France. Its extreme dimensions are 2629 m. +from Cape Orange (4° 21′ N.) almost due south to the river +Chuy (33° 45′ S. lat.), and 2691 m. from Olinda (Ponta de Pedra, +8° 0′ 57″ S., 34° 50′ W.) due west to the Peruvian frontier (about +73° 50′ W.). The most northerly point, the Serra Roraima on +the Venezuela and British Guiana frontier (5° 10′ N.), is 56 m. +farther north than Cape Orange. The area, which was augmented +by more than 60,000 sq. m. in 1903 and diminished slightly in +the boundary adjustment with British Guiana (1904), is estimated +to have been 3,228,452 sq. m. in 1900 (A. Supan, <i>Die Bevölkerung +der Erde</i>, Gotha, 1904). A subsequent planimetric calculation, +which takes into account these territorial changes, increases the +area to 3,270,000 sq. m.</p> + +<p><i>Boundaries.</i>—Brazil is bounded N. by Colombia, Venezuela +and the Guianas, N.E., E. and S.E. by the Atlantic, S. by +Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia, and W. by Argentina, Paraguay, +Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. Its territory +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span> +touches that of every South American nation, except Chile, +and with each one there has been a boundary dispute at some +stage in its political life. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns +attempted to define the limits between their American colonies +in 1750 and 1777, and the lines adopted still serve in great part +to separate Brazil from its neighbours. Lack of information +regarding the geographical features of the interior, however, led +to some indefinite descriptions, and these have been fruitful +sources of dispute ever since. The Portuguese were persistent +trespassers in early colonial times, and their land-hunger took +them far beyond the limits fixed by Pope Alexander VI. In the +boundary disputes which have followed, Brazil seems to have +pursued this traditional policy, and generally with success.</p> + +<p>Beginning at the mouth of the Arroyo del Chuy, at the southern +extremity of a long sandbank separating Lake Mirim from the +Atlantic (33°45′ S. lat.), the boundary line between Brazil and +Uruguay passes up that rivulet and across to the most southerly +tributary of Lake Mirim, thence down the western shore of that +lake to the Jaguarão and up that river to its most southerly +source. The line then crosses to the hill-range called Cuchilla +de Sant’ Anna, which is followed in a north-west direction to the +source of the Cuareim, or Quarahy, this river becoming the +boundary down to the Uruguay. This line was fixed by the +treaty of 1851, by which the control of Lake Mirim remains with +Brazil. Beginning at the mouth of the Quarahy, the boundary +line between Brazil and Argentina ascends the Uruguay, crosses +to the source of the Santo Antonio, and descends that small +stream and the Iguassú to the Paraná, where it terminates. +This line was defined by the treaty of 1857, and by the decision +of President Cleveland in 1895 with regard to the small section +between the Uruguay and Iguassú rivers. The boundary with +Paraguay was definitely settled in 1872. It ascends the Paraná +to the great falls of Guayrá, or Sete Quedas, and thence westward +along the water-parting of the Sierra de Maracayú to the <i>cerro</i> +of that name, thence northerly along the Sierra d’Amambay to +the source of the Estrella, a small tributary of the Apá, and +thence down those two streams to the Paraguay. From this +point the line ascends the Paraguay to the mouth of the Rio +Negro, the outlet of the Bahia Negra, where the Bolivian boundary +begins. As regards the Peruvian boundary, an agreement was +reached in 1904 to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the +president of Argentina in case further efforts to reach an amicable +settlement failed. The provisional line, representing the +Brazilian claim, begins at the termination of the Bolivian +section (the intersection of the 11th parallel with the meridian +of 72° 26′ W. approx.) and follows a semicircular direction +north-west and north to the source of the Javary (or Yavary), +to include the basins of the Purús and Juruá within Brazilian +jurisdiction. The line follows the Javary to its junction with the +Amazon, and runs thence north by east direct to the mouth of +the Apaporis, a tributary of the Yapurá, in about 1° 30′ S. lat., +69° 20′ W. long., where the Peruvian section ends. The whole of +this line, however, was subject to future adjustments, Peru +claiming all that part of the Amazon valley extending eastward +to the Madeira and lying between the Beni and the east and +west boundary line agreed upon by Spain and Portugal in 1750 +and 1777, which is near the 7th parallel. With regard to the +section between the Amazon and the Apaporis river, already +settled between Brazil and Peru, the territory has been in +protracted dispute between Peru, Ecuador and Colombia; +but a treaty of limits between Brazil and Ecuador was signed in +1901 and promulgated in 1905. The boundary with Colombia, +fixed by treaty of April 24, 1907, follows the lower rim of +the Amazon basin, as defined by Brazil. The Colombian claim +included the left bank of the Amazon eastward to the Auahy +or Avahy-paraná channel between the Amazon and Yapurá, +whence the line ran northward to the Negro near the intersection +of the 66th meridian. The Brazilian line ran north and north-west +from the mouth of the Apaporis to the 70th meridian, which +was followed to the water-parting south of the Uaupés basin, +thence north-east to the Uaupés river, which was crossed close +to the 69th meridian, thence easterly along the Serra Tunaji +and Isana river to Cuyari, thence northerly up the Cuyari and +one of its small tributaries to the Serra Capparro, and thence +east and south-east along this range to the Cucuhy rock (Pedra +de Cucuhy) on the left bank of the Negro, where the Colombian +section ends. Negotiations for the settlement of this controversy, +which involved fully one-third of the state of Amazonas, were +broken off in 1870, but were resumed in 1905. The boundary +with Venezuela, which was defined by a treaty of 1859, runs +south-eastward from Cucuhy across a level country intersected +by rivers and channels tributary to both the Negro and Orinoco, +to the Serra Cupuy watershed which separates the rivers of +the Amazon and Orinoco valleys. This watershed includes the +ranges running eastward and northward under the names of +Imeri, Tapiira-peco, Curupira, Parima and Pacaraima, the +Venezuelan section terminating at Mt. Roraima. On the 9th +of December 1905 protocols were signed at Caracas accepting +the line between Cucuhy and the Serra Cupuy located in 1880, +and referring the remainder, which had been located by a +Brazilian commission in 1882 and 1884, to a mixed commission +for verification.</p> + +<p>The disputed boundary between Brazil and British Guiana, +which involved the possession of a territory having an estimated +area of 12,741 sq. m., was settled by arbitration in 1904 with +the king of Italy as arbitrator, the award being a compromise +division by which Great Britain received about 7336 +sq. m. and Brazil about 5405. The definite boundary line +starts from Mt. Roraima and follows the water-parting east and +south to the source of the Ireng or Mahu river, which with the +Takutú forms the boundary as far south as 1° N. to enclose the +basin of the Essequibo and its tributaries, thence it turns east +and north of east along the Serra Acaria to unite with the +unsettled boundary line of Dutch Guiana near the intersection +of the 2nd parallel north with the 56th meridian. Negotiations +were initiated in 1905 for the definite location of the boundary +with Dutch Guiana. Running north-east and south-east to +enclose the sources of the Rio Paru, it unites with the French +Guiana line at 2° 10′ N., 55° W., and thence runs easterly along +the water-parting of the Serra Tumuc-Humac to the source of the +Oyapok, which river is the divisional line to the Atlantic coast. +The boundary with French Guiana (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guiana</a></span>), which had +long been a subject of dispute, was settled by arbitration in +1900, the award being rendered by the government of Switzerland. +The area of the disputed territory was about 34,750 sq. m.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>—A relief map of Brazil shows two very +irregular divisions of surface: the great river basins, or plains, of +the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata, which are practically connected +by low elevations in Bolivia, and a huge, shapeless mass of +highlands filling the eastern projection of the continent and extending +southward to the plains of Rio Grande do Sul and westward to +the Bolivian frontier. Besides these there are a narrow coastal +plain, the low plains of Rio Grande do Sul, and the Guiana highlands +on the northern slope of the Amazon basin below the Rio Negro.</p> + +<p>The coastal plain consists in great part of sandy beaches, detritus +formations, and partially submerged areas caused by uplifted +beaches and obstructed river channels. Mangrove swamps, +lagoons and marshes, with inland canals following the +<span class="sidenote">Relief.</span> +coast line for long distances, are characteristic features of a large +extent of the Brazilian coast. Parts of this coastal plain, however, +have an elevation of 100 to 200 ft., are rolling and fertile in character, +and terminate on the coast in a line of bluffs. In the larger depressions, +like that of the Reconcavo of Bahia, there are large +alluvial areas celebrated for their fertility. This plain is of varying +width, and on some parts of the coast it disappears altogether. +In Rio Grande do Sul, where two large lakes have been created +by uplifted sand beaches, the coastal plain widens greatly, and is +merged in an extensive open, rolling grassy plain, traversed by +ridges of low hills (<i>cuchillas</i>), similar to the neighbouring republic of +Uruguay. The western part of this plain is drained by the Uruguay +and its tributaries, which places it within the river Plate (La Plata) +basin.</p> + +<p>The two great river basins of the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata +comprise within themselves, approximately, three-fifths of the total +area of Brazil. Large areas of these great river plains are annually +flooded, the flood-plains of the Amazon extending nearly across +the whole country and comprising thousands of square miles. The +Amazon plain is heavily forested and has a slope of less than one +inch to the mile within Brazilian territory—one competent authority +placing it at about one-fifth of an inch per mile. The La Plata basin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span> +is less heavily wooded, its surface more varied, and its Brazilian +part stands at a much higher elevation.</p> + +<p>Of the two highland regions of Brazil, that of the northern slope +of the Amazon basin belongs physically to the isolated mountain +system extending eastward from the Negro and Orinoco to the +Atlantic, the water-parting of which forms the boundary line between +the Guianas and Brazil. The culminating point is near the western +extremity of this chain and its altitude is estimated at 8500 ft. +The ranges gradually diminish in elevation towards the east, the +highest point of the Tumuc-Humac range, on the frontier of French +Guiana, being about 2600 ft. The Brazilian plateau slopes southward +and eastward, traversed by broken ranges of low mountains +and deeply eroded by river courses. The table-topped hills of +Almeyrin (or Almeirim) and Ereré, which lie near the lower Amazon +and rise to heights of 800 and 900 ft., are generally considered the +southernmost margin of this plateau, though Agassiz and others +describe them as remains of a great sandstone sheet which once +covered the entire Amazon valley. Its general elevation has been +estimated to be about 2000 ft. It is a stony, semi-arid region, +thinly wooded, having good grazing <i>campos</i> in its extreme western +section. Its semi-arid character is due to the mountain ranges on +its northern frontier, which extract the moisture from the north-east +trades and leave the Brazilian plateau behind them with a very +limited rainfall, except near the Atlantic coast. The more arid +districts offer no inducement for settlement and are inhabited only +by a few roving bands of Indians, but there were settlements of +whites in the grazing districts of the Rio Branco at an early date, +and a few hundreds of adventurers have occupied the mining districts +of the east. In general, Brazilian Guiana, as this plateau region is +sometimes called, is one of the least attractive parts of the republic.</p> + +<p>The great Brazilian plateau, which is the most important physical +division of Brazil, consists of an elevated tableland 1000 to 3000 ft. +above the sea-level, traversed by two great mountain systems, and +deeply eroded and indented by numerous rivers. A thick sandstone +sheet once covered the greater part if not all of it, remains of which +are found on the elevated <i>chapadas</i> of the interior and on isolated +elevations extending across the republic toward its western frontier. +These chapadas and elevations, which are usually described as +mountain ranges, are capped by horizontal strata of sandstone and +show the original surface, which has been worn away by the rivers, +leaving here and there broad flat-topped ridges between river basins +and narrower ranges of hills between river courses. From the +valleys their rugged, deeply indented escarpments, stretching away +to the horizon, have the appearance of a continuous chain of mountains. +The only true mountain systems, however, so far as known, +are the two parallel ranges which follow the contour of the coast, +and the central, or Goyana, system. The first consists of an almost +continuous range crossing the northern end of Rio Grande do Sul +and following the coast northward to the vicinity of Cape Frio, and +thence northward in broken ranges to the vicinity of Cape St Roque, +and a second parallel range running from eastern São Paulo northeast +and north to the eastern margin of the São Francisco basin in +northern Bahia, where that river turns eastward to the Atlantic. +The first of these is generally known as the Serra do Mar, or Coast +Range, though it is locally known under many names. Its culminating +point is in the Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgãos), near +Rio de Janeiro, which reaches an elevation of 7323 ft. The inland +range, which is separated from the Coast Range in the vicinity of +Rio de Janeiro by the valley of the Parahyba do Sul river, is known +as the Serra da Mantiqueira, and from the point where it turns +northward to form the eastern rim of the São Francisco basin, as the +Serra do Espinhaço. This range is also known under various local +names. Its culminating point is toward the western extremity of +the Mantiqueira range where the Itatiaya, or Itatiaia-assu, peak +rises to an elevation of 8898 ft. (other measurements give 9823 ft.), +probably the highest summit in Brazil. This range forms the true +backbone of the maritime mountainous belt and rises from the +plateau itself, while the Coast Range rises on its eastern margin and +forms a rim to the plateau. North of Cape Frio the Coast Range +is much broken and less elevated, while the Serra do Espinhaço +takes a more inland course and is separated from the coast by +great gently-sloping, semi-barren terraces. The second system—the +Central or Goyana—consists of two distinct chains of mountains +converging toward the north in the elevated <i>chapadão</i> between the +Tocantins and São Francisco basins. The eastern range of this +central system, which crosses western Minas Geraes from the so-called +Serra das Vertentes to the valley of the Paracatú, a western tributary +of the São Francisco, is called the Serra da Canastra and Serra da +Matta da Corde. Its culminating point is toward its southern extremity +in the Serra da Canastra, 4206 ft. above sea-level. The +western range, or what is definitely known of it, runs across southern +Goyaz, south-west to north-east, and forms the water-parting +between the Paraná and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. Its culminating +point is in the Montes Pyreneos, near the city of Goyaz, and +is about 4500 ft. above sea-level.</p> + +<p>The great part of this immense region consists of <i>chapadões</i>, as +the larger table-land areas are called, <i>chapadas</i> or smaller sections +of the same, and broadly excavated river valleys. How extensive +this work of erosion has been may be seen in the Tocantins-Araguaya +basin, where a great pear-shaped depression, approximately 100 to +500 m. wide, 700 m. long, and from 1000 to 1500 ft. deep, has +been excavated northward from the centre of the plateau. Southward +the Paraná has excavated another great basin and eastward +the São Francisco another. Add to these the eroded river basins of +the Xingú, Tapajós and Guaporé on the north and west, the Paraguay +on the south-west, and the scores of smaller rivers along the +Atlantic coast, and we may have some conception of the agencies +that have been at work in breaking down and shaping this great +table-land, perhaps the oldest part of the continent. The most +southern of these <i>chapadões</i>, that of the Paraná basin, in which may +be included the northern part of the Uruguay and eastern part of +the Paraguay basins, includes the greater part of the states of Rio +Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Paraná and São Paulo, the south-western +corner of Minas Geraes, a part of southern Goyaz, and the +south-eastern corner of Matto Grosso. The greatest elevation is on +its eastern or Atlantic margin where the average is about 3280 ft. +above sea-level. The plateau breaks down abruptly toward the sea, +and slopes gradually some hundreds of feet toward the south and +west. There has been considerable denudation toward the west, +the eastern tributaries of the Paraná rising very near the coast. +The northern and western parts of this plateau have an average +elevation a little less than that of the Atlantic margin, and their +slopes are toward the south and east, those of Goyaz and Matto +Grosso being abrupt and deeply eroded. This great <i>chapadão</i> is in +many respects the best part of Brazil, having a temperate climate, +extensive areas of fertile soil, rich forests and a regular rainfall. +Its Atlantic slopes are heavily wooded, but the western slopes exhibit +grass-covered <i>campos</i> between the river courses. The São Francisco +<i>chapadão</i>, which has a general elevation of about 2600 ft., covers +the greater part of the states of Minas Geraes and Bahia, and a small +part of western Pernambuco, and might also be considered continuous +with those of the Parnahyba and Tocantins-Araguaya +basins. This region is more tropical in character, partially barren, +and has an uncertain rainfall, a large part of the São Francisco basin +and the upper Atlantic slope of its eastern rim being subject to +long-continued droughts. This region is well wooded along the +river courses of Minas Geraes, the lower Atlantic slopes of Bahia, +which are perhaps outside the plateau proper, and on the weather +side of some of the elevated ridges where the rainfall is heavy and +regular. It has extensive <i>campos</i> and large areas of exposed rock +and stony steppes, but is richly provided with mineral deposits. It +breaks down less abruptly toward the Atlantic, the slopes in Bahia +being long and gradual. The Parnahyba <i>chapadão</i> covers the state +of Piauhy, the southern part of Maranhão, and the western part of +Ceará. Its general elevation is less than that of the São Francisco +region, owing to the slope of the plateau surface toward the Amazon +depression and to denudation. It resembles the São Francisco region +in its uncertain rainfall and exposure to droughts, and in having large +areas of <i>campos</i> suitable for grazing purposes. It is thinly wooded, +except in the north, where the climatic conditions approach those +of the Amazon valley. Its climate is more tropical and its development +has gone forward less rapidly than in the more temperate +regions of the south. The Amazonian <i>chapadão</i>, which includes the +remainder of the great Brazilian plateau west of the São Francisco +and Parnahyba regions and which appears to be the continuation +of these tablelands westward, is much the largest of these plateau +divisions. It covers the greater part of the states of Matto Grosso +and Goyaz, a large part of southern Pará, the southern margin of +Amazonas, and a considerable part of western Maranhão. It includes +the river basins of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingú, Tapajós, +and the eastern tributaries of the Guaporé-Madeira. A considerable +part of it has been excavated by these rivers to a level which gives +their valleys the elevation and character of lowlands, though isolated +hills and ranges with the characteristic overlying horizontal sandstone +strata of the ancient plateau show that it was once a highland +region. The southern margin of this plateau breaks down abruptly +toward the south and overlooks the Paraná and Paraguay basins +from elevations of 2600 to 3000 ft. There is great diversity in the +character and appearance of this extensive region. It lies wholly +within the tropics, though its more elevated districts enjoy a temperate +climate. Its <i>chapadas</i> are covered with extensive <i>campos</i>, +its shallow valleys with open woodlands, and its deeper valleys +with heavy forests. The rainfall is good, but not heavy. The +general slope is toward the Amazon, and its rivers debouch upon the +Amazonian plain through a succession of falls and rapids.</p> + +<p>There remains only the elevated valley of the Parahyba do Sul, +lying between the so-called Serra das Vertentes of southern Minas +Geraes and the Serra do Mar, and extending from the Serra da +Bocaina, near the city of São Paulo, eastward to Cape Frio and the +coastal plain north of that point. It includes a small part of eastern +São Paulo, the greater part of the state of Rio de Janeiro, a small +corner of Espirito Santo, and a narrow strip along the southern +border of Minas Geraes. It is traversed by two mountain chains, +the Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar, and the broad, fertile +valley of the Parahyba do Sul which lies between them, and which +slopes gently toward the east from a general elevation exceeding +2000 ft. in São Paulo. This region is the smallest of the <i>chapadão</i> +divisions of the great plateau, and might be considered either a +southward extension of the São Francisco or an eastward extension +of the Paraná <i>chapadão</i>. It is one of the most favoured regions of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> +Brazil, having an abundant rainfall, extensive forests of valuable +timber, and large areas of fertile soil. The mountain slopes are still +masses of dense forest, though their lower elevations and neighbouring +valleys have been cleared for cultivation and by dealers in +rosewood and other valuable woods. This elevated valley is noted +for its fertility and was once the principal coffee-producing district +of Brazil.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:900px; height:676px" src="images/img440.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img440a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2">Outside the two great river systems of the Amazon and river +Plate (Rio de la Plata), which are treated under their respective +titles, the rivers of Brazil are limited to the numerous +small streams and three or four large rivers which flow +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +eastward from the plateau regions directly into the Atlantic. The +Amazon system covers the entire north-western part of the republic, +the state of Amazonas, nearly the whole of Pará and the greater +part of Matto Grosso being drained by this great river and its +tributaries. If the Tocantins-Araguaya basin is included in the +hydrographic system, the greater part of Goyaz and a small part of +Maranhão should be added to this drainage area. The Tocantins is +sometimes treated as a tributary of the Amazon because its outlet, +called the Rio Pará, is connected with that great river by a number +of inland channels. It is an entirely separate river, however, and the +inland communication between them is due to the slight elevation +of the intervening country above their ordinary levels and to the +enormous volume of water brought down by the Amazon, especially +in the flood season. As the outlet of the Tocantins is so near to +that of the Amazon, and their lower valleys are conterminous, it +is convenient to treat them as parts of the same hydrographic +basin.</p> + +<p>In the extreme north-east corner of the republic where the +Brazilian Guiana plateau slopes toward the Atlantic there is a small +area lying outside the drainage basin of the Amazon. Its rivers flow +easterly into the Atlantic and drain a triangular-shaped area of the +plateau lying between the northern frontier and the southern and +western watersheds of the Araguary, whose extreme limits are about +0° 30′ N. lat. and 53° 50′ W. long. The more important of these +rivers are the Araguary, Amapá, Calçoene, Cassiporé and Oyapok. +The Araguary rises in the Tumuc-Humac mountains, in about +2° 30′ N. lat., 52° 10′ W. long., and follows a tortuous course south +and north-east to the Atlantic. Its largest tributary, the Amapary, +rises still farther west. Little is known of the country through +which it flows, and its channel is broken by rapids and waterfalls +where it descends to the coastal plain. The Amapá is a short river +rising on the eastern slopes of the same range and flowing across a +low, wooded plain, filled with lagoons. The Calçoene and Cassiporé +enter the Atlantic farther north and have a north-east course across +the same plain. All these small rivers are described as auriferous +and have attracted attention for this reason. The Oyapok, or +Vicente Pinzon, is the best-known of the group and forms the boundary +line between Brazil and French Guiana under the arbitration +award of 1900. It rises in about 2° 05′ N., 53° 48′ W., and flows +easterly and north-easterly to the Atlantic. Its course is less tortuous +than that of the Araguary.</p> + +<p>The rivers of the great Brazilian plateau which flow directly to the +Atlantic coast may be divided into two classes: those of its northward +slope which flow in a northerly and north-easterly direction +to the north-east coast of the republic, and those which drain its +eastern slope and flow to the sea in an easterly direction. The former +reach the coastal plain over long and gradual descents, and are +navigable for considerable distances. The latter descend from the +plateau much nearer the coast, and are in most cases navigable for +short distances only. In both classes navigation is greatly impeded +by sandbars at the mouths of these rivers, while in the districts of +periodical rainfall it is greatly restricted in the dry season. The +more important rivers of the first division, which are described in +more detail under the titles of the Brazilian states through which +they flow, are the following: the Gurupy, Tury-assú, Mearim, +Itapicurú and Balsas, in the state of Maranhão; the Parnahyba +and its tributaries in Piauhy; Jaguaribe in Ceará; and the Apody +and Piranhas in Rio Grande do Norte. Of these the Parnahyba is +the most important, having a total length of about 900 m., broken +at intervals by rapids and navigable in sections. It receives only +one important tributary from Maranhão—the Rio das Balsas, +447 m. long—and five from Piauhy, the Urussuhy-assú, Gurgueia, +Canindé, Poty and Longa. Piauhy is wholly within its drainage +basin, although the river forms the boundary line between that state +and Maranhão throughout its entire length. All the rivers in this +division are influenced by the periodical character of the rainfall, +their navigable channels being greatly shortened in the dry season +(August-January). In Ceará the smaller rivers become dry channels +in the dry season, and in protracted droughts the larger ones disappear +also.</p> + +<p>The rivers of the second division are included in a very great +extension of coast and are influenced by wide differences in climate. +Their character is also determined by the distance of the Serra do +Mar from the coast, the more southern rivers having short precipitous +courses. The more northern rivers are subject to periodical variations +in volume caused by wet and dry seasons, but the greater distance +of the coast range and the more gradual breaking down of +the plateau toward the sea, give them longer courses and a greater +extent of navigable water. North of the São Francisco the watershed +projecting from the plateau eastward toward Cape St Roque, known +as the Serra da Borborema in Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte +where its direction becomes north-east, leaves a triangular section +of the easterly slope in which the river courses are short and much +broken by rapids. The rainfall, also, is limited and uncertain. The +largest of this group of small rivers is the Parahyba do Norte, belonging +to the state of Parahyba, whose length is said to be less than +200 m., only 5 or 6 m. of which are navigable for small steamers. +The São Francisco, which belongs to the inland plateau region, is +the largest river of the eastern coast of Brazil and exists by virtue +of climatic conditions wholly different from those of the coast where +it enters the Atlantic. The tributaries of the lower half of this great +river, which belong to the Atlantic coast region, are small and often +dry, but the upper river where the rainfall is heavier and more regular +receives several large affluents. The river is navigable up to the +Paulo Affonso falls, 192 m. from the coast, and above the falls there +is a much longer stretch of navigable water.</p> + +<p>From the São Francisco to Cape Frio there are many short rivers +rising on the slopes of the plateau and crossing the narrow coastal +plain to the sea. There are also a few of greater length which rise +far back on the plateau itself and flow down to the plain through +deeply cut, precipitous courses. The navigable channels of these +rivers are restricted to the coastal plain, except where a river has +excavated for itself a valley back into the plateau. The more important +of these rivers are the Itapicurú, Paraguassú, Contas or +Jussiape, Pardo or Patype, and Jequitinhonha, of Bahia; the +Mucury, and Doce, of Espirito Santo; and the Parahyba do Sul of +the state of Rio de Janeiro. Of the Bahia group, the Jequitinhonha, +sometimes called the Belmonte on its lower course, is the longest +and most important, rising near Serro in the state of Minas Geraes +and flowing in a curving north-east direction for a distance of about +500 m., 84 of which are navigable inland from the sea. The Mucury +and Doce also rise in Minas Geraes, and are much broken in their +descent to the lower plains, the former having a navigable channel +of 98 m. and the latter of 138 m. The Parahyba, or Parahyba do +Sul, which enters the sea about 30 m. north of Cape S. Thomé, is the +largest and most important of the Atlantic coast rivers south of the +São Francisco. It rises on an elevated tableland in the state of São +Paulo and flows across the state of Rio de Janeiro from west to east, +through a broad fertile valley producing coffee in its most elevated +districts and sugar on its alluvial bottom-lands nearer the sea. It has +a total length of 658 m., 57 of which are navigable between S. Fidelis +and its mouth, and about 90 m. of its upper course.</p> + +<p>South of Cape Frio there are no large rivers along the coast because +of the proximity of the Serra do Mar—the coastal plain being very +narrow and in places disappearing altogether. There are many short +streams along this coast, fed by heavy rainfalls, but they have no +geographic importance and no economic value under existing conditions. +The largest of these and the only one of commercial value +is the Ribeira de Iguape, which has its source on the tablelands of +Paraná and after receiving several affluents west of the Serra do +Mar breaks through a depression in that range and discharges into +the Atlantic some miles below Santos on the southern boundary of +the state of São Paulo. This river has a navigable channel of 118 m. +below Xiririca, and communicates with an inland canal or waterway +extending for many miles along this coast and known as the Iguape, +or Mar Pequeno. In Rio Grande do Sul the Atlantic coastal plain +extends westward more than half-way across the state, and is well +watered by numerous streams flowing eastward to the Lagôa dos +Patos. Of these only two are of large size—the Guayba and Camaquam. +The first is formed by the confluence of the Jacuhy, Cahy, +Sinos and Gravatahy, and is known under this name only from +Porto Alegre to the Ponta de Itapuã, where it enters the Lagôa dos +Patos. This river system drains a large part of the northern mountainous +region of the state, and has a considerable extension of +navigable channels between the plateau margin and the lake. In +the extreme southern part of the state, the Lagôa Mirim empties +into the Lagôa dos Patos through a navigable channel 61½ m. long, +called the Rio São Gonçalo.</p> + +<p>The Brazilian rivers of the Rio de la Plata system are numerous +and important. Those of the Paraguay drain the south-western +part of Matto Grosso, and the tributaries of the Paraná cover the +western slopes of the Serra do Mar from Rio Grande do Sul north +to the south-west part of Minas Geraes, and include the south-east +part of Matto Grosso and the south part of Goyaz within their +drainage basin. This is one of the most important fluvial systems +of Brazil, but its economic value is impaired by the great waterfalls +of Guayrá, or Sete Quedas, and Uribú-punga, and by the rapids and +waterfalls in the majority of its affluents near their junction with the +main stream. Between the two great waterfalls of the Paraná there +is an open channel of 276 m., passing through a rich and healthy +country, and receiving large tributaries from one of the most fertile +regions of Brazil. Among the larger of these are the great falls of +the Iguassú, near the junction of that river with the Paraná. Though +the Uruguay plays a less important part, its relations to the +country are similar to those of the Paraná, and its tributaries from +the plateau region are similarly broken by falls and rapids. The +Paraguay is in great part a lowland river, with a sluggish current, +and is navigable by large river steamers up to Corumbá, and by +smaller steamers to Cuyabá and the mouth of the Jaurú.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span></p> + +<p>Compared with the number, length and volume of its rivers, +Brazil has very few lakes, only two of which are noticeable for their +size. There are a number of lakes in the lowland region +of the Amazon valley, but these are mainly overflow +<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span> +reservoirs whose areas expand and contract with the rise and fall +of the great river. The coastal plain is also intersected by lagoons, +lakes and inland channels formed by uplifted beaches. These inland +channels often afford many miles of sheltered navigation. The lakes +formed in this manner are generally shallow, and are sometimes +associated with extensive swamps, as in southern Bahia. The lakes +of the Alagôas coast, however, are long, narrow and deep, occupying +valleys which were deeply excavated when the land stood at a higher +level, and which were transformed into lakes by the elevation of the +coast. The largest of these are the Lagôa do Norte, on whose margin +stands the city of Maceió, and the Lagôa do Sul, a few miles south of +that city. Both have outlets to the sea, and the former is salt +There is a large number of these lakes along the coasts of Espirito +Santo and Rio de Janeiro, some of them of considerable size. The +two largest lakes of this class are on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul +and are known as the Lagôa dos Patos and Lagôa Mirim. Both of +these lakes lie nearly parallel with the coast line, are separated from +the ocean by broad sand beaches filled with small lakes, and communicate +with the ocean through the same channel. The Lagôa dos +Patos is about 124 m. long with a maximum width of 37 m., and +Lagôa Mirim is 108 m. long with a maximum width of 15 m. Both +are navigable, though comparatively shallow and filled with sandbanks. +So far as known, there are no lakes of noteworthy size in the +interior of the country. There are a few small lakes in Maranhão +and Piauhy, some in Goyaz in the great valley of the Araguaya, +and a considerable number in Matto Grosso, especially in the Paraguay +basin, where the sluggish current of that river is unable to carry +away the rainfall in the rainy season.</p> + +<p>The coast of Brazil is indented with a number of almost landlocked +bays, forming spacious and accessible harbours. The larger +and more important of these are Todos os Santos, on +which is located the city of São Salvador or Bahia, and +<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span> +Rio de Janeiro or Guanabara, beside which stands the capital of the +republic. These two are freely accessible to the largest ships afloat. +The bays of Espirito Santo, Paranaguá and São Francisco have +similar characteristics, but they are smaller and more difficult of +access. The first is the harbour for the city of Victoria, and the other +two for ports of the same name in southern Brazil. The port of +Pernambuco, or Recife, is formed by a stone reef lying across the +entrance to a shallow bay at the mouth of two small rivers, Beberibe +and Capibaribe, and is accessible to steamers of medium draught. +Santa Catharina and Maranhão have well-sheltered harbours formed +by an island lying in the mouth of a large bay, but the latter is +shallow and difficult of access. Pará, Parnahyba, Parahyba, Santos +and Rio Grande do Sul are river ports situated near the sea on rivers +having the same name; but, with the exception of Pará and Santos, +they are difficult of access and are of secondary importance. There +are still other bays along the coast which are well adapted for commercial +purposes but are used only in the coasting trade. Many +of the Atlantic coast rivers would afford excellent port facilities if +obstructions were removed from their mouths.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Brazil is a region which has been free from violent +disturbances since an early geological period. It has, indeed, been +subject to oscillations, but the movements have been regional in +character and have not been accompanied by the formation of any +mountain chain or any belt of intense folding. From the Devonian +onwards the beds lie flat or dip at low angles. They are faulted but +not sharply folded. The mountain ranges of the east of Brazil, from +Cape St Roque to the mouth of the river Plate, are composed chiefly +of crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Some of the metamorphic +rocks may belong to the older Palaeozoic period, but the greater part +of the series is probably Archaean. Similar rocks cover a large area +in the province of Goyaz and in the south of the Matto Grosso, and +they form, also, the hills which border the basin of the Amazon on +the confines of Venezuela and Guiana. They constitute, in fact, an +incomplete rim around the basin of sedimentary beds which occupies +the Amazonian depression. In a large part of this basin the covering +of sedimentary deposits is comparatively thin. The crystalline floor +is exposed in the valleys of the Madeira, Xingú, &c. Some of the +rocks thus exposed are, however, eruptive (<i>e.g.</i> in the Tapajoz), and +probably do not belong to the Archaean. The crystalline rocks are +succeeded by beds which have been referred to the Cambrian and +Silurian systems. In the valley of the Trombetas, one of the northern +tributaries of the Amazon, fossils have been found which indicate +either the top of the Ordovician or the bottom of the Silurian. In +the Maecuru, another northern affluent, graptolites of Ordovician +age have been discovered, and Silurian fossils are said to have been +found in the Maraca. Elsewhere the identification of the Silurian +and older systems does not rest on palaeontological evidence. +Devonian beds cover a much more extensive area. They crop out +in a band some 25 to 50 m. north of the lower Amazon and in another +band at a still greater distance south of that river. These bands are +often concealed by more recent deposits, but it is clear that in this +region the Devonian beds form a basin or synclinal with the Amazon +for its axis. Devonian beds also lie upon the older rocks in the Matto +Grosso and other provinces in the interior of Brazil, where they +generally form plateaux of nearly horizontal strata. Fossils have +been found in many localities. They belong to either the lower or the +middle division of the Devonian system. The fauna shows striking +analogies with that of the Bokkeveld beds of South Africa on the one +hand and of the Hamilton group of North America on the other. +The Carboniferous system in Brazil presents itself under two facies, +the one marine and the other terrestrial. In the basin of the Lower +Amazon the Carboniferous beds lie within the Devonian synclinal +and crop out on both sides of the river next to the Devonian bands. +There is a lower series consisting of sandstone and an upper series +of limestone. The former appears to be almost unfossiliferous, the +latter has yielded a rich marine fauna, which belongs to the top +of the Carboniferous or to the Permo-carboniferous. In southern +Brazil, on the other hand, in Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, &c., the +beds of this period are of terrestrial origin, containing coal seams and +remains of plants. Some of the plants are European forms, others +belong to the Glossopteris flora characteristic of India and South +Africa. The beds are homotaxial with the Karharbári series of India, +and represent either the top of the Carboniferous or the base of the +Permian of Europe. The only Mesozoic system which is represented in +Brazil by marine beds is the Cretaceous, and the marine facies, is +restricted to the coasts and the basin of the Amazon. In the province +of Sergipe, on the east coast, the beds are approximately on +the horizon of the Cenomanian; in the valley of the Amazon they +belong to the highest parts of the Cretaceous system, and the fauna +shows Tertiary affinities. In the interior of Brazil, the Palaeozoic +beds are directly overlaid by a series of red sandstones, &c., which +appear to be of continental origin and of which the age is uncertain. +Tertiary beds cover a considerable area, especially in the Amazonian +depression. They consist chiefly of sands and clays of aeolian and +freshwater origin. Of the Pleistocene and recent deposits the most +interesting are the remains of extinct animals (<i>Glyptodon</i>, <i>Mylodon</i>, +<i>Megatherium</i>, &c.) in the caves of the São Francisco.</p> + +<p>From the above account it will appear that, excepting near the +coast and in the basin of the Amazon, there is no evidence that any +part of Brazil has been under the sea since the close of the Devonian +period. During the Triassic and Jurassic periods even the basin of +the Amazon appears to have been dry land. Eruptive rocks occur +in the Devonian and Carboniferous beds, but there is no evidence +of volcanic activity since the Palaeozoic epoch. The remarkable +“stone reefs” of the north-east coast are ancient beaches hardened +by the infiltration of carbonate of lime. They are quite distinct in +their formation from the coral reefs of the same coast.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—Brazil lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, less than +one-twelfth of its area lying south of the tropic of Capricorn. In +general terms, it is a tropical country, with sub-tropical and temperate +areas covering its three southern states and a great part of +the elevated central plateau. The forest-covered, lowland valley +of the Amazon is a region of high temperatures which vary little +throughout the year, and of heavy rainfall. There is no appreciable +change of seasons, except that produced by increased rainfall in the +rainy season. The average temperature according to Castelnau is +about 78°F., or 82.40° to 84.20° F. according to Agassiz. There is +an increase in the rainfall from August to October, and again from +November to March, the latter being the regular rainy season, but the +time varies considerably between the valley of the upper Amazon +and those of the upper Madeira and Negro. There is usually a short +dry season on the upper Amazon in January and February, which +causes two annual floods—that of November-December, and the +great flood of March-June. The subsidence of the latter usually +lasts until October. The average rainfall throughout the whole +Amazon valley is estimated by Reclus as “probably in excess of +2 metres” (78.7 in.), and the maximum rise of the great flood is about +45 ft. The prevailing winds in the Amazon valley are easterly and +westerly (or south-westerly), the former warm and charged with +moisture, the latter dry and cold. The easterly winds, which are +deflections of the trade winds, blow upstream with great regularity +and force, more especially in the winter or dry season, and are felt +as far inland as the mouths of the Madeira and Negro. Above these +they are less regular and are attracted northward by the heated +<i>llanos</i> of Venezuela in winter, or southward by the heated <i>campos</i> of +Matto Grosso in summer. The cold south-westerly winds are felt +when the sun is north of the equator, and are most severe, for +a few days, in the month of May, when a <i>tempo da friagem</i> (cold +period) causes much discomfort throughout the upper Amazon region. +There are winter winds from the Andes, but in the summer season +there are cold currents of air from up-river (<i>ventos da cima</i>) which are +usually followed by downpours of rain.</p> + +<p>The coastal plain as far south as Santos is a region of high temperatures +and great humidity. The year is usually divided into a +winter (<i>inverno</i>) and summer (<i>verão</i>), corresponding approximately +to a dry and wet season. The “dry” season, however, is a season of +moderate rainfall, except on the north-east coast where arid conditions +prevail. Another exception is that of the Pernambuco coast, +where the rainy season comes between March and August, with the +heaviest rainfall from May to July, which is the time of the southern +winter. Going southward there is also a gradual decrease in the +mean annual temperature, the difference between Rio de Janeiro +and the Amazon being about 5°. The north-east coast, which is +sandy and barren, shows an average mean annual temperature (at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span> +Fortaleza) of nearly 80° F., which is slightly higher than those of +Maranhão and Pará. At Pernambuco the mean summer temperature +is 79.5° and that of winter 76.8°, which are about 3° lower than the +mean temperature of Bahia in summer, and 5° higher than the Bahia +mean in winter. South of Bahia there is a gradual increase in the +rainfall, that of Rio de Janeiro exceeding 43 in. per annum. At +Santos the rainfall is exceptionally heavy and the mean temperature +high, but below that point the climatic conditions are considerably +modified, the range in temperature being greater, the mean annual +temperature lower, and the rainfall more evenly distributed throughout +the year. The winds are more variable, and the seasons are more +sharply defined. In Rio Grande do Sul the range in temperature is +from 26° to 80°, the climate being similar to that of Uruguay. At +Pelotas, a sea-level port on Lagôa dos Patos, the mean annual temperature +is about 63° and the annual rainfall about 42 in. Extreme +variations in temperature are often produced by cold south-west +storms from the Argentine pampas, which sweep across southern +Brazil as far north as Cape Frio, the fall in temperature sometimes +being 22° to 27°. These storms usually last from two to three days +and cause much discomfort. Winter rains are more frequent in +southern Brazil, and violent storms prevail in August and September. +At Blumenau, on the Santa Catharina coast, the annual rainfall is +53 in.</p> + +<p>The climatic conditions of the Brazilian plateau are widely different +from those of the coast in many respects. There is less uniformity +in temperature, and the elevated <i>chapadas</i> are generally hotter during +the day and cooler at night than are localities of the same latitude +on the coast. The Brazilian Guiana plateau, lying immediately +north of the equator, is in great part a hot, stony desert. Geographically +it belongs to the Amazon basin, as its western and +southern slopes are drained by tributaries of that great river. +Climatically, however, it is a region apart. It lies in the north-east +trade winds belt, but the mountain chain on its northern frontier +robs these winds of their moisture and leaves the greater part of +the Brazilian plateau rainless. Its eastern and western extremities, +however, receive more rain, the former being well forested, while +the latter is covered with grassy <i>campos</i>. South of the Amazon +valley and filling a great part of the eastern projection of the continent, +is another arid, semi-barren plateau, lying within the south-east +trade winds belt, and extending from Piauhy southward to +southern Bahia. It covers the state of Piauhy and the western or +inland parts of the states of Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Parahyba, +Pernambuco and Bahia. The year is divided into a dry and wet +season, the first from June to December, when rain rarely falls, the +streams dry up and the <i>campos</i> are burned bare, and the second +from January to May when the rains are sometimes heavy and the +<i>campos</i> are covered with luxuriant verdure. The rains are neither +regular nor certain, however, and sometimes fail for a succession of +years, causing destructive <i>sêccas</i> (droughts). The interior districts +of Ceará, Pernambuco and Bahia have suffered severely from these +<i>sêccas</i>. The sun temperature is high on these barren tablelands, +but the nights are cool and refreshing. The prevailing winds are +the south-east trades, which have lost some of their moisture in +rising from the coastal plain. In summer, becoming warmed by the +heated surface of the plateau, they sweep across it without a cloud +or drop of rain. In winter the plateau is less heated, and cold +currents of air from the west and south-west cause precipitation over +a part if not all of this region. South and south-west of this arid +plateau lie the inhabited tablelands of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo +and Minas Geraes, where the climate is greatly modified by a luxuriant +vegetation and southerly winds, as well as by the elevation. +Minas Geraes is forested along its water courses and along its southern +border only; its sun temperature, therefore, is high and the rainfall +in its northern districts is comparatively light. São Paulo is partly +covered by open <i>campos</i>, and these also serve to augment the maximum +temperature. In both of these states, however, the nights are +cool, and the mean annual temperature ranges from 68° to 77°, the +northern districts of Minas Geraes being much warmer than the +southern. In São Paulo and southern Minas Geraes there are sometimes +frosts. In the Parahyba valley, which extends across the state +of Rio de Janeiro, the mean temperature is somewhat higher than +it is in São Paulo and Minas Geraes, and the nights are warmer, but +the higher valleys of the Serra do Mar enjoy a delightfully temperate +climate. The rainfall throughout this region is abundant, except in +northern Minas Geraes, where the climatic conditions are influenced +to some extent by the arid eastern plateau. South of São Paulo the +tablelands of Paraná, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy +a temperate climate, with an abundant rainfall. There are occasional +frosts, but snow is never seen. Of Goyaz and Matto Grosso very +little can be said. The lower river valleys of the Tocantins-Araguaya, +Xingú, Tapajós and Paraguay are essentially tropical, their climate +being hot and humid like that of the Amazon. The higher valleys +of the Paraná and its tributaries, and of the rivers which flow northward, +are sub-tropical in character, having high sun temperatures +and cool nights. Above these, the <i>chapadas</i> lie open to the sun and +wind and have a cool, bracing atmosphere even where high sun +temperatures prevail. The mean annual temperature at Goyaz +(city), according to a limited number of observations, is about 77°. +There is no absolutely dry season in this part of the great Brazilian +plateau, though the year is customarily divided into a dry and wet +season, the latter running from September to April in Goyaz, and +from November to April in Matto Grosso. The prevailing winds are +from the north-west in this region, and westerly winds in the rainy +season are usually accompanied by rain.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—The indigenous fauna of Brazil is noteworthy not only +for the variety and number of its genera and species, but also for its +deficiency in the larger mammals. Of this, one of the best authorities +on the subject (H.W. Bates in <i>The Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>) +says: “Brazil, moreover, is throughout poor in terrestrial mammals, +and the species are of small size.” It is noteworthy, also, for the +large number of species having arboreal habits, the density and extent +of the Amazon forests favouring their development rather than +the development of those of terrestrial habits. Of Quadrumana +there are about fifty species in Brazil, all arboreal, thirty-eight of +which inhabit the Amazon region. They belong mostly to the +<i>Cebidae</i> family, and are provided with prehensile tails. The Carnivora +are represented by six species of the <i>Felidae</i>, the best known of +which is the onça, or jaguar (<i>F. onça, L</i>.), and the cougar, or puma +(<i>F. concolor</i>); three species of the <i>Canidae</i>, the South American wolf +(<i>C. jubatus</i>), and two small jackals (<i>C. brasiliensis</i> and <i>C. vetulus</i>); +and a few species of the Mustelina including two of the otter, two +<i>Galictis</i> and one <i>Mephitis</i>. Of the plantigrades, Brazil has no bears, +but has the related species of raccoon (<i>Nasua socialis</i> and <i>N. solitaria</i>), +popularly called <i>coatis</i>. The opossum (<i>Didelphis</i>) is represented by +three or four species, two of which are so small that they are generally +called wood rats. The rodents are numerous and include several +peculiar species. Only one species of hare is found in Brazil, the +<i>Lepus brasiliensis</i>, and but one also of the squirrel (<i>Scyurus</i>). Of +the amphibious rodents, the prêá (<i>Cavia aperea</i>), mocó (<i>C. rupestris</i>), +paca (<i>Coelogenys paca</i>), cutia (<i>Dasyprocta aguti</i>) and capybara +(<i>Hydrochoerus capybara</i>) are noteworthy for their size and extensive +range. Their flesh is used as an article of food, that of the paca being +highly esteemed. Of the Muridae there are several genera and a +large number of species, some of them evidently importations from +the Old World. Brazil has three groups of animals similar to the +common rat—the <i>Capromydae</i>, <i>Loncheridae</i> and <i>Psammoryctidae</i>—the +best known of which is the “tuco-tuco” (<i>Clenomys brasiliensis</i>), +a small burrowing animal of Rio Grande do Sul which excavates +long subterranean galleries and lives on roots and bulbs. One of the +characteristic orders of the Brazilian fauna is that of the Edentata, +which comprises the sloth, armadillo and ant-eater. These animals +are found only in the tropical regions of South America. The range +of the sloth is from the Guianas south into Minas Geraes, the armadillo +as far south as the Argentine pampas and the ant-eater from +the Amazon south to Paraguay, though it is found in the Amazon +region principally. The sloth (<i>Bradypus</i>) is an arboreal animal +which feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of the Cecropias. It +includes two recognized genera and half a dozen species, the best +known of which is <i>B. didactylus</i>. The common name in Brazil is +<i>preguiça</i>, which is equivalent to its English name. Of armadillos, +commonly called <i>tatú</i> in Brazil, the largest species is the <i>Dasypus +gigas</i>, but the best known is the <i>tatú-été</i> (<i>D. octocinctus</i>), which is +highly esteemed for its flesh. The ant-eaters (<i>Myrmecophaga</i>) are +divided into three or four species, one of which (<i>M. jubata</i>) is exclusively +terrestrial, and the others arboreal. The popular name for +the animal is <i>tamanduá</i>. The <i>M. jubata</i>, or <i>tamanduá bandeira</i>, is +sometimes found as far south as Paraguay. Of the ruminants, +Brazil has only four or five species of <i>Cervidae</i>, which are likewise +common to other countries of South America. The largest of these +is the marsh deer (<i>C. paludosus</i>), which in size resembles its European +congeners. The others are the <i>C. campestris</i>, <i>C. nemorivagus</i>, +<i>C. rufus</i> and a small species or variety called <i>C. nanus</i> by the Danish +naturalist Dr P.W. Lund. The pachyderms are represented by +three species of the peccary (<i>Dicotyles</i>) and two of the anta, or tapir +(<i>Tapirus</i>). The former are found over a wide range of country, +extending into Bolivia and Argentina, and are noted for their +impetuous pugnacity. The tapir also has an extensive range between +the coast and the foothills of the Andes, and from northern Argentina +to south-eastern Colombia. It is the largest of the Brazilian +mammals, and inhabits densely forested tracts near river courses. +The two species are <i>T. americanus</i>, which is the larger and best +known, and the <i>anta chure</i>, found in Minas Geraes, which is said to +be identical with the <i>T. Roulini</i> of Colombia. Perhaps the most +interesting mammal of Brazil is the <i>manati</i>, or sea-cow (<i>Manatus +americanus</i>), which inhabits the lower Amazon and sometimes +reaches a length of 15 to 20 ft. It is taken with the harpoon and its +oil is one of the commercial products of the Amazon valley.</p> + +<p>The avifauna of Brazil is rich in genera, species and individuals, +especially in species with brilliantly-coloured plumage. It is estimated +that more than half the birds of Brazil are insectivorous, and +that more than one-eighth are climbers. The range in size is a wide +one—from the tiny humming-bird to the ema, rhea, or American +ostrich. Although the order which includes song-birds is numerous +in species and individuals, it is noticeably poor in really good +songsters. On the other hand it is exceptionally rich in species +having strident voices and peculiar unmusical calls, like the <i>pacô</i> +(<i>Coracina scuttata</i>) and the <i>araponga</i> (<i>Chasmorhynchus nudicollis</i>). +Two species of vultures, twenty-three of falcons and eight of owls +represent the birds of prey. The best known vulture is the common +<i>urubú</i> (<i>Cathartes foetens</i>, Illig), which is the universal scavenger of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span> +tropics. The climbers comprise a large number of species, some of +which, like those of the parrot (<i>Psittacidae</i>) and woodpecker (<i>Picus</i>), +are particularly noticeable in every wooded region of the country. +One of the most striking species of the former is the brilliantly-coloured +<i>arara</i> (<i>Macrocercus</i>, L.), which is common throughout +northern Brazil. Another interesting species is the toucan (<i>Ramphastos</i>), +whose enormous beak, awkward flight and raucous voice +make it a conspicuous object in the great forests of northern Brazil. +In strong contrast to the ungainly toucan is the tiny humming-bird, +whose beautiful plumage, swiftness of flight and power of wing are +sources of constant wonder and admiration. Of this smallest of +birds there are fifty-nine well-known species, divided into two +groups, the <i>Phaethorninae</i>, which prefer the forest shade and live +on insects, and the <i>Trochilinae</i>, which frequent open sunny places +where flowers are to be found. One of the Brazilian birds whose +habits have attracted much interest is the <i>João de Barro</i> (Clay John) +or oven bird (<i>Furnarius rufus</i>), which builds a house of reddish clay +for its nest and attaches it to the branch of a tree, usually in a fork. +The thrush is represented by a number of species, one of which, the +<i>sabiá</i> (<i>Mimus</i>), has become the popular song-bird of Brazil through +a poem written by Gonçalves Dias. The dove and pigeon have also +a number of native species, one of which, the <i>pomba jurity</i> (<i>Peristera +frontalis</i>), is a highly-appreciated table luxury. The gallinaceous +birds are well represented, especially in game birds. The most +numerous of these are the <i>perdiz</i> (partridge), the best known of which +is the <i>Tinamus maculosa</i> which frequents the <i>campos</i> of the south, +the <i>inhambú</i> (<i>Crypturus</i>), <i>capoeira</i> (<i>Odontophorus</i>), and several +species of the penelope family popularly known as the <i>jacutinga, +jacú</i> and <i>jacú-assú</i>. The common domesticated fowl is not indigenous. +Among the wading and running birds, of which the <i>ema</i> +is the largest representative, there are many species of both descriptions. +In the Amazon lowlands are white herons (<i>Ardea candidissima</i>), +egrets (<i>A. egretta</i>), bitterns (<i>A. exilis</i>), blue herons (<i>A. herodias</i>) +scarlet ibises (<i>Ibis rubra</i>), roseate spoonbills (<i>Platalea ajaja</i>); +on higher ground the beautiful peacock heron (<i>A. helias</i>) +which is easily domesticated; and on the dry elevated <i>campos</i> the +<i>ceriema</i> (<i>Dicholophus cristatus</i>) which is prized for its flesh, and the +<i>jacamin</i> (<i>Psophia crepitans</i>) which is frequently domesticated. +Prominent among the storks is the great black-headed white crane, +called the <i>jaburú</i> (<i>Mycteria americana</i>), which is found along the +Amazon and down the coast and grows to a height of 4½ ft. Of the +swimmers, the number of species is smaller, but some of them are +widely distributed and numerous in individuals. There are but few +species of ducks, and they are apparently more numerous in southern +Brazil than on the Amazon.</p> + +<p>The reptilian fauna exhibits an exceptionally large number of +interesting genera and species. A great part of the river systems +of the country with their flooded areas are highly favourable to the +development of reptilian life. Most prominent among these is the +American alligator, of which there are, according to Netterer, two +genera and eight species in Brazil. They are very numerous in the +Amazon and its tributaries and in the Paraguay, and are found in +all the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Three of the Brazilian species +are voracious and dangerous. The largest of the Amazon species +are the <i>jacaré-assú</i> (<i>Caïman niger</i>), <i>jacaré</i> (<i>C. fissipes</i>) and +<i>jacaré-tinga</i> (<i>C. sclerops</i>). The Amazon is also the home of one of the +largest fresh-water turtles known, the <i>Emys amazonica</i>, locally called +the <i>jurará-assú</i> or <i>tartaruga grande</i>. These turtles are so numerous +that their flesh and eggs have long been a principal food supply for +the Indian population of that region. Another Amazon species, the +<i>E. tracaxa</i>, is still more highly esteemed for its flesh, but it is smaller +and deposits fewer eggs in the sandy river beaches. Lagartos +(<i>Iguanas</i>) and lizards are common everywhere. The ophidians are +also numerous, especially in the wooded lowlands valleys, and the +poisonous species, though less numerous than others, include some +of the most dangerous known—the rattlesnake <i>surucucú</i> (<i>Lachesis +rhombeatus</i>), and <i>jararáca</i> (<i>Bothrops</i>). The Amazon region is +frequented by the <i>giboia</i> (boa constrictor), and the central plateau by +the <i>sucuriú</i> (<i>Eunectes murinus</i>), both distinguished for their enormous +size. The batrachians include a very large number of genera and +species, especially in the Amazon valley.</p> + +<p>The fauna of the rivers and coast of Brazil is richer in species and +individuals than that of the land. All the rivers are richly stocked, +and valuable fishing grounds are to be found along the coast, especially +that of southern Bahia and Espirito Santo where the <i>garoupa</i> +(<i>Serranus</i>) is found in large numbers. Some of the small fish along +the coast are highly esteemed for their flavour. Whales were once +numerous between Capes St Roque and Frio, but are now rarely +seen. Of the edible river fish, the best known is the <i>pirarucú</i> (<i>Sudis +gigas</i>), a large fish of the Amazon which is salted and dried for +market during the low-water season. Fish is a staple food of the +Indian tribes of the Amazon region, and their fishing season is during +the period of low water. The visit of Professor Louis Agassiz to the +Amazon in 1865 resulted in a list of 1143 species, but it is believed +that no less than 1800 to 2000 species are to be found in that great +river and its tributaries.</p> + +<p>In strong contrast to the poverty of Brazil in the larger mammals +is the astonishing profusion of insect life in every part of the country. +The Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are especially numerous, both in +species and individuals. A striking illustration of this extraordinary +profusion was given by the English naturalist H.W. Bates, who +found 7000 species of insects in the vicinity of only one of his collecting +places on the Amazon (Ega), of which 550 species were of butterflies. +Within an hour’s walk of Pará are to be found, he says, about +700 species of butterflies, “whilst the total number found in the +British Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports +only 321.” (H.W. Bates, <i>The Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>.) +One of the rare species of the Amazon <i>Morphos</i> (<i>M. hecuba</i>) measures +8 to 9 in. across its expanded wings. Dipterous insects are also very +numerous in species, especially in those of sanguinary habits, such +as the mosquito, <i>pium</i>, <i>maroim</i>, <i>carapanā</i>, <i>borochudo</i>, &c. In some +places these insects constitute a veritable plague, and the infested +regions are practically uninhabitable. The related species of the +<i>Oestridae</i> family, which include the widely disseminated <i>chigoe</i> or +<i>bicho do pé</i> (<i>Pulex penetrans</i>), and the equally troublesome <i>berne</i> +(<i>Cutiterebra noxialis</i>), which is so injurious to animals, are equally +numerous. The most numerous of all, however, and perhaps the +most harmful to civilized man, are the termites and ants, which are +found everywhere in the uninhabited campo and forest regions, as +well as in the cultivated districts. Nature has provided several +species of animals, birds and reptiles, to feed upon these insects, and +various poisonous and suffocating compounds are used to destroy +them, but with no great degree of success. It is not uncommon to +find once cultivated fields abandoned because of their ravages and +to see large <i>campos</i> completely covered with enormous ant-hills. +The termites, or “white ants,” are exceptionally destructive because +of their habit of tunnelling through the softer woods of habitations +and furniture, while some species of ants, like the <i>saúba</i>, are equally +destructive to plantations because of the rapidity with which they +strip a tree of its foliage. Spiders are represented by a very large +number of species, some of which are beautifully coloured. The +largest of these is the <i>Mygale</i> with a body 2 in. in length and outstretched +legs covering 7 in., a monster strong enough to capture +and kill small birds. A large <i>Mygale</i> found on the island of Siriba, of +the Abrolhos group, feeds upon lizards, and has been known to +attack and kill young chickens. One of the most troublesome pests +of the interior is a minute degenerate spider of the genus <i>Ixodes</i>, +called <i>carrapato</i>, or bush-tick, which breeds on the ground and then +creeps up the grass blades and bushes where it waits for some passing +man or beast. Its habit is to bury its head in its victim’s skin and +remain there until gorged with blood, when it drops off. Scorpions +are common, but are considered less poisonous than some European +species.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—Brazil not only is marvellously rich in botanical species, +but included at the beginning of the 20th century the largest area +of virgin forest on the surface of the earth. The flora falls naturally +into three great divisions: that of the Amazon basin where exceptional +conditions of heat and moisture prevail; that of the coast +where heat, varying rainfall, oceanic influences and changing seasons +have greatly modified the general character of the vegetation; and +that of the elevated interior, or <i>sertão</i>, where dryer conditions, +rocky surfaces, higher sun temperatures and large open spaces +produce a vegetation widely different from those of the other two +regions. Besides these, the flora of the Paraguay basin varies widely +from that of the inland plateau, and that of the Brazilian Guiana +region is essentially distinct from the Amazon. The latter region +is densely forested from the Atlantic to the Andes, but with a varying +width of about 200 m. on the coast to about 900 m. between +the Bolivian and Venezuelan <i>llanos</i>, and thus far civilization has +made only a very slight impression upon it. Even where settlements +have been located, constant effort is required to keep the vegetation +down. Along the coast, much of the virgin forest has been +cut away, not only for the creation of cultivated plantations, +but to meet the commercial demand for Brazil-wood and furniture +woods.</p> + +<p>The chief characteristic of the Amazonian forest, aside from its +magnitude, is the great diversity of genera and species. In the +northern temperate zone we find forests of a single species, others of +three or four species; in this great tropical forest the habit of growth +is solitary and an acre of ground will contain hundreds of species—palms, +myrtles, acacias, mimosas, cecropias, euphorbias, malvaceas, +laurels, cedrellas, bignonias, bombaceas, apocyneas, malpigias, +lecythises, swartzias, &c. The vegetation of the lower river-margins, +which are periodically flooded, differs in some particulars from that +of the higher ground, and the same variation is to be found between +the forests of the upper and lower Amazon, and between the Amazon +and its principal tributaries. The density of the forest is greatly +augmented by the <i>cipós</i>, or lianas, which overgrow the largest trees +to their tops, and by a profusion of epiphytes which cover the highest +branches. As a rule the trees of the Amazon forest are not conspicuously +high, a few species rarely reaching a height of 200 ft. +The average is probably less than one-half that height. This is +especially true of the flood plains where the annual inundations +prevent the formation of humus and retard forest growth. The +largest of the Amazon forest trees are the <i>massaranduba</i> (<i>Mimusops +elata</i>), called the cow-tree because of its milky sap, the <i>samaúma</i> +(<i>Eriodendron samauma</i>) or silk-cotton tree, the <i>páu d’ arco</i> (<i>Tecoma +speciosa</i>), <i>páu d’ alho</i> (<i>Catraeva tapia</i>), <i>bacori</i> (<i>Symphonea coccinea</i>), +<i>sapucaia</i> (<i>Lecythis ollaria</i>), and <i>castanheira</i> or brazil-nut tree (<i>Bertholletia +excelsa</i>). The Amazon region has a comparatively narrow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span> +frontage on the Atlantic. In Maranhão, which belongs to the coast +region, open spaces or <i>campos</i> appear, though the state is well +wooded and its forests have the general characteristics of the lower +Amazon. South-east of the Parnahyba the coast region becomes +dryer and more sandy and the forests disappear. The coast and +tide-water rivers are fringed with mangrove, and the sandy plain +reaching back to the margin of the inland plateau is generally bare +of vegetation, though the carnahuba palm (<i>Copernicia cerifera</i>) and +some species of low-growing trees are to be found in many places. +The higher levels of this plain are covered with shrubs and small +trees, principally mimosas. The slopes of the plateau, which receive +a better rainfall, are more heavily forested, some districts being +covered with deciduous trees, forming <i>catingas</i> in local parlance. +This dry, thinly-wooded region extends south to the states of Parahyba, +where a more regular rainfall favours forest growth nearer the +coast. Between Parahyba and southern Bahia forests and open +plains are intermingled; thence southward the narrow coastal plain +and bordering mountain slopes are heavily forested. The sea-coast, +bays and tide-water rivers are still fringed with mangrove, and on +the sandy shores above Cape Frio grow large numbers of the exotic +cocoa-nut palm. Many species of indigenous palms abound, and +in places the forests are indescribably luxuriant. These are made +up, as Prince Max zu Neuwied found in southern Bahia in 1817, “of +the genera <i>Cocos</i>, <i>Melastoma</i>, <i>Bignonia</i>, <i>Rhexia</i>, <i>Mimosa</i>, <i>Ingá</i>, +<i>Bombax</i>, <i>Ilex</i>, <i>Laurus</i>, <i>Myrthus</i>, <i>Eugenia</i>, <i>Jacarandá</i>, <i>Jatropha</i>, +<i>Visinia</i>, <i>Lecythis</i>, <i>Ficus</i>, and a thousand other, for the most part, +unknown species of trees.” Further inland the higher country +becomes more open and the forests are less luxuriant. Giant cacti +and spiny scrub abound. Then come the <i>catinga</i> tracts, and, beyond +these, the open <i>campos</i> of the elevated plateau, dotted with clumps +of low growing bushes and broken by tracts of <i>carrasco</i>, a thick, +matted, bushy growth 10 to 12 ft. in height. Formerly this coast +region furnished large quantities of Brazil-wood (<i>Caesalpinia +echinata</i>), and the river valleys have long been the principal source +of Brazil’s best cabinet-wood—rosewood (<i>Dalbergia nigra</i>), jacarandá +(<i>Machaeriumfirmum</i>, Benth.), vinhatico (<i>Plathymenia foliosa</i>, Benth.), +peroba (<i>Aspidosperma peroba</i>), cedro, &c. The exotic <i>mangabeira</i> +(mango) is found everywhere along the coast, together with the +bamboo, orange, lemon, banana, cashew, &c.</p> + +<p>Of the great inland region, which includes the arid campos of the +north, the partially-wooded plateaus of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and +Matto Grosso, the temperate highlands of the south, and the tropical +lowlands of the Paraguay basin, no adequate description can be given +without taking each section in detail, which can be done to better +advantage in describing the individual states. In general, the +<i>carrasco</i> growth extends over the whole central plateau, and heavy +forests are found only in the deep river valleys. Those opening +northward have the characteristic flora of the Amazon basin. The +Paraguay basin is covered with extensive marshy tracts and open +woodlands, the palms being the conspicuous feature. The vegetation +is similar to that of Paraguay and the Chaco, and aquatic +plants are specially numerous and luxuriant. On the temperate +uplands of the southern states there are imposing forests of South +American pine (<i>Araucaria brasiliensis</i>), whose bare trunks and +umbrella-like tops give to them the appearance of open woodland. +These forests extend from Paraná into Rio Grande do Sul and +smaller tracts are also found in Minas Geraes. Large tracts of <i>Ilex +paraguayensis</i>, from which <i>maté</i>, or Paraguay-tea, is gathered, are +found in this same region.</p> + +<p>The economic plants of Brazil, both indigenous and exotic, are +noticeably numerous. Coffee naturally occupies first place, and +is grown wherever frosts are not severe from the Amazon south to +Paraná. The states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes +are the largest producers, but it is also grown for export in Espirito +Santo, Bahia and Ceará. The export in 1905 was 10,820,604 bags +of 132 ℔ each, with an official valuation of £21,420,330. Sugar +cane, another exotic, has an equally wide distribution, and cotton is +grown along the coast from Maranhão to São Paulo. Other economic +plants and fruits having a wide distribution are tobacco, maize, rice, +beans, sweet potatoes, bananas, cacáo (<i>Theobroma cacao</i>), mandioca +or cassava (<i>Manihot utilitissima</i>), <i>aipim</i> or sweet mandioca (<i>M. aipi</i>), +guavas (<i>Psidium guayava</i>, Raddi), oranges, lemons, limes, grapes, +pineapples, <i>mamão</i> (<i>Carica papaya</i>), bread-fruit (<i>Artocarpus incisa</i>), +jack fruit (<i>A. integrifolia</i>), and many others less known outside the +tropics. Among the palms there are several of great economic value, +not only as food producers but also for various domestic uses. The +fruit of the <i>pupunha</i> or peach palm (<i>Guilielma speciosa</i>) is an important +food among the Indians of the Amazon valley, where the +tree was cultivated by them long before the discovery of America. +Humboldt found it among the native tribes of the Orinoco valley, +where it is called <i>pirijao</i>. The ita palm, <i>Mauritia</i>, <i>flexuosa</i> (a fan-leaf +palm) provides an edible fruit, medullary meal, drink, fibre, +roofing and timber, but is less used on the Amazon than it is on the +lower Orinoco. The <i>assaí</i> (<i>Euterpe oleracea</i>) is another highly-prized +palm because of a beverage made from its fruit along the lower +Amazon. A closely-related species or variety (<i>Euterpe edulis</i>) is the +well-known palmito or cabbage palm found over the greater part +of Brazil, whose terminal phylophore is cooked and eaten as a +vegetable. Another highly useful palm is the <i>carnauba</i> or <i>carnahuba</i> +(<i>Copernicia cerifera</i>) which supplies fruit, medullary meal, food for +cattle, boards and timber, fibre, wax and medicine. The fibre of +the <i>piassava (Leopoldinia piassava</i>, or <i>Attalea funifera</i>) is widely +used for cordage, brushes and brooms. There are many other palms +whose fruit, fibre and wood enter largely into the domestic economy +of the natives, but the list given shows how important a service these +trees rendered to the aboriginal inhabitants of tropical America, +and likewise how useful they still are to the people of tropical Brazil. +Another vegetable product of the Amazon region is made from the +fruit of the <i>Paullinia sorbilis</i>, Mart., and is known by the name of +<i>guaraná</i>. It is largely consumed in Bolivia and Matto Grosso, +where it is used in the preparation of a beverage which has excellent +medicinal properties. The Brazilian flora is also rich in medicinal +and aromatic plants, dye-woods, and a wide range of gum and +resin-producing shrubs and trees. The best known of these are +sarsaparilla, ipecacuanhá, cinchona, jaborandi and copaiba; vanilla, +tonka beans and cloves; Brazil-wood and anatto (<i>Bixa orellana</i>); +india-rubber and balata. India-rubber is derived principally from +the <i>Hevea guayanensis</i>, sometimes called the <i>Siphonia elastica</i>, which +is found on the Amazon and its tributaries as far inland as the foothills +of the Andes. Other rubber-producing trees are the <i>maniçoba</i> +(<i>Jatropha Glasiovii</i>) of Ceará, and the <i>mangabeira</i> (<i>Hancornia +speciosa</i>), of the central upland regions.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The first explorers of Brazil reported a numerous +Indian population, but, as the sea-coast afforded a larger and +more easily acquired food supply than did the interior, the +Indian population was probably numerous only in a comparatively +small part of this immense territory, along the sea-coast. +Modern explorations have shown that the unsettled inland +regions of Brazil are populated by Indians only where the conditions +are favourable. They are to be found in wooded districts +near rivers, and are rarely found on the elevated <i>campos</i>. The +immediate result of European colonization was the enslavement +and extermination of the Indians along the coast and in all those +favoured inland localities where the whites came into contact +with them. The southern districts and the Amazon and its +tributaries were often raided by slave-hunting expeditions, +and their Indian populations were either decimated, or driven +farther into the inaccessible forests. But there is no record +that the inland districts of western and north-western Brazil +were treated in this manner, and their present population may +be assumed to represent approximately what it was when the +Europeans first came. According to the census of 1890 the Indian +population was 1,295,796, but so far as the migratory tribes are +concerned the figures are only guesswork. A considerable +number of these Indians have been gathered together in <i>aldeas</i> +under the charge of government tutors, but the larger part still +live in their own villages or as nomads.</p> + +<p>Down to the beginning of the 19th century the white colonists +were almost exclusively Portuguese. The immigration from +countries other than Portugal during the first half of that century +was small, but before its close it increased rapidly, particularly +from Italy. Fully nine-tenths of these immigrants, including +those from the mother country, were of the Latin race. The +introduction of African slaves followed closely upon the development +of agricultural industries, and continued nominally until +1850, actually until 1854, and according to some authors until +1860. About 1826 it was estimated that the negro population +numbered 2,500,000 or three times the white population of that +period. The unrestricted intermixture of these three races +forms the principal basis of the Brazilian population at the beginning +of the 20th century. Brazil has never had a “colour line,” +and there has never been any popular prejudice against +race mixtures. According to the census of 1872 the total population +was 9,930,478, of which 1,510,806 were slaves; the race +enumeration gave 3,787,289 whites, 1,959,452 Africans, 386,955 +Indians, and 3,801,782 mixed bloods. The Indian population +certainly exceeded the total given, and the white population +must have included many of mixed blood, the habit of so describing +themselves being common among the better classes of South +American mestizos. The census of 1890 increased the total +population to 14,333,915, which, according to an unofficial +analysis (<i>Statesman’s Year Book</i>, 1905), was made up of 6,302,198 +whites, 4,638,495 mixed bloods, 2,097,426 Africans, and 1,295,796 +Indians. This analysis, if correct, indicates that the vegetative +increase of the whites has been greater than that of the Africans +and mixed races. This is not the conclusion of many observers, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span> +but it may be due to the excessive infant mortality among the +lower classes, where an observance of the simplest sanitary laws +is practically unknown. The census of the 31st of December +1900 was strikingly defective; it was wholly discarded for the +city of Rio de Janeiro, and had to be completed by office +computations in the returns from several states. The compilation +of the returns was not completed and published until May 1908, +according to which the total population was 17,318,556, of which +8,825,636 were males and 8,492,920 females. Not including +the city of Rio de Janeiro, whose population was estimated +at 691,565 in conformity with a special municipal census of 1906, +the total population was 16,626,991, of which 15,572,671 were +Roman Catholics, 177,727 Protestants, 876,593 of other faiths. +The returns also show a total of 3,038,500 domiciles outside +the federal capital, which gives an average of 5.472 to the domicile. +These returns will serve to correct the exaggerated estimate +of 22,315,000 for 1900 which was published in Brazil and accepted +by many foreign publications.</p> + +<p>The racial character of the people is not uniform throughout +the republic, the whites predominating in the southern states, the +Indians in Amazonas and, probably, Matto Grosso, and the +mixed races in the central and northern coast states. The +excess of whites over the +coloured races in the southern +states is due to their smaller +slave population and to the +large number of immigrants +attracted to them. Slavery +was not abolished until the +13th of May 1888, but a number +of successful colonies had +already been founded in these +states. Other colonies were +founded in Bahia, Espirito +Santo and Rio de Janeiro +during the same period, but +they were unsuccessful, partly +because of the competition of +slave labour. Since the abolition +of slavery immigration +has poured a large number of +labourers into the coffee-producing +states, and with beneficial +results. This strengthening +of the white population +of the South with fresh +European blood must eventually divide Brazil into two distinct +sections: the white states of the south, and the mixed or coloured +states of the north. The introduction of European immigrants +dates from 1818 when a Swiss colony was located at Nova Friburgo, +near Rio de Janeiro, and it was continued under the direction +and with the aid of the imperial government down to the creation +of the republic. Since then the state governments have assumed +charge of immigration, and some of them are spending large +sums in the acquisition of labourers. The old system of locating +immigrants in colonies, or colonial nuclei, which involved an +enormous outlay of money with but slight benefit to the country, +has been superseded by a system of locating the immigrants +on the large plantations under formal contracts. In some of +the coffee districts these contracts have resulted very profitably +to the Italian labourers. The total number of colonists and immigrants +entering Brazil between 1804 and 1902, inclusive, +according to official returns, was 2,208,353. The arrivals +fluctuate greatly in number from year to year, influenced by +the prevailing economic conditions in the country. At first +the Portuguese outnumbered all other nationalities in the immigration +returns, but since the abolition of slavery the Italians +have passed all competitors and number more than one-half the +total arrivals. Of the 700,211 immigrants located in the state of +São Paulo from 1827 to the end of 1896, no less than 493,535 +were Italians, and their aggregate throughout the republic +was estimated in 1906 at more than 1,100,000. The German +immigration, of which so much has been written for political ends, +has been greatly over-estimated; trustworthy estimates in 1906 +made the German contingent in the population vary from +350,000 to 500,000. They are settled chiefly in colonies in the +southern states, and form a most desirable body of settlers.</p> + +<p><i>Divisions and Towns.</i>—The republic is divided into twenty +states and one federal district, which are the same as the provinces +and “municipio neutro” of the empire. Their names also remain +unchanged, except that of the federalized district in which the +national capital is located, which is called the “districto federal.” +The republic has no territories, although Amazonas, Matto +Grosso, Pará and Goyaz cover an immense region of uninhabited +and only partially explored territory. The states are subdivided +into <i>comarcas</i>, or judicial districts, and into <i>municipios</i>, or +townships, which is the smallest autonomous division. The +constitution provides for the autonomy of the municipalities in +order to safeguard the permanence of representative institutions. +The <i>parochia</i>, or parish, an ecclesiastical division, is often used +for administrative purposes, but it has no political organization. +The names, areas, and populations of the states, together +with the names and populations of their capitals, are as +follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">States.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Area,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a><br />Sq. miles.</td> +<td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Population<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> +<td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">State Capitals.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Population,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a><br />Census<br />1890.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Census<br />1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Census<br />1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alagôas</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,584</td> <td class="tcr rb">511,440</td> <td class="tcr rb">649,273</td> <td class="tcl rb">Maceió</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,498</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Amazonas</td> <td class="tcr rb">742,123</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,915</td> <td class="tcr rb">249,756</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manáos</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,720</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bahia</td> <td class="tcr rb">164,650</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,919,802</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,117,956</td> <td class="tcl rb">São Salvador<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">174,412</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ceará</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,253</td> <td class="tcr rb">805,687</td> <td class="tcr rb">849,127</td> <td class="tcl rb">Fortaleza</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,902</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Espirito Santo</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,313</td> <td class="tcr rb">135,997</td> <td class="tcr rb">209,783</td> <td class="tcl rb">Victoria</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,887</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Federal District</td> <td class="tcr rb">538</td> <td class="tcr rb">522,651</td> <td class="tcr rb">691,565</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rio de Janeiro</td> <td class="tcr rb">522,651</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Goyaz</td> <td class="tcr rb">288,549</td> <td class="tcr rb">227,572</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,284</td> <td class="tcl rb">Goyaz<a href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">17,181</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Maranhão</td> <td class="tcr rb">177,569</td> <td class="tcr rb">430,854</td> <td class="tcr rb">499,308</td> <td class="tcl rb">S. Luiz do Maranhão<a href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">29,308</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Matto Grosso</td> <td class="tcr rb">532,370</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,827</td> <td class="tcr rb">118,025</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cuyabá</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,815</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minas Geraes</td> <td class="tcr rb">221,961</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,184,099</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,594,471</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ouro Preto<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">59,249</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pará</td> <td class="tcr rb">443,922</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,455</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,356</td> <td class="tcl rb">Belem<a href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">50,064</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Parahyba</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,855</td> <td class="tcr rb">457,232</td> <td class="tcr rb">490,784</td> <td class="tcl rb">Parahyba</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,645</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paraná</td> <td class="tcr rb">85,455</td> <td class="tcr rb">249,491</td> <td class="tcr rb">327,136</td> <td class="tcl rb">Curityba</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,553</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pernambuco</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,575</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,030,224</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,178,150</td> <td class="tcl rb">Recife<a href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">111,556</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Piauhy</td> <td class="tcr rb">116,529</td> <td class="tcr rb">267,609</td> <td class="tcr rb">334,328</td> <td class="tcl rb">Therezina</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,523</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rio de Janeiro</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,635</td> <td class="tcr rb">276,884|</td> <td class="tcr rb">274,317</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nictheroy</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,269</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rio Grande do Norte</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,196</td> <td class="tcr rb">268,273</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,149,070</td> <td class="tcl rb">Natal</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,725</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rio Grande do Sul</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,337</td> <td class="tcr rb">897,455</td> <td class="tcr rb">926,035</td> <td class="tcl rb">Porto Alegre</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,421</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Santa Catharina</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,633</td> <td class="tcr rb">283,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">320,289</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desterro<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">30,637</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">São Paulo</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,312</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,384,753</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,282,279</td> <td class="tcl rb">São Paulo</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,934</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sergipe</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,093</td> <td class="tcr rb">310,926</td> <td class="tcr rb">356,264</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ararajú</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,336</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,228,452</td> <td class="tcr allb">14,333,915</td> <td class="tcr allb">17,318,556</td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Railway construction in Brazil dates from 1852, +when work was initiated on the Mauá railway running from the head +of the bay of Rio de Janeiro to the foot of the Serra where Petropolis +is situated. The road is 10 m. long, and its first section was opened +to traffic on April 30, 1854, and its second December 16, 1856. +The mountain section, 5½ m. long, which uses the Riggenbach system +from the terminal to Petropolis, was constructed between 1881 and +1883. The development of railway construction in Brazil has been +impeded to a great extent by two unfavourable conditions—by the +chain of mountains or plateau escarpments which follow the coast +line and obstruct communication with the interior, and by the detached +positions of the settlements along the Atlantic, which compel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span> +the building of lines from many widely separated points on the coast +into a sparsely populated hinterland. A majority of the ports, from +which these roads are built, are small and difficult of access, and the +coasting trade is restricted to vessels carrying the Brazilian flag. +The only ports having a rich and well-populated country behind +them are Rio de Janeiro and Santos, and these are the terminals +of long lines of railway which are being slowly extended farther into +the interior.</p> + +<p>The total mileage under traffic at the beginning of 1905 was +10,600 m., divided into 94 separate lines. There were also 745 m. +under construction, 1740 m. under survey, and about 1600 m. +projected. Of the 94 lines under traffic, 45 were operating by virtue +of national and 49 by provincial and state concessions. They were +grouped in the official reports of 1905 as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Government lines (21):—</td> <td class="tcr">Miles.</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Administered by the state (6)</td> <td class="tcr">2228</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Leased to private parties (15)</td> <td class="tcr">2174</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td> <td class="tcr">4402</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Private lines (24)—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> With national interest guarantees (12)</td> <td class="tcr">1290</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Without such guarantees (12)</td> <td class="tcr">815</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td> <td class="tcr">2105</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Private and state lines operated by virtue of state</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> concessions, with and without interest guarantees (49)</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">4093</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">10,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">======</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The policy of the national government has been gradually to +lease all its lines except the Estrada de Ferro Central do Brazil, +which is retained for sentimental reasons. This great railway runs +from the city of Rio de Janeiro westward to the city of São Paulo +and northward into the interior of Minas Geraes, with a total length +at the beginning of 1905 of 1002 m., and an extension of about 104 m. +to Pirapora, on the São Francisco river. It was formerly known as +the “E. de F. Dom Pedro II.,” in honour of the sovereign who +encouraged its construction. The main line has a gauge of 63 in. +(1.60 m.) and affords an outlet for a number of inland metre-gauge +lines. The first two sections of this great railway, which carry it +across the coast range, were opened to traffic in 1858 and 1864. +The series of trunk lines terminating at the port of Santos are owned +by private companies and are formed by the São Paulo, Paulista and +Mogyana lines, the first owned by an English company, and the +other two by Brazilian companies. The Mogyana carries the system +entirely across the state of São Paulo into the western districts of +Minas Geraes. The principal trunk lines (the São Paulo and +Paulista) have a broad gauge, while their extensions and feeders +have a narrow gauge. The comparatively short lines extending +inland from the ports of São Salvador (Bahia), Pernambuco, Maceió, +Victoria and Paranaguá serve only a narrow zone along the coast. +To encourage the investment of private capital in the construction of +railways, the general railway law of 1853 authorized the national +government to grant guarantees of interest on the capital invested. +Under this law companies were organized in England for building +the São Paulo railway, and the lines running from Bahia and Pernambuco +toward the São Francisco river. Political considerations also +led to the construction of similar lines in the states of Rio Grande do +Norte, Parahyba, Alagôas, Sergipe, Espirito Santo, Paraná, Santa +Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul. The result was that the national +treasury became burdened with a heavy annual interest charge, +payable abroad in gold, which did not tend to diminish, and had a +long period to run before the expiration of the contracts. The +government finally determined to take over these guaranteed lines +from the foreign companies owning them, and a statement issued +in October 1902 showed that 1335 m. had been acquired at a cost of +£14,605,000 in bonds, the interest on which is £584,200 a year against +an aggregate of £831,750 in interest guarantees which the government +had been paying. In addition to this economy it was calculated +that the lines could be leased for £132,000 a year. The loan +finally issued in London to cover the purchase of these railways +aggregated £16,619,320. All but three of these lines had been leased +in 1905.</p> + +<p>The use of tramways for the transportation of passengers in cities +dates from 1868, when the first section of the Botanical Garden line +of Rio de Janeiro was opened to traffic. The line was completed +with its surplus earnings and continued under the control of the +American company which built it until 1882, when it was sold to a +Brazilian company. Subsequently the tramways of the city have +been mostly concentrated in the hands of a single Canadian company. +All the large cities of Brazil are liberally provided with +tramways, those of the city of São Paulo, where electric traction is +used, being noticeably good. The substitution of electricity for +animal traction was begun in São Salvador in 1906. Mules are +universally employed for animal traction, and narrow gauge lines with +single-mule trams are generally used where the traffic is light.</p> + +<p>Brazil is lamentably deficient in steamship communication +considering its importance in a country where the centres of population +are separated by such distances of coasts and river. Previous +to the creation of the republic, the coastwise service was performed +by two national companies (now united), and partially by foreign +lines calling at two or more ports. A considerable number of foreign +sailing vessels also carried on an important coasting trade. The +coastwise service centres at Rio de Janeiro, from which port the +Lloyd Brazileiro sends steamers regularly south to Montevideo, and +north to Pará and Manáos, calling at the more important intermediate +ports. From Montevideo river steamers are sent up the +Paraná and Paraguay rivers to Corumbá and Cuyabá, in the state of +Matto Grosso. The company receives a heavy subsidy from the +national government. Parts of this coastwise traffic are covered by +other companies, two of which receive subsidies. There were also +six lines of river steamers receiving subsidies from the national +government in 1904, and the aggregate paid to these and the coastwise +lines was 2,830,061 milreis. The largest of the river lines is the +Amazon Steam Navigation Co. (an English corporation), whose service +covers the main river and several of its principal tributaries. +Two subsidized companies maintain services on the São Francisco +river—one below the Paulo Affonso falls, and the other above, the +latter covering 854 m. of navigable channel between Joazeiro and +Pirapora. Besides these there are other companies engaged in the +coasting and river traffic, either with subsidies from the state +governments, as feeders for railway lines, or as private unsubsidized +undertakings.</p> + +<p>The telegraph lines, which date from 1852, are owned and operated +by the national government, with the exception of the lines +constructed by private railway companies, and the cable lines of the +Amazon and the coast. The government lines extend from Pará to +the Argentine and Uruguayan frontiers, where they connect with +the telegraph systems of those republics, and from Rio de Janeiro +westward across country, in great part unsettled, to the capitals +of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. At Pará connexion is made with the +cable laid in the bed of the Amazon to Manáos, which is owned and +operated by a subsidized English company. At Vizeu, Pará, +connexion is made with a French cable to the West Indies and the +United States, and at Pernambuco with two cable lines to Europe. A +coastwise cable runs from Pará to Montevideo with double cables +between Pernambuco and Montevideo. There were in 1903 a total of +15,150 m. of land lines, with 29,310 m. of wire and 1102 telegraph +offices. The government maintains reciprocal rates with most of +the private railway lines.</p> + +<p>The Brazilian postal service is under the general supervision of the +minister of communications and public works, and is administered +by a director-general. Owing to the size of the country and the +sparsely-populated state of a large part of the interior, the +transportation of the mails is attended with much difficulty and expense. +Although the postal rates are high, the service is not self-sustaining, +the receipts for 1904 being 7,018,344 milreis, against a total +expenditure of 10,099,545 milreis. There were 2847 post offices +(<i>agencias</i>), of which 2166 were of the 4th or lowest grade. Brazil is +a member of the Postal Union, and like Argentina exacts higher +nominal rates of postage upon outgoing mail than those agreed upon +to cover the depreciation in her own currency. The letter rate was +at first 200 reis (nearly 5½ d.), but it has been increased to 300 reis, +which is equivalent to 8 d. at par and 4½ d. at 15 d. exchange. An +inland parcel post was in operation long before the overthrow of the +monarchy, and a similar service with Portugal has been successfully +maintained for a number of years, notwithstanding the difficulties +interposed by customs regulations. National and international +money order systems are also in operation.</p> + +<p>The constitution of Brazil provides that the coastwise trade shall +be carried on by national vessels, but this provision did not go into +effect until 1896. And even then, because of the insufficient number +of Brazilian vessels it was provided in the regulations that foreign +vessels could be enrolled in that trade by using the Brazilian flag +and employing a certain proportion of Brazilians on the crew. One +of the purposes of this restrictive provision was that of creating a +national merchant marine, but the disinclination of Brazilians for +maritime pursuits has been a serious obstacle to its realization. In +1901 the merchant navy included 228 steamers of 91,465 tons net, +and 343 sailing vessels of 76,992 tons net. These vessels are all +engaged in the coasting and river trade of the country. Efforts +have been made, however, to engage in foreign trade, and subsidies +were offered for a passenger and freight service to the United States. +On the 23rd of February 1906 the government completed a new +contract with the Lloyd Brazileiro Company for its coastwise and +river service, and included clauses providing for a line to the United +States. This foreign service (monthly) began in August 1906.</p> + +<p>Although the coast of Brazil shows a large number of bays and +tide-water river channels which are apparently suitable for commercial +ports, a close examination of them reduces the number of good +ports to less than a dozen. The others are either difficult of access, +or are rendered practically useless by dangerous reefs, sand bars and +shoals. Important improvements have been undertaken in some of +these ports. Those at Santos and Manáos, for example, have produced +good results. In many cases, as at Rio de Janeiro, Santos and +Manáos, the cost and maintenance of the new port-works are met +by an additional tax on merchandise, though the immediate +expenditures are met by advances from the national treasury, and at +Rio de Janeiro by a foreign loan.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—The imports, exports and domestic trade of Brazil +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> +are by reason of their magnitude and peculiar character the most +important in South America, though the <i>per capita</i> aggregate is +less than that of Argentina. Although an agricultural country, +Brazil does not produce all its own bread and meat, and the imports +of wheat, wheat flour, rice, fish, jerked beef and preserved meats, +lard, butter, beans, potatoes, packed fruits and vegetables, Indian +corn and other food-stuffs, are surprisingly large. Since the creation +of the republic, extreme protective measures have caused the +creation of a large number of cotton factories and other manufactures, +but these are able to supply only a part of the consumption, +and the importation of cotton and woollen fabrics, silks, ready-made +clothing, boots and shoes, &c., is large. Modern industrial +development in some of the states has greatly increased the importation +of machinery, electric supplies, materials for construction, +coal, &c. Kerosene oil also figures among the principal imports, +and beef cattle are imported for consumption by some cities. The +exports cover a wide range of agricultural, pastoral and natural +productions, including coffee, rubber, sugar, cotton, cocoa, Brazil nuts, +<i>maté</i> (Paraguay tea), hides, skins, fruits, gold, diamonds, manganese +ore, cabinet woods and medicinal leaves, roots and resins. Coffee +and rubber, however, represent from 80 to 90% of the official +valuation of all exports. High import duties are imposed by the +national government and export duties by the states. The exchange +of domestic products between the states is greatly restricted through +lack of cheap transportation facilities, and by the suicidal imposition +of import and export duties by the states, either for revenue or for +the protection of home industries.</p> + +<p>According to a summary for the six years 1901 to 1906, derived +from official sources and published in the annual <i>Retrospecto</i> of the +<i>Jornal do Commercio</i>, of Rio de Janeiro, the values of the imports +and exports for those years (exclusive of coin), reduced to pounds +sterling at the average rate of exchange (or value of one milreis) +for each year, were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Value of<br />the Milreis<br />in Pence.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Imports in<br />Pounds Ster.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exports in<br />Pounds Ster.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">21,377,270</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,621,993</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,279,418</td> <td class="tcc rb">36,437,456</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.99</td> <td class="tcc rb">24,207,811</td> <td class="tcc rb">36,883,175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,915,423</td> <td class="tcc rb">39,430,136</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,830,050</td> <td class="tcc rb">44,643,113</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.17</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">33,204,041</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">53,059,480</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Nearly 76½% of the exports of 1906 were of coffee and rubber, +the official valuations of these being: coffee 245,474,525 milreis +gold (£27,615,884), and rubber (including maniçoba and mangabeira), +124,941,433 milreis gold (£14,055,911).</p> + +<p>Brazil is essentially an agricultural country. No other country has +been able to equal Brazil in the production of coffee, and under +better labour conditions the country might compete with the +foremost in the production of cane sugar, cotton and tobacco. +Besides these it might easily excel in producing many of the tropical +fruits for which there is a commercial demand. During the colonial +period sugar cane was cultivated from Parahyba S. to the vicinity +of Santos, and sugar was the principal export of the colony. Before +the middle of the 19th century coffee became one of the leading +exports, and its cultivation in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro +and Minas Geraes has been so increased since that time that it +represents over four-fifths in value of the total export of agricultural +produce. The principal sugar-producing states are Alagôas, Sergipe, +Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, and the production is +between 200,000 and 300,000 tons, the greater part of which is +consumed in the country. Cotton has been widely cultivated since +early colonial days, principally in the northern Atlantic states. +Tobacco is also widely cultivated, and the product of some states, +such as Bahia, Minas Geraes and Goyaz, has a high local reputation +for its excellence. Cacáu (cocoa) is cultivated extensively in the +Amazon Valley and along the coast as far south as southern Bahia, +and forms one of the leading exports. In 1906 São Paulo offered +premiums for its cultivation in the state. Rice has been cultivated +in places, but without much success, although the quality produced +compared favourably with the imported article. Indian corn grows +luxuriantly everywhere, but it does not mature well in the humid +regions of the Amazon region and the coast. The product of the +elevated inland regions is good, but the costs of transportation and +the small profits afforded have prevented its extensive cultivation, +and it is imported from the La Plata republics for consumption along +the coast. Much has been said in regard to the production of wheat, +and efforts have been made in various places to promote its cultivation. +It was once cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul with some success, +and it has been grown in Minas Geraes and São Paulo, but in no case +have the returns been sufficient to give it a permanent standing +among the productions of the country. The great majority of the +people are unused to wheaten bread, using the coarse flour of the +mandioca root instead, consequently the demand for wheat and +flour is confined to the large cities, which can obtain them from +Argentina more cheaply than they can be produced in the country. +One of the most common and important productions of Brazil is +<i>mandioca</i> (<i>Manihot</i>), of which there are two well-known species, +<i>M. utilissima</i> and <i>M. aipi</i>. The first named, which is poisonous +in its native state, is the <i>cassava</i> of Spanish America. From it is +made <i>farinha de mandioca</i>, which is the bread of the common people of +Brazil, and tapioca. The poison is extracted by soaking the bruised +or grated roots in water, after which the coarse flour is roasted. +Mandioca was cultivated by the natives before the discovery of +America, and the wide area over which it has been distributed +warrants the conclusion that the discovery of its value as a food +and the means of separating its poisonous properties must have +occurred at a very remote period. The peanut, or ground-nut +(<i>Arachis hypogaea</i>), is another widely-cultivated plant, dating from +pre-Columbian times. Very little attention has thus far been given +to the cultivation of fruit for exportation, the exceptions being +bananas for the Argentine and Uruguayan markets, and oranges and +pineapples for European markets. The coast region from Ceará to +Rio de Janeiro is adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of +fruits of a superior quality. Ceará, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro are +celebrated for their oranges, and Pernambuco for its delicious +pineapples. Tangerines, lemons, limes, grapes, guavas, figs, cashews or +cajús (<i>Anacardium occidentale</i>), mangabas (<i>Hancornia speciosa</i>), +joboticabas (<i>Eugenia cauliflora</i> and <i>E. jaboticaba</i>, Mart.), +cocoa-nuts, mangos, <i>fruitas de conde</i> (<i>Anona squamosa</i>), plantains, &c. +are produced in abundance and with little labour. In some parts of southern +Brazil the fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone do well, but +within the tropics they thrive well only at a considerable elevation +above sea-level. Apples, peaches, quinces, raspberries, strawberries, +&c., are produced under such conditions, but the flavour of their +kind grown in colder climates is usually wanting. The vegetable +productions are less numerous, but they include sweet potatoes, +cabbages, cauliflower, lettuce, beans, peas, onions, garlic, tomatoes, +okra, radishes, cucumbers, couve, chuchu (<i>Sechium edule</i>), and aipim +(<i>Manihot aipi</i>). The white potato, known as “batata inglez” +(English potato), is grown in elevated localities, but it deteriorates +so greatly after the first planting that fresh imported seed is necessary +every second or third year.</p> + +<p>The pastoral industries, which date from early colonial times, +have suffered many vicissitudes, and their development has failed +to keep pace with the country’s growth in population. Horses are +used to some extent for riding, but very little for carriage and +draught purposes, consequently there has been no great incentive +for their breeding. They are largely used and raised in Rio Grande +do Sul, but in the warmer regions of the north only to a limited +extent. The hardier mules are generally employed for draught, carriage, +and saddle purposes in every part of the country, and their breeding +is a lucrative industry in the southern states. Cattle-raising is the +principal industry in Rio Grande do Sul, and receives considerable +attention in Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, Santa Catharina, Paraná, +Piauhy and Rio Grande do Norte. It was estimated that there +were 30,000,000 head of cattle in the republic in 1904, but the estimate +was unquestionably too large. A very large part of the jerked beef +consumed in Brazil is imported from Argentina and Uruguay, and +some beef cattle also are imported. These importations at Rio de +Janeiro in 1906 were 12,464,170 kilograms of jerked beef and +12,575 head of cattle. In the Rio Branco region of Amazonas and in +Piauhy, where the national government has long been the owner of +extensive cattle ranges, the industry is in a state of decadence. +This is partly due to such pests as the vampire bat and bush ticks +(<i>carrapatos</i>), and partly to the unprogressiveness of the cattlemen. +Cattle-raising was once a flourishing industry on the island of +Marajó, at the mouth of the Amazon, and it is followed to some extent +at Alemquer and other points along the Amazon, but the cattle +are small, and commonly in bad condition. In southern Bahia the +industry has been nearly extinguished through increasing aridity +and droughts, but in the state of Rio de Janeiro the planters are +increasing their herds. Minas Geraes produces cheese, butter and +milk, as well as beef cattle for neighbouring cities. Matto Grosso +classifies cattle-raising as a principal industry, but under present +conditions the accessible markets are too small for any large +development. In Rio Grande do Sul, where it has attained its greatest +development, about 400,000 beeves are slaughtered annually for +the manufacture of jerked beef (<i>xarque</i>), beef extract, &c. Little +attention has been given to sheep in Brazil except in the southern +states, and even there the flocks are small. They were to be found +in Ceará and Piauhy in colonial times, and small flocks are still to be +seen in the latter state, but no use is made of their wool, and the +market for mutton is extremely limited because of popular prejudices. +Woollen manufactures have been established in Rio de Janeiro, São +Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. The exportation of wool amounted +to 1,130,160 ℔ in 1906. Goats have been found highly profitable +in many of the middle Atlantic states, where the long dry seasons +render the campos unsuitable for cattle pasturage. The export of +goat skins from these states is large. Swine do well in all parts of +the country, especially in Minas Geraes, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, +Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul, and domestic pork and lard are +slowly supplanting the heavily-taxed foreign products.</p> + +<p>Although the coast and river fisheries of Brazil are numerous and +valuable, cured fish is one of the staple imports, and foreign products +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span> +are to be found even along the Amazon. In the Amazon valley fish +is a principal article of food, and large quantities of <i>pirarucú</i> (<i>Sudis +gigas</i>) are caught during the season of low water and prepared for +storage or market by drying in the sun. This and the collection of +turtle eggs for their oil, or butter, are chiefly Indian industries, and +contribute largely to the support of the native population of that +region. Along the coast the best known fisheries are among the +Abrolhos islands and in the shallow waters of Espirito Santo, where +the garoupa, pargo and vermelho (species of <i>Serranus</i>) abound in +great numbers.</p> + +<p>The extractive or forest industries of Brazil were among the first +to engage the attention of Europeans, and have always been considered +a principal source of colonial and national wealth. The varied +uses of india-rubber in modern times, however, have given them a +greatly enhanced importance and value. Of the exports of 1905, +36% were of this class, while those of the pastoral and mining +industries combined were not quite 6½%. In 1906 the percentages +were 31 and 6.67, showing a considerable loss for the former +and a slight gain for the latter. The principal products of this class +are india-rubber, maté, Brazil nuts, vegetable wax, palm fibre, +cabinet woods, and medicinal leaves, roots, resins, &c. Before the +discovery of the cheaper aniline colours, dye-woods were among the +most valuable products of the country; in fact, Brazil derives her +name from that of a dye-wood (Brazil-wood—<i>Caesalpinia echinata</i>), +known as <i>bresill, brasilly, bresilji, braxilis</i>, or <i>brasile</i> long before the +discovery of America (see Humboldt’s <i>Géographic du nouveau +continent</i>, tom. ii. p. 214), which for many generations was the most +highly prized of her natural productions. Of the total exports of +this group (1905) very nearly 90% was of india-rubber, which +percentage was reduced to 85 in the following year. The exportation +for 1906 was 69,761,123 ℔ of Hevea, 5,871,968 ℔ of maniçoba, and +1,440,131 ℔ of mangabeira rubber, the whole valued at 124,941,433 +milreis gold. The dried leaves and smaller twigs of maté (Paraguayan +tea—<i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>) are exported to the southern Spanish +American republics, where (as in Rio Grande do Sul) the beverage +is exceedingly popular. The export in 1906 amounted to 127,417,950 +℔, officially valued at 16,502,881 milreis gold. The collection of +Brazil nuts along the Amazon and its tributaries is essentially a +poor man’s industry, requiring no other plant than a boat. The +harvest comes in January and February, in the rainy season, and +the nut-gatherers often come one or two hundred miles in their boats +to the best forests. The nuts are the fruit of the <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>, +one of the largest trees of the Amazon forest region, and are enclosed, +sixteen to eighteen in number, in a hard, thick pericarp. Another +nut-producing tree is the <i>sapucaia</i> (<i>Lecythis ollaria</i>), whose nuts are +enclosed in a larger pericarp, and are considered to be better flavoured +than those first described. The crop is a variable one, the export +in 1905 having been 198,226 hectolitres, while that of 1906 was +96,770 hectolitres. It could undoubtedly be largely increased. +Vegetable wax, which is an excellent substitute for beeswax, is a +product of the <i>carnahuba</i> palm (<i>Copernicia cerifera</i>), and is an important +export from Ceará. Palm, or piassava fibre, derived from +the <i>piassava</i> palm, is used in the manufacture of brooms, brushes, &c. +It is found as far south as southern Bahia, and the export could be +very largely increased. The export of cabinet woods is not large, +considering the forest area of Brazil and the variety and quality +of the woods. This is principally due to the cost and difficulties +of transporting timbers to the coast. The export is confined principally +to rosewood. Of the medicinal plants, the best-known products +are ipecacuanhá, sarsaparilla, copaiba, jaborandi and cinchona, but +this is only a part of the list. Besides these, tonka beans, anatto, +vanilla, and castor-oil seeds form a part of the exports.</p> + +<p>The mineral exports are surprisingly small. Gold was discovered +by the Portuguese soon after their settlement of the coast in the +16th century, but the washings were poor and attracted little attention. +The richer deposits of Minas Geraes were discovered about +1693, and those of Matto Grosso early in the following century. +Abandoned placer mines are to be found in every part of the unsettled +interior, showing how thoroughly it had been explored by gold-hunters +in those early days. Some good mines, like Morro Velho +and the abandoned Gongo Soco, have been developed in Minas +Geraes, but the great majority are small and not very productive. +Diamonds were discovered in Minas Geraes, near the town now called +Diamantina, during the first half of the 18th century, the dates +given ranging from 1725 to 1746, but the productiveness of the +district has greatly decreased. Diamonds have also been found in +Bahia, Goyaz and Paraná. Other precious stones found in Brazil +are the topaz, ruby aquamarine, tourmaline, chrysoberyl, garnet +and amethyst. Among the minerals are silver, platinum, copper, +iron, lead, manganese, chromium, quicksilver, bismuth, arsenic and +antimony, of which only iron and manganese have been regularly +mined. The copper deposits of Minas Geraes are said to be promising. +Manganese is mined in Minas Geraes for export. Iron ores have been +found in most of the states, and are especially abundant in Minas +Geraes. The Ypanema mine and ironworks, near Sorocaba, São +Paulo, which belong to the national government, have been in +operation since 1810 and small charcoal forges were in operation in +colonial times and supplied the mines with a considerable part of +the iron needed by them. Many of the richer deposits have never +been developed because of a lack of fuel and limestone. Bituminous +coal of an inferior quality is mined to a limited extent in Rio Grande +do Sul, and another mine has been opened in Santa Catharina. +These coal deposits extend from Rio Grande do Sul north into the +state of São Paulo. Salt, which does not figure in the list of exports, +is produced along the coast between Pernambuco and Cape St Roque. +The annual production is about 240,000 tons.</p> + +<p>To illustrate the comparative productiveness and relationship of +these sources of national wealth and industry, the following official +returns of export for the years 1905 and 1906 are arranged in the +four general classes previously discussed, the values being in +Brazilian gold milreis, worth 2s. 3d. or 54.6 cents to the milreis:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Agricultural.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1905.<br />Milreis, gold.</td> <td class="tcc">1906.<br />Milreis, gold.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Coffee</td> <td class="tcr">190,404,576</td> <td class="tcr">245,474,525</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cotton</td> <td class="tcr">10,290,790</td> <td class="tcr">14,726,492</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cacau</td> <td class="tcr">9,240,313</td> <td class="tcr">12,323,922</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tobacco</td> <td class="tcr">7,335,163</td> <td class="tcr">8,283,150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sugar</td> <td class="tcr">3,608,476</td> <td class="tcr">5,388,596</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bran<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a></td> <td class="tcr">1,490,312</td> <td class="tcr">1,128,761</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cottonseed</td> <td class="tcr">964,074</td> <td class="tcr">1,084,742</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mandioca flour</td> <td class="tcr">692,079</td> <td class="tcr">789,913</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fruits</td> <td class="tcr">606,678</td> <td class="tcr">714,332</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Castor-oil seeds</td> <td class="tcr">214,016</td> <td class="tcr">333,250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">224,846,477</td> <td class="tcr">290,247,683</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Natural and Forest.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Rubber:</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Mangabeira</td> <td class="tcr">1,286,672</td> <td class="tcr">1,376,014</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Maniçoba</td> <td class="tcr">7,418,559</td> <td class="tcr">7,335,870</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Hevea (Pará)</td> <td class="tcr">119,434,947</td> <td class="tcr">116,229,549</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Maté (Paraguay tea)</td> <td class="tcr">11,088,108</td> <td class="tcr">16,502,881</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brazil nuts</td> <td class="tcr">2,064,049</td> <td class="tcr">1,190,177</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Palm wax (Carnahuba)</td> <td class="tcr">1,847,273</td> <td class="tcr">3,733,478</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cabinet woods</td> <td class="tcr">390,070</td> <td class="tcr">318,873</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Piassaya fibre</td> <td class="tcr">336,668</td> <td class="tcr">347,323</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Medicinal leaves, roots, resins, &c</td> <td class="tcr">191,534</td> <td class="tcr">263,137</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">143,331,142</td> <td class="tcr">147,297,302</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Pastoral and Animal.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Salted hides</td> <td class="tcr">7,010,498</td> <td class="tcr">9,691,180</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dry hides</td> <td class="tcr">5,330,440</td> <td class="tcr">7,675,715</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Skins</td> <td class="tcr">4,117,590</td> <td class="tcr">4,639,512</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Horse hair</td> <td class="tcr">307,505</td> <td class="tcr">403,541</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Horns</td> <td class="tcr">276,172</td> <td class="tcr">277,488</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Wool</td> <td class="tcr">142,414</td> <td class="tcr">354,045</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Beef extract, &c</td> <td class="tcr">81,607</td> <td class="tcr">110,925</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">17,266,226</td> <td class="tcr">23,152,406</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Mineral Products.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Gold, in bars</td> <td class="tcr">3,734,469</td> <td class="tcr">4,379,160</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Manganese ore</td> <td class="tcr">2,958,462</td> <td class="tcr">1,594,486</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Monazite sand</td> <td class="tcr">889,231</td> <td class="tcr">881,289</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Precious stones</td> <td class="tcr">633,916</td> <td class="tcr">1,480,260</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">8,216,078</td> <td class="tcr">8,335,195</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Miscellaneous.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Old metals<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a>. 263,506</td> <td class="tcr">382,073</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sundry products</td> <td class="tcr">2,177,512</td> <td class="tcr">2,225,163</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">2,441,018</td> <td class="tcr">2,607,236</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td> <td class="tcr">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Total, all products</td> <td class="tcr">396,827,679</td> <td class="tcr">471,639,822</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Manufactures.</i>—Before the establishment of the republic very +little attention had been given to manufacturing industries beyond +what was necessary to prepare certain crude products for market. +Sugar and rum were essentially plantation products down to the +last ten years of the empire, when central usines using improved +machinery and methods were introduced as a means of saving the +sugar plantations from ruin. The crude methods of preparing jerked +beef were also modified to some extent by better equipped abattoirs +and establishments for preparing beef extract, preserved meats, &c. +There were also mills for crushing the dried maté leaves, cigar and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span> +cigarette factories, small chocolate factories, hat factories, brick and +tile yards, potteries, tanneries, saddleries, and many other small +industries common to all large communities. Considerable protection +was afforded to many of these industries by the customs tariff +of that time, but protection did not become an acknowledged +national policy until after 1889. After that time the duties on +imports were repeatedly and largely increased, both as a means of +raising larger revenues and as an encouragement to manufacturing +enterprise. Although the protective tariffs thus imposed have +resulted in a large increase in manufacturing industries, some of +them have been antagonistic to the productive interests of the +country, as in the case of weaving mills which use imported yarns. +Other industries are carried on entirely with imported materials, and +are national only in name. Among these are flour mills, factories +for the cutting of wire nails and making hollow ware from sheet iron, +and factories for the manufacture of umbrellas, boots and shoes, &c. +The greatest progress has been made in the manufacture of cotton +fabrics, principally of the plainer and coarser grades used by the +common people. There were 155 of these factories in 1895, but in +1905 only 108 were in operation, with 715,000 spindles, and about +37,000 operatives. Nearly one-half of these were weaving mills, +using imported yarn. The factories are widely distributed, and +some are favoured by state legislation in addition to the national +tariff. The largest and best equipped of them are located in the +federal states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, though the greater +part of the raw cotton used comes from the northern states and pays +high freight rates. The manufacture of woollen blankets, cashmeres, +flannels, &c., had also undergone noteworthy development and is +carried on in fifteen factories, located principally in Rio Grande do +Sul, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Biscuit-making is represented +by a large number of factories, for the most part in Rio de Janeiro +and São Paulo, and there are a number of breweries of the most +modern type in the same two states. The manufacture of boots +and shoes has also received much attention, but the materials used +are for the most part imported. Among other manufactures are +butter and cheese, canned fruits and vegetables, glass and earthenware, +printing and wrapping paper, furniture, matches, hats, +clothing, pharmaceutical products, soaps and perfumery, ice, +artificial drinks, cigars and cigarettes, fireworks and candles.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—The overthrow of the monarchy by a military +revolt in Rio de Janeiro on 15th November 1889, resulted in the +creation of a federal republic under the name of United States +of Brazil (Estados Unidos do Brazil). The constitution under +which the republic is governed was drafted by a constituent +assembly convened on the 15th of November 1890, and was +adopted on the 24th of February 1891. The supreme powers of +the nation are vested in three partially independent branches of +government—executive, legislative, and judicial—represented +by the president and his cabinet, a national congress of two +chambers, and a supreme tribunal. The states forming the +federation consist of the twenty provinces and municipal district +of the empire, but the number may be increased or diminished +by the states concerned with the approval of the national +congress. The states are self-governed, and have exclusive +control of the public lands, mines, industries, and all local +affairs. They have the sole right also to impose duties on +exports and taxes upon real estate, industries and professions, +and transfers of property. Among other things they are charged +with the supervision and support of primary education, with +the maintenance of order, and with the organization and support +of a system of state courts. Both the national and state governments +exercise the right to impose stamp and consumption +taxes, and the municipalities likewise are permitted to impose +licence and consumption taxes. The national government +reserves for itself the exclusive right to direct the foreign affairs +of the republic, to maintain an army and navy, to impose +duties on imports, to regulate foreign commerce, to collect port +dues, to issue money and create banks of issue, and to maintain +a postal and national telegraph service. It also supervises +secondary and superior education, issues patents, and provides +federal courts for the trial of cases amenable to federal laws. +The national government is forbidden to interfere in the peculiar +affairs of the states except to repel foreign invasion, to maintain +a republican form of government, to re-establish order at the +request of a state, or to enforce federal laws and sentences. +The states are forbidden, likewise, to tax federal property, to +tax inter-state commerce, to impose duties of their own on +foreign imports, or to resist the execution of judicial sentences +originating in other states. The separation of church and state +is provided for by the constitution, and both the nation and the +states are forbidden to establish, subsidize or restrict the +exercise of any religious worship. Foreigners are eligible to +Brazilian citizenship, and the right of suffrage is conferred upon +all male citizens over twenty-one years of age, except beggars, +illiterates, the rank and file of the armed forces, members of +monastic orders, &c., bound by private vows, and all unregistered +citizens.</p> + +<p>The executive power of the nation is vested in a president, +elected for a term of four years by a direct vote of the electors. +He must be a native Brazilian over thirty-five years of age, in +the full enjoyment of his political rights, and is ineligible for the +next succeeding term. A vice-president is elected at the same +time and under the same conditions, who is president of the +senate <i>ex officio</i>, and succeeds to the presidency in case the +office becomes vacant during the last two years of the presidential +term. Should the vacancy occur during the first two years of +the term, a new election must be held. The president receives a +salary of 120,000 milreis and the vice-president of 36,000 milreis. +The president is advised and assisted by a cabinet of six ministers, +viz. foreign affairs; finance; agriculture, industry and commerce;<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +communications (<i>Viacao</i>) and public works;<a href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> war; +and marine. The ministers are appointed and removed by the +president, take no part in the sessions of congress, and are +responsible to the president alone for their advisory acts. The +president sanctions and promulgates, or vetoes, or ignores the +laws, and resolutions voted by congress, and issues decrees and +regulations for their execution. His veto may be over-ridden +by a two-thirds vote in each chamber, and permitting ten days +to pass without signing an act is considered as acquiescence +and it is promulgated by congress. The president is charged +with the duties (among others) of commanding the armed forces +of the republic, appointing the prefect of the national capital, +designating members of the supreme tribunal and diplomatic +representatives for the approval of the senate, to negotiate +treaties, &c., <i>ad referendum</i> to congress, and maintain relations +with foreign powers, to declare war in case of invasion and to +declare martial law in case of grave internal disorder, and to +advise congress at the opening of the annual session of the progress +and state of public affairs. He may be impeached before +the senate for his official acts and suspended from office, or tried +by the supreme tribunal for criminal offences.</p> + +<p>The legislative power is vested in a national congress of two +chambers, elected by direct suffrage, and convened on the 3rd +of May each year. The regular annual sessions are of four months’ +duration, but they may be extended to complete necessary +legislation. The senate consists of sixty-three members (three +from each state and the federal district) elected for a period of +nine years, one-third of each delegation being renewed every +three years. The senators must be not less than thirty-five +years of age, and are exempt from all legal processes not previously +authorized by the senate during their term of office, +except in cases of arrest <i>in flagrante delicto</i> for a capital crime. +The chamber of deputies contains 212 members, the membership +being distributed among the states on a basis of one for each +70,000 of population, but with a minimum representation of four +for each state. The deputies are elected by direct suffrage for +the legislative session of three years, and have the same immunities +from legal process as the senators. The chamber has +the right of initiative in the organization of the annual budget +laws and those relative to the numerical strength of the army +and navy. The members of both houses receive a <i>per diem</i> +subsidy.</p> + +<p>The judicial system of the republic consists of a supreme +federal tribunal of fifteen judges in the national capital, and a +district tribunal in the capital of each state, which forms a federal +judicial district. The judges are appointed for life and can +be removed only by judicial sentence and impeachment. +One member of the supreme tribunal holds the position of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> +solicitor-general of the republic. The judges and solicitor-general +are appointed by the president with the approval of the senate, +but the tribunal chooses its own presiding officers and secretaries +and, nominally, is independent of executive control. The +supreme tribunal has original and appellate jurisdiction, but its +power to pass on the constitutionality of federal laws and +executive acts seems to fall short of that of the United States +Supreme Court. It has authority, however, to review the acts +and laws of state governments and to decide upon their constitutionality. +The district federal court has but one judge +(<i>juiz de secção</i>) and a solicitor of the republic, and has original +jurisdiction in federal causes. Each state has its own local laws +and courts, independent of federal control, but subject to the +review of the supreme tribunal, and with rights of appeal to that +tribunal in specified cases. The federal district, which has a +municipal council instead of a legislature, has a system of +municipal and higher courts peculiar to itself. Limited judicial +powers are exercised by chiefs of police, and by certain department +commissions, or boards, of an executive character. The +members of the army and navy are governed by special laws, +enjoy immunities from civil process, and are subject to the +jurisdiction of military courts. The civil code of the republic +is based upon Roman law.</p> + +<p><i>Army.</i>—The nominal strength of the army in 1906 was +29,489, including the officers of the general and subordinate +staffs and the officers and cadets of the military schools. +This total represents the nominal strength of the army in +times of peace. Its actual strength, however, is about 15,000 +men, some of the regimental and battalion organizations +being skeletons. Its organization consists of 40 battalions +of infantry with one transport and one depot company, 14 +regiments of cavalry of 4 squadrons each, 6 regiments of +field artillery with 24 batteries and 6 battalions of heavy +artillery with 24 batteries, and two battalions of engineers. +Efforts to organize a national guard have been unsuccessful, +although officers have been appointed and the organization +perfected, on paper. The police force, however, is organized on +a military footing and armed, and is available for service in case +of necessity. It is credited with 20,000 men. According to law +military service is obligatory, but the government has been +unable to enforce it. Impressment is commonly employed to +fill the ranks, and in cases of emergency the prison population +is drawn upon for recruits. The president is nominally +commander-in-chief of the army, but the actual command is +vested in a general staff in the national capital, and in the general +commanding each of the seven military districts into which the +republic is divided. The most important of these districts is +that of Rio Grande do Sul, where a force of 11,226 men is +stationed. The principal war arsenal is in Rio de Janeiro. +The rifle used by the infantry is a modified Mauser of the German +1888 model. Military instruction is given at the Eschola Militar +of Rio de Janeiro. The military organization is provided with +an elaborate code and systems of military courts, which culminate +in a supreme military tribunal composed of 15 judges +holding office for life, of which 8 are general army officers, +4 general naval officers and 3 civil judges.</p> + +<p><i>Navy.</i>—The naval strength of the republic consisted in 1906 +of a collection of armoured and wooden vessels of various ages +and types of construction, of which three armoured vessels +(including the two designed for coast defence), four protected +cruisers, five destroyers and torpedo-cruisers, and half a dozen +torpedo boats represented what may be termed the effective +fighting force. The loss of the armoured turret ship “Aquidaban” +by a magazine explosion in the bay of Jacarepagua, near Rio de +Janeiro, in 1905, had left Brazil with but one fighting vessel (the +“Reachuelo”) of any importance. Many of the wooden and +iron vessels listed in the Naval Annual, 1906, though obsolete +and of no value whatever as fighting machines, are used for +river and harbour service, and in the suppression of trifling +insurrections. The Annual describes 21 vessels of various +types, and mentions 23 small gunboats used for river and +harbour service. Besides these there are a number of practice +boats (small school-ships), transports, dispatch boats and +launches. A considerable part of the armament is old, but the +more modern vessels are armed with Armstrong rifled guns. +The naval programme of the republic for 1905 provided for the +prompt construction of 3 battleships of the largest displacement, +3 armoured cruisers, 6 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and 3 submarine +boats; and by 1909 the reorganization of the navy was +far advanced. The principal naval arsenal is located at Rio de +Janeiro. The government possesses dry docks at Rio de Janeiro. +The naval school, which has always enjoyed a high reputation +among Brazilians, is situated on the island of Enxadas in the +bay of Rio de Janeiro. There are smaller arsenals at Pará, +Pernambuco, São Salvador and Ladario (Matto Grosso) and a +shipbuilding yard of considerable importance at the Rio de +Janeiro arsenal.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Education is in a backward condition, and it is +estimated that 80% of the population can neither read nor +write. The lowest rate of illiteracy is to be found in the southern +half of the republic. Public instruction, is, by constitutional +provision, under secular control, but religious denominations +are permitted to have their own schools. Primary instruction +is free but not compulsory, and the schools are supported and +supervised by the states. An incomplete return in 1891 gave +8793 schools and 376,399 pupils. Secondary and higher education +are under both federal and state control, the former being +represented by lyceums in the state capitals, and by such +institutions as the Gymnasio Nacional (formerly Collegio Dom +Pedro II.) in Rio de Janeiro. Many of the states also maintain +normal schools of an inferior type, that of São Paulo being the +best and most modern of the number. Higher, or superior, instruction +is confined almost exclusively to professional schools— +the medical schools of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, the law schools +of São Paulo and Pernambuco, the polytechnic of Rio de Janeiro, +and the school of mines of Ouro Preto. There are many private +schools in all the large cities, from the primary schools maintained +by the church and various corporations and religious associations +to schools of secondary and collegiate grades, such as the Protestant +mission schools of Petropolis, Piracicaba, Juiz de Fóra, São +Paulo and Paraná, the Lyceu de Artes e Ofiicios (night school) of +Rio de Janeiro, and the Mackenzie College of São Paulo. Perhaps +the best educational work in Brazil is done in these private +schools. In addition to these there are a number of seminaries +for the education of priests, where special attention is given to +the classics and belles-lettres.</p> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—The revolution of 1889 and the constitution adopted +in 1891 not only effected a radical change in the form of government, +but also brought about the separation of church and state. +Before that time the Roman Catholic Church had been recognized +and supported by the state. Not only are the national and state +governments forbidden by the constitution to establish or +subsidize religious worship, but its freedom is guaranteed by a +prohibition against placing obstructions upon its exercise. +The relations of the state with the disestablished church since +1889 have been somewhat anomalous, the government having +decided to continue during their lives the stipends of the church +functionaries at the time of disestablishment. The census of +1890 divided the population into 14,179,615 Roman Catholics, +143,743 Protestants, 3300 of all other faiths, 7257 of no religious +profession, and 600,000 unchristianized Indians. The increase +of population through immigration is overwhelmingly Catholic, +and the nation must, therefore, continue Roman Catholic whether +the church is subsidized by the state or not. The moral character +of churchmen in Brazil has been severely criticized by many +observers, and the ease with which disestablishment was effected +is probably largely due to their failings. The church had +exercised a preponderating influence in all matters relating to +education and the social life of the people, and it was felt that +no sweeping reforms could be secured until its domination had +been broken. The immediate results of disestablishment were +civil marriage, the civil registry of births and deaths, and the +secularization of cemeteries; but the church retains its influence +over all loyal churchmen through the confessional, the last rites +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span> +of the church, and their sentiment against the profanation of +holy ground. Formerly Brazil constituted an ecclesiastical +province under the metropolitan jurisdiction of an archbishop +residing at Bahia, with 11 suffragan bishops, 12 vicars-general +and about 2000 curates. In 1892 the diocese of Rio de Janeiro +was made an archbishopric, and four new dioceses were created. +Three more have been added since, making twenty dioceses in +all. In 1905 the archbishop of Rio de Janeiro was made a +cardinal. The church has eleven seminaries for the education +of priests, and maintains a large number of private schools, +especially for girls, which are patronized by the better classes. +The church likewise exercises a far-reaching influence over the +people through the beneficent work of its lay orders, and through +the hospitals and asylums under its control in every part of the +country. A Misericordia hospital is to be found in almost every +town of importance, and <i>recolhimentos</i> for orphan girls in all the +large cities. In no country have these charities received more +generous support than in Brazil. The Protestant contingent +consists of a number of small congregations scattered throughout +the country, a few Portuguese Protestants from the Azores, a +part of the German colonists settled in the central and southern +states, and a large percentage of the North Europeans and +Americans temporarily resident in Brazil. The Positivists are +few in number, but their congregations are made up of educated +and influential people.</p> + +<p><i>Art, Science and Literature.</i>—The Brazilian people have the +natural taste for art, music and literature so common among +the Latin nations of the Old World. The emperor Dom Pedro II. +did much to encourage these pursuits, and many promising +young men received their education in Europe at his personal +expense. Still earlier in the century (1815) the regent Dom +John VI. brought out a number of French artists to educate +his subjects in the fine arts, and the <i>Escola Real de Sciencias, +Artes e Officios</i> was founded in the following year. From this +beginning resulted the <i>Academia de Bellas Artes</i> of a later date, +to which was added a conservatory of music in 1841. The +institution is now called the <i>Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes</i>. +Free instruction in the fine arts has been given in this school. +The higher results of artistic training, however, are less marked +than a widespread dilettantism. The Brazilian composer Carlos +Gomes (1839-1896) is the best known of those who have adopted +music as a profession, his opera <i>Il Guarani</i> having been produced +at most of the European capitals. The most prominent among +Brazilian painters is Pedro Americo, and in sculpture Rodolpho +Bernardelli has done good work. In science Brazil has accomplished +very little, although many eminent foreign naturalists +have spent years of study within her borders. João Barbosa +Rodrigues has done some good work in botany, especially in +the study of the palms of the Amazon, and João Baptista de +Lacerda has made important biological investigations at the +national museum of Rio de Janeiro. There are several scientific +societies and institutions in the country, but they rarely undertake +original work. The most active are the geographical +societies, but very little has been done in the direction of scientific +exploration. Some interesting results have been obtained from +the boundary surveys, from Dr E. Cruls’s exploration of a section +of the Goyaz plateau in 1892 in search of a site for the future +capital of the republic, and from some of the river and railway +surveys. In 1875 a geological commission was organized under +the direction of Professor Charles Frederick Hartt, but it was +disbanded two years later. In 1906 Congress resolved to undertake +a national geological survey under the direction of Mr +Orville A. Derby, one of Professor Hartt’s assistants. The coal +resources of the southern states were investigated in 1904, under +the auspices of the national government, by Dr J.C. White, of +the U.S. Geological Survey, who found strata of fairly good coal +at depths of 100 to 200 ft. extending from Rio Grande do Sul +north to São Paulo. The more important contributions to our +present knowledge of Brazil, however, have been obtained through +the labours of foreign naturalists. Beginning with the German +mineralogist W.L. von Eschwege, who spent nineteen years +in Brazil (1809-1828), the list includes A. de Saint-Hilaire (1816-1820 +and 1830), J.B. von Spix and C.F. von Martins (1817-1820), +Prince Max zu Neuwied (1815-1817), P.W. Lund (1827-1830, +and 1830 to 1880, the year of his death), George Gardner (1836-1841), +A.R. Wallace (1848-1852), H.W. Bates (1848-1859), +Hermann Burmeister (1850-1852), Louis Agassiz (1865-1866), +Charles Frederick Hartt (1865-1866, 1872 and 1875-1878) +and Karl von den Steinen (1884-1885 and 1887-1888). These +explorations cover every branch of natural science and resulted +in publications of inestimable scientific value. There should also +be mentioned the monumental work of C.F.P. von Martius +on the <i>Flora Braziliensis</i>, and the explorations of Agassiz and +Lund. Among other scientists of a later date who have published +important works on Brazil are the American geologists O.A. +Derby and J.C. Branner, the Swiss naturalist E.A. Goeldi, +the German botanist J. Huber, the German ethnologist H. von +Ihring, and’the German geographer Fried. Katzer. The <i>Instituto +Historico e Geographico Brazileiro</i>, though devoted chiefly +to historical research, has rendered noteworthy service in its +encouragement of geographical exploration and by its publication +of various scientific memoirs. The Museu Nacional at Rio de +Janeiro, which has occupied the imperial palace of São Christovão +since the overthrow of the monarchy, contains large collections +of much scientific value, but defective organization and apathetic +direction have rendered them of comparatively slight service. +The Observatorio Nacional at Rio de Janeiro is another prominent +public institution. The botanical gardens of Brazil are developing +into permanent exhibitions of the flora of the regions in which +they are located. That of Rio de Janeiro is widely celebrated +for its avenues of royal palms, but it has also rendered an important +service to the country in the dissemination of exotic +plants.</p> + +<p>Brazilian literature has been seriously prejudiced by partisan +politics and dilettantism. The colonial period was one of +strict repression, the intellectual life of the people being jealously +supervised by the church to protect itself against heresy, and +their progress being restricted by the Portuguese crown to +protect its monopoly of the natural resources of the country. +The arrival of Dom John VI. in 1808 broke down some of these +restrictions, and the first year of his residence in Rio de Janeiro +saw the establishment of the first printing press in Brazil and +the publication of an official gazette. There was no freedom of +the press, however, until 1821, when the abolition of the censorship +and the constitutional struggle in Portugal gave rise to +a political discussion that marked the opening of a new era in +the development of the nation, and aroused an intellectual +activity that has been highly productive in journalistic and +polemical writings. In no country, perhaps, has the press +exercised a more direct and powerful influence upon government +than in Brazil, and in no other country can there be found so +high a percentage of journalists in official life. Some of the +political writers have played an important part in moulding +public opinion on certain questions, as in the case of A.C. +Tavares Bastos, whose <i>Cartas do Solitario</i> were highly instrumental +in causing the Amazon to be thrown open to the world’s +commerce and also in preparing the way for the abolition of +slavery; and in that of Joaquim Saldanha Marinho, whose +discussions in 1874-1876 of the relations between church and +state prepared the way for their separation. The personal +element is conspicuous in the Brazilian journalism, and for a +considerable period of its history libellous attacks on persons, +signed by professional sponsors, popularly called <i>testas de ferro</i> +(iron heads), were admitted at so much a line in the best +newspapers.</p> + +<p>The singular adaptability of the Portuguese language to +poetical expression, coupled with the imaginative temperament +of the people, has led to an unusual production and appreciation +of poetry. The percentage of educated men who have written +little volumes of lyrics is surprisingly large, and this may be +accounted for by the old Portuguese custom of reciting poetry +with musical accompaniment. The most popular of the Brazilian +poets are Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, Antonio Gonçalves Dias +and Bernardo Guimarães. Among the dramatists and novelists +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span> +may be mentioned Joaquim Manoel de Macedo, José Martiniano +de Alencar, Bernardo Guimarães, A. de Escrangnolle Taunay +and J.M. Machado de Assis. José M. de Alencar is usually +described as the greatest of Brazilian novelists. The most +popular of his romances are <i>Iracema</i> and <i>O Guarany</i>. In +historical literature Brazil has produced one writer of high +standing—Francisco Adolpho Varnhagen (Visconde de Porto Seguro), +whose <i>Historia Geral do Brazil</i> is a standard authority on that +subject. The two English authorities, Robert Southey’s <i>History +of Brazil</i>, covering the colonial period, and John Armitage’s +<i>History of Brazil</i>, covering the period between the arrival of the +Braganza family (1808) and the abdication of Dom Pedro I. +(1831), have been translated into Portuguese. Another Brazilian +historian of recognized merit is João Manoel Pereira da Silva, +whose historical writings cover the first years of the empire, from +its foundation to 1840. Among the later writers João Capistrano +de Abren has produced some short historical studies of great +merit. In the field of philosophic speculation, Auguste Comte +has had many disciples in Brazil.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The national revenue is derived largely from the duties +on imports, the duties on exports having been surrendered to the +states when the republic was organized. Other sources of revenue +are stamp taxes on business transactions, domestic consumption +taxes (usually payable in stamps) on manufactured tobaccos, +beverages, boots and shoes, textiles, matches, salt, preserved foods, +hats, pharmaceutical preparations, perfumeries, candles, vinegar, +walking sticks and playing cards, and taxes on lotteries, passenger +tickets, salaries and dividends of joint-stock companies. Formerly +import duties were payable in currency, but in 1899 it was decided +to collect 10% of them in gold to provide the government with +specie for its foreign remittances. The revenues and expenditures +have since then been calculated in gold and currency together, +to the complete mystification of the average citizen, and the gold +percentage of the duties on imports has been increased to 35 and +50% (in 1907), the higher rate to apply to specified articles and rule +when exchange on London is above 14 pence per milreis, and the +lower when it is below. The service of the national debt absorbs +a very large part of the expenditure, about 45% of the estimates +for 1907 being assigned to the department of finance. The department +of industry, communications and public works takes the next +highest proportion, but about half its expenditures are met by +special taxes, as in the case of port works and railway inspection, +and by the revenues of the state railways, telegraph lines and post +office. The depreciation and unstable character of the paper +currency render it difficult to give a clear statement of receipts and +expenditures for a term of years, the sterling equivalents often showing +a decrease, through a fall in the value of the milreis, where there +has been an actual increase in currency returns. This was most +noticeable between 1889 and 1898, when exchange, which represents +the value of the milreis, fell from a maximum of 27¾ pence (27d. +being the par value of the milreis) to a minimum of 5<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> pence. +Since 1898 there has been an upward movement of exchange, the +average rate for 1905 having been very nearly 16 pence. In this +period the increase in the sterling equivalents would be proportionately +greater than that of the currency values. The gold and +currency receipts and expenditures for the six years 1900 to 1905, +inclusive, according to official returns, were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Rate<br />of Exchange.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Expenditure.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Pence.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Gold<br />Milreis.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Currency<br />Milreis.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Gold<br />Milreis.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Currency<br />Milreis.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">49,955,522</td> <td class="tcc rb">263,687,253</td> <td class="tcc rb">41,892,150</td> <td class="tcc rb">372,753,986</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">44,041,302</td> <td class="tcc rb">239,284,702</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,493,241</td> <td class="tcc rb">261,629,212</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">42,904,844</td> <td class="tcc rb">266,584,912</td> <td class="tcc rb">34,574,643</td> <td class="tcc rb">236,458,862</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">12  </td> <td class="tcc rb">45,121,844</td> <td class="tcc rb">327,370,063</td> <td class="tcc rb">48,324,642</td> <td class="tcc rb">291,198,960</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">50,566,572</td> <td class="tcc rb">342,782,191</td> <td class="tcc rb">48,476,413</td> <td class="tcc rb">352,292,147</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.89</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">64,207,004</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">243,355,396</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">51,606,272</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">265,699,281</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Reducing gold to a currency basis at 15d. per milreis (the official +valuation adopted in 1906), the budget for 1907 provided for a +revenue of 353,590,593 milreis and an expenditure of 409,482,284 +milreis, showing a deficit of 55,891,691 milreis. These deficits were +common enough under the monarchy, but they have become still +more prominent under the republic. According to the “Retrospecto +Commercial” for 1906 of the <i>Jornal do Commercio</i> (Rio de Janeiro, +March 5, 1907), the aggregate deficits for the eleven years 1891 to +1904 were 692,000,000 milreis, or, say, £43,250,000.</p> + +<p>The natural result of such a regime is increasing indebtedness. +In 1888, a year before the republic was proclaimed, the internal +and external national debts amounted to £74,000,000 sterling, with +the currency at par. Ten years later, when the currency had fallen +to 5<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> pence per milreis, the government found itself unable to meet +the interest obligations on its debt and railway guarantees, and an +arrangement was made with its creditors in London for the issue of a +5% funding loan to an amount not to exceed £10,000,000, and the +suspension of all amortization for thirteen years. On the other +hand the government agreed to withdraw currency, which had reached +a total of 788,364,614 ½-milreis, <i>pari passu</i> with the issue of +the loan, the milreis being computed at 18 pence. The purpose of +this condition was in order to improve the value of the paper milreis +in order to increase the specie value of the revenues. The scheme +came into operation in June 1898, and not only was a complete +suspension of payments avoided but the financial situation was +greatly improved. The government even withdrew more of its +currency issues than required by the agreement, and the value of the +milreis steadily improved. At the same time the government carried +out the forced conversion of the national loans into lower +interest-bearing issues, which greatly reduced the annual interest +charges. These measures would have put the financial affairs of the +nation on a solid footing in a very few years had the government been +able to keep its expenditure within its income. The naval revolt of +1893-1894, however, had aroused the spirit of militarism in the +ruling classes, and the effort to perfect the organization and equipment +of the army, strengthen the fortifications of Rio de Janeiro, +and increase the navy, have kept expenditures in excess of +the revenues. The purchase of guaranteed railways owned by +foreign companies likewise added largely to the bonded +indebtedness, though the onus was in existence in another form. +The result of these measures was a large addition to the public +debt, which on 31st December 1906 was approximately as follows +(<i>apolices</i> being the name given to bonds inscribed to the holder):—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">External debt:</td> <td class="tcl">  £  s. d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Loans of 1883, 1888 and 1889.</td> <td class="tcl">26,478,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Oestede Minas R.R. loan</td> <td class="tcl"> 3,388,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Loan of 1898</td> <td class="tcl"> 7,331,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Funding loan of 1898</td> <td class="tcl"> 8,613,717 9 9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Railway rescission loan of 1901</td> <td class="tcl">15,467,015 16 1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Port works loan of 1903</td> <td class="tcl"> 8,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">———————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">£69,778,933 5 10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">==============</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Internal debt, funded:</td> <td class="tcr">Milreis </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 5 % apolices, Law of 1827</td> <td class="tcr">483,546,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 4½% ”    ” 1879</td> <td class="tcr">20,548,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 6  % ”    ” 1897</td> <td class="tcr">37,082,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 5  % ”    ” 1903</td> <td class="tcr">17,300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total, funded</td> <td class="tcr">558,476,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">(at 15d. £34,904,787)</td> <td class="tcr">=========</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Internal debt, not funded:</td> <td class="tcr">Milreis </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Paper money</td> <td class="tcr">664,792,960</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Savings bank and other deposits:</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  In paper</td> <td class="tcr">246,812,407</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  In gold, 19,053,861 r (say)</td> <td class="tcr">34,296,950</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Floating indebtedness (a/cs current, bills, &c.)</td> <td class="tcr">?  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total, not funded, approx.</td> <td class="tcr">945,902,317</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">(at 15d. £59,118,895 stg.)</td> <td class="tcr">=========</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Approximate total indebtedness</td> <td class="tcr">£163,802,675</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In addition to these, the government was still responsible for interest +guarantees on fourteen railways, or sections +of existing lines, with an aggregate capital +of about £4,900,000 held in Europe and +12,055,440 milreis held in Brazil, on which +the national treasury paid in interest £191,324 +and 1,398,493 milreis.</p> + +<p>The paper currency of Brazil consists of +both treasury issues and bank-notes, the +latter issued under government supervision. +Its fluctuations in value have been not only +a serious inconvenience in commercial transactions, +but also the cause of heavy loss to +the people. Under the provisions of the +funding loan of 1898 a scheme for the +withdrawal of the paper money was carried into effect, and by +the end of December 1906 the amount in circulation had been +reduced from 788,364,614 ½-milreis (the outstanding circulation 31st +August 1898) to 664,792,960 ½-milreis. Two funds were created +for the redemption and guarantee of paper issues, the latter receiving +5% of the import duties payable in gold. Up to 1906 the Caixa +da Amortisação (redemption bureau), which has charge of the service +of the internal funded debt, superintended the redemption of the +currency, but in that year (December 6, 1906) a Caixa de Conversão +(conversion bureau) was created for this special service. It is +modelled after the Argentine Conversion office, and is authorized +to issue notes to bearer against deposits of gold at the rate of 15 +pence per milreis although exchange was above 17d. when the +scheme was proposed. The notes are to be redeemable in gold at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span> +sight, the Caixa de Conversão to keep the gold paid in for that +express purpose. The coffee producers of São Paulo and other +states found that the appreciation in value of the milreis was reducing +their profits, and they advocated this measure (at first with a valuation +of 12d.) to check the upward movement in exchange. Metallic +money is limited to nickel and bronze coins, but in 1906 the government +was authorized to purchase bar silver for the coinage of +pieces of the denomination of two milreis, one milreis and 500 reis +(½-milreis). Gold is the nominal standard of value, the monetary unit +being the gold milreis worth 2s. 2½d. at par. The 10-milreis gold +piece weighs 8.9648 grammes, 916 fine, and contains 8.2178 grammes +of pure gold. There is no gold in circulation, however, and gold +duties are paid with gold cheques purchased at certain banks with +paper money. The banking facilities of the republic have undergone +many changes under the new regime. A fruitful cause of disaster +has been the practice of issuing agricultural and industrial loans +under government authorization. Commercial business at the +principal ports is largely transacted through foreign banks, of +which there are a large number.</p> + +<p>In addition to the indebtedness of the national government, the +individual states have also incurred funded debts of their own. +The aggregate of these debts in 1904 was £20,199,440, and the +several loans made during the next two years, including those of +the municipalities of Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia and Manáos, +add fully two and a half millions more to the total.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p>Brazil was discovered in February 1499 (o.s.) by Vicente +Yañez Pinzon, a companion of Columbus. He descried the land +near Cape St Augustine, and sailed along the coast as +far as the river Amazon, whence he proceeded to the +<span class="sidenote">The Portuguese in Brazil.</span> +mouth of the Orinoco. He made no settlement, but +took possession of the country in the name of the +Spanish government, and carried home, as specimens of its +natural productions, some drugs, gems and Brazil-wood. Next +year the Portuguese commander, Pedro Alvares Cabral, appointed +by his monarch to follow the course of Vasco da Gama +in the East, was driven by adverse winds so far from his track, +that he reached the Brazilian coast, April 24, and anchored in +Porto Seguro (16° S. lat.) on Good Friday. On Easter day an +altar was erected, mass celebrated in presence of the natives, +the country declared an apanage of Portugal, and a stone cross +erected in commemoration of the event. Cabral despatched a +small vessel to Lisbon to announce his discovery, and, without +forming any settlement, proceeded to India on the 3rd of May. +On the arrival of the news in Portugal, Emanuel invited Amerigo +Vespucci to enter his service, and despatched him with three +vessels to explore the country. The navigator’s first voyage +was unsuccessful; but, according to his own account, in a second +he discovered a safe port, to which he gave the name of All-Saints +and where he erected a small fort. Vespucci’s narrative +is, however, suspected of being apocryphal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vespucci, +Amerigo</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The poor and barbarous tribes of Brazil, and their country, +the mineral riches of which were not immediately discovered, +offered but few attractions to a government into the coffers of +which the wealth of India and Africa was flowing. For nearly +thirty years the kings of Portugal paid no further attention +to their newly-acquired territory than what consisted, in combating +the attempts of the Spaniards to occupy it, and dispersing +the private adventurers from France who sought its shores for +the purposes of commerce. The colonization of Brazil was +prosecuted, however, by subjects of the Portuguese monarchy, +who traded thither chiefly for Brazil-wood. The government +also sought to make criminals of some use to the state, by placing +them in a situation where they could do little harm to society, +and might help to uphold the dominion of their nation.</p> + +<p>The first attempt on the part of a Portuguese monarch to +introduce an organized government into his dominions was made +by John III. He adopted a plan which had been +found to succeed well in Madeira and the Azores,— +<span class="sidenote">First organization in Brazil.</span> +dividing the country into hereditary captaincies, and +granting them to such persons as were willing to +undertake their settlement, with unlimited powers of jurisdiction, +both civil and criminal. Each captaincy extended along fifty +leagues of coast. The boundaries in the interior were undefined. +The first settlement made under this new system was that of +São Vicente Piratininga, in the present province of São Paulo. +Martim Affonso de Sousa, having obtained a grant, fitted out a +considerable armament and proceeded to explore the country +in person. He began to survey the coast about Rio de Janeiro, +to which he gave that name, because he discovered it on the +1st of January 1531. He proceeded south as far as La Plata, +naming the places he surveyed on the way from the days on +which the respective discoveries were made. He fixed upon an +island in 24½° S. lat., called by the natives Guaibe, for his settlement. +The Goagnazes, or prevailing tribe of Indians in that +neighbourhood, as soon as they discovered the intentions of the +new-comers to fix themselves permanently there, collected for +the purpose of expelling them. Fortunately, however, a shipwrecked +Portuguese, who had lived many years under the protection +of the principal chief, was successful in concluding a +treaty of perpetual alliance between his countrymen and the +natives. Finding the spot chosen for the new town inconvenient, +the colonists removed to the adjoining island of São Vicente, +from which the captaincy derived its name. Cattle and the +sugar-cane were at an early period introduced from Madeira, +and here the other captaincies supplied themselves with both.</p> + +<p>Pero Lopes de Sousa received the grant of a captaincy, and +set sail from Portugal at the same time as his brother, the founder +of São Vicente. He chose to have his fifty leagues in two +allotments. That to which he gave the name of Santo Amaro +adjoined São Vicente, the two towns being only three leagues +asunder. The other division lay much nearer to the line between +Parahyba and Pernambuco. He experienced considerable difficulty +in founding this second colony, from the strenuous opposition +of a neighbouring tribe, the Petiguares; at length he +succeeded in clearing his lands of them, but not long afterwards +he perished by shipwreck.</p> + +<p>Rio de Janeiro was not settled till a later period; and for a +considerable time the nearest captaincy to Santo Amaro, sailing +along the coast northwards, was that of Espirito Santo. It was +founded by Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, who having acquired a +large fortune in India, sank it in this scheme of colonization. +He carried with him no less than sixty fidalgos. They named +their town by anticipation, Our Lady of the Victory (Victoria); +but it cost them some hard fighting with the Goagnazes to +justify the title.</p> + +<p>Pedro de Campo Tourinho, a nobleman and excellent navigator, +received a grant of the adjoining captaincy of Porto Seguro. +This, it will be remembered, is the spot where Cabral first took +possession of Brazil. The Tupinoquins at first offered some +opposition; but having made peace, they observed it faithfully, +notwithstanding that the oppression of the Portuguese obliged +them to forsake the country. Sugar-works were established, and +considerable quantities of the produce exported to the mother +country.</p> + +<p>Jorge de Figueiredo, <i>Escrivam da Fazenda</i>, was the first donatory +of the captaincy Ilhéos, 140 m. south of Bahia. His office +preventing him from taking possession in person, he deputed the +task to Francisco Romeiro, a Castilian. The Tupinoquins, the +most tractable of the Brazilian tribes, made peace with the +settlers, and the colony was founded without a struggle.</p> + +<p>The coast from the Rio São Francisco to Bahia was granted +to Francisco Pereira Coutinho; the bay itself, with all its creeks, +was afterwards added to the grant. When Coutinho formed +his establishment, where Villa Velha now stands, he found a +noble Portuguese living in the neighbourhood who, having been +shipwrecked, had, by means of his fire-arms, raised himself to +the rank of chief among the natives. He was surrounded by a +patriarchal establishment of wives and children; and to him +most of the distinguished families of Bahia still trace their lineage. +The regard entertained by the natives for Caramuru (signifying +<i>man of fire</i>) induced them to extend a hospitable welcome to his +countrymen, and for a time everything went on well. Coutinho +had, however, learned in India to be an oppressor, and the +Tupinambas were the fiercest and most powerful of the native +tribes. The Portuguese were obliged to abandon their settlement; +but several of them returned at a later period, with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span> +Caramuru, and thus a European community was established +in the district.</p> + +<p>Some time before the period at which these captaincies were +established, a factory had been planted at Pernambuco. A ship +from Marseilles took it, and left seventy men in it as a garrison; +but she was captured on her return, and carried into Lisbon, and +immediate measures were taken for reoccupying the place. The +captaincy of Pernambuco was granted to Don Duarte Coelho +Pereira as the reward of his services in India. It extended +along the coast from the Rio São Francisco, northward to the +Rio de Juraza. Duarte sailed with his wife and children, and +many of his kinsmen, to take possession, of his new colony, and +landed in the port of Pernambuco. To the town which was +there founded he gave the name of Olinda. The Cabetes, who +possessed the soil, were fierce and pertinacious; and, assisted +by the French, who traded to that coast, Coelho had to gain +by inches what was granted him by leagues. The Portuguese +managed, however, to beat off their enemies; and, having +entered into an alliance with the Tobayanes, followed up their +success.</p> + +<p>Attempts were made about this time to establish two other +captaincies, but without success. Pedro de Goes obtained a +grant of the captaincy of Parahyba between those of São Vicente +and Espirito Santo; but his means were too feeble to enable +him to make head against the aborigines, and the colony was +broken up after a painful struggle of seven years. João de +Barros, the historian, obtained the captaincy of Maranhão. +For the sake of increasing his capital, he divided his grant with +Fernão Alvares de Andrade and Aires da Cunha. They projected +a scheme of conquest and colonization upon a large scale. Nine +hundred men, of whom one hundred and thirteen were horsemen, +embarked in ten ships under the command of Aires da Cunha. +But the vessels were wrecked upon some shoals about one +hundred leagues to the south of Maranhão; the few survivors, +after suffering immense hardships, escaped to the nearest settlements, +and the undertaking was abandoned.</p> + +<p>By these adventures the whole line of Brazilian coast, from +the mouth of La Plata to the mouth of the Amazon, had become +studded at intervals with Portuguese settlements, in all of which +law and justice were administered, however inadequately. +It is worthy of observation, that Brazil was the first colony +founded in America upon an agricultural principle, for until then +the precious metals were the exclusive attraction. Sufficient +capital was attracted between the year 1531 (in which De Sousa +founded the first captaincy) and the year 1548 to render these +colonies an object of importance to the mother country. Their +organization, however, in regard to their means of defence +against both external aggression and internal violence, was +extremely defective. Their territories were surrounded and +partly occupied by large tribes of savages. Behind them the +Spaniards, who had an establishment at Asuncion, had penetrated +almost to the sources of the waters of Paraguay, and had succeeded +in establishing communication with Peru. Orellana, on +the other hand, setting out from Peru, had crossed the mountains +and sailed down the Amazon. Nor had the French abandoned +their hopes of effecting an establishment on the coast.</p> + +<p>The obvious remedy for these evils was to concentrate the +executive power, to render the petty chiefs amenable to one +tribunal, and to confide the management of the defensive force +to one hand. In order to this the powers of the several captains +were revoked, whilst their property in their grants was reserved +to them. A governor-general was appointed, with full powers, +civil and criminal. The judicial and financial functions in each +province were vested in the <i>Ouvidor</i>, whose authority in the +college of finance was second only to that of the governor. Every +colonist was enrolled either in the <i>Milicias</i> or <i>Ordenanzas</i>. The +former were obliged to serve beyond the boundaries of the +province, the latter only at home. The chief cities received +municipal constitutions, as in Portugal. Thome de Sousa was +the first person nominated to the important post of governor-general. +He was instructed to build a strong city in Bahia and +to establish there the seat of his government. In pursuance +of his commission he arrived at Bahia in April 1549, with a fleet +of six vessels, on board of which were three hundred and twenty +persons in the king’s pay, four hundred convicts and about three +hundred free colonists. Care had been taken for the spiritual wants +of the provinces by associating six Jesuits with the expedition.</p> + +<p>Old Caramuru, who still survived, rendered the governor +essential service by gaining for his countrymen the goodwill of +the natives. The new city, to which the name of São Salvador +was given, was established on the heights above the Bay of +All Saints (Todos os Santos), from which its later name of Bahia +is taken. Within four months one hundred houses were built, +and surrounded by a mud wall. Sugar plantations were laid +out in the vicinity. During the four years of Sousa’s government +there were sent out at different times supplies of all kinds. +Female orphans of noble families were given in marriage to +the officers, and portioned from the royal estates, and orphan +boys were sent to be educated by the Jesuits. The capital rose +rapidly in importance, and the captaincies learned to regard it +as a common head and centre of wealth. Meanwhile the Jesuits +undertook the moral and religious culture of the natives, and +<span class="sidenote">First Jesuit missions.</span> +of the scarcely less savage colonists. Strong opposition +was at first experienced from the gross ignorance of +the Indians, and the depravity of the Portuguese, +fostered by the licentious encouragement of some +abandoned priests who had found their way to Brazil. Over +these persons the Jesuits had no authority; and it was not until +the arrival of the first bishop of Brazil in 1552, that anything +like an efficient check was imposed upon them. Next year Sousa +was succeeded by Duarte da Costa, who brought with him a +reinforcement of Jesuits, at the head of whom was Luis de Gran, +appointed, with Nobrega the chief of the first mission, joint +provincial of Brazil.</p> + +<p>Nobrega’s first act was one which has exercised the most +beneficial influence over the social system of Brazil, namely, +the establishment of a college on the then unreclaimed plains +of Piratininga. It was named São Paulo, and has been at once +the source whence knowledge and civilization have been diffused +through Brazil, and the nucleus of a colony of its manliest and +hardiest citizens, which sent out successive swarms of hardy +adventurers to people the interior. The good intentions of the +Jesuits were in part frustrated by the opposition of Costa the +governor; and it was not until 1558, when Mem de Sa was sent +out to supersede him, that their projects were allowed free scope.</p> + +<p>Rio de Janeiro was first occupied by French settlers. Nicholas +Durand de Villegagnon, a bold and skilful seaman, having visited +Brazil, saw at once the advantages which might accrue +his country from a settlement there. In order to +<span class="sidenote">Settlement of Rio de Janeiro.</span> +secure the interest of Coligny, he gave out that his +projected colony was intended to serve as a place of +refuge for the persecuted Huguenots. Under the patronage of +that admiral, he arrived at Rio de Janeiro in 1558 with a train +of numerous and respectable colonists. As soon, however, as +he thought his power secure, he threw off the mask, and began +to harass and oppress the Huguenots by every means he could +devise. Many of them were forced by his tyranny to return to +France; and ten thousand Protestants, ready to embark for +the new colony, were deterred by their representations. +Villegagnon, finding his force much diminished in consequence of +his treachery, sailed for France in quest of recruits; and during +his absence the Portuguese governor, by order of his court, +attacked and dispersed the settlement. For some years the +French kept up a kind of bush warfare; but in 1567 the Portuguese +succeeded in establishing a settlement at Rio.</p> + +<p>Mem de Sa continued to hold the reins of government in Brazil +upon terms of the best understanding with the clergy, and to the +great advantage of the colonies, for fourteen years. On the +expiration of his power, which was nearly contemporary with +that of his life, an attempt was made to divide Brazil into two +governments; but this having failed, the territory was reunited +in 1578, the year in which Diego Laurenço da Veiga was +appointed governor. At this time the colonies, although not yet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span> +independent of supplies from the mother country, were in a +flourishing condition; but the usurpation of the crown of +Portugal by Philip II. changed the aspect of affairs. Brazil, +believed to be inferior to the Spanish possessions in mines, was +consequently abandoned in comparative neglect for the period +intervening between 1578 and 1640, during which it continued an +apanage of Spain.</p> + +<p>No sooner had Brazil passed under the Spanish crown, than +English adventurers directed their hostile enterprises against +its shores. In 1586 Witherington plundered Bahia; +in 1591 Cavendish made an abortive attack on Santos; +<span class="sidenote">English and French aggressions.</span> +in 1595 Lancaster attacked Olinda. These exploits, +however, were transient in their effects. In 1612 the +French attempted to found a permanent colony in the +island of Marajò, where they succeeded in maintaining themselves +till 1618. This attempt led to the erection of Maranhão and +Pará into a separate <i>Estado</i>. But it was on the part of the +Dutch that the most skilful and pertinacious efforts were made for +securing a footing in Brazil; and they alone of all the rivals of +the Portuguese have left traces of their presence in the national +spirit and institutions of Brazil.</p> + +<p>The success of the Dutch East India Company led to the +establishment of a similar one for the West Indies, to which a +monopoly of the trade to America and Africa was +granted. This body despatched in 1624 a fleet against +<span class="sidenote">Struggle with the Dutch.</span> +Bahia. The town yielded almost without a struggle. +The fleet soon after sailed, a squadron being detached +against Angola, with the intention of taking possession of that +colony, in order to secure a supply of slaves. The fall of Bahia +for once roused the Spaniards and Portuguese to joint action, +and a great expedition speedily sailed from Cadiz and Lisbon for +Bahia. Once more, though strongly garrisoned, the town was +retaken without any serious fighting in May 1625. The honours +bestowed upon the Indian chiefs for their assistance in this war +broke down in a great measure the barrier between the two races; +and there is at this day a greater admixture of their blood among +the better classes in Bahia than is to be found elsewhere in Brazil.</p> + +<p>In 1630 the Dutch attempted again to effect a settlement; +and Olinda, with its port, the Recife-Olinda, was destroyed, +but the Recife was fortified and held, reinforcements +and supplies being sent by sea from Holland. The +<span class="sidenote">Dutch settlement in Brazil.</span> +Dutch were unable, however, to extend their power +beyond the limits of the town, until the arrival of +Count John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen in 1636. His first step +was to introduce a regular government among his countrymen; +his second, to send to the African coast one of his officers, who +took possession of a Portuguese settlement, and thus secured a +supply of slaves. In the course of eight years, the limited period +of his government, he succeeded in asserting the Dutch supremacy +along the coast of Brazil from the mouth of São Francisco to +Maranhão. The Recife was rebuilt and adorned with splendid +residences and gardens and received from its founder the name +of Mauritstad. He promoted the amalgamation of the different +races, and sought to conciliate the Portuguese by the confidence +he reposed in them. His object was to found a great empire; but +this was a project at variance with the wishes of his employers—an +association of merchants, who were dissatisfied because +the wealth which they expected to see flowing into their coffers +was expended in promoting the permanent interests of a distant +country. Count Maurice resigned his post in 1644. His successors +possessed neither his political nor his military talents, +and had to contend with more difficult circumstances.</p> + +<p>In 1640 the revolution which placed the house of Braganza +on the throne of Portugal restored Brazil to masters more inclined +to promote its interests and assert its possession than the +Spaniards. It was indeed high time that some exertion should be +made. The northern provinces had fallen into the power of Holland; +the southern, peopled in a great measure by the hardy descendants +of the successive colonists who had issued on all sides from +the central establishment of São Paulo, had learned from their +habits of unaided and successful enterprise to court independence. +They had ascended the waters of the Paraguay to their sources. +They had extended their limits southwards till they reached +the Spanish settlements of La Plata. They had reduced to +slavery numerous tribes of the natives. They were rich in cattle, +and had commenced the discovery of the mines. When, therefore, +the inhabitants of São Paulo saw themselves about to be +transferred, as a dependency of Portugal, from one master to +another, they conceived the idea of erecting their country into +an independent state. Their attempt, however, was frustrated +by Amador Bueno, the person whom they had selected for their +king. When the people shouted “Long live King Amador,” he +cried out “Long live John IV.,” and took refuge in a convent. +The multitude, left without a leader, acquiesced, and this +important province was secured to the house of Braganza.</p> + +<p>Rio and Santos, although both evinced a desire of independence, +followed the example of the Paulistas. Bahia, as capital +of the Brazilian states, felt that its ascendancy depended upon +the union with Portugal. The government, thus left in quiet +possession of the rest of Brazil, had time to concentrate its +attention upon the Dutch conquests. The crown of Portugal was, +however, much too weak to adopt energetic measures. But +the Brazilian colonists, now that the mother country had thrown +<span class="sidenote">Revolt against the Dutch.</span> +off the Spanish yoke, determined even without assistance +from the homeland to rise in revolt against foreign +domination. The departure of Count Maurice, moreover, +had seriously weakened the position of the Dutch, +for his successors had neither his conciliatory manners nor his +capacity. João Fernandes Vieyra, a native of Madeira, organized +the insurrection which broke out in 1645. This insurrection gave +birth to one of those wars in which a whole nation, destitute +of pecuniary resources, military organization and skilful leaders, +but familiar with the country, is opposed to a handful of soldiers +advantageously posted and well officered. But home difficulties +and financial necessities prevented the West India Company +from sending adequate reinforcements from Holland. In 1649 +a rival company was started in Portugal known as the Brazil +Company, which sent out a fleet to help the colonists in +Pernambuco. Slowly the Dutch lost ground and the outbreak of war +with England sounded the knell of their dominion in Brazil. +In 1654 their capital and last stronghold fell into the hands of +Vieyra. It was not, however, till 1662 that Holland signed a +treaty with Portugal, by which all territorial claims in Brazil +were abandoned in exchange for a cash indemnity and certain +commercial privileges. After this, except some inroads on the +<span class="sidenote">French expedition to Brazil, 1710.</span> +frontiers, the only foreign invasion which Brazil had +to suffer was from France. In 1710 a squadron, +commanded by Duclerc, disembarked 1000 men, and +attacked Rio de Janeiro. After having lost half of +his men in a battle, Duclerc and all his surviving companions +were made prisoners. The governor treated them +cruelly. A new squadron with 6000 troops was entrusted to the +famous admiral Duguay Trouin to revenge this injury. They +arrived at Rio on the 12th of September 1711. After four days of +hard fighting the town was taken. The governor retreated to +a position out of it, and was only awaiting reinforcements from +Minas to retake it; but, Duguay Trouin threatening to burn it, +he was obliged on the 10th of October to sign a capitulation, and +pay to the French admiral 610,000 crusados, 500 cases of sugar, +and provisions for the return of the fleet to Europe. Duguay +Trouin departed to Bahia to obtain fresh spoils; but having +lost in a storm two of his best ships, with an important part of +the money received, he renounced this plan and returned directly +to France.</p> + +<p>After this the Portuguese governed their colony undisturbed. +The approach of foreign traders was prohibited, while the +regalities reserved by the crown drained the country of a great +proportion of its wealth.</p> + +<p>The important part which the inhabitants of São Paulo have +played in the history of Brazil has been already adverted to. +The establishment of the Jesuit college had attracted settlers +to its neighbourhood, and frequent marriages had taken place +between the Indians of the district and the colonists. A hardy +and enterprising race of men had sprung from this mixture, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span> +who, first searching whether their new country were rich in metals, +soon began adventurous raids into the interior, making excursions +also against the remote Indian tribes with a view to obtaining +slaves, and from the year 1629 onwards repeatedly attacked +the Indian reductions of the Jesuits in Paraguay, although both +provinces were then nominally subject to the crown of Spain. +Other bands penetrated into Minas and still farther north and +westward, discovering mines there and in Goyaz and Cuyabá. +New colonies were thus formed round those districts in which +gold had been found, and in the beginning of the 18th century +five principal settlements in Minas Geraes had been elevated +by royal charter to the privileges of towns. In 1720 this district +was separated from São Paulo, to which it had previously been +dependent. As early as 1618 a code of laws for the regulation +of the mining industry had been drawn up by Philip III., the +executive and judicial functions in the mining districts being +vested in a <i>provedor</i>, and the fiscal in a treasurer, who +received the royal fifths and superintended the weighing of all +the gold, rendering a yearly account of all discoveries and +produce. For many years, however, these laws were little more +than a dead letter. The same infatuated passion for mining +speculation which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South +America now began to actuate the Portuguese; labourers and capital +were drained off to the mining districts, and Brazil, which had +hitherto in great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank +before the competition of the English and French. A new +source of wealth was now opened up; some adventurers from +Villa do Principe in Minas, going north to the Seria Frio, made +the discovery of diamonds about the year 1710, but it was not till +1730 that the discovery was for the first time announced to the +government, which immediately declared them <i>regalia</i>. While +the population of Brazil continued to increase, the moral and +intellectual culture of its inhabitants was left in great measure +to chance; they grew up with those robust and healthy sentiments +which are engendered by the absence of false teachers, +but with a repugnance to legal ordinances, and encouraged in +their ascendancy over the Indians to habits of violence and +oppression. The Jesuits from the first moment of their landing +in Brazil had constituted themselves the protectors of the +natives, and though strenuously opposed by the colonists and +ordinary clergy, had gathered the Indians together in many +<i>aldeas</i>, over which officials of their order exercised +spiritual and temporal authority. A more efficacious stop, however, +was put to the persecution of the Indians by the importation +of large numbers of negroes from the Portuguese possessions in +Africa, these being found more active and serviceable than the +native tribes.</p> + +<p>The Portuguese government, under the administration of +Carvalho, afterwards marquis of Pombal, attempted to extend +to Brazil the bold spirit of innovation which directed +all his efforts. The proud minister had been resisted +<span class="sidenote">Reforms of Pombal.</span> +in his plans of reform at home by the Jesuits, and, +determining to attack the power of the order, first deprived +them of all temporal power in the state of Maranhão and +Pará. These ordinances soon spread to the whole of Brazil, +and a pretext being found in the suspicion of Jesuit influence +in some partial revolts of the Indian troops on the Rio Negro, +the order was expelled from Brazil under circumstances of great +severity in 1760. The Brazilian Company founded by Vieyra, +which so materially contributed to preserve its South American +possessions to Portugal, had been abolished in 1721 by John V.; +but such an instrument being well suited to the bold spirit of +Pombal, he established a chartered company again in 1755, to +trade exclusively with Maranhão and Pará; and in 1759, in +spite of the remonstrance of the British Factory at Lisbon, +formed another company for Parahyba and Pernambuco. Pombal’s +arrangements extended also to the interior of the country, +where he extinguished at once the now indefinite and oppressive +claims of the original donatories of the captaincies, and +strengthened and enforced the regulations of the mining districts. +The policy of many of Pombal’s measures is more than questionable; +but his admission of all races to equal rights in the eye +of the law, his abolition of feudal privileges, and the firmer +organization of the powers of the land which he introduced, +powerfully co-operated towards the development of the capabilities +of Brazil. Yet on the death of his king and patron +in 1777, when court intrigue forced him from his high station, +he who had done so much for his country’s institutions was +reviled on all hands.</p> + +<p>The most important feature in the history of Brazil during +the first thirty years following the retirement of Pombal was the +conspiracy of Minas in 1789. The successful issue of the recent +revolution of the English colonies in North America had filled +the minds of some of the more educated youth of that province; +and in imitation, a project to throw off the Portuguese yoke +was formed,—a cavalry officer, Silva Xavier, nicknamed Tira-dentes +(tooth-drawer), being the chief conspirator. But the plot +being discovered during their inactivity, the conspirators were +banished to Africa, and Tira-dentes, the leader, was hanged. +Thenceforward affairs went on prosperously; the mining +districts continued to be enlarged; the trading companies of +the littoral provinces were abolished, but the impulse they had +given to agriculture remained.</p> + +<p>Removed from all communication with the rest of the world +except through the mother country, Brazil remained unaffected +by the first years of the great revolutionary war in +Europe. Indirectly, however, the fate of this isolated +<span class="sidenote">Portuguese royal family in Brazil, 1807.</span> +country was decided by the consequences of the French +Revolution. Brazil is the only instance of a colony +becoming the seat of the government of its own +mother country, and this was the work of Napoleon. +When he resolved upon the invasion and conquest of Portugal, +the prince regent, afterwards Dom John VI., having no means +of resistance, decided to take refuge in Brazil. He created +a regency in Lisbon, and departed for Brazil on the 29th of +November 1807, accompanied by the queen Donna Maria I., +the royal family, all the great officers of state, a large part of the +nobility and numerous retainers. They arrived at Bahia on +the 21st of January 1808, and were received with enthusiasm. +The regent was requested to establish there the seat of his +government, but a more secure asylum presented itself in Rio +de Janeiro, where the royal fugitives arrived on the 7th of March. +Before leaving Bahia, Dom John took the first step to emancipate +Brazil, opening its ports to foreign commerce, and permitting +the export of all Brazilian produce under any flag, the royal +monopolies of diamonds and Brazil-wood excepted. Once +established in Rio de Janeiro, the government of the regent +was directed to the creation of an administrative machinery +for the dominions that remained to him as it existed in Portugal. +<span class="sidenote">Reorganization on Portuguese model.</span> +Besides the ministry which had come with the regent, +the council of state, and the departments of the four +ministries of home, finances, war and marine then +existing, there were created in the course of one year +a supreme court of justice, a board of patronage and +administration of the property of the church and military orders, +an inferior court of appeal, the court of exchequer and royal +treasury, the royal mint, bank of Brazil, royal printing-office, +powder-mills on a large scale, and a supreme military court. +The maintenance of the court, and the salaries of so large a +number of high officials, entailed the imposition of new taxes +to meet these expenses. Notwithstanding this the expenses +continued to augment, and the government had recourse to +the reprehensible measure of altering the money standard, and +the whole monetary system was soon thrown into the greatest +confusion. The bank, in addition to its private functions, +farmed many of the <i>regalia</i>, and was in the practice of advancing +large sums to the state, transactions which gave rise to extensive +corruption, and terminated some years later in the breaking of the +bank.</p> + +<p>Thus the government of the prince regent began its career +in the new world with dangerous errors in the financial system; +yet the increased activity which a multitude of new customers +and the increase of circulating medium gave to the trade of +Rio, added a new stimulus to the industry of the whole nation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span> +Numbers of English artisans and shipbuilders, Swedish iron-founders, +German engineers and French manufacturers sought +fortunes in the new country, and diffused industry by their +example.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of 1809, in retaliation for the occupation of +Portugal, an expedition was sent from Pará to the French +colony of Guiana, and after some fighting this part of Guiana +was incorporated with Brazil. This conquest was, however, of +short duration; for, by the treaty of Vienna in 1815, the colony +was restored to France. Its occupation contributed to the +improvement of agriculture in Brazil; it had been the policy +of Portugal up to this time to separate the productions of its +colonies, to reserve sugar for Brazil, and spices to the East Indies, +and to prohibit the cultivation of these in the African possessions. +Now, however, many plants were imported not only from +Guiana but from India and Africa, cultivated in the Royal +Botanic Garden, and thence distributed. The same principle +which dictated the conquest of French Guiana originated +attempts to seize the Spanish colonies of Montevideo and Buenos +Aires, Portugal being also at war with Spain. The chiefs of these +colonies were invited to place them under the protection of the +Portuguese crown, but these at first affecting loyalty to Spain +declined the offer, then threw off the mask and declared themselves +independent, and the Spanish governor, Elio, was afterwards +defeated by Artigas, the leader of the independents.</p> + +<p>The inroads made on the frontiers of Rio Grande and São +Paulo decided the court of Rio to take possession of Montevideo; +a force of 5000 troops was sent thither from Portugal, +together with a Brazilian corps; and the irregulars +<span class="sidenote">Brazil declared an integral portion of the monarchy.</span> +of Artigas, unable to withstand disciplined troops, +were forced, after a total defeat, to take refuge beyond +the River Uruguay. The Portuguese took possession +of the city of Montevideo in January 1817, and the +territory of Misiones was afterwards occupied. The importance +which Brazil was acquiring decided the regent to give it the title +of kingdom, and by decree of the 16th January 1815, the Portuguese +sovereignty thenceforward took the title of the United +Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves. Thus the old +colonial government disappeared even in name. In March 1816 +the queen Donna Maria I. died, and the prince regent became +king under the title of Dom John VI.</p> + +<p>Although Brazil had now become in fact the head of its own +mother country, the government was not in the hands of +Brazilians, but of the Portuguese, who had followed the court. +The discontent arising among Brazilians from this cause was +heightened by a decree assigning a heavy tax on the chief +Brazilian custom houses, to be in operation for forty years, for +the benefit of the Portuguese noblemen who had suffered during +the war with France. The amiable character of the king preserved +his own popularity, but the government was ignorant and +profligate, justice was ill administered, negligence and disorder +reigned in all its departments. Nor was the discontent less +in Portugal on account of its anomalous position. These causes +and the fermentation of liberal principles produced by the French +Revolution originated a conspiracy in Lisbon in 1817, which was, +however, discovered in time to prevent its success. A similar +plot and rebellion took place in the province of Pernambuco, +where the inhabitants of the important commercial city of +Recife (Pernambuco) were jealous of Rio and the sacrifices they +were compelled to make for the support of the luxurious court +there. Another conspiracy to establish a republican government +was promptly smothered in Bahia, and the outbreak in Pernambuco +was put down after a republic had been formed there for +ninety days. Still the progress of the republican spirit in Brazil +caused Dom João to send to Portugal for bodies of picked troops, +which were stationed throughout the provincial capitals. In +Portugal the popular discontent produced the revolution of 1820, +when representative government was proclaimed—the Spanish +constitution of 1812 being provisionally adopted. In Rio, the +Portuguese troops with which the king had surrounded himself +as the defence against the liberal spirit of the Brazilians, took +up arms on the 26th of February 1821, to force him to accept +the system proclaimed in Portugal. The prince Dom Pedro, +heir to the crown, who now for the first time took part in public +affairs, actively exerted himself as a negotiator between the king +and the troops, who were joined by bodies of the people. After +attempting a compromise the king finally submitted, took the +oath and named a new ministry. The idea of free government +filled the people with enthusiasm, and the principles of a representative +legislature were freely adopted, the first care being +for the election of deputies to the Cortes of Lisbon to take part +in framing the new constitution. As the king could not abandon +Portugal to itself he determined at first to send the prince thither +as regent, but Dom Pedro had acquired such popularity by his +conduct in the revolution, and had exhibited such a thirst for +glory, that the king feared to trust his adventurous spirit in +Europe, and decided to go himself. The Brazilian deputies on +arriving in Lisbon expressed dissatisfaction with the Cortes +for having begun the framing of the constitution before their +arrival, for Brazil could not be treated as a secondary part of the +monarchy. Sharp discussions and angry words passed between +the Brazilian and Portuguese deputies, the news of which excited +great discontent in Brazil. An insulting decree was passed +in the Cortes, ordering the prince Dom Pedro to come to Europe, +which filled the Brazilians with alarm; they foresaw that without +a central authority the country would fall back to its former +colonial state subject to Portugal. The provisional government +of São Paulo, influenced by the brothers Andrada, began a movement +for independence by asking the prince to disobey the Cortes +and remain in Brazil, and the council of Rio de Janeiro followed +with a similar representation, to which the prince assented. +The Portuguese troops of the capital at first assumed a coercive +attitude, but were forced to give way before the ardour and +military preparations of the Brazilians, and submitted to embark +for Portugal. These scenes were repeated in Pernambuco, where +<span class="sidenote">Pedro proclaims the independence of Brazil, 1822.</span> +the Portuguese, after various conflicts, were obliged +to leave the country; in Bahia, however, as well as in +Maranhão and Pará, the Portuguese prevailed. In +the agitation for independence continued. The +two brothers Andrada were called to the ministry; +and the municipal council conferred upon the prince +regent the title of Perpetual Defender of Brazil. With great +activity he set off to the central provinces of Minas and São Paulo +to suppress disaffected movements and direct the revolution. +In São Paulo, on the 7th of September 1822, he proclaimed the +independence of Brazil. On his return to Rio de Janeiro on the +l2th of October he was proclaimed constitutional emperor with +great enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>The Cortes at Lisbon chose Bahia as a centre for resisting the +independence, and large forces were sent thither. But the city +was vigorously besieged by the Brazilians by land, and finally +the Portuguese were obliged to re-embark on the 2nd of July +1823. A Brazilian squadron, under command of Lord Cochrane, +attacked the Portuguese vessels, embarrassed with troops, and +took several of them. Taylor, another Englishman in Brazilian +service, followed the vessels across the Atlantic, and even +captured some of the ships in sight of the land of Portugal. The +troops in Montevideo also embarked for Portugal, and the +Banda Oriental remained a part of Brazil with the title of the +<i>Provincia Cisplatina</i>. Before the end of 1823 the authority of +the new emperor and the independence of Brazil were undisputed +throughout the whole country.</p> + +<p>Republican movements now began to spread, to suppress +which the authorities made use of the Portuguese remaining in +the country; and the disposition of the emperor to consider +these as his firmest supporters much influenced the course of his +government and his future destiny. The two Andradas, who +imagined they could govern the young emperor as a sovereign +of their own creation, encountered great opposition in the +constitutional assembly, which had been opened in Rio in May +1823, to discuss the project of a new constitution. In July the +emperor resolved to dismiss them and form a new ministry, but +against this the brothers raised a violent opposition. In +November the emperor put an end to the angry debates which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span> +ensued in the assembly by dissolving it, exiling the Andradas to +France, and convoking a new assembly to deliberate on a +proposed constitution more liberal than the former project. +The proclamation of a republic in the provinces of Pernambuco +and Ceará, with the rebellion of the Cisplatina province, favoured +by Buenos Aires and its ultimate loss to Brazil, were the result +of the <i>coup d’état</i> of November 1823. The Brazilians were +universally discontented—on one side fearing absolutism if +they supported the emperor, on the other anarchy if he fell. +Knowing the danger of an undefined position, the emperor +caused the councils to dispense with their deliberations, and +adopt, as the constitution of the empire, the project framed by +the council of state. Accordingly, on the 25th of March 1824, +<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1824.</span> +the emperor swore to the constitution with great +solemnity and public rejoicings. By this stroke of +policy he saved himself and Brazil. Negotiations +were opened in London between the Brazilian and +Portuguese plenipotentiaries, treating for the recognition of the +independence of Brazil; and on the 25th of August 1825 a +treaty was signed by which the Portuguese king, Dom John VI., +assumed the title of emperor of Brazil, and immediately abdicated +in favour of his son, acknowledging Brazil as an independent +empire, but the treaty obliged Brazil to take upon herself +the Portuguese debt, amounting to nearly two millions +sterling.</p> + +<p>The rebellion of the Banda Oriental was followed by a declaration +of war with Buenos Aires which had supported it, and +operations by sea and land were conducted against that republic +in a feeble way. Meanwhile the well-deserved popularity of the +emperor began to decline. He had given himself up to the +influence of the Portuguese; the most popular men who had +worked for the independence were banished; and a continual +change of ministry showed a disposition on the part of the +sovereign to prosecute obstinately measures of which his advisers +disapproved. His popularity was regained, however, to some +extent, when, on the death of his father, he was unanimously +acknowledged king of Portugal, and especially when he abdicated +that crown in favour of his daughter, Donna Maria; but his +line of policy was not altered, and commercial treaties entered +into with European states conceding them favours, which were +popularly considered to be injurious to Brazilian trade, met +with bitter censure.</p> + +<p>During the year 1827 the public debt was consolidated, and +a department was created for the application of a sinking +fund.</p> + +<p>The year 1828 was a calamitous one for Brazil. It began with +the defeat of the Brazilian army by the Argentine forces, and +this entirely through the incapacity of the commander-in-chief; +and misunderstandings, afterwards compensated by humbling +money-payments on the part of Brazil, arose with the United +States, France and England on account of merchant vessels +captured by the Brazilian squadron blockading Buenos Aires. +Financial embarrassments increased to an alarming extent; +the emperor was compelled by the British government to make +peace with Buenos Aires and to renounce the Banda Oriental; +and to fill the sum of disasters Dom Miguel had treacherously +usurped the crown of Portugal. It was under these unlucky +auspices that the elections of new deputies took place in 1829. +As was expected the result was the election everywhere of ultra-liberals +opposed to the emperor, and in the succeeding year +people everywhere exhibited their disaffection. During the +session of 1830 the chambers adopted a criminal code in +which punishment by death for political offences was abolished. +It was openly suggested in the journals to reform the constitution +by turning Brazil into independent federal provinces, +governed by authorities popularly elected, as in the United States. +Alarmed at length at the ground gained by this idea in the +provinces, the emperor set off to Minas to stir up the former +enthusiasm in his favour from recollections of the independence, +but was coldly received. On his return to Rio in March 1831 +scenes of disorder occurred, and great agitation among the +Liberal party. Imagining himself sure of a brilliant destiny +in Europe if he lost his Brazilian crown, the emperor attempted +to risk a decisive attack against the Liberals, and to form a new +<span class="sidenote">Abdication of Pedro I., 1831.</span> +ministry composed of men favourable to absolutism. +This step caused excited public meetings in the capital, +which were joined in by the troops, and deputations +went to ask the emperor to dismiss the unpopular +ministry. He replied by dissolving the ministry without naming +another, and by abdicating the crown in favour of the heir +apparent, then only five years of age. Dom Pedro immediately +embarked in an English ship, leaving the new emperor Dom +Pedro II. and the princesses Januaria, Francisca and Paula. +The subsequent career of this unfortunate prince belongs to the +history of Portugal.</p> + +<p>A provisional and afterwards a permanent regency, composed +of three members, was now formed in Brazil, but scenes of +disorder succeeded, and discussions and struggles between the +republican party and the government, and a reactionary third +party in favour of the restoration of Dom Pedro, occupied the +succeeding years. In 1834 a reform which was well received +consisted in the alteration of the regency, from that of three +members elected by the legislative chambers, to one regent +chosen by the whole of the electors in the same manner as the +deputies; and the councils of the provinces were replaced by +legislative provincial assemblies. Virtually, this was a republican +government like that of the United States, for no difference +existed in the mode of election of the regent from that of a +president. The ex-minister Feijoó was chosen for this office. +With the exception of Pará and Rio Grande the provinces were +at peace, but these were in open rebellion; the former was +reduced to obedience, but in the latter, though the imperial +troops occupied the town, the country was ravaged by its +warlike inhabitants. The regent was now accused of conniving +at this rebellion, and the opposition of the chamber of deputies +became so violent as to necessitate his resignation. Araujo +Lima, minister of the home department, who strove to give his +government the character of a monarchical reaction against the +principles of democracy, was chosen by a large majority in his +stead. The experiment of republican government had proved +so discreditable, and had so wearied the country of cabals, +that men hitherto known for their sympathy with democratic +principles became more monarchical than the regent himself; +and under this influence a movement to give the regency into +the hands of the princess Donna Januaria, now in her 18th year, +was set on foot. It was soon perceived, however, that if the +empire could be governed by a princess of eighteen it could be +managed better by the emperor himself, who was then fourteen.</p> + +<p>A bill was accordingly presented to the legislature dispensing +with the age of the emperor and declaring his majority, which +after a noisy discussion was carried. The majority +of the emperor Dom Pedro II. was proclaimed on the +<span class="sidenote">Majority of Pedro II., 1840.</span> +23rd of July 1840. Several ministries, in which +various parties predominated for a time, now governed +the country till 1848, during which period the rebellious province +of Rio Grande was pacified, more by negotiation than force of +arms. In 1848 hostilities were roused with the British government +through the neglect shown by the Brazilians in putting +in force a treaty for the abolition of the slave trade, which had +been concluded as far back as 1826; on the other hand the +governor of Buenos Aires, General Rosas, was endeavouring to +stir up revolution again in Rio Grande. The appearance of +yellow fever in 1849, until then unknown in Brazil, was attributed +to the importation of slaves. Public opinion declared against +the traffic; severe laws were passed against it, and were so +firmly enforced that in 1853 not a single disembarkation took +place. The ministry of the Visconde de Olinda in 1849 entered +into alliances with the governors of Montevideo, Paraguay +and the states of Entre Rios and Corrientes, for the purpose of +maintaining the integrity of the republics of Uruguay and +Paraguay, which Rosas intended to reunite to Buenos Aires, +and the troops of Rosa’s which besieged Montevideo were forced +to capitulate. Rosas then declared war formally against Brazil. +An army of Correntine, Uruguayan and Brazilian troops, under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span> +General Urquiza, assisted by a Brazilian naval squadron, advanced +on Buenos Aires, completely routed the forces of Rosas, +and crushed for ever the power of that dictator. From 1844 +Brazil was free from intestine commotions, and had resumed +its activity. Public works and education were advanced, and +the finances rose to a degree of prosperity previously unknown.</p> + +<p>In 1855 the emperor of Brazil sent a squadron of eleven +men-of-war and as many transports up the Paraná to adjust +several questions pending between the empire and +the republic of Paraguay, the most important of which +<span class="sidenote">War with Paraguay.</span> +was that of the right of way by the Paraguay river +to the interior Brazilian province of Matto Grosso. This right +had been in dispute for several years. The expedition was +not permitted to ascend the river Paraguay, and returned completely +foiled in its main purpose. Though the discord resulting +between the states on account of this failure was subsequently +allayed for a time by a treaty granting to Brazil the right to +navigate the river, every obstacle was thrown in the way by +the Paraguayan government, and indignities of all kinds were +offered not only to Brazil but to the representatives of the +Argentine and the United States. In 1864 the ambitious dictator +of Paraguay, Francisco Solano Lopez, without previous declaration +of war, captured a Brazilian vessel in the Paraguay, and +rapidly followed up this outrage by an armed invasion of the +provinces of Matto Grosso and Rio Grande in Brazil, and that of +Corrientes in the Argentine Republic. A triple alliance of the +invaded states with Uruguay ensued, and the tide of war was +soon turned from being an offensive one on the part of Paraguay +to a defensive struggle within that republic against the superior +number of the allies. So strong was the natural position of +Paraguay, however, and so complete the subjection of its inhabitants +to the will of the dictator, that it was not until the year +1870, after the republic had been completely drained of its manhood +and resources, that the long war was terminated by the +capture and death of Lopez with his last handful of men by the +pursuing Brazilians. From its duration and frequent battles +and sieges this war involved an immense sacrifice of life to Brazil, +the army in the field having been constantly maintained at between +20,000 and 30,000 men, and the expenditure in maintaining +it was very great, having been calculated at upwards of fifty +millions sterling. Large deficits in the financial budgets of the +state resulted, involving increased taxation and the contracting +of loans from foreign countries.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this the sources of public wealth in Brazil +were unaffected, and commerce continued steadily to increase. +A grand social reform was effected in the law passed in September +1871, which enacted that from that date every child born of +slave parents should be free, and also declared all the slaves +belonging to the state or to the imperial household free from +that time. The same law provided an emancipation fund, to +be annually applied to the ransom of a certain number of slaves +owned by private individuals.</p> + +<p>Under the long reign of Dom Pedro II. progress and material +prosperity made steady advancement in Brazil. Occasional +political outbreaks occurred, but none of very serious +nature except in Rio Grande do Sul, where a long +<span class="sidenote">Character of Pedro II.’s reign.</span> +guerrilla warfare was carried on against the imperial +authority. The emperor occupied himself to a far +greater extent with the economic development of his people +and country than with active political life. Unostentatious +in his habits, Dom Pedro always had at heart the true interests +of the Brazilians. Himself a highly-educated man, he sincerely +desired to further the cause of education, and devoted a large +portion of his time to the study of this question. His extreme +liberalism prevented his opposing the spread of Socialist doctrines +preached far and wide by Benjamin Constant. Begun about 1880, +this propaganda took deep root in the educated classes, creating +a desire for change and culminating in the military conspiracy +of November 1889, by which monarchy was replaced by a +republican form of government.</p> + +<p>At first the revolutionary propaganda produced no personal +animosity against the emperor, who continued to be treated by +his people with every mark of respect and affection, but this +state of things gradually changed. In 1864 the princess Isabella, +the eldest daughter of the emperor and empress, had married +the Comte d’Eu, a member of the Orleans family. The marriage +was never popular in the country, owing partly to the fact that +the Comte d’Eu was a reserved man who made few intimate +friends and never attempted to become a favourite. Princess +Isabella was charitable in many ways, always ready to take her +full share of the duties falling upon her as the future empress, +and thoroughly realizing the responsibilities of her position; +but she was greatly influenced by the clerical party and the +priesthood, and she thereby incurred the hostility of the Progressives. +When Dom Pedro left Brazil for the purpose of +making a tour through Europe and the United States he appointed +Princess Isabella to act as regent, and she showed herself +so swayed in political questions by Church influence that +Liberal feeling became more and more anti-dynastic. Another +incident which gave strength to the opposition was the sudden +abolition of slavery without any compensation to slave-owners. +The planters, the principal possessors of wealth, regarded the +measure as unnecessary in view of the act which had been +passed in 1885 providing for the gradual freeing of all slaves. +The arguments used were, however, of no avail with the regent, +and the decree was promulgated on the 13th of May 1888. No +active opposition was offered to this measure, but the feelings of +unrest and discontent spread rapidly.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of 1888 the emperor returned and was +received by the populace with every demonstration of affection +and esteem. Even among the advocates of republicanism +there was no intention of dethroning Dom +<span class="sidenote">Establishment of the Republic, 1889.</span> +Pedro, excepting a few extreme members of the party, +now gained the upper hand. They argued that +it would be much more difficult to carry out a successful +coup <i>d’état</i> when the good-natured, confiding emperor had +been succeeded by his more suspicious and energetic daughter. +Discontented officers in the army and navy rallied to this idea, +and a conspiracy was organized to depose the emperor and +declare a republic. On the 14th of November 1889 the palace +was quietly surrounded, and on the following morning the +emperor and his family were placed on board ship and sent +off to Portugal. A provisional government was then formed +and a proclamation issued to the effect that the country would +henceforth be known as the United States of Brazil, and that in +due time a republican constitution would be framed. The only +voice raised in protest was that of the minister of war, and he +was shot at and severely wounded as a consequence. Dom Pedro, +completely broken down by the ingratitude of the people whom +he had loved so much and laboured for so strenuously, made no +attempt at resistance. The republican government offered to +compensate him for the property he had held in Brazil as emperor, +but this proposal was declined. His private possessions +were respected, and were afterwards still held by Princess +Isabella.</p> + +<p>The citizen named as president of the provisional government, +was General Deodoro da Fonseca, who owed his advancement +to the personal friendship and assistance of Dom Pedro. Second +in authority was placed General Floriano Peixoto, an officer also +under heavy obligations to the deposed monarch, as indeed were +nearly all of those who took active part in the conspiracy.</p> + +<p>Though the overthrow of the imperial dynasty was totally +unexpected throughout, the new regime was accepted without +any disturbances. Under the leadership of General +Deodoro da Fonseca a praetorian system of government, +<span class="sidenote">Brazil under the Republic.</span> +in which the military element was all-powerful, came +into existence, and continued till February 1891, when +a national congress assembled and formulated the constitution +for the United States of Brazil. The former provinces were +converted into states, the only right of the federal government +to interfere in their administration being for the purposes of +national defence, the maintenance of public order or the enforcement +of the federal laws. The constitution of the United States +of America was taken as a model for drawing up that of Brazil, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span> +and the general terms were as far as possible adhered to (see +above, section <i>Government</i>).</p> + +<p>General da Fonseca and General Floriano Peixoto were +elected to fill the offices of president and vice-president until +the 15th of November 1894. This implied the continuance of +praetorian methods of administration. The older class of more +conservative Brazilians, who had formerly taken part in the +administration under the emperor, withdrew altogether from +public life. Many left Brazil and went into voluntary exile, +while others retired to their estates. In the absence of these +more respectable elements, the government fell into the hands +of a gang of military adventurers and unscrupulous politicians, +whose only object was to exploit the national resources for their +own benefit. As a consequence, deep-rooted discontent rapidly +arose. A conspiracy, of which Admiral Wandenkolk was the +prime instigator, was discovered, and those who had taken part +in it were banished to the distant state of Amazonas. Disturbances +then broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, in consequence of +disputes between the official party and the people living in the +country districts. Under the leadership of Gumercindo Saraïva +the country people broke into open revolt in September 1891. +This outbreak was partially suppressed, but afterwards it +again burst into flame with great vigour. In view of the discontent, +conspiracies and revolutionary movements, President da +Fonseca declared himself dictator. This act, however, met with +such strong opposition that he resigned office on the 23rd of +November 1891, and Vice-President Floriano Peixoto assumed +the presidency.</p> + +<p>Floriano Peixoto had been accustomed all his life to use harsh +measures. For the first year of his term of office he kept seditious +attempts in check, but discontent grew apace. Nor was this +surprising to those who knew the corruption in the administration. +Concessions and subsidies were given broadcast for worthless +undertakings in order to benefit the friends of the president. +Brazilian credit gave way under the strain, and evidences were +not wanting at the beginning of 1893 that an outburst of public +opinion was not far distant. Nevertheless President Peixoto +made no effort to reform the methods of administration. Meanwhile, +the revolution in Rio Grande do Sul had revived; and in +July 1893 the federal government was forced to send most of the +available regular troops to that state to hold the insurgents +in check.</p> + +<p>On the 6th of September prevailing discontent took definite +shape in the form of a naval revolt in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. +Admiral Custodio de Mello took command of the naval +forces, and demanded the resignation of the president. +<span class="sidenote">Naval revolt and civil war, 1893.</span> +General Peixoto replied by organizing a defence +against any attack from the squadron. Admiral +Mello, finding that his demands were not complied with, +began a bombardment of the city, but did not effect his +purpose of compelling Peixoto to resign. The foreign ministers +then arranged a compromise between the contending parties, +according to which President Peixoto was to place no artillery +in the city, while Admiral Mello was to refrain from bombarding +the town, which was thus saved from destruction. +Shortly afterwards the cruiser “Republica” and a transport +ran the gauntlet of the government forts at the entrance of the +bay, and proceeded south to the province of Santa Catharina, +taking possession of Desterro, its capital. A provisional government +was proclaimed by the insurgents, with headquarters at +Desterro, and communication was opened with Gumercindo +Saraïva, the leader of the insurrection in Rio Grande do Sul. +It was proposed that the army of some 10,000 men under +his command should advance northwards towards Rio de +Janeiro, while the insurgent squadron threatened the city of Rio. +In November Admiral Mello left Rio de Janeiro in the armoured +cruiser “Aquidaban” and went to Desterro, the naval forces in +Rio Bay being left in charge of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, an +ardent monarchist, who had thrown in his lot with the insurgent +cause. All was, apparently, going well with the revolt, Saraïva +having invaded the states of Santa Catharina and Paraná, and +defeated the government troops in several encounters. Meanwhile, +President Peixoto had fortified the approaches to the city +of Rio de Janeiro, bought vessels of war in Europe and the +United States and organized the National Guard.</p> + +<p>Early in 1894 dissensions occurred between Saraïva and Mello, +which prevented any advance of the insurgent forces, and +allowed Peixoto to perfect his plans. Admiral da Gama, unable +to leave the Bay of Rio de Janeiro on account of lack of transport +for the sick and wounded and the civilians claiming his protection, +could do no more than wait for Admiral Mello to return from +Desterro. In the meantime the ships bought by President +Peixoto arrived off Rio de Janeiro and prevented da Gama from +escaping. On the 15th of March 1894 the rebel forces evacuated +their positions on the islands of Villegaignon, Cobras and +Enxadas, abandoned their vessels, and were received on board +two Portuguese warships then in the harbour, whence they were +conveyed to Montevideo. The action of the Portuguese commander +was prompted by a desire to save life, for had the rebels +fallen into the hands of Peixoto, they would assuredly have been +executed.</p> + +<p>When the news of the surrender of Saldanha da Gama reached +Gumercindo Saraïva, then at Curitiba in Paraná, he proceeded +to retire to Rio Grande do Sul. Government troops were +despatched to intercept his retreat, and in one of the skirmishes +which followed Saraïva was killed. The rebel army then +dispersed. Admiral Mello made an unsuccessful attack on the +town of Rio Grande, and then sailed to Buenos Aires, there +surrendering the rebel squadron to the Argentine authorities, +by whom it was immediately delivered to the Brazilian government. +After six months of civil war peace was once more +established, but there still remained some small rebel groups in +Rio Grande do Sul. These were joined by Admiral da Gama +and a number of the naval officers, who had escaped from Rio +de Janeiro; but in June 1895 the admiral was killed in a fight +with the government troops. After the cessation of hostilities, +the greatest barbarities were practised upon those who, although +they had taken no part in the insurrection, were known to have +desired the overthrow of President Peixoto. The baron Cerro +Azul was shot down without trial; Marshal de Gama Eza, an +old imperial soldier of eighty years of age, was murdered in cold +blood, and numerous executions of men of lesser note took place, +among these being two Frenchmen for whose death the Brazilian +government was subsequently called upon to pay heavy compensation.</p> + +<p>General Peixoto was succeeded as president on the 15th of +November 1894 by Dr Prudente de Moraes Barros. It was a +moot question whether Peixoto, after the revolt was crushed, +would not declare himself dictator; certainly many of his +friends were anxious that he should follow this course, but he +was broken down by the strain which had been imposed upon +him and was glad to surrender his duties. He did not recover +his health and died shortly afterwards.</p> + +<p>From the first day that he assumed office, President Moraes +showed that he intended to suppress praetorian systems and +reduce militarism to a minimum. This policy received the +approval and sympathy of the majority of Brazilians, but +naturally met with bitter opposition from the military element. +The president gradually drew to him some members of the +better conservative class to assist in his administration, and felt +confident that he had the support of public opinion. Early in +1895 murmurings and disorderly conduct against the authorities +began to take place in the military school at Rio de Janeiro, +which had always been a hotbed of intrigue. Some of the +officers and students were promptly expelled, and the president +closed the school for several months. This salutary lesson had +due effect, and no more discontent was fomented from that +quarter. Two great difficulties stood in the way of steering the +country to prosperity. The first was the chaotic confusion of +the finances resulting from the maladministration of the national +resources since the deposition of Dom Pedro II., and the corruption +that had crept into every branch of the public service. +Much was done by President Moraes to correct abuses, but the +task was of too herculean a nature to allow of accomplishment +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span> +within the four years during which he was at the head of affairs. +The second difficulty was the war waged by religious fanatics +under the leadership of Antonio Maciel, known as “Conselheiro,” +against the constituted authorities of Brazil.</p> + +<p>The story of Conselheiro is a remarkable one. A native of +Pernambuco, when a young man he married against the wishes +of his mother, who took a violent dislike to the bride. Shortly +after the marriage the mother assured her son that his wife held +clandestine meetings with a lover, and stated that if he would +go to a certain spot not far from the house that evening he would +himself see that her assertion was true. The mother invented +some plea to send the wife to the trysting-place, and then, +dressing herself in male clothing, prepared to come suddenly on +the scene as the lover, trusting to be able to make her escape +before she was recognized. The three met almost simultaneously. +Conselheiro, deeming his worst suspicions confirmed, shot and +killed his wife and his mother before explanations could be +offered. He was tried and allowed to go at liberty after some +detention in prison. From that time Conselheiro was a victim +of remorse, and to expiate his sin became a missionary in the +<i>sertao</i> or interior of Brazil among the wild Jagunço people. He +built places of worship in many different districts, and at length +became the recognized chief of the people among whom he had +thus strangely cast his lot. Eventually he formed a settlement +near Canudos, situated about 400 m. inland from Bahia. Difficulty +arose between the governor of Bahia and this fanatical +missionary, with the result that Conselheiro was ordered to leave +the settlement and take away his people. This order was met +with a sturdy refusal to move. Early in 1897 a police force was +sent to eject the settlers, but encountered strong resistance, and +suffered heavy loss without being able to effect the purpose +intended. In March 1897 a body of 1500 troops, with four guns, +was despatched to bring the Jagunçoes to reason, but was totally +defeated. An army comprising some 5000 officers and men was +then sent to crush Conselheiro and his people at all costs. Little +progress was made, the country being difficult of access and the +Jagunçoes laying ambuscades at every available place. Finally +strong reinforcements were sent forward, the minister of war +himself proceeding to take command of the army, now numbering +nearly 13,000 men. Canudos was besieged and captured in +September 1897, Conselheiro being killed in the final assault. +The expense of these expeditions was very heavy, and prevented +President Moraes from carrying out many of the retrenchments +he had planned.</p> + +<p>Soon after the Canudos affair a conspiracy was hatched to +assassinate the president. He was watching the disembarkation +of some troops when a shot was fired which narrowly missed him, +and killed General Bitencourt, the minister of war. The actual +perpetrator of the deed, a soldier, was tried and executed, but +he was apparently ignorant of the persons who procured his +services. Three other men implicated in the conspiracy were +subsequently sentenced to imprisonment for a term of thirty +years. The remainder of the presidency of Dr Moraes was +uneventful; and on the 15th of November 1898 he was succeeded +by Dr Campos Salles, who had previously been governor of the +state of São Paulo. President Salles publicly promised political +reform, economy in the administration, and absolute respect +for civil rights, and speedily made efforts to fulfil these pledges.</p> + +<p>The difficulties in the reorganization of the finances of the +state, which Dr Campos Salles had to face on his accession to +power, were very great. The heavy cost involved in +the suppression of internal disorders, maladministration, +<span class="sidenote">Reform under President Campos Salles.</span> +and the hindrances placed in the way of economical +development by the semi-independence of the federal +states had seriously depreciated the national credit. +The president-elect accordingly undertook with the full approval +of Dr Moraes, who was still in office, the task of visiting Europe +with the object of endeavouring to make an arrangement with +the creditors of the state for a temporary suspension of payments. +He was successful in his object, and an agreement was made by +which bonds should be issued instead of interest payments +from the 1st of July 1898, the promise being given that every +effort should be made for the resumption of cash payments in +1901. President Campos Salles entered upon his tenure of +office on the 15th of November 1898, and at once proceeded to +initiate fiscal legislation for the purpose of reducing expenditure +and increasing the revenue. He had to face opposition from +sectional interests and from the jealousy of interference with +their rights on the part of provincial administrations, but he +was able to achieve a considerable measure of success and to lay +the foundation of a sounder system under which the financial +position of the republic has made steady progress. The chief +feature of the administration of Dr Campos Salles was the +statesmanlike ability with which various disputes with foreign +powers on boundary questions were seriously taken in hand and +brought to a satisfactory and pacific settlement. There had for a +long period been difficulties with France with regard to the +territory which lay between the mouth of the Amazon and +Cayenne or French Guiana. The language of various treatises +was doubtful and ambiguous, largely owing to the ignorance +of the diplomatists who drew up the articles of the exact geography +of the territory in question. Napoleon had forced the +Portuguese government to cede to him the northernmost arm +of the mouth of the Amazon as the southern boundary of French +Guiana with a large slice of the unexplored interior westwards. +A few years later the Portuguese had in their turn conquered +French Guiana, but had been compelled to restore it at the +peace of Paris. The old ambiguity attaching to the interpretation +of earlier treaties, however, remained, and in April 1899 the +question by an agreement between the two states was referred +to the arbitration of the president of the Swiss confederation. +The decision was given in December 1900 and was entirely in +favour of the Brazilian contention. A still more interesting +boundary dispute was that between Great Britain and Brazil, +as to the southern frontier line of British Guiana. The dispute +was of very old standing, and the settlement by arbitration in +1899 of the acute misunderstanding between Great Britain and +Venezuela regarding the western boundary of British Guiana, +and the reference to arbitration in that same year of the Franco-Brazilian +dispute, led to an agreement being made in 1901 +between Brazil and Great Britain for the submission of their +differences to the arbitration of the king of Italy. The district +in dispute was the site of the fabled Lake of Parima and the +Golden City of Manoa, the search for which in the early days +of European settlement attracted so many adventurous expeditions, +and which fascinated the imagination of Raleigh and drew +him to his doom. The question was a complicated one involving +the historical survey of Dutch and Portuguese exploration and +control in the far interior of Guiana during two centuries; and +it was not until 1904 that the king of Italy gave his award, +which was largely in favour of the British claim, and grants to +British Guiana access to the northern affluents of the Amazon. +Before this decision was given Senhor Rodrigues Alves had been +elected president in 1902. Dr Campos Salles had signalized his +administration, not only by the settlement of disputes with +European powers, but by efforts to arrive at a good understanding +with the neighbouring South American republics. In July +1899 President Roca had visited Rio de Janeiro accompanied +by an Argentine squadron, this being the first official visit that +any South American president had ever paid to one of the +adjoining states. In October 1900 Dr Campos Salles returned +the visit and met with an excellent reception at Buenos Aires. +The result was of importance, as it was known that Brazil was on +friendly terms with Chile, and this interchange of courtesies +had some effect in bringing about a settlement of the controversy +between Chile and Argentina over the Andean frontier question +without recourse to hostilities. This was indeed a time when +questions concerning boundaries were springing up on every +side, for it was only through the moderation with which the +high-handed action of Bolivia in regard to the Acré rubber-producing +territory was met by the Brazilian government that +war was avoided. Negotiations were set on foot, and finally +by treating the matter in a give-and-take spirit a settlement +was reached and a treaty for an amicable exchange of territories +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span> +in the district in question, accompanied by a pecuniary indemnity, +was signed by President Alves at Petropolis on the 17th of +November 1903. During the remainder of the term of this +president internal and financial progress were undisturbed save +by an outbreak in 1904 in the Cunani district, the very portion +of disputed territory which had been assigned to Brazil by the +arbitration with France. This province, being difficult of access, +was able for a time to assert a practical independence. In 1906 +Dr Affonso Penna, three times minister under Pedro II., and at +that time governor of the state of Minas-Geraes, of which he had +founded the new capital, Bello Horizonte, was elected president, +a choice due to a coalition of the other states against São Paulo, +to which all the recent presidents had belonged. Penna’s +presidency was distinguished by his successful efforts to place +the finances on a sound basis. He died in office on the 14th of +June 1909.</p> +<div class="author">(K. J.; C. E. A.; G. E.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—History: Capistrano de Abreu, <i>Descobrimento do +Brazil e seu desenvolvimento no seculo xix</i>. (Rio de Janeiro, 1883); +John Armitage, <i>History of Brazil from 1808 to 1831</i> (2 vols., London, +1836); Moreira de Azevedo, <i>Historia do Brazil de 1831 à 1840</i> (Rio de +Janeiro, 1841); V.L. Basil, <i>L’Empire du Brésil</i> (Paris, 1862); Caspar +Barlaeus, <i>Rerun per octennium in Brasiliâ ... sub praefecturâ +Mauritii Nassovii... historia</i> (Amsterdam, 1647); F.S. Constancio, +<i>Historia do Brazil</i> (Pernambuco, 1843); Anfonso Fialho, +<i>Historia d’estabelecimento da republica “Estados Unidos do Brazil”</i> +(Rio de Janeiro 1890); P. Gaffarel, <i>Histoire du Brésil français</i> +(Paris, 1878); E. Grosse, <i>Dom Pedro I.</i> (Leipzig, 1836); E. Levasseur, +<i>L’Abolition de I’esclavage en Brésil</i> (Paris, 1888); J.M. de Macedo, +<i>Anno biographico brazileiro</i> (3 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1876); A.J. +Mello Moraes, <i>Brazil historico</i> (4 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1839); <i>Chorographia +historica, chronographica genealogica, nobiliaria e politica do +Brazil</i> (5 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1858-1863); <i>A Independencia e o +imperio do Brazil</i> (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); B. Mossé, <i>Dom Pedro II., +empereur du Brésil</i> (Paris, 1889); P. Netscher, <i>Les Hollandais au +Brésil</i> (Hague, 1853); J.M. Pereira da Silva, <i>Varões illustres do +Brazil</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1888); <i>Historia da fundação do imperio brazileiro</i> +(Rio de Janeiro, 1877); <i>Segundo Periodo do reinado de D. Pedro I.</i> +(Paris, 1875); <i>Historia do Brazil de 1831 à 1840</i> (Rio de Janeiro, +1888); J.P. Oliveira Martins, <i>O Brazil e as colonias Portuguezas</i> +(Lisbon, 1888); S. da Rocha Pitta, <i>Historia da America Portugueza</i> +(Lisbon, 1730); C. da Silva. <i>L’Oyapock et I’Amazone</i> (2 vols., Paris, +1861); R. Southey, <i>History of Brazil</i> (3 vols., London, 1810-1819); +J.B. Spix and C.F. von Martius, <i>Reise in Brasilien</i>, 1817-1820 (3 +parts, Munich, 1823-1831); F.A. de Varnhagen, <i>Historia geral +do Brazil</i> (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877); <i>Historia das luctas com os +Hollandeses</i> (Vienna, 187:); C.E. Akers, <i>Hist. of South America, +1854-1904</i> (1904); the <i>Revista trimensal do Instituto Historico e +Geographico do Brazil</i> (1839-1908), one or two volumes annually, is +a storehouse of papers, studies and original documents bearing on +the history of Brazil.</p> + +<p>Geography, &c.: Elisée Reclus, <i>Universal Geography</i> (1875-1894), +vol. xix. pp. 77-291; J.E. Wappãus, <i>Geographica physica do Brazil</i> +(Rio de Janeiro, 1884); A. Moreira Pinto, <i>Chorographia do Brazil</i> +(5th ed., Rip de Janeiro, 1895); Therese Prinzessin von Bayern, +<i>Meine Reise indenbrasilianischen Tropen</i> (Berlin, 1897); M. Lamberg, +<i>Brasilien, Land und Leute</i> (Leipzig, 1899); L. Hutchinson, <i>Report</i> +on Trade in Brazil (Washington, 1906); F. Katzer, <i>Grundzüge der +Geologie des unteren Amazonegebietes</i> (Leipzig, 1903); J.C. Branner, +<i>A Bibliography of the Geology, Mineralogy and Paleontology of Brazil</i> +(Rio de Janeiro, 1903); J.W. Evans, “The Rocks of the Cataracts +of the River Madeira and the adjoining Portions of the Beni and +Mamoré,” <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, London, vol. lxii., 1906, pp. 88-124, +pl. v.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The areas are reduced from the planimetrical calculations made +at Gotha and used by A. Supan in <i>Die Bevölkerung der Erde</i> (1904). +They are corrected to cover all boundary changes to 1906.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The census of 1890 is the last one of which complete returns +are published. That of 1900 was notoriously inaccurate in many +instances.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The census returns are for municipalities, and not for cities +proper. As a municipality covers a large extent of country, the +population given is larger than that of the urban parishes, and is +therefore not strictly correct according to European practice.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Brazilian official titles are given for the state capitals: +Belem for Pará; São Luiz for Maranhão; São Salvador for Bahia; +and Recife for Pernambuco.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The capital of Minas Geraes in 1890 was Ouro Preto; it has +since been transferred to Bello Horizonte, or Cidade de Minas, +which has an estimated population of 25,000.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Since the naval revolt of 1893-1894 the name of the capital of +Santa Catharina has been changed from Desterro to Florianopolis +in honour of President Floriano Peixoto.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The “bran” exported is from imported wheat and cannot be +considered a national product.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The “old metals” consist of old iron, brass, &c., derived from +railway material, machinery, &c., all imported, and should not be +considered a Brazilian product.</p> + +<p>The “sundry products” would probably be included in the four +general classes were the items given.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Previous to 1907 these two departments were united in one under +the designation of “Industry, Communications and Public Works.” +The division was decreed December 29, 1906.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Clay county, Indiana, +U.S.A., situated in the west central part of the state, about +16 m. E. of Terre Haute and about 57 m. W.S.W. of Indianapolis. +Pop. (1890) 5905; (1900) 7786 (723 foreign-born); (1910) 9340. +It is served by the Central Indiana, the Chicago & Eastern +Illinois, the Evansville & Indianapolis and the Vandalia railways, +and is connected with Indianapolis, Terre Haute and other +cities by an interurban electric line. The principal business +thoroughfare is part of the old National Road. Brazil’s chief +industrial importance is due to its situation in the heart of the +“Brazil block” coal (so named because it naturally breaks into +almost perfect rectangular blocks) and clay and shale region; +among its manufactures are mining machinery and tools, +boilers, paving and enamelled building bricks, hollow bricks, +tiles, conduits, sewer-pipe and pottery. The municipality owns +and operates its water-works. The first settlement here was +in 1844; and Brazil was incorporated as a town in 1866, and +was chartered as a city in 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL NUTS,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> the seeds of <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>, a gigantic +tree belonging to the natural order Lecythidaceae, which grows +in the valleys of the Amazons and generally throughout tropical +America. The tree attains an average height of 130 ft., having a +smooth cylindrical trunk, with a diameter of 14 ft. 50 ft. from +the ground, and branching at a height of about 100 ft. The +lower portion of the trunk presents a buttressed aspect, owing +to the upward extension of the roots in the form of thin prop-like +walls surrounding the stem. The fruit of the tree is globular, +with a diameter of 5 or 6 in., and consists of a thick hard woody +shell, within which are closely packed the seeds which constitute +the so-called nuts of commerce. The seeds are triangular in +form, having a hard woody testa enclosing the “kernel”; and +of these each fruit contains from eighteen to twenty-five. The +fruits as they ripen fall from their lofty position, and they are +at the proper season annually collected and broken open by the +Indians. Brazil nuts are largely eaten; they also yield in the +proportion of about 9 oz. to each ℔ of kernels a fine bland fluid +oil, highly valued for use in cookery, and used by watchmakers +and artists.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL WOOD,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a dye wood of commercial importance, +obtained from the West Indies and South America, belonging +to the genera <i>Caesalpinia</i> and <i>Peltophorum</i> of the natural order +Leguminosae. There are several woods of the kind, commercially +distinguished as Brazil wood, Nicaragua or Peach wood, Pernambuco +wood and Lima wood, each of which has a different commercial +value, although the tinctorial principle they yield is similar. +Commercial Brazil wood is imported for the use of dyers in billets +of large size, and is a dense compact wood of a reddish brown +colour, rather bright when freshly cut, but becoming dull on +exposure. The colouring-matter of Brazil wood, brazilin, +C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, crystallizes with 1½ H<span class="su">2</span>O, and is freely soluble in water; +it is extracted for use by simple infusion or decoction of the +coarsely-powdered wood. When freshly prepared the extract +is of a yellowish tint; but by contact with the air, or the addition +of an alkaline solution, it develops a brick-red colour. This is +due to the formation of brazilein, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">5</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, which is the +colouring matter used by the dyer. Brazilin crystallizes in +hexagonal amber yellow crystals, which are soluble in water and +alcohol. The solution when free of oxygen is colourless, but on +the access of air it assumes first a yellow and thereafter a reddish +yellow colour. With soda-ley it takes a brilliant deep carmine +tint, which colour may be discharged by heating in a closed +vessel with zinc dust, in which condition, the solution is excessively +sensitive to oxygen, the slightest exposure to air immediately +giving a deep carmine. With tin mordants Brazil wood gives +brilliant but fugitive steam reds in calico-printing; but on +account of the loose nature of its dyes it is seldom used except +as an adjunct to other colours. It is used to form lakes which +are employed in tinting papers, staining paper-hangings, and +for various other decorative purposes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZING AND SOLDERING,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> in metal work, termed respectively +hard and soft soldering, are processes which correspond +with soldering done at high and at low temperatures. The first +embraces jointing effected with soldering mixtures into which +copper, brass, or silver largely enter, the second those in which +lead and tin are the only, or the principal, constituents. Some +metals, as aluminium and cast iron, are less easily soldered than +others. Aluminium, owing to its high conductivity, removes +the heat from the solder rapidly. Aluminium enters into the +composition of most of the solders for these metals, and the +“soldering bit” is of pure nickel.</p> + +<p>The hard solders are the spelter and the silver solders. Soft +spelter solder is composed of equal parts of copper and zinc, +melted and granulated and passed through a sieve. As some of +the zinc volatilizes the ultimate proportions are not quite equal. +The proportion of zinc is increased if the solder is required to be +softer or more fusible. A valuable property of the zinc is that +its volatilization indicates the fusing of the solder. Silver +solder is used for jewelry and other fine metal work, arid has the +advantage of high fusing points. The hardest contains from +4 parts of silver to 1 of copper; the softest 2 of silver to 1 of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span> +brass wire. Borax is the flux used, with silver solder as with +spelter.</p> + +<p>The soft solders are composed mainly of tin and lead. They +occur in a large range. Common tinner’s solder is composed of +equal parts of tin and lead, and melts at 370° Fah. Plumber’s +solder has 2 of lead to 1 of tin. Excess of lead in plumber’s +solder renders the solder difficult to work, excess of tin allows +it to melt too easily. Pewterers add bismuth to render the +solder more fusible, <i>e.g.</i> lead 4, tin 3, bismuth 2; or lead 1, +tin 2, bismuth 1. Unless these are cooled quickly the bismuth +separates out.</p> + +<p>The essentials of a soldered joint are the contact of absolutely +clean surfaces, free from oxide and dirt. The surfaces are therefore +scraped, filed and otherwise treated, and then, in order to +cleanse and preserve them from any trace of oxide which might +form during subsequent manipulation, a fluxing material is used. +The soldering material is compelled to follow the areas prepared +for it by the flux, and it will not adhere anywhere else. There +is much similarity between soldering and welding in this respect. +A weld joint must as a rule be fluxed, or metal will not adhere +to metal. There is not, however, the absolute need for fluxing +that there is in soldered joints, and many welds in good fibrous +iron are made without a flux. But the explanation here is that +the metal is brought to a temperature of semifusion, and the +shapes of joints are generally such that particles of scale are +squeezed out from between the joint in the act of closing the +weld. But in brazing and soldering the parts to be united are +generally nearly cold, and only the soldering material is fused, +so that the conditions are less favourable to the removal of +oxide than in welding processes.</p> + +<p>Fluxes are either liquid or solid, but the latter are not efficient +until they fuse and cover the surfaces to be united. Hydrochloric +acid (spirits of salts) is the one used chiefly for soft +soldering. It is “killed” by the addition of a little zinc, the +resulting chloride of zinc rendering its action quiet. Common +fluxes are powdered resin, and tallow (used chiefly by plumbers +for wiped joints). These, with others, are employed for soft +solder joints, the temperature of which rarely exceeds about +600° Fah. The best flux for zinc is chloride of zinc. For brazed +joints, spelter or powdered brass is employed, and the flux is +usually borax. The borax will not cover the joint until it has +been deprived of its water of crystallization, and this is effected +by raising it to a full red heat, when it swells in bulk, “boils,” +and afterwards sinks quietly and spreads over, or into the joint. +There are differences in details of working. The borax is generally +powdered and mixed with the spelter, and both with water. +But sometimes they are applied separately, the borax first and +over this the particles of spelter. Another flux used for copper +is sal ammoniac, either alone or mixed with powdered resin.</p> + +<p>As brazed joints often have to be very strong, other precautions +are frequently taken beyond that of the mere overlapping of +the joint edges. In pipes subjected to high steam pressures, +and articles subjected to severe stresses, the joints are “cramped” +before the solder is applied. That is, the edges are notched in a +manner having somewhat the appearance of the dovetails of the +carpenter; the notched portions overlap the opposite edges, +and on alternate sides. Such joints when brazed are stronger +than plain overlapping joints would be. Steam dome coverings +are jointed thus longitudinally as cylinders, and the crown is +jointed thereto, also by cramping. Another common method +of union is that of flanges to copper pipes. In these the pipe +passes freely within a hole bored right through the flange, and +the solder is run between. The pipe is suspended vertically, +flange downwards, and the spelter run in from the back of the +flange. The fused borax works its way in by capillary action, +and the spelter follows.</p> + +<p>The “copper bit” is used in soft soldering. Its end is a +prismatic pyramid of copper, riveted to an iron shank in a +wooden handle. It is made hot, and the contained heat is +sufficient to melt the solder. It has to be “tinned,” by being +heated to a dull red, filed, rubbed with sal ammoniac, and then +rubbed upon the solder. It is wiped with tow before use. For +small brazed work the blow-pipe is commonly employed; large +works are done on the brazier’s hearth, or in any clear coke fire. +If coal is used it must be kept away from the joint.</p> + +<p>In “sweating on,” a variation in soldering, the surfaces to be +united are cleaned, and solder melted and spread over them. +They are then brought together, and the temperature raised +sufficiently to melt the solder.</p> + +<p>A detail of first importance is the essential difference between +the melting points of the objects to be brazed or soldered, and +that of the solder used. The latter must always be lower than +the former. This explains why soldering materials are used in +a large range of temperatures. A few will melt at the temperature +of boiling water. At the other extreme 2000° Fah. is required +to melt a solder for brazing. If this point is neglected, it will +often happen that the object to be soldered will fuse before the +solder melts. This accident may occur in the soft Britannia and +white metals at the one extreme, and in the softer brasses at +the other. It would not do, for example, to use flanges of common +brass, or even ordinary gun-metal, to be brazed to copper pipe, +for they would begin to fuse before the joint was made. Such +flanges must be made of nearly pure copper, to withstand the +temperature, usually 98 of copper to 2 of tin (brazing metal). +A most valuable feature in solder is that by varying the proportions +of the metals used a great range in hardness and +fusibility is obtainable. The useful solders therefore number +many scores. This is also a source of danger, unless regard be +had to the relative fusing points of solders, and of the parts +they unite.</p> +<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL FRANÇOIS CAMILLE SAVORGNAN DE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Count</span> (1852-1905), French explorer and administrator, +founder of French Congo, was born on board ship in the harbour +of Rio de Janeiro on the 26th of January 1852. He was of +Italian parentage, the family name being de Brazza Savorgnani. +Through the instrumentality of the astronomer Secchi he was +sent to the Jesuit college in Paris, and in 1868 obtained authorization +to enter as a foreigner the marine college at Brest. In +the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 he took part in the operations +of the French fleet. In 1874 when the warship on which +he was serving was in the Gabun, Alfred Marche and the marquis +de Compiègne arrived at Libreville from an expedition in the +lower Ogowé district. Interested in the reports of these travellers, +de Brazza conceived the idea of exploring the Ogowé, which he +thought might prove to be the lower course of the Lualaba, a +river then recently discovered by David Livingstone. Having +meantime been naturalized as a Frenchman, de Brazza in 1875 +obtained permission to undertake his African scheme, and with +the naval doctor, Noel Ballay, he explored the Ogowé river. +Penetrating beyond the basin of that river, he discovered the +Alima and Likona, but did not descend either stream. Thence +turning northwards the travellers eventually regained the +coast at the end of November 1878, having left Paris in August +1875. On arrival in Paris, de Brazza learned of the navigation +of the Congo by H.M. Stanley, and recognized that the rivers +he had discovered were affluents of that stream.</p> + +<p>De Brazza was anxious to obtain for France some part of the +Congo. The French ministry, however, determined to utilize +his energies in another quarter of Africa. Their attention had +been drawn to the Niger through the formation of the United +African Company by Sir George Goldie (then Mr Goldie Taubman) +in July 1879, Goldie’s object being to secure Nigeria for +Great Britain. A new expedition was fitted out, and de Brazza +left Paris at the end of 1879 with orders to go to the Niger, make +treaties, and plant French flags. When on the point of sailing; +from Lisbon he received a telegram cancelling these instructions, +and altering his destination to the Congo. This was a decision +of great moment. Had the Nigerian policy of France been +maintained the International African Association (afterwards +the Congo Free State) would have had a clear field on the Congo, +while the young British Company would have been crushed out +by French opposition; so that the two great basins of the Niger +and the Congo would have had a vastly different history.</p> + +<p>Acting on his new instructions, de Brazza, who was again +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span> +accompanied by Ballay, reached the Gabun early in 1880. +Rapidly ascending the Ogowé he founded the station of Franceville +on the upper waters of that river and pushed on to the +Congo at Stanley Pool, where Brazzaville was subsequently +founded. With Makoko, chief of the Bateke tribe, de Brazza +concluded treaties in September and October 1880, placing the +country under French protection. With these treaties in his +possession Brazza proceeded down the Congo, and at Isangila +on the 7th of November met Stanley, who was working his way +up stream concluding treaties with the chiefs on behalf of the +International African Association. De Brazza spent the next +eighteen months exploring the hinterland of the Gabun, and +returned to France in June 1882. The ratification by the French +chambers in the following November of the treaties with Makoko +(described by Stanley as worthless pieces of paper) committed +France to the action of her agent.</p> + +<p>Furnished with funds by the French government, de Brazza +returned in 1883 to the Congo to open up the new colony, of +which he was named commissioner-general in 1886. This post +he held until January 1898, when he was recalled. During his +period of office the work of exploration was systematically carried +out by numerous expeditions which he organized. The incessant +demands on the resources of the infant colony for these and other +expeditions to the far interior greatly retarded its progress. +De Brazza’s administration was severely criticized; but that +its comparative failure was largely due to inadequate support +from the home authorities was recognized in the grant to him +in 1902 of a pension by the chambers. Both as explorer and +administrator his dealings with the natives were marked by +consideration, kindness and patience, and he earned the title +of “Father of the Slaves.” His efforts to connect the upper +Congo with the Atlantic by a railway through French territory +showed that he understood the chief economic needs of the colony. +After seven years of retirement in France de Brazza accepted, +in February 1905, a mission to investigate charges of cruelty +to natives brought against officials of the Congo colony. Having +concluded his inquiry he sailed for France, but died at Dakar, +Senegal, on the 4th of September 1905. His body was taken to +Paris for burial, but in 1908 was reinterred at Algiers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See D. Neuville et Ch. Bréard, <i>Les Voyages de Savorgnan de Brazza, +Ogooué et Congo, 1875-1882</i> (Paris, 1884), and <i>Conférences et lettres +de P. Savorgnan de Brazza sur ses trois explorations dans l’ouest +africain de 1875 à 1886</i> (Paris, 1887); A.J. Wauters, “Savorgnan +de Brazza et la conquête du Congo français,” in <i>Le Mouvement +geographique</i>, vol. xxii., No. 39 (Brussels, 1905). Giacomo or Jacques +de Brazza (1859-1883), a younger brother of Savorgnan, and one +of the men he employed in the work of exploration, published in +collaboration with his companion A. Pecile, <i>Tre Anni e mezzo +nella regione del Congo e dell’ Ogowe</i> (Rome, 1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. T. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRAZZA<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (Serbo-Croatian, <i>Brač;</i> Lat. <i>Brattia</i>), an island +in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. +(1900) 24,408. With an area of 170 sq. m. Brazza is the largest +of the Dalmatian Islands; it is also the most thickly populated, +and one of the most fertile. Its closely cultivated surface though +ragged and mountainous yields an abundance of olives, figs, +almonds and saffron, while its wines are of good quality. The +corn-crop, however, barely suffices for three months’ food. Other +local industries are fishing and silkworm-rearing. The most +important among twenty small villages on the island is Milná +(pop. 2579), a steamship station, provided with shipwrights’ +wharves. The early history of Brazza is obscure. In the first +years of the 13th century it was ruled by the piratical counts of +Almissa; but after a successful revolt and a brief period of +liberty it came under the dominion of Hungary. From 1413 to +1416 it was subject to Ragusa; and in 1420 it passed, with the +greater part of Dalmatia, under Venetian sovereignty.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREACH<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (Mid. Eng. <i>breche</i>, derived from the common +Teutonic root <i>brec</i>, which appears in “break,” Ger. <i>brechen</i>, &c.), +in general, a breaking, or an opening made by breaking; in +law, the infringement of a right or the violation of an obligation +or duty. The word is used in various phrases: <i>breach of close</i>, +the unlawful entry upon another person’s land (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trespass</a></span>); +<i>breach of covenant or contract</i>, the non-fulfilment of an agreement +either to do or not to do some act (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Damages</a></span>); <i>breach of the +peace</i>, a disturbance of the public order (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peace, Breach of</a></span>); +<i>breach of pound</i>, the taking by force out of a pound things lawfully +impounded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pound</a></span>); <i>breach of promise of marriage</i>, the +non-fulfilment of a contract mutually entered into by a man +and a woman that they will marry each other (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span>); +<i>breach of trust</i>, any deviation by a trustee from the duty imposed +upon him by the instrument creating the trust (<i>q.v</i>.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREAD,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> the name given to the staple food-product prepared +by the baking of flour. The word itself, O. Eng. <i>bréad</i>, is common +in various forms to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. <i>Brot</i>, +Dutch, <i>brood</i>, and Swed. and Dan. <i>bröt</i>; it has been derived +from the root of “brew,” but more probably is connected with +the root of “break,” for its early uses are confined to “broken +pieces, or bits” of bread, the Lat. <i>frustum</i>, and it was not till +the 12th century that it took the place, as the generic name of +bread, of <i>hlaf</i>, “loaf,” which appears to be the oldest Teutonic +name, cf. Old High Ger. <i>hleib</i>, and modern Ger. <i>Laib</i>.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Bread-baking, or at any rate the preparation of +cakes from flour or parched grain by means of heat, is one of +the most ancient of human arts. At Wangen and Robenhausen +have been found the calcined remains of cakes made from +coarsely-ground grain in Swiss lake-dwellings that date back to +the Stone Age. The cakes were made of different kinds of grain, +barley and one-grained wheat (<i>Triticum monococcum</i>) being +among the ingredients. This bread was made, not from fine +meal, but from grain crushed between some hard surfaces, and +in these lake-dwellings many round-shaped stones have been +found, which were evidently used for pounding or crushing +grain against the surface, more or less concave, of another stone +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour and Flour Manufacture</a></span>). Perhaps the earliest +form of bread, if that word may be used, was prepared from +acorns and beech nuts. To this day a sort of cake prepared +from crushed acorns is eaten by the Indians of the Pacific +slopes. The flour extracted from acorns is bitter and unfit to +eat till it has been thoroughly soaked in boiling water. The +saturated flour is squeezed into a kind of cake and dried in the +sun. Pliny speaks of a similar crude process in connexion with +wheat; the grain was evidently pounded, and the crushed +remnant, soaked into a sort of pulp, then made into a cake and +dried in the sun. Virgil (<i>Georgics</i>, i. 267) refers to the husbandman +first torrefying and then crushing his grain between +stones:—”<i>Nunc torrete igni fruges, nunc frangite saxo.</i>”</p> + +<p>The question naturally arises, how did the lake-dwellers bake +their cakes of bruised grain? Probably the dough was laid on +a flat or convex-shaped stone, which was heated, while the cake +was covered with hot ashes. Stones have been found among +prehistoric remains which were apparently used for this purpose. +In ancient Egyptian tombs cakes of durra have been found, of +concave shape, suggesting the use of such baking-slabs; here the +cake was evidently prepared from coarsely-cracked grain. In +primitive times milling and baking were twin arts. The housewife, +and the daughters or handmaids, crushed or ground the +grain and prepared the bread or cakes. When Abraham entertained +the angels unawares (Genesis xviii.) he bade his wife +Sarah “make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead +it, and make cakes upon the hearth.” Professor Maspero says +that an oven for baking bread was to be found in the courtyard +of every house in Chaldaea; close by were kept the grinding +stones. That bread prepared by means of leaven was known +in the days of the patriarchs may be fairly inferred from the +passage in Genesis ML, where it is said of Lot that he “made a +feast, and did bake unleavened bread.” Whether the shew-bread +of the Jewish tabernacle was leavened is an open question, +but it is significant that the Passover cakes eaten by Jews to-day, +known as Matzos, are innocent of leaven. Made from flour and +water only, they are about 12 in. in diameter, and have somewhat +the look of water biscuits.</p> + +<p>The ancient Egyptians carried the art of baking to high +perfection. Herodotus remarks of them, “dough they knead +with their feet, but clay with their hands.” The practice of +using the feet for dough kneading, however repulsive, long +persisted in Scotland, if indeed it is yet defunct. The Egyptians +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span> +used for their bread, wheat, spelt, barley and durra (sorghum). +In the opinion of Dr Wallis Budge, barley was in Egypt the +grain of most primitive culture. However that may be, it is +certain that even in ancient Egypt white bread made from +wheat was used by the rich. The form of the bread is revealed +by ancient monuments. A common shape was a small, round +loaf, something like the muffin of to-day. Other loaves were +elongated rolls, and curiously enough were sprinkled on the top +with seeds like modern Vienna bread.</p> + +<p>The history of baking in classical Greece and Italy can be +clearly traced. Athenaeus in his <i>Deipnosophists</i> minutely +describes many different kinds of bread, which may be assumed +to have been currently used in Greece. According to Pliny +(<i>Nat. Hist</i>, xviii. II. § 28) Rome had no public bakers till after +the war with Perseus (171-168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). That long after public +bakehouses came into use the Romans and other urban dwellers +in Italy continued to make a great deal of bread at home is +certain. In Pompeii several private houses had their own mill +and bakehouse. That city must also have possessed bakers by +trade, as loaves of bread have been found, round in form, and +stamped with the maker’s name, possibly to fix responsibility +for weight and purity. In the time of the Republic, public +bakehouses were under the control of the aediles. Grain was +delivered to the public granaries by the <i>Saccarii</i>, while another +body called <i>Catabolenses</i> distributed the grain to the bakers. +The latter were known as <i>Pistores</i> or “pounders,” a reminiscence +no doubt of the primitive time when grain was pounded by a +pestle in a mortar. Slaves were largely employed in the irksome +work of grinding, and when Constantine abolished slavery the +staff of the <i>pistrinae</i> was largely recruited from criminals. The +emperor Trajan incorporated about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100 the college of +<i>Pistores</i> (millers and bakers), but its members were employers, +not operatives. The work of a bakery is depicted in a set of +bas-reliefs on the tomb of a master Pistor named Eurysaces, +who flourished about a century before the foundation of the +college. Here the grain is being brought and paid for; mills +driven by horse and ass (or mule) power are busy; men are +sieving out the bran from the flour by hand (bolters); bakers +are moulding loaves on a board; an oven of domelike shape is +being charged by means of a shovel (peel); and baskets of bread +are being weighed on the one hand and carried off on men’s +backs on the other.</p> + +<p><i>Regulation of Sale.</i>—In the middle ages bakers were subjected +to special regulations in all European lands. These regulations +were supposed to be conceived in the interests of bread consumers, +and no doubt were intended to secure fair dealing on the part of +bread vendors. The legislators appear, however, to have been +unduly biased against the baker, who was often beset by harassing +restrictions. Bakers were formed into gilds, which were +under the control, not only of their own officials, but of the +municipality. In London the bakers formed a brotherhood as +early as 1155, and were incorporated in 1307. There were two +distinct corporate bodies concerned with bread-making, the +Company of White Bakers and the Company of Brown Bakers; +these were nominally united in 1509, but the union did not +become complete till the middle of the 17th century. In Austria, +bakers who offended against police regulations respecting the sale +of bread were liable, until comparatively recent times, to fine, +imprisonment and even corporal punishment. In Turkey the +lot of the baker was very hard. Baron de Tott, writing of Constantinople +in the 18th century, says that it was usual, when +bread went to famine prices, to hang a baker or two. He would +have us believe that it was the custom of master bakers to keep +a second hand, who, in consideration of a small increase of his +weekly wage, was willing to appear before the cadi in case a +victim were wanted. A barbarous punishment, inflicted in +Turkey and in Egypt on bakers who sold light or adulterated +bread, consisted in nailing the culprit by his ear to the door-post +of his shop. In France a decree of 1863 relieved bakers from +many of the restrictions under which they previously suffered, +but it did not touch the powers of the municipalities to regulate +the quality and sale of bread. It left them the right conferred +in 1791, to enforce the <i>taxe du pain</i>, the object of which was to +prevent bakers from increasing the price of bread beyond a point +justified by the price of the raw materials; but the right was +exercised on their own responsibility, subject to appeal to higher +authorities, and by a circular issued in 1863 they were invited +to abolish this <i>taxe officielle</i>. In places where it exists it is +fixed every week or fortnight, according to the average price of grain +in the local markets.</p> + +<p>In England an act of parliament was passed in 1266 for +regulating the price of bread by a public assize, and that system +continued in operation till 1822 in the case of the city of London, +and till 1836 for the rest of the country. The price of bread +was determined by adding a certain sum to the price of every +quarter of flour, to cover the baker’s expenses and profit; and +for the sum so arrived at tradesmen were required to bake and +sell eighty quartern loaves or a like proportion of other sizes, +which it was reckoned each quarter of flour ought to yield. The +acts now regulating the manufacture and sale of bread in Great +Britain are one of 1822 (Sale of Bread in the City of London and +within 10 m. of the Royal Exchange), and the Bread Act of 1836, +as to sale of bread beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange. The +acts require that bread shall be sold by weight, and in no other +manner, under a penalty not exceeding forty shillings. This +does not, however, mean that a seller is bound to sell at any +particular weight; the words quartern and half-quartern, +though commonly used and taken to indicate a 4-℔ and 2-℔ +loaf respectively, have no legal sanction. That is to say, a baker +is not bound to sell a loaf weighing either 4 ℔ or 2; all he has +to do, when a customer asks for a loaf, is to put one on the scale, +weigh it, and declare the weight. When bread is sold over the +counter it is usual for the vendor to cut off and tender a piece +of bread to make up any deficiency in the loaf. This is known +as the “overweight.” There is little doubt the somewhat misty +wording of the bread acts lends itself to a good deal of fraudulent +dealing. For instance, when bread is sold over the counter, two +loaves may be 5 or 6 oz. short, while the piece of makeweight +may not reach an ounce. The customer sees the bread put on the +scale, but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred does not trouble +to verify the weight, and unless he expressly asks for 2 ℔ or +some specific weight of bread, it is very doubtful whether the +seller, having satisfied the letter of the law by placing the bread +on the scales, could be convicted of fraud. The provision as to +selling by weight does not apply to fancy bread and rolls. No +exact definition of “fancy bread” has ever been laid down, and +it must be largely a question of fact in each particular case. All +bakers or sellers of bread must use avoirdupois weight, and must +provide, in a conspicuous place in the shop, beams, scales and +weights, in order that all bread there sold may from time to time +be weighed in the presence of the purchaser. The penalty for +using any other weight than avoirdupois is a sum not exceeding +£5 nor less than forty shillings, and for failing to provide beams +and scales a sum not exceeding £5. Also every baker and seller +of bread, delivering by cart or other conveyance, must be provided +with scales and weights for weighing bread; but since the +Weights and Measures Act 1889, no penalty is incurred by +omission to weigh, unless there has been a request on the part of +the purchaser. The acts also define precisely what ingredients +may be employed in the manufacture of bread, and impose a +penalty not exceeding £10 nor less than £5 for the adulteration +of bread. (See further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Although the act of 1836 extends to the whole of the United +Kingdom (Ireland excepted) out of the city of London and +beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange, yet in many Scottish +burghs this act is replaced by local acts on the sale of bread. +These are in all cases of a much more stringent nature, requiring +all batch or household bread to be stamped with the reputed +weight. Any deficiency within a certain time from the withdrawal +of the bread from the oven is an offence. The London +County Council desired to introduce a similar system into the +area under their jurisdiction, and promoted a bill to that effect +in 1905, but it fell through. The bill was opposed not only by +the National Association of Master Bakers, the London Master +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span> +Bakers’ Protection Society, and by the West End metropolitan +bakers in a body, but also by the Home Office, which objected +to what it termed exceptional legislation.</p> + +<p>It may be noted that the acts of 1822 and 1836 define precisely +what may and may not be sold as bread. It is laid down +in section 2 that “it shall and may be lawful ... to make and +sell ... bread made of flour or meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats, +buckwheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, rice or potatoes, or any of +them, and with any (common) salt, pure water, eggs, milk, barm, +leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in such proportions +as they shall think fit, and with no other ingredients or matter +whatsoever.”</p> + +<p><i>Sanitation of Bakehouses.</i>—The sanitary arrangements of +bakehouses in England were first regulated by the Bakehouse +Regulation Act 1863, which was repealed and replaced by the +Factory and Workshop Act 1878; this act, with various amending +acts, was in turn repealed and replaced by the Factory and +Workshop Act 1901. By the act of 1901 a bakehouse is defined +as a place in which are baked bread, biscuits or confectionery, +from the baking or selling of which a profit is derived. The act +of 1863 placed the sanitary supervision of bakehouses in the hands +of local authorities; from 1878 to 1883 supervision was in the +hands of inspectors of factories, but in 1883 the supervision of +retail bakehouses was placed in the hands of local authorities. +Under the act of 1901 the supervision of bakehouses which are +“workshops” is carried out by local authorities, and for the +purposes of the act every bakehouse is a workshop unless within +it, or its close or curtilage or precincts, steam, water or other +mechanical power is used in aid of the manufacturing process +carried on there, in which case it is treated as a non-textile +factory, and is under the supervision of factory inspectors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The more important regulations laid down by the act are: (1) +No water-closet, &c., must be within or communicate directly with +the bakehouse; every cistern for supplying water to the bakehouse +must be separate and distinct from any cistern supplying a water-closet; +no drain or pipe for carrying off sewage matter shall have an +opening within the bakehouse. (2) The interior of all bakehouses +must be limewashed, painted or varnished at stated periods. (3) +No place on the same level with a bakehouse or forming part of the +same building may be used as a sleeping place, unless specially +constructed to meet the requirements of the act. (4) No underground +bakehouse (one of which the floor is more than 3 ft. below +the surface of the footway of the adjoining street) shall be used +unless certified by the district council as suitable for the purpose +(see Redgrave, <i>Factory Acts</i>; Evans Austin, <i>Factory Acts</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Bread Sluffs.</i>—As compared with wheat-flour, all other +materials used for making bread are of secondary importance. +Rye bread is largely consumed in some of the northern parts of +Europe, and cakes of maize meal are eaten in the United States. +In southern Europe the meal of various species of millet is used, +and in India and China durra and other cereal grains are baked +for food. Of non-cereal flour, the principal used for bread-making +is buckwheat (<i>Fagopyrum esculentum</i>), extensively employed in +Russia, Holland and the United States. The flour of pease, beans +and other leguminous seeds is also baked into cakes, and in South +America the meal of the tapioca plant, <i>Jatropha Manihot</i>, is +employed. But, excepting rye, none of these substances is used +for making vesiculated or fermented bread.</p> + +<p>A normal sample of wheat-flour consists roughly of 10 parts +of moisture, 72 of starch, 14 of nitrogenous matter, 2.25 of fatty +matters, and 1.75% of mineral matter. Starch is thus +the predominating component; it is not, however, the +<span class="sidenote">Quality of flour.</span> +dough-forming ingredient. By itself, starch, when +saturated with water, forms a putty-like mass devoid of coherence, +and it is the gluten of the nitrogenous matter which is the binding +constituent in dough-making, because when wetted it forms a +more or less elastic body. The proportion of gluten in wheat-flour +varies from 7 to 15%, but the mere quantity of gluten is +by no means the only standard of the commercial value of the +flour, the quality also counting for much. One of the functions +of gluten is to produce a high or well-piled loaf, and its value for +this purpose depends largely on its quality. This is turn depends +largely on the variety of wheat; certain races of wheat are much +richer in nitrogenous elements than others, but such wheats +usually only flourish in certain countries. Soil and climate are +undoubtedly factors in modifying the character of wheat, and +necessarily therefore of the flour. The same wheat grown in the +same soil will show very varying degrees of strength (<i>i.e.</i> of gluten) +in different seasons. For instance, the north-western districts +of America grow a hard spring wheat which in a normal season +is of almost unequalled strength. In 1904 an excess of moisture +and deficiency in sun in the Red River Valley during the critical +months of June and July caused a serious attack of red and black +rust in these wheat fields, the disease being more virulent in +the American than the Canadian side of the valley. The result +was that the quality of the gluten of that season’s American +spring wheat was most seriously affected, its famed strength +being almost gone. Wheat from the Canadian side was also +affected, but not nearly to so great an extent. Flour milled +from hard winter wheat in the American winter districts is +sometimes nearly as strong as the spring wheat of the North-west. +Hungarian flour milled from Theis wheat is also very strong, +and so is the flour milled from some south Russian spring wheats. +But here again the degree of strength will vary from season to +season in a remarkable manner. In the main each land has its +own clearly marked type of wheat. While the United States, +Canada, Hungary and Russia are each capable of growing strong +wheat, Great Britain, France and Germany produce wheat more +or less weak. It follows that the bread baked from flour milled +from wheat from British, French or German wheat alone would +not make a loaf of sufficient volume, judged by present British +standards. As a matter of fact, except in some country districts, +British bakers either use strong foreign flour to blend with +English country flour, or, more frequently, they are supplied +with flour by British millers milled from a blend in which very +often English wheat has a small, or no place at all. If the baker’s +trade calls for the making of household bread, especially of the +London type, he must use a strong flour, with plenty of staple +gluten in it, because it is this element which supplies the driving +or lifting force, without which a high, bold loaf cannot be produced. +If the demand is for tin or (as it is called in many parts +of the north of England) pan bread, a weaker flour will suffice, +as the tin will keep it up. A Vienna loaf should be made with at +least a certain proportion of Hungarian patent flour, which is +normally the highest-priced flour in the market, though probably +the bulk of the Vienna rolls made in London contain no +Hungarian flour. A cake of flat shape can be very well made +with a rather weak flour, but any cake that is required to present +a domed top cannot be prepared without a flour of some strength.</p> + +<p>It is a general opinion, though contested by some authorities, +that soft, weak flours contain more flavour than strong, harsh +flours. The strong wheats of the American and +Canadian North-West make less flavoury flour than +<span class="sidenote">Flavour of flour.</span> +soft red winter from the American South-West. It +would not, however, be correct to say that all strong wheats are +necessarily less full of flavour than weak wheats. Hungarian +wheat, for instance, is one of the strongest wheats of the world, +but has a characteristic and pleasant flavour of its own. Indian +wheats, on the other hand, are not particularly strong, but are +liable to give a rather harsh flavour to the bread. English, +French and German wheats, when harvested in good condition, +produce flour of more or less agreeable flavour. None of these +wheats could be classified as strong, though from each of those +lands wheat of fair strength may be obtained under favourable +meteorological conditions. The Australasian continent raises +white wheat of fine quality which has much affinity with British +wheat—it is the descendant in many cases of seed wheats +imported from England—but it is occasionally stronger. The +resultant flour is noted for its sweetness. Both millers and bakers +who are concerned with the supply of high-class bread and flour +make free use of what may be termed flavoury wheats. The +proportion of English wheat used in London mills is very small, +but millers who supply West-End bakeries with what is known +as top-price flour are careful to use a certain amount of English +wheat, if it is to be had in prime condition. They term this +ingredient of their mixture “sugar.” London bakers again, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span> +with customers who appreciate nicely flavoured bread, will +“pitch” into their trough a certain proportion of English country +flour, that is, flour milled entirely or chiefly from English wheat, +which under such conditions is strengthened by a blend of strong +flour, a patent flour for choice. It has been objected that as +English wheat contains a large proportion of starch, and as +starch is admittedly destitute of flavour, there is no reason why +flour milled from English wheat should possess a sweeter flavour +than any other starchy wheat flour. Experience, however, has +amply proved that well-ripened English wheat produces bread +with an agreeable flavour, though it does not follow that all +English wheat is under all conditions capable of baking bread +of the highest quality. But it would be as fallacious to hold that +weak flour is necessarily flavoury, as that all strong flour is +insipid and harsh. Different wheats are undoubtedly possessed +of different flavours, but not all these flavours are of a pleasing +character. In some cases the very reverse is true. Californian +and Australian wheats have occasionally aromatic odours, due +to the presence of certain seeds, that will impart an objectionable +flavour to the resultant bread.</p> + +<p>While the essential character of particular wheats will account +for a good deal of the flavour that may be detected in the bread +made from them, the baking process must also be responsible to +some extent for flavour. The temperature of the oven and the +degree of fermentation must be factors in the question. It has +been asserted that the same flour will bake into bread of very +different flavour according as the fermentation is carried out +slowly or quickly, or as the oven is hot or the reverse. A high +temperature seems to have the effect of quickly drawing out the +subtle essences which go to give flavour to the bread, but it is a +question whether they are not subsequently rapidly volatilized +and partially or wholly lost. The rapid formation of a solid crust +is no doubt likely to retain some of these flavouring essences. A +moist, or “slack,” sponge, or dough, appears distinctly favourable +to the retention of flavour, the theory being that under such +conditions the yeast, having more room to “breathe,” works +more easily, and is therefore less likely to convert into food those +soluble constituents of the flour which give flavour.</p> + +<p>The colour of flour is a valuable, though not an infallible, +index to its baking qualities. Thus, a flour of good colour, by +which bakers mean a flour of bright appearance, white, +but not a dull dead white, will usually bake into a loaf +<span class="sidenote">Colour of flour.</span> +of good appearance. At the same time, a flour of +pronounced white tint may bake into a dirty grey loaf. This +has been particularly noted in the case of flours milled in Argentina. +The colour of flour will vary from a rich, creamy white to a +dull grey, according to its quality. The different shades are many +and various, but the prevailing tints are comparatively few. +Perhaps Blandy’s classification of the colours as white, yellow, +red, brown and grey is as serviceable as any. Each of these tints +is directly caused by the presence of certain substances. White +denotes the presence of a considerable proportion of starch, while +a pronounced yellow tint proclaims gluten of more or less good +quality. Red and brown are tints only found in flours of low +grade, because they are sure proofs of an undue proportion of +branny or fibrous particles. A greyish flour invariably contains +impurities, such as crease dirt, from the wheat, the intensity of +the tint varying in proportion to their amount. With regard to +a yellow tint, though this always denotes the presence of gluten, +it is difficult to estimate the baking quality of the flour by the +shade of yellow. In the best Hungarian patent flour the whole +sample will be suffused by an amber tint, known to Budapest +and Vienna bakers as <i>gelblicher Stich</i>. Rolls baked from the best +Hungarian flour will not infrequently cut yellow as if eggs had +been used in making them up, though nothing more than flour, +yeast and water has been employed. Strong flour milled from +American or Canadian spring wheat is also yellowish in colour, +but the tint is not so deep as with Hungarian flour. On the other +hand, there are flours of no great strength, such as those from +some Australian wheats, which are apt to look yellow. When +the colour of flour is not maintained in the bread, the reason is +generally to be found in the baking process employed. Colour +is a fairly trustworthy, but not an absolute guide to the chemical +composition of flour.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately not all flour of good colour is sound for bread-making +purposes. Wheat which has been harvested in a damp +condition, or has been thoroughly soaked, by drenching +showers previous to cutting, or has got wet in the stook, +<span class="sidenote">Damp and flour.</span> +is liable, unless carefully handled, to produce flour +that will only bake flat, sodden loaves. Wheat which has received +too much rain as it is approaching maturity, and has then been +exposed to strong sunlight, is peculiarly liable to sprout. This +seems to happen not infrequently to La Plata wheat, and though +wheat shippers in that country are usually careful to clean off +the little green spikes, this outward cleansing does not remedy the +mischief wrought to the internal constitution of the berry. Such +wheat makes flour lacking in strength and stability. Its gluten +is immature and low in percentage, while the soluble albuminoids +are in high percentage and in a more or less active diastasic state. +The starch granules are liable to have weakened or fissured walls, +and the proportion of moisture and of soluble extract will be +high. With regard to the beneficial action of kiln or other drying +on damp flour, William Jago was convinced by a series of experiments +that the gentle artificial drying of flour increases its water-absorbing +capacity to about three times the amount of water lost +by evaporation. On the other hand, a damp flour dried too +quickly and at too great a heat is liable to be made more instead +of less susceptible to diastasic changes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Alum.</i>—Strictly speaking, when employed with weak and unstable +flours alum is a remedial agent. The popular idea that it acts as a +kind of bleacher of flour, having the faculty of converting flour that +is dark-coloured through containing a sensible proportion of branny +particles and woody fibre, into white-coloured loaves, is erroneous. +Its action as a producer of white bread is indirect, not direct, though +it is none the less effective. It seems to act as a brace to or steadier +of unstable gluten. If from the same wheat a certain proportion of +gluten be extracted and divided into two parts, of which one is +placed in a glass of water containing a strong solution of alum, and +the other in a glass of plain water, the gluten in the latter case will +become spent days and perhaps weeks before the sample in the +alumed water is disintegrated. The place of alum in the process of +fermentation is well marked. By holding together unstable gluten, +it checks the diastasic action, and the proportion of starch converted +into glucose (grape sugar) is reduced, with the result that a whiter +and more porous loaf is produced. It is generally admitted that by +the use of alum more or less eatable bread may be baked from flour +which otherwise could hardly be made into bread at all. Strictly, +therefore, this substance is not an adulterant, inasmuch as it is not a +substitute in any sense for flour. But it is admittedly unwholesome, +and therefore its legal interdiction for alimentary purposes is quite +justifiable. Another aspect of the use of alum is that it is employed +for the purpose of enabling bakers to use poor flour.</p> + +<p>A fairly satisfactory test for alum in bread (or flour) is afforded by +an alkaline solution of logwood and a saturated solution of ammonium +carbonate. The presence of alum is shown by a lavender or full blue +colour. The depth of the tint is said to be a rough guide to the +quantity of alum present. According to Jago this test is so sensitive +that it has resulted in the detection of 7 grains of alum in a 4-℔ loaf.</p> + +<p>Besides alum, small quantities of copper sulphate have been used +for checking diastasis and retarding fermentation. This substance +has the same effect as alum, but as all copper salts are active poisons, +the employment of copper sulphate is most strongly to be condemned.</p> + +<p><i>Lime-water.</i>—The object of using either alum or copper sulphate +is to check over-rapid diastasis during fermentation. Baron Liebig +pointed out a much less objectionable means of attaining the same +end by means of lime-water, about 1½ oz. of fresh quicklime being +dissolved in the water used for doughing one sack of flour. Bread +made in this way is said to be spongy in texture, of agreeable flavour, +and perfectly free from acidity. In the baked loaf the lime is transformed +into calcium carbonate (chalk) by the carbon dioxide resulting +from the panary fermentation. It is said that an increased yield of +bread may be obtained by the use of lime-water; the explanation +may be that lime-water, by retarding the degradation of the gluten +and the diastasis of the starch, increases the water-retaining power +of the flour, so that the same weight of flour yields a greater volume +of bread.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Unvesiculated and Vesiculated Bread.</i>—Wheaten bread may +be divided into two main divisions, unvesiculated and vesiculated. +The term vesiculated simply means provided with vesicles, or +small membranous cavities, such as are found in all bread that +has been treated by yeast, leaven or any other agent for rendering +it spongiform in structure by the action of carbonic acid gas. +Nearly all bread eaten by civilized folk is vesiculated, though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span> +there are different methods and processes for attaining this result. +Into the category of unvesiculated bread enter such products +as the Australian damper, a flat cake prepared from flour, water +and salt, and baked in the hot ashes of a wood fire. The dough +is spread on a flat stone and covered with a tin plate, while the +hot ashes are heaped around and over it; the heat should not +be much in excess of 212° Fahr. The scone, the bannock and +other similar cakes, still much appreciated in Scotland and the +north of England, are also examples of unvesiculated bread. +They are baked on hot plates or “griddles,” on hearths, and +sometimes in ovens. Biscuits differ from these cakes in the fact +that they are baked by a high instead of a moderate heat. But +they enter so far into the class of unvesiculated bread that they +are generally prepared without the aid of any such aerating agent +as carbon dioxide. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Biscuit</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Vesiculated bread is now the only article of diet made from +flour to which the term bread is applied, and there are various +ways of producing the spongiform texture by which it is characterized. +The ordinary and doubtless the most satisfactory way +is by developing the carbon dioxide within the dough itself by +the use of yeast (<i>q.v.</i>) or leaven, which sets up alcoholic fermentation, +splitting up the saccharine matters in the flour into +alcohol and carbon dioxide. The latter is retained by the dough +and distends it, causing the bread to “rise.” Or the carbon +dioxide may be artificially introduced, as in the so-called +“aerated” bread (see below), or it may be produced by the +agency of certain chemicals, as for instance of baking powders.</p> + +<p>Such powders are mixtures which, under the influence of either +water or heat, evolve carbon dioxide. These powders have been +divided by Jago into three groups:—(1) <i>Tartrate</i> +powders, in which the acid constituent is either free +<span class="sidenote">Baking powders.</span> +or partly combined tartaric acid; (2) <i>Phosphate</i> +powders, in which the acid is some form of phosphoric acid; +(3) <i>Alum</i> powders. All these powders have a more or less aperient +action on the human system. Tartrate powders have the disadvantage +that both commercial tartaric acid and cream of +tartar frequently contain lead, a poisonous substance. Phosphate +powders are less open to objection, as they are more easy +to obtain free from lead and other metallic impurities. Alum +powders contain potassium bisulphate and alum. It is somewhat +remarkable that while the presence of alum in bread is regarded +by the law of England as adulteration, its use in baking powder +was pronounced legal in <i>James</i> v. <i>Jones</i>, 1894, 1, Q.B. 304, on the +ground that baking powder is not food within the meaning of the +Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1875. In making wholemeal bread, +hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate are often used in such +proportions that they neutralize each other. Carbon dioxide is +evolved and raises the dough. In preparing wholemeal bread +the use of this combination has the advantage that the acid +acting rapidly on the sodium bicarbonate soon produces enough +carbon dioxide to aerate the dough, and thus hasten its entry +into the oven. Wholemeal flour contains so large a proportion +of cerealin that diastasis is apt to proceed rapidly, the result +being a clammy, sodden loaf. For this reason, perhaps the so-called +aerated process is even more suitable for making wholemeal +than white bread.</p> + +<p>Methods of dough-making differ in different countries, and +even in different parts of the same land. In the <i>off hand</i> method +the dough is made right off, without any preliminary +stages of ferment or sponge. This plan is sometimes +<span class="sidenote">Methods of making dough.</span> +adopted for making tin bread, and occasionally for +crusty loaves. For tin bread a strong flour would be +used and made into a slack dough, and about 1½ ℔ to 2 ℔ of +distillers’ yeast would be used for the sack (280 ℔) of flour, +occasionally with the addition of a little brewers’ yeast. Salt +is used in the proportion of 3 ℔ to 3½ ℔ per sack. Formerly +also it was the custom to add 10-14 ℔ of boiled potatoes, but the +use of potatoes has greatly decreased. A tin-bread dough would +be made slack, with about 70 quarts of water to the sack, and +after being mixed, would be fermented at a temperature of +76-80° Fahr. It should lie for about ten hours. A dough for +crusty bread such as cottage loaves, would be made much tighter, +not more than 60 quarts of water being allowed to the sack. It +would be fermented at a higher temperature, and would not lie +more than about six hours. A slack dough is much less laborious +to work (when the dough is hand-made) than a tight dough, for +which a mechanical kneader is very suitable, but as a matter of +fact the use of machinery (see below) is still the exception, not +the rule. When a stiff dough is made by hand, it is usually +made somewhat slack to begin with, and then “cut back” and +“dusted” at regular intervals, that is to say, more and more +flour is added till a dough of the required consistency has been +obtained. (In the British baker’s vocabulary “dust” means +flour, and good dust stands for good flour.) This system, on the +one hand, saves the labour involved for “sponging” and other +operations, and the bread is produced in less time; but on the +other hand more yeast is used, and bakers generally hold that +the system sacrifices the colour and texture of the loaf to convenience +of working and yield. The high porportion of yeast +enables the dough to carry a large quantity of water, and about +104 4-℔ loaves to the sack is said by Jago to be a not unusual +yield in the case of slack doughs. But such a result would only +be possible with very strong flour. In an ordinary way 96 loaves +to the sack is a very high yield, unattainable except with strong +flour, and probably the average yield is not more than 90 loaves +to the sack. In London the manager of a “tied” shop is usually +held to account for 92 loaves to the sack.</p> + +<p>In the <i>ferment and dough</i> system, the ferment usually consists of +10 to 14 ℔ of potatoes to the sack of flour, boiled or steamed, +and mashed with water, so as to yield about 3 gallons of +liquor. There are several substitutes for potatoes, including +raw and scalded flour, malt, malt extracts, &c.; brewers’ or +distillers’ yeast may also be used. A ferment should contain +saccharine matters and yeast stimulants in such a form as to +favour the growth and reproduction of yeast in a vigorous +condition. Hence it should not be too concentrated. About +six hours are required for its preparation. It is added, together +with 2 to 3 ℔ of salt, to the dough, which is prepared with +about 56 quarts of water to the sack, and worked at a temperature +of 80-84° Fahr. The dough is allowed to lie from two to five +hours according to the flour used, the character of the ferment, +and the working temperature. In this system the proportion +of strong flour is usually reduced to 40% of the dough, and no +doubt in some cases only soft or weak flours are used. Naturally +the yield of bread is not so high as in the case of an off hand +dough made entirely from strong flour, and it will probably not +exceed 90 loaves to the sack. This method has many advantages. +After the ferment is made the labour required is not much greater +than with the off hand doughs, and less yeast is required, while +potatoes, which are somewhat troublesome, from the necessary +cleaning, can be replaced by the substitutes already mentioned. +The method produces good-looking and palatable bread, though +the loaves should be eaten within some twelve hours of leaving +the oven.</p> + +<p>The <i>sponge and dough</i> system, which is probably in widest use +in England, is adapted to almost every kind of bread, and has +the advantage that any kind of flour can be employed. The +stronger flours which need long fermentation can be and usually +are used in the “sponge” stage, while soft flours are utilized +in the dough. (The sponge is a certain proportion, varying from +a quarter to one-half, of the flour necessary for making the batch.) +In London the baker often uses for the sponge a bag (140 ℔) of +American spring wheat flour, and for the dough a sack (280 ℔) +of British milled flour, which, whether it be country flour milled +largely from English wheat or London milled, is always softer +and weaker than that used for the sponge. The sponge is made +very slack, 26 to 32 quarts of water being used to say 100 ℔ of +flour. Yeast, either distillers’ or brewers’, must be added, in +proportions varying according to its character and strength. +Of distillers’ yeast 6 to 10 oz. may be used for 280 ℔ of flour +(including sponge and dough). Salt is added to the sponge +sparingly, at the rate of about ½ ℔ to the sack of 280 ℔ The +object of making the sponge so slack is to quicken the fermentation. +When set the sponge is allowed to ferment from six to ten +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span> +hours, according to temperature and other conditions. Sometimes +all the water it is intended to use is put into the sponge, +which is then known as a “batter” sponge. The sponge, when +ready, is incorporated with the rest of the flour to which the +necessary amount of water and salt is added. The whole mass +is then doughed up into the requisite consistency, the dough +being allowed to lie for about two hours. Bread made by this +method, always assuming that over-fermentation has been +avoided, is of good appearance, presenting a bold loaf, with even +texture and a nice sheen. Owing to the use of soft flours, the +flavour should be agreeable, and the loaves ought to keep much +longer than bread made by ferment and dough. The yield may +rise as high as 96 loaves per sack, if strong flour has been used +in the sponge.</p> + +<p>A combination of the above two methods, known as the +<i>ferment, sponge and dough</i> system, is often used with brewers’ +yeast. In this case the yeast is not added to the sponge direct, +but goes into the ferment. This method is rather in favour with +bakers who make their own yeast.</p> + +<p>The system of bread-making generally used in Scotland is +known as the <i>flour barm, sponge and dough</i>. The barm is a combination +of a malt and hop yeast, with a slow, scalded flour +ferment. To make the so-called “virgin” barm a Scottish baker +would use a 30-gallon tub; a smaller vessel for malt-mashing; +10 ℔ malt; 3 oz. hops and a jar for infusing them; 40 lb +flour; 2 to 3 oz. malt; 8 to 12 oz. sugar, and 18 gallons of boiling +water. With these materials a powerful ferment is produced, +which it is considered best to use in the sponge the fourth or fifth +day after brewing. The sponges used in Scotland are “half” +or “quarter.” About 6 ℔ of malt go to the sack, one-sixth going +into the sponge. As in England, strong flours are used for the +sponge, but rather stronger flours are used for the dough than +is usual in England. Scottish loaves are largely of the “brick” +type, high and narrow. Such bread has an attractive appearance +and keeps well. It has a rather sharp flavour, approaching +acidity but avoiding sourness, while the large quantity of malt +used adds a characteristic taste. The yield rises in some Glasgow +bread factories to 100 loaves to the sack.</p> + +<p>In many parts of Europe bread is still made from leaven, +which, properly speaking, consists of a portion of dough held +over from the previous baking. This substance, +known to French bakers as <i>levain</i>, is called in Germany +<span class="sidenote">Leavened bread.</span> +<i>Sauerteig</i> (<i>anglice</i> “sour dough”). The lump of old +dough, placed aside in a uniform temperature for some eight +hours, swells and acquires an alcoholic odour, becoming the +<i>levain de chef</i> of the French bakers. It is then worked up with +flour and water to a firm paste double its original volume, when +it becomes the <i>levain de première</i>. Six hours later, by the addition +of more flour and water its amount is again doubled, though its +consistency is made rather softer, and it becomes the <i>levain de +seconde</i>. Finally, by another addition of flour and water, the +amount is again doubled, and the <i>levain de tous points</i> is obtained. +This mass is divided into two parts; one is baked yielding +rather dark sour bread, while the other is mixed with more flour +and water. This second portion is in turn halved, part is baked, +and part again mixed with more flour, this last batch yielding +the best and whitest bread. In North Germany leaven is generally +used for making rye bread, and loaves baked from a mixture +of wheat and rye flour. In the bakery of the Krupp works at +Essen, each batch of the so-called Paderborn bread is prepared +entirely with leaven from 270 kilos of rye flour (patent quality), +100 of wheat flour (seconds), 2 of buckwheat meal, 6 of salt, 5 of +leaven, and one litre of oil. In Vienna leaven is never used for +making the rolls and small goods for which that city is famous. +Viennese bakers use either brewers’ yeast or a ferment, prepared +by themselves, of which the basis is an infusion of hops. Brewers’ +yeast is added to the ferment, which takes the form of a very +slack dough. With 100 kilos (220.46 ℔) of flour about 17 litres +or nearly 2 gallons of ferment are used.</p> + +<p>In the original Dauglish process for the manufacture of aerated +bread, which was brought into operation in Great Britain in 1859, +carbonic acid gas was evolved in a generating vessel by the +action of sulphuric acid on chalk, and after purification was +<span class="sidenote">Aerated bread.</span> +forced at high pressure into water, which was then used for +doughing the flour. In this process the flour that had +to be made into bread was submitted to the action of +the super-aerated water by direct transference. It was +found, however, in practice that much difficulty occurred in +making the gas admix readily with the flour and water, great +pressure being required, and to lessen the difficulties a new +process, called the “wine whey,” was introduced. To carry +this out, a vat placed on the upper storey of the factory is charged +with a portion of malt and flour, which is mashed and allowed +to ferment until a weak and slightly acid thin wine is produced; +this after passing through the coolers is stored until it is transformed +into a vinous whey. This whey is then introduced into +a strong cylinder partly filled with water, and is aerated by letting +in the gas (now stored in a highly compressed form in bottles), +the pressure required being only a quarter of that necessary +with the original method. The flour having been placed in the +mixers, which are of globular form containing revolving arms, +the aerated fluid is admitted, and in a short period the flour and +fluid are completely incorporated. By means of an ingenious +appliance termed a dough cock, the exact amount of dough for +a single loaf of bread is forced out under the pressure of the gas, +and by reversing the lever the dough, which expands as it falls +into a baking tin, is cut off. Two sacks of flour can be +converted with ease into 400 2-lb loaves in forty minutes, +whereas the ordinary baker’s process would require about ten +hours. At first a difficulty was encountered in the fact that the +dough became discoloured by the action of the “wine whey” +on the iron, but it was overcome by Killingworth Hedges, who +discovered a non-poisonous vitreous enamel for coating the +interior of the mixers, &c. It has been claimed for the Dauglish +process that it saves the baker risks attendant on the production +of carbon dioxide by the ordinary process of fermentation, in that +he is no longer liable to have his dough spoilt by variations of +temperature and other incalculable factors, the results being +certain and uniform. A further claim is the saving of the proportion +of starch consumed by conversion into glucose during +the process of fermentation. The original objection, that, by +the absence of fermentation, those subtle changes which help +to produce flavour are lost, is annulled by the use of the wine +whey process. The Dauglish process is well suited for producing +small goods, such as cakes and scones, where flavour can be +artificially imparted by means of currants, flavouring essences, +&c. An undoubted advantage of the aerating process of bread-making +is adaptability for utilizing flour with unstable gluten, +which can thus be made into an excellent quality of bread. +For wholemeal bread, too, there is probably no more suitable +process than the Dauglish. The strong diastasic action of the +cerealin, inevitable in fermentation, is entirely avoided. The +Aerated Bread Company have about a hundred depots in +London, which are supplied from a central factory.</p> + +<p>The essence of the bread-making process recently invented +by Serge Apostolov is the combination of a flour mill and bakery. +The wheat, after a preliminary cleaning, is ground into +flour by a mill composed of metal disks dressed, that +<span class="sidenote">Apostolov process.</span> +is furrowed, very much like the surfaces of a pair of +mill-stones. The disks are not set to grind very close, because +it is desired, by minimizing friction, to keep the meal cool. From +the middlings obtained by this milling process about 10% of +bran is separated, and the remainder of the middlings is treated +by a peculiar process, akin to mashing, termed “lixiviation.” +The middlings are saturated with tepid water containing a small +proportion of yeast, which causes a certain amount of fermentation. +It is claimed that by this process a solution is obtained +of the floury constituents of the middlings. From the vats the +solution is poured on an inclined sieve which has a gentle reciprocating +motion. The floury particles pass through the meshes, +while the bran tails over the sieve; the proportion of the wheat +berry thus rejected is given as about 2½%. On the other hand, +the milky-looking solution, called “lactus,” is caught in a special +vessel, and delivered by a shoot into a trough, which may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span> +either a mechanical kneader of an ordinary trough. This lactus +takes the place of the ordinary sponge. The flour is added in +the proportion necessary to make the required batch and the +whole mass is doughed, either by hand or power. The resultant +dough is moulded in the ordinary way into loaves, which are +baked in due course. The advantages claimed for the process +are that it permits of the utilization in bread-making of about +87½% of the wheat berry, that the resultant bread is fairly white +in colour and is agreeable in flavour, and that it is extremely +simple and provides a ready and cheap means of flour-making.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Machine Bakeries.</i>—Bread-baking, though one of the most important +of human industries, was long carried out in a most primitive +manner, and machinery is still practically unknown in the bulk of +British bakehouses. The reasons for this apparently anomalous +condition of things are not very far to seek. Bread, unlike biscuits, +is a food quite unfitted for long storage, and must be consumed +within a comparatively short time of being drawn from the oven. +Hence the bread-baker’s output is necessarily limited to a greater +or lesser degree. This will be the more apparent when it is considered +that the cost of distributing bread is high relatively to the profits to +be realized. A baker’s bread trade is therefore usually limited to +local requirements, and trading on a small scale he has less inducement +to lay out capital on the installation of machinery than other +classes of manufacturers. But there are now many machine bakeries +(known in Scotland as bread factories), both in London and in other +parts of Great Britain, where the manufacture of bread is carried +out more or less on a large scale. The evolution of the machine +bakery has been slow, and the mechanical operations of the bakehouse +were long limited to the mixing of the sponge and the kneading +of the dough, but now the work of the bakery engineer extends over +almost every operation of bread-making.</p> + +<p>A bread-baking plant should be installed in a building of at least +two storeys. The ground floor may be used for the shop, with +possibly a bread-cooling and delivery room at the rear. The flour +may be hoisted to an attic at the top of the building, or to the top +floor; in any case there must be sufficient floor space to accommodate +the flour sacks and bags. Underneath the floor of the flour store +should be installed a flour sifter, a simple apparatus consisting +essentially of a hopper through which the flour enters a cylinder +with a spiral brush, by which it is thoroughly agitated previously to +passing through one or more sieves placed under the brush. A sack +of flour may be passed through this sifter in a couple of minutes, +the operation freeing the flour from lumps and pieces of string or +other foreign substances which may have found their way into the +sack. The sifter may also be combined with a blender or mixer, +so that the baker may by its means thoroughly blend different flours +in any desired proportion. The operation of blending is usually +effected by a revolving blade of suitable design or by a worm conveyor +placed underneath the sieve or sleeve. From the sifter and +blender the flour descends by a sleeve into the dough kneading +machine on the floor below. But in cases where it is desired merely +to sift and blend flour ready for future use, it may be received in a +worm and elevated again to the storage floor by an ordinary belt +and bucket elevator. The water required for doughing purposes is +contained in an iron tank, fixed to the wall in convenient proximity +to the dough kneader. This tank, known as a water attemperating +and measuring tank, is provided with a gauge and thermometer, +and from it the exact quantity of water needed for doughing can be +rapidly drawn off at the desired temperature. The cold water supply +may be let into the tank at the top, and the hot water supply at +the bottom, the idea being that each supply shall permeate the +whole mass by gravity, the hot water ascending and the cold descending. +The chief types of dough kneader will be described subsequently, +but here it should be noted that not only have machines +been devised for cutting out the exact sizes of dough required for +small goods, such as buns and tartlets, but that the operations of +weighing and dividing dough for quartern and half-quartern loaves +can also be neatly and economically effected by machinery. Further, +at least two machines have been built which successfully mould +loaves (of simple shape), and the problem of moulding household +bread by machinery has certainly been solved, but whether delicate +twists and other fancy shapes could be equally well moulded +mechanically is less certain.</p> + +<p>The machine bakery, however complete, is not likely ever to be +quite automatic and continuous like a modern flour mill, where the +plant is connected throughout and virtually forms one machine (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour and Flour Manufacture</a></span>), and though the engineer has +at least managed to effect every operation of the bakehouse by +mechanical means, it is not yet possible to shoot a sack of flour +into the hopper of the sifter on the top floor, and to turn it into +bread, without any human intervention whatever, though as things +are, the moulded dough can be put into the oven without undergoing +actual contact with human hands. In practice, some of the machines +mentioned above are often dispensed with, even in so-called machine +bakeries. The flour sifter and blender is indeed found in many +bakeries where mechanical kneaders are unknown, while not in all +machine bakeries would be found dough weighers and dividers, still +less moulding machines. The economical side of the argument on +behalf of machinery is presented in the familiar shape that a properly +equipped machine bakery can turn out better work at a lower cost +(by dispensing with labour), or at any rate can carry on a bigger +trade with the same staff. There is plausibility in this argument, +but it must be admitted that innumerable bakeries of capacities +varying from 10 to 20 sacks per week are carried on more or +less successfully without machinery of any kind, beyond perhaps a +sifter or blender. Moreover, some of these bakehouses produce bread +which can hardly be improved on.</p> + +<p>One advantage claimed for flour sifters, besides removing the +impurities, is that by thoroughly aerating flour they cause it to +become more “lively,” in which condition it kneads more readily. +It is also quite possible that the air which is thus incorporated with +the dough has a stimulating effect on the yeast, causing a more +energetic fermentation. A strong argument in favour of dough +kneaders is their hygienic aspect. It is agreed that the operation +of dough stirring by hand, since it involves severe labour conducted +in a heated atmosphere, must be liable to cause contamination of +the dough through emanations from the bodies of the operatives. In +well-managed bakeries the utmost personal cleanliness on the part +of the staff is exacted, but the unpleasant contingency alluded to is +certainly possible. It is also contended that the use of machinery +for dough kneading and batter whisking will ensure better work, in +the sense that the mass under treatment will be more thoroughly +worked by mechanically driven arms of iron or steel than by human +limbs, liable to weariness and fatigue. The better worked the dough, +the greater its power of expansion, and consequently the greater its +bread-making value.</p> + +<p>The most widely known machine used in connexion with bread-baking, +next to the sifter, is the dough kneadcr. The dough kneader +is no new invention. As far back as 1760, a kind of dough +kneader was constructed in France by one Salignac. It +<span class="sidenote">Dough kneaders.</span> +is described as consisting of a trough, inside which the +dough was agitated by arms shaped somewhat like harrows. This +machine is said to have been tested before a committee of the +Academy of Sciences, who reported that in their presence dough +had been prepared in fourteen to fifteen minutes. The bread baked +from this dough is said to have been most satisfactory, but for some +reason the machine never came into general use. For one thing, +the power problem would have been almost insuperable to a baker +in the France of those days. In general design this kneader approximated +to the machines which have since done good work in bakeries +all the world over. Salignac was quickly followed by another +inventor, Cousin, also a Frenchman, who brought out in 1761, or +thereabouts, a dough-kneading machine, which, however, had no +better success than its predecessor. The first kneading machine +which appears to have been in actual use in a bakery was constructed +by a Paris baker of the name of Lembert, after whom it was called +the Lembertine. Lembert is said to have been experimenting with +this apparatus as early as 1796. Be that as it may, it was not brought +out till 1810, when a prize of 1500 francs (£60) was offered by the +Société d’Encouragement pour l’Industrie Nationale. This reward +was won by Lembert, and his machine thereupon came into a certain +amount of use in France. It is remarkable that France long remained +the only country in which dough kneaders were employed, +but even there their use was limited.</p> + +<p>The Fontaine, another French kneader, called after its inventor, +was first made in 1835. It had a certain success, but has long passed +out of use. It appears to have been a copy to a great extent of the +Lembertine. The objection against both these machines was that +their blades, while exercising a mixing action, were deficient in +kneading effect. Probably the first machine which achieved the +task of efficiently replacing the work of human arms in sponge +breaking and dough kneading was the Boland kneader. This was +also a French machine, and dates back to about the middle of the +19th century. It is believed to have been first used in the Scipion +bakery in Paris. It consists essentially of a trough, inside which +revolve a pair of blades so arranged as to work somewhat like +alternate screws: it is claimed for these blades that their action +has the effect of tossing the dough backwards and forwards when it +is slack, and of drawing it out when it happens to be stiff. It is +further claimed that the blades are so shaped that their revolution +has the effect of moving the dough from right to left and left to right +in the trough. The machine is geared to give two speeds, the faster +being suitable for sponge setting, while the slow and most powerful +speed is intended for the doughing. The Boland machine has been +widely adopted in other countries than France, and was certainly +one of the first dough kneaders to be used in the United Kingdom. +It was installed in the great Boland bakery in Dublin, where it +proved a great success. The proprietor of this bakery, with which +was also connected a flour mill, is said to have had his attention +first drawn to this machine by the fact that its inventor was his +namesake, though no relative.</p> + +<p>The Deliry-Desboves dough kneader, also of French origin, and +in general use in France, consists essentially of a cast iron trough, +shaped somewhat like a basin, and turning on a vertical axis. The +kneading arms inside the trough are shaped after the pattern of a +lyre, and have the effect of first working up and then dividing the +dough right through the kneading process. Two helical blades, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span> +which also form part of the mechanism, serve to draw out and aerate +the dough, as effectively, it is claimed, as can be done by the most +skilled operative. The force of the kneading operations can be +regulated without stopping the machine. A thoroughly kneaded dough +can, it is said, be made in this machine in twelve to fifteen minutes.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain the type of machine that used to be most in +favour was the trough within which the kneading arms worked on +horizontal axis. The trough was either open or provided with a lid. +The kneading blades were variously shaped, but generally were +more or less straight, and were designed to both mix and aerate the +dough. In some cases the kneading blades were worked on a single +axis, in others two different sets of arms worked on two axes running +parallel to one another. Generally the kneader was geared to two +speeds, the fast motion being most suitable for sponge setting, and +the earlier stages of dough-making, while the slower motion was +intended to draw out and thoroughly aerate the dough. To discharge +the dough, the trough was tilted by means of a worm and +worm wheel, the latter being secured to the trough. Several variations +of this type of kneader are still in use. The machine known as +the “Universal” kneader consists of a trough set horizontally, +within which rotate on horizontal axes a pair of blades lying in the +same plane. These blades are curved and are geared together by +means of differential spur wheels, with the object of running the two +spindles at unequal speeds. The bottom of the trough is divided +into two semi-cylindrical cavities, separated by a ridge. Each blade +plunges into its own cavity, and the action of these arms tends, +while pressing the dough against the sides and base of the trough, +to bring it quickly back towards the centre. The differential speed +has the advantage of effecting a more thorough mixing of the dough, +as it brings together pieces of dough which have not yet been mingled, +the blades pushing the dough from one cavity to the other. To +hasten the kneading process it is desirable occasionally to reverse +the motion by a turn of a hand wheel on the same shaft as the two +pulleys. This wheel governs all the motions of the blades. The +trough, which is set low, is tilted over, when the dough is ready, +by an endless chain operated by a hand winch. The effort required +for this operation is very slight, as the trough is balanced by two +weights. The action of tilting does not interfere with the blades, +which continue rotating until stopped by the hand wheel. The +Universal kneader was designed to imitate as closely as possible the +action of a pair of skilled human arms and hands, but of course +works at a much greater speed.</p> + +<p>Another form of dough mixer which is extensively used consists +simply of a drum made of sheet steel supported by two A-shaped +standards at a sufficient height from the floor to allow a trough to be +run underneath to receive the dough when ready for the moulding +board. In this drum are two tight-fitting doors. The interior is +fitted with no blades or knives, but presents a free cylindrical space, +with the sole exception that, set not very far from the circumference, +there are several fixed rods passing from one side of the drum to the +other. These act as mixers of the dough. The door is opened and +the flour and water poured in, whereupon the door is again fastened +and the drum is made to rotate. As the rotation proceeds, the +dough begins to form, and being lifted up by the revolving drum +falls by its own weight. In this process, which is repeated again and +again, the dough is caught by and tumbled over by the rods, which +act as mixers and take the place of the revolving arms of the trough +kneader. The kneading action of the rotating arms is absent, but +the steady tumbling over these rods appears to have a thorough +mixing effect, and the dough is discharged from the drum in good +condition for moulding. The time occupied for making a dough by +this apparatus varies from four to six minutes. The advantages +claimed for this machine are that it consumes comparatively little +power, and that there is not so much danger of “felling” or over-kneading +dough as in some of the machines with revolving blades. +The compactness of this rotating drum mixer, often known as the +Rotary mixer, recommends it on shipboard and in other places +where space is limited.</p> + +<p>In the earlier days of machine bakeries the accurate dividing of +dough, and still more the moulding of loaves by mechanical means, +was considered an unattainable ideal. The first step in +this direction was made by the Lewis-Pointon dough +<span class="sidenote">Dough dividers and moulders.</span> +divider and weigher, which was intended for dividing and +weighing out dough ready for the moulding table. In an +ordinary way a baker who wishes to bake a batch of half-quartern +or 2-℔ loaves scales off 2 ℔ 2 oz. of dough for each loaf. +The 2 oz. are a sort of insurance against light weight. The evaporation +of moisture from dough in the oven is bound to reduce to some +extent the weight of the baked loaf, but with normally baked bread, +2 ℔ 2 oz. in the case of half-quarterns, and 4 ℔ 4 oz. in the case of +quartern loaves, is sufficient to ensure full weight. As the accurate +scaling of dough requires some pains and trouble, it would be surprising +if hand scaling were always accurate. The Lewis-Pointon +machine can, it is claimed, be set to turn out lumps of dough of the +exact weight required either for 1-℔, 2-℔, or 4-℔ loaves. The +apparatus does not measure the dough by weight but by volume +by an ingenious piston arrangement. The machine when first put +on the market was a little complicated, but its mechanism has since +been simplified. It has been successfully worked on doughs of all +descriptions, ranging from the tightest to those made with 20 +gallons of water to the sack. The same firm which brought out this +dough divider has also produced a dough-moulding machine, which +has a wide range of work. In this apparatus the dough is introduced +between a trough and a revolving table at a point on the outer +periphery of the latter. The order of things observed in hand +moulding is here reversed, as the trough, unlike the hand, is fixed, +while the table revolves around a vertical axis. This table is sharply +coned, and can be made to work the dough as much or as little as +may be required. In working dough for tin or Coburg loaves only +one trough is used, but for cottage loaves two parallel troughs are +fitted, one taking the lower and the other the upper half of the loaf. +In the latter case, a single piece of dough is fed into the machine +and passed through an automatic splitter, the two portions being +automatically carried into the troughs and simultaneously delivered +at the other side of the machine ready to be put together. With +doughs which require “handing-up,” two machines may be used +for moulding, the dough being automatically fed from the divider +to the handing-up machine, and after a short proof passed through +the finisher. But the moulding machine may also be used as a +“hander-up.”</p> + +<p>Another ingenious dough moulder, known as the Baker-Callow, +works on a rather different principle. Here the pieces of dough +coming from the divider are fed into the moulder by a canvas band, +and are worked between a large cylindrical roller and a vertically +running canvas and leather belt. To prevent pieces from dropping +through, and to assist the moulding process, a smaller roller is +placed under and between the cylindrical roller and canvas belt. +A wooden puncher also assists in working the loaves, which are +finished by being rolled between a band and a special shaped wooden +moulding. This machine delivers the dough in spherical shaped +pieces. If intended for cottage bread they are at once placed on +the dough table at the side, and one piece is put on the top of the +other ready for the oven. It is claimed the machine will deal equally +well with large and small pieces at the same time, so that the tops +and bottoms can be made together. Should the machine be intended +for tinned bread, a special attachment is used, into which the +spherical pieces are delivered from the machine and rolled into +cylindrical shapes, ready to be dropped into the pan. A capacity of +sixty loaves per minute is claimed for this moulder.</p> + +<p><i>Ovens.</i>—The ordinary baker’s oven is a vaulted chamber, about +10 ft. in length, by 8 ft. in width and 30 in. in height; it is constructed +of brick or stone, and has a small door in front through which the +oven is charged (by means of a “peel” or long wooden shovel) and +the batch withdrawn. The furnace and fire-grate are often placed +at the side of the oven door, but with the oldest ovens, which were +heated by wood, there generally was only one door for the fuel and +for the bread. Whether the furnace is heated by coal, as is usual in +England, or by coke, as is often the case in Scotland, the oven +mouth remains in the bakehouse itself; hence the stoking and +scuffling must be carried out within the bakehouse. This is in many +ways objectionable. For one thing, the fuel must almost of necessity +be kept in the bakehouse itself, and it is obvious that the products +of combustion are liable to get into the oven. In the old type of +oven a flue was frequently placed on the other side of the furnace +door, both furnace and flue being on the front of the oven. After +firing the furnace, the oven is allowed to “lie down” for a certain +time, and secure an even distribution of heat. The furnace and flue +are then shut, and the oven charged, the batch being baked by the +heat stored within the oven chamber. With ovens of this type, +each batch of bread requires a separate firing. This kind of oven +has undergone several improvements of detail, but the principle of +internal heating, that is, of firing the furnace inside the bakehouse, +has remained unchanged.</p> + +<p>A new era in bakers’ ovens began about the middle of the 19th +century with the introduction of the “Perkins” oven, a system +which, with slight modifications, has persisted till to-day. In this +oven the baking chamber is heated by steam pipes. The latter +consist of tubes of iron or mild steel which are partly filled with +water and are hermetically sealed by welded ends. The pipes are +arranged in two parallel rows, the one at the crown and the other +at the sole of the oven. The pipes project at one end into the furnace, +which is set at the back of the oven and is usually outside the bakehouse. +This is termed an externally heated oven. As the ends of +the pipes get red hot the water is converted into superheated steam, +which being under high pressure soon raises the chamber to baking +heat, say 450° to 500° F. In an oven of this description the heat +can be continuously maintained, and batch after batch can be baked +without refiring. The only drawback is that a flash heat cannot be +raised. In another type of externally fired oven the heat is conveyed +by flues placed at the bottom and top of the oven, which discharge +into a chimney. Excellent results have been attained with ovens +of this kind. The distribution of the heat can be well regulated; +for instance, it is quite possible to build ovens to be cooler at the +back than front, an arrangement which is useful when the bread is +withdrawn by means of a hand peel. As the baker has to withdraw +each loaf one at a time, it is clear that the withdrawal of the batch +through the oven door must take time, probably not less than +half-an-hour. +Hence the bread drawn from near the oven’s mouth may +be underbaked as compared with that at the back of the chamber. The +latter, on the other hand, may be overbaked and deficient in weight.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span></p> + +<p>By means of a draw-plate, however, an oven can be expeditiously +charged. This appliance consists of a sliding plate or tray, mounted +on wheels running on rails, which is drawn out of the oven loaded +with bread, and then returned. The plate itself is often made of +iron, but one well-known oven is fitted with a withdrawable iron +frame, in which are laid, edge to edge, tiles of a special make, which +are cemented in place, and form a continuous baking surface. This +seems an excellent arrangement, as the baker has all the advantages +of a brick oven, that is to say, his bread is baked both on top and +bottom by heat evolved from tiled surfaces, and the undoubted +drawbacks incidental to baking bread on an iron surface are avoided. +A draw-plate fitted to an oven capable of baking a batch made from +a sack (280 ℔) of flour can be run out, charged and run in again, in +about two minutes. The draw-plate has the incidental advantage, +by expediting the loading and discharge of the oven, of ensuring a +more uniform baking of the batch, and therefore of minimizing the +loss of weight. Some bakers have gone so far as to estimate the +saving in this respect from the use of a draw-plate at half an ounce +per 2-lb loaf. With decker ovens a double draw-plate may be used, +the feet of the pedestal supporting the upper draw-plate running +on a rail outside, but parallel to the rail on which the lower draw-plate +runs. This arrangement, however, is more applicable to small +than large ovens. Or the lower oven may be fitted with a draw-plate +while the upper oven is served with a peel. The draw-plate being at +a lower level than the sole of an ordinary oven, the upper deck may +be worked with a peel without much difficulty.</p> + +<p>The <i>decker</i> oven is, as its name implies, an oven built over another +oven: in fact, sometimes a tier of three ovens is employed, placed +one above the other. The object is to secure a double or treble baking +surface without a very much larger outlay on fuel than would be +necessary for one oven. It is easy to understand that a double or +three decker oven might be constructed under conditions where it +would be impossible to place two or three ordinary ovens side by side. +Practical bakers are somewhat divided as to the actual economy of +the decker system; possibly it is a question of management. The +upper oven is heated by the gases which have passed under the oven +beneath. A double-decker oven on the flue principle could be heated +by three flues, one beneath the lower oven, another passing between +the crown of the lower and the sole of the top oven, and the third +over the crown of the upper oven. If a third oven were built over +the second, then a fourth flue would pass over the crown of the third +and top oven. In such an arrangement of flues the distribution of +heat to the ovens would be fairly equal, but no doubt the lower +oven would be the hottest. In addition to the flues, which should be +straight and accessible for cleaning, there ought also to be auxiliary +flues by which heat may be allowed to pass dampers to the upper +portions of the series of ovens. In this way the heat of the upper +oven or ovens can be regulated independently to a great extent of +the bottom oven. The power of regulating the heat of the ovens +is very necessary, because a baker doing what is called a mixed trade, +that is to say, producing cakes and pastry in addition to bread, must +work his ovens at varying temperatures. Cakes cannot be baked at +the heat (about 450° F.) required by a batch of household bread. +The richest fancy goods, such as wedding and Christmas cakes, +require the coolest ovens. Flue ovens are best worked with coke, +as coal is apt to choke the flues; retort coke is recommended in +place of oven coke. An oven should be fitted with some kind of +thermal register, and both high-temperature thermometers and +pyrometers are used for this purpose.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. F. Z.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (<i>c.</i> 1636-1717), +son of Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, Bart., and of the +Lady Mary Graham, daughter of William, earl of Airth and +Menteith, was born about 1636. He took part in the abortive +royalist rising under Glencairn in 1654, and was one of those who +urged Monk to declare a free parliament in England to facilitate +the restoration. He sat in the Scottish parliament as member for +Argyllshire from 1669 to 1674. As principal creditor he obtained +in October 1672, from George, 6th earl of Caithness, a conveyance +of his dignities, lands and heritable jurisdictions; and after the +latter’s death he was created on the 28th of June 1677 earl of +Caithness and viscount of Breadalbane. In 1678 he married +the widowed countess of Caithness, an economical step which +saved him the alimentary provision of 12,000 merks a year he +had covenanted to pay. In 1680 he invaded Caithness with a +band of 700 men and defeated and dispossessed the earl’s heir +male. The latter, however, was subsequently confirmed in his +lands and titles, and Campbell on the 13th of August 1681 +obtained a new patent with the precedency of the former one, +creating him earl of Breadalbane and Holland, viscount of Tay +and Paintland, Lord Glenorchy, Benederaloch, Ormelie and +Weick in the peerage of Scotland, with special power to nominate +his successor from among the sons of his first wife. In 1685 +he was a member of the Scottish privy council. Though nominally +a Presbyterian he had assisted the intolerant and despotic +government of Lauderdale in 1678 with 1700 men. He is +described as having “neither honour nor religion but where +they are mixed with interest,” as of “fair complexion, of the +gravity of the Spaniard, cunning as a Fox, wise as a Serpent and +supple as an Eel.”<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He was reputed the best headpiece in Scotland.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +His influence, owing to his position and abilities, was +greater than that of any man in Scotland after Argyll, and it +was of high moment to King William to gain him and obtain +his services in conciliating the Highlanders. Breadalbane at +first carried on communications with Dundee and was implicated +in the royalist intrigue called the “Montgomery plot,” but after +the battle of Killiecrankie in July 1689 he made overtures to the +government, subsequently took the oath of allegiance, and was +entrusted with a large sum of money by the government to secure +the submission of the clans. On the 30th of June 1691 he met +the Jacobite chiefs and concluded with them secret articles by +which they undertook to refrain from acts of hostility till October, +gaining their consent by threats and promises rather than by the +distribution of the money entrusted to him, the greater part of +which, it was believed, he retained himself. When asked to give +an account of the expenditure he replied: “The money is spent, +the Highlands are quiet, and this is the only way of accounting +between friends.”<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>On the 27th of August a proclamation was issued offering +indemnity to all those who should submit and take the oath of +allegiance before the 1st of January 1692, and threatening all +those who should refuse with a military execution and the +penalties of treason. All the chiefs took the oath except MacIan, +the chief of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, who postponed his +submission till the 31st of December, and was then prevented +from taking the oath till the 6th of January 1692 through the +absence of a magistrate at Fort William, whither he had repaired +for the purpose. This irregularity gave Breadalbane an +immediate opportunity of destroying the clan of thieves which +had for generations lived by plundering his lands and those of +his neighbours. Accordingly, together with Argyll and Sir John +Dalrymple (afterwards Lord Stair), Breadalbane organized the +atrocious crime known as the “Massacre of Glencoe,” when the +unfortunate MacDonalds, deceived by assurances of friendship, +and at the moment when they were lavishing their hospitality +upon their murderers, were butchered in cold blood on the 13th +of February 1692. Breadalbane’s astuteness, however, prevented +the disclosure of any evidence against him in the inquiry afterwards +instituted in 1695, beyond the deposition of a person who +professed to have been sent on Breadalbane’s behalf to obtain +a declaration of his innocence from MacIan’s sons, who had +escaped. The discovery of his former negotiations with the +Jacobite chiefs caused his imprisonment in Edinburgh Castle +in September, but he was released when it was known that he had +been acting with William’s knowledge.</p> + +<p>Breadalbane did not vote for the Union in 1707, but was chosen +a representative peer in the parliament of Great Britain of 1713-1715. +His co-operation with the English government in securing +the temporary submission of the Highlands was inspired by no +real loyalty or allegiance, and he encouraged the attempted +French descent in 1708, refusing, however, to commit himself +to paper. On the occasion of the Jacobite rising in 1715 he +excused himself on the 19th of September from obeying the +summons to appear at Edinburgh on the ground of his age and +infirmities; but nevertheless the next day visited Mar’s camp +at Logierait and afterwards the camp at Perth, his real business +being, according to the Master of Sinclair, “to trick others, +not to be trickt,” and to obtain a share of the French subsidies. +He had taken money for the whole 1200 men he had promised and +only sent 300. His 300 men were withdrawn after the battle +of Sheriffmuir, and his death, which took place on the 19th of +March 1717, rendered unnecessary any inquiry into his conduct. +He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry Rich, 1st earl of Holland, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span> +by whom he had two sons, Duncan, styled Lord Ormelie, who was +passed over in the succession, and John, and earl of Breadalbane; +(2) Mary, daughter of Archibald, marquis of Argyll, and widow +of George, 6th earl of Caithness, by whom he had one son, +Colin. By Mrs Mildred Littler, who has sometimes but probably +in error been named as his third wife, he had a daughter, Mary.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Campbell</span>, 2nd earl of Breadalbane (1662-1752), an +eccentric nobleman, who was known as “Old Rag,” was succeeded +by his only son, John (<i>c.</i> 1696-1782). This earl was a +diplomatist, being British ambassador to Denmark and to +Russia, and a politician, being for a long time a member of the +House of Commons and a supporter of Sir Robert Walpole, +in addition to holding several official positions. All his sons +having predeceased their father, the title passed on his death, +on the 26th of January 1782, to a cousin, John (1762-1834), +who became 4th earl and was created a British peer as marquess +of Breadalbane in 1831. His son John, the 2nd marquess (1796-1862), +a prominent leader of the Free Church during the ecclesiastical +disputes in Scotland, died without sons in November 1862. +The marquessate now became extinct, but the Scottish earldom +passed to a cousin John Alexander (1824-1871), whose son and +successor, Gavin (b. 1851), was created marquess of Breadalbane +in 1885.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Memoirs</i> of John Macky (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 121.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Corr. of Col. N. Hooke</i> (Roxburghe, Club, 1870), i. 49.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Note by Sir W. Scott in Sinclair’s <i>Mem. of Insurrection in +Scotland</i> (Abbotsford Club, 1858), 185.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREADALBANE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span>, a large district of Perthshire, Scotland, +bordered N. by Atholl, E. by Strathtay, S. by Strathearn and +W. by the districts of Argyll and Lorne, and occupying some +1020 sq. m. Most of the surface is mountainous, Ben Lawers +(3984 ft.), Ben More (3843), and Ben Lui (3708), being the principal +hills. Loch Tay is the chief lake, and among the rivers are +the Orchy, Dochart, Lochay, Lyon, Almond and the Tay (during +the early part of its course). Population mostly centres in +Aberfeldy, Fortingal, Kenmore and Killin. The soil is not +cultivable excepting in some of the glens and straths. Game +is plentiful, the lakes and rivers afford good sport, and the deer +forests and shootings are valuable. The district has given the +titles of earl and marquess to the Campbells of Glenorchy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREAD-FRUIT<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span>. This most important food staple of the +tropical islands in the Pacific Ocean is the fruit of <i>Artocarpus +incisa</i> (nat. ord. Moraceae). The tree attains a moderate height, +has very large, acutely lobed, glossy leaves, the male flowers +in spikes, and the female flowers in a dense head, which by consolidation +of their fleshy carpels and receptacles form the fruit. +The fruit is globular in shape, about the size of a melon, with a +tuberculated or (in some varieties) nearly smooth surface. Many +varieties of the tree are cultivated, the fruits of some ripening +numerous seeds, which are eaten as chestnuts; but in the best +kinds the seeds are aborted, and it is only these that are highly +prized as vegetables. The tree is a native of the South Sea +Islands, where its fruit occupies the important position that is +held by cereals in temperate latitudes. The fruit, which on distinct +varieties ripens at different periods, affording a nearly +constant supply throughout the year, is gathered for use just +before it ripens, when it is found to be gorged with starchy +matter, to which its esculent value is due. It may be cooked +and prepared for use in a great variety of ways, the common +practice in the South Sea Islands being to bake it entire in hot +embers, and scoop out the interior, which when properly cooked +should have a soft smooth consistence, fibrous only towards +the heart, with a taste which has been compared to that of +boiled potatoes and sweet milk. Of this fruit A.R. Wallace, +in his <i>Malay Archipelago</i>, says: “With meat and gravy it is a +vegetable superior to anything I know either in temperate or +tropical countries. With sugar, milk, butter or treacle it is a +delicious pudding, having a very slight and delicate but characteristic +flavour, which, like that of good bread and potatoes, one +never gets tired of.” In the Pacific Islands the fruit is preserved +for use by storing in pits, where the fruits ferment and resolve +themselves into a mass similar in consistency to new cheese, +in which state they emit an offensive odour; but after baking +under hot stones they yield a pleasant and nutritious food. +Another and more common method of preserving the fruit +for use consists in cutting it into thin slices, which are dried +in the sun. From such dried slices a flour is prepared which is +useful for the preparation of puddings, bread and biscuits, or +the slices are baked and eaten without grinding. The tree +yields other products of economic value, such as native cloth +from the fibrous inner bark of young trees; the wood is used +for canoes and articles of furniture; and a kind of glue and +caulking material are obtained from the viscid milky juice +which exudes from incisions made in the stem.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:527px; height:647px" src="images/img474.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>Artocarpus incisa</i>, the Bread-fruit tree.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>Fig. 1. Branch reduced about a 6th +natural size, with cuneate-ovate +pinnatifid leaves, male flowers in a +club-shaped deciduous catkin, and +female flowers in rounded clusters.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2. Transverse section of the +male spike with numerous flowers.</p> + +<p>Fig. 3. Male flowers.</p> + +<p>Fig. 4. Single male flower separated, +with a perianth in 2 segments and +a single stamen.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>Fig. 5. Female flowers.</p> + +<p>Fig. 6. Single female flower +separated, with ovary, +style and bifid stigma.</p> + +<p>Fig. 7. Ovary.</p> + +<p>Fig. 8. Ovary laid open to +show the ovule.</p> + +<p>Fig. 9. A variety of the ovary +with 2 loculaments.</p> + +<p>Fig. 10. Transverse section of +a bilocular ovary.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The bread-fruit is found throughout the tropical regions of +both hemispheres, and its first introduction into the West Indies +is connected with the famous mutiny of the “Bounty,” and the +remarkable history of a small company of the mutineers at +Pitcairn Island. Attention was directed to the fruit in 1688 by +Captain Dampier, and later by Captain Cook, who recommended +its transplantation to the West Indian colonies. In 1787 the +“Bounty” was fitted out under command of Lieutenant +William Bligh (<i>q.v.</i>) to proceed to Tahiti to carry plants thence +to the West Indian Islands; and it was after the cargo had been +secured and the vessel was on her way that the mutiny broke +out, and Lieutenant Bligh and some of his crew were turned +adrift in a small boat in the open sea. The mutineers returned +with the vessel to Tahiti, whence a number of them, with a few +native men and women, sailed to the desolate and lone islet of +Pitcairn. Lieutenant Bligh ultimately reached England, and was +again commissioned to undertake the work of transplanting the +plants, which in the year 1792-1793 he successfully accomplished.</p> + +<p>A somewhat similar but inferior fruit is produced by an allied +species, the Jack or Jak, <i>Artocarpus integrifolia</i>, growing in +India, Ceylon and the Eastern Archipelago. The large fruit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span> +is from 12 to 18 in. long by 6 to 8 in. in diameter, and is much +eaten by the natives in India. This tree is chiefly valuable on +account of its timber, which has a grain very similar to mahogany, +and although at first light-coloured it gradually assumes much +of the appearance of that wood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREAKING BULK<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span>, a nautical term for the taking out of a +portion of the cargo of a ship, or the beginning to unload; and +used in a legal sense for taking anything out of a package or +parcel, or in any way destroying its entirety. It was thus +important in connexion with the subject of bailment, involving +as it did the curious distinction that where a bailee received +possession of goods in a box or package, and then sold them as a +whole, he was guilty only of a breach of trust, but if he “broke +bulk” or caused a separation of the goods, and sold a part or +all, he was guilty of felony. This distinction was abolished by +the Larceny Act 1861, which enacted that whoever, being a +bailee of any chattel, money or valuable security, should fraudulently +take or convert the same to his own use, or the use of any +person other than the owner, although he should not break bulk +or otherwise determine the bailment, should be guilty of larceny +(s. 3).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREAKWATER.<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> When a harbour (<i>q.v.</i>) is proposed to be +established on an exposed coast, whether for naval or commercial +purposes, to provide a protected approach to a port or river, +or to serve as a refuge for vessels from storms, the necessary +shelter, so far as it is not naturally furnished by a bay or projecting +headlands, has to be secured by the construction of one or +more “breakwaters.” These breakwaters, having to prevent +the waves that beat upon the coast from reaching the site which +they are designed to protect, must be made sufficiently strong +to withstand the shocks of the waves during the worst storms +to which they are exposed. It is therefore essential, before +constructing a breakwater, to investigate most carefully the +force, periods and duration of the winds from the quarters to +which the work will be exposed, the distance of any sheltering +land from the site in the most stormy direction, the slope of the +beach and the depth of the sea in the neighbourhood of the +shore, and the protection, if any, afforded by outlying shoals +or sandbanks. In a tidal sea, the height required for a breakwater +is affected by the amount of tidal range; and the extent +of breakwater exposed to breaking waves depends upon the +difference in level between low and high water. The existence, +also, of any drift of sand or shingle along the shore must be +ascertained, and its extent; for the projection of a solid breakwater +out from the shore is certain to affect this littoral drift, +which, if large in amount, may necessitate important modifications +in the design for the harbour.</p> + +<p>Observations of the force and prevalence of the winds from the +different quarters at the various periods of the year, and the +instruments by which they are recorded, belong to the +science of meteorology; but such records are very +<span class="sidenote">Winds.</span> +valuable to the maritime engineer in indicating from which +directions, open to the sea, the worst storms, and, consequently, +the greatest waves, may be expected, and against which the most +efficient shelter has to be provided. Moreover, it is necessary, +for constructing or repairing a breakwater, to know the period +of the year when the calmest weather may be safely anticipated, +and also the stormy season during which no work should be +attempted, and in preparation for which unfinished works have +to be guarded by protective measures. In the parts of the +world subject to periodical winds, such as the monsoons, the +direction and force of the winds vary with remarkable regularity +according to the seasons; and even such uncertain occurrences +as hurricanes and cyclones generally visit the regions in their +track at definite periods of the year, according to the locality. +Even in western Europe, where the winds are extremely variable, +violent gales are much more liable to beat upon the western and +northern coasts in the winter months than at any other period +of the year; whilst the calmest weather may be expected +between May and August.</p> + +<p>The size of waves depends upon the force of the wind, and the +distance along which it blows continuously, in approximately +the same direction, over a large expanse of ocean. The greatest +waves are, accordingly, encountered where the maximum distance +<span class="sidenote">Waves.</span> +in a certain direction from the nearest land, or, as it is +termed, the “fetch,” coincides with the line travelled +by the strongest gales. The dimensions, indeed, of waves in +the worst storms depend primarily on the extent of the sea in +which they are raised; though in certain seas they are occasionally +greatly increased by the exceptional velocities attained by +hurricanes and typhoons, which, however, are fortunately +restricted to fairly well defined and limited regions. Waves +have been found to attain a maximum height of about 10 ft. +in the Lake of Geneva, 17 ft. in the Mediterranean Sea, 23 ft. in +the Bay of Biscay, and 40 ft. in the Atlantic Ocean; whilst +waves of 50 to 60 ft. in height have been observed in the Pacific +Ocean off the Cape of Good Hope, where the expanse of sea +reaches a maximum, and the exposure to gales is complete. The +length of large waves bears no definite relation to their height, +and is apparently due, in the long waves often observed in +exposed situations, to the combination of several shorter waves +in their onward course, which is naturally dependent on the +extent of the exposure. Thus waves about 560 ft. in length +have been met with during severe gales in the Atlantic Ocean; +whilst waves from 600 to 1000 ft. long are regarded as of common +occurrence in the Pacific Ocean during storms.</p> + +<p>The rate of transmission of the undulation also varies with +the exposure; for the ordinary velocity of the apparent travel +of waves in storms has been found to amount to about 22 m. +an hour in the Atlantic Ocean, and to attain about 27 m. an hour +off Cape Horn. The large waves, however, observed in mid-ocean +do not reach the coast, because their progress is checked, and +their height and length reduced, by encountering the shelving +sea-bottom, which diminishes the depth of water on approaching +the shore; and the actual waves which have to be arrested by +breakwaters depend on the exposure of the site, the existence +of continuous deep water close up to the shore, and the depth +in which the breakwater is situated. On the other hand, the +height, and, consequently, the destructive force of waves, is +increased on running up a funnel-shaped bay, by the increasing +concentration of the waves in the narrowing width, just as the +tidal range of a moderate tidal current is much augmented by +its passage up the Bay of Fundy, or up the Bristol Channel into +the Severn estuary, or by filling the shallow enclosed bay of +St Malo. This effect is intensified when the bay faces the +direction of the strongest winds. Thus at Wick a mass of +masonry weighing 1350 tons, placed at the head of the breakwater +projecting half-way across the bay and facing the entrance, +was moved by the waves during a violent storm; and a portion +of Peterhead breakwater, weighing 3300 tons, was shifted 2 in. +in 1898, indicating a wave-stroke of 2 tons per sq. ft. Southwesterly +gales, blowing up the Gulf of Genoa, cause large waves +to roll into the bay, reaching a height of about 21 ft. in the +worst storms.</p> + +<p>Where outlying sandbanks stretch in front of a coast, as for +instance the Stroombank in front of Ostend and the adjacent +shore, and the sandbanks opposite Yarmouth sheltering Yarmouth +Roads, large waves cannot approach the land, for they +break on the sandbanks outside. Waves, indeed, always break +when, on running up a shoaling beach, they reach a depth +approximately equal to their height; and the largest waves +which can reach a shore protected by intervening sandbanks, +are those which are low enough to pass over the banks without +breaking.</p> + +<p>The force of the wind, as transmitted by degrees to the sea, +is manifested as a series of progressing undulations without any +material displacement of the body of water, each undulation +transmitting its accumulated force to the next in the direction +the wind is blowing, till at last, on encountering an obstacle to +its onward course, each wave, no longer finding any water to +which to communicate its energy, deals a blow against the +obstacle proportionate to its size and rate of transmission; or +on reaching shoal water near the shore, the undulation is finally +transformed into a breaking wave rushing up the sloping beach. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span> +till, on its energy being spent, it recoils back to the sea down the +beach. A breaking wave concentrates its transmitted force on +a portion of the water forming the undulation, which, consequently, +strikes a more powerful blow over a limited area +against any structure than the more distributed shock of a +simple undulation beating against a vertical wall. Moreover, +the recoil of broken waves down a sloping beach or rubble +mound produces a greater scour than the simple reflection of an +undulation from a vertical wall, especially where the depth is +sufficient to provide a cushion of water below the undulation, +protecting the toe of the wall from the wash of recoil.</p> + +<p><i>Types of Breakwaters</i>.—There are three distinct types of +breakwaters:—(1) A simple rubble or concrete-block mound; +(2) a mound for the bottom portion, surmounted on the top +by a solid superstructure of masonry or concrete; and (3) an +upright-wall breakwater, built up solid from the sea-bottom to +the top. The second type forms a sort of combination of the +first and third types; and each type presents several varieties. +In a few harbours, two different types have been adopted for +different situations at the same place; but generally the choice +of type is determined by the materials available at the site for +the construction of the breakwater, the nature of the sea-bottom +and the depth into which the breakwater has to be carried.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>Rubble and Concrete-Block Mound Breakwaters.</i>—A rubble +mound consists merely of a mass of rubble stone, just as it is obtained +from a neighbouring quarry, tipped into the sea along a +predetermined line, till the mound emerges out of water. +<span class="sidenote">Rubble mound.</span> +The rubble stone is deposited, either from barges, as +adopted for the construction of the detached breakwater sheltering +Plymouth Bay, or from wagons, having hinged opening flaps at the +bottom for dropping their load, run out from the shore along staging +erected in the proposed line, according to the method employed for +the outer breakwater enclosing Portland Harbour, and the north-east +breakwater at Colombo Harbour. The mound thus deposited is +gradually consolidated under the action of the sea; and a tolerably +stable form is by degrees attained by continued deposits of stone. +This system of construction is very wasteful of materials, and can +only be resorted to where extensive quarries close at hand are able +to furnish readily and cheaply very large quantities of stone, especially +where, as at Portland and Table Bay, convict labour has been +advantageously utilized in quarrying. When the site is very exposed, +the large waves in storms, dashing over a rubble-mound breakwater, +carry the stones on the top, if unprotected, over on to the harbour +slope, and in recoiling down the outer slope, draw down the stones +on the face, so that the top and sea slope of the mound need replenishing +with a fresh deposit of stones after severe storms.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:805px; height:152px" src="images/img476a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Table Bay Breakwater</td></tr></table> + +<p>Under the action of the breaking and recoiling waves, the mound +assumes a very flat slope on the sea side, from a few feet above high-water +down to several feet below low-wafer level (fig. 1). The flatness +of the sea slope depends on the exposure of the site, and the limited +size of the stones covering the outer portion of the mound; and +its extent increases with the range of tide, as a large tidal rise exposes +a greater length of slope to the action of the waves. This flattening +of the sea slope greatly increases the amount of stone required for +a rubble-mound breakwater, in proportion to the exposure and the +range of tide; and the amount is also affected, but in a proportionately +minor degree, by the depth in which the breakwater is situated. +In order to avoid the injuries to which an ordinary rubble mound is +subjected by waves, certain methods have been devised for protecting +the top and sea slope of the mound. For instance, the upper portion +of Plymouth breakwater has been covered over by granite paving +set in cement, to diminish the displacement of the stones by the +waves. Frequently, on the continent of Europe, rubble mounds +have been formed of materials so sorted that the smallest stones are +placed in the centre of the lower part of the mound, and covered +over along the slopes and top by layers of larger stones, increasing +in size towards the outer part of the mound, so that the largest stones +obtainable are deposited on the outside, and especially on the top +and sea slope of the mound. This is, no doubt, theoretically the +correct method of construction of rubble mounds exposed to the +sea; but it involves a considerable amount of trouble and expense.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:321px; height:146px" src="images/img476b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Alexandria Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Practically the chief point of importance is to cover the outer slope +and the top of the mound with the largest stones that can be procured, +and where large stones are not readily obtainable +concrete blocks furnish a very convenient substitute. +<span class="sidenote">Concrete blocks with rubble mound.</span> +These blocks are generally deposited as the outer covering +on the top and sea slope of a rubble mound, as for example +at the mound breakwaters in deep water sheltering Algiers +harbour, and at the French parts of Cette and Bona on +the Mediterranean; whilst they furnish the protection of the top +and upper part of the sea slope of the rubble-mound extension of +Marseilles breakwater down to 20 ft. below sea-level. At Alexandria, +concrete blocks compose the outer half of the mound, sheltering +the inner half consisting of small rubble (fig. 2); at Biarritz the +mound breakwater is +formed mainly of concrete +blocks, with rubble +stone filling the interstices +and on the top; +whereas at the outer end +of the western breakwater +at Port Said, protecting +the entrance to +the Suez Canal, a bottom +layer of rubble is surmounted +by concrete +blocks. These blocks are generally deposited at random; but at +Cette (fig. 3), and at the breakwater in deep water at Civita Vecchia, +the concrete blocks covering the rubble have been laid in stepped, +horizontal courses. This arrangement necessitates more care and +better appliances in construction; but, in compensation, the blocks +so placed are less exposed to disturbance and injury by the waves.</p> + +<p>Concrete blocks possess the great advantages for breakwaters +that they can be made wherever sand and shingle can be procured, +and of a size only limited by the appliances which are available for +handling them. In fact, in places where stone of any kind is difficult +to procure at a reasonable cost, as for instance at Port Said, concrete +blocks are indispensable for the construction of breakwaters. Large +concrete blocks, moreover, by enabling a comparatively steep slope +to be formed with them on the sea side of a mound breakwater, +reduce considerably the amount of materials required, especially +at exposed sites, and also for breakwaters extended into deep water, +such as those of Algiers and Marseilles.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:133px" src="images/img476c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Cette Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:111px" src="images/img476d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span>4.—Port Said Western Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Occasionally, in the absence of suitable rubble stone, a mound +breakwater has been formed +entirely with concrete blocks; +and of this the main +portion of the western +breakwater at Port +Said furnishes a +notable example (fig. 4). Sometimes, +in exposed situations, the +mounds of the composite type +<span class="sidenote">Concrete block mound.</span> +of breakwaters have been constructed +exclusively with concrete +blocks, such, for instance, +as in the curved breakwater +protecting the outer harbour at Leghorn, and in the central breakwater +in deep water sheltering the harbour of St Jean de Luz, and +directly facing the Bay of Biscay. These large concrete blocks are +deposited by cranes from staging, tipped into the sea from a sloping +platform on barges, or floated out between pontoons, or slung out +from floating derricks. This last method proved so expeditious +for the upper blocks at +Alexandria, that, in conjunction +with the tipping +of the lower blocks from +the inclined planes on the +decks of barges and the +deposit of the rubble from +hopper barges, provided +also with side flaps for the +higher portions, the detached +breakwater, nearly 2 m. long, sheltering a very spacious +harbour, was constructed in two years (1870-1872). Sometimes, +when a mound breakwater has been raised out of water, advantage +is taken of a calm period of the year and a low tide to form large +blocks of concrete within timber framing on the top of the mound, +so as to provide a very efficient protection.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span></p> + +<p>The large masses composing mound breakwaters give them great +stability against the attacks of the sea; and, moreover, the wide +base of the mounds enables them to be deposited on a sandy or silty +sea-bottom, without any fear of settlement or undermining. A +mound breakwater, however, has the disadvantages of requiring a +large amount of material, and of occupying a wide space on the bed +of the sea, more especially where the mound consists of rubble +stone and is in deep water, so that the system, though simple, is +costly, and is unsuited for harbours where the available space to be +sheltered is limited. Nevertheless, a mound breakwater can be +rapidly constructed by the employment of a large number of barges; +and by the adoption of large concrete blocks, the quantity of +materials and the space occupied by the mound can be considerably +reduced. This form of breakwater, with its long outer slope exposed +to breaking waves, particularly where the tidal range is considerable, +is, indeed, more subject to frequent small injuries than the other +types, but they are readily repaired; and a mound is not generally +liable to the serious breaches which occasionally are formed in solid +superstructures and upright walls in exceptional storms.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Breakwaters formed of a Mound surmounted by a Superstructure.</i>—The +second type of breakwater consists of a mound, composed of +rubble or concrete blocks, or generally a combination of the two, +carried up from the sea-bottom, on the top of which some form of +solid superstructure is erected. This superstructure reduces considerably +the amount of materials required (which, on account of +the slopes of the mound, increases rapidly with the height) in proportion +to the depth at which the superstructure is founded; and +the solid capping on the mound serves also to protect the top of the +mound from the action of the waves. In the case, however, of a +mound breakwater, portions of the highest waves generally pass +over the top of the mound, and also to some extent expend their +force in passing through the interstices between the blocks; whereas +a superstructure presents a solid face to the impact of the waves. +A superstructure, accordingly, must be very strongly built in +proportion to the exposure, and also to the size of the waves liable +to reach it, which depends upon the height and flatness of the slope +of the mound just in front of it on the sea side. Special care, moreover, +has to be taken to prevent the superstructure from being +undermined; for the waves in storms, dashing up against this nearly +vertical, solid obstacle, tend in their recoil down the face to scour +out the materials of the mound at the outer toe of the superstructure, +and thereby undermine it, especially where the superstructure is +founded on the mound near low-water level, and there is, therefore, +no adequate cushion of water above the mound to diminish the effect +of the recoil on the foundation.</p> + +<p>The mound constituting the lower portion of the composite type +of breakwater has been formed in the same varied way as simple +mound breakwaters, namely, of rubble, sorted rubble, rubble +protected by concrete blocks, and wholly of concrete blocks. The +only differences introduced in the mound in this case are, that it is +not carried up so high, that the top portion covered by the superstructure +needs no further protection, and that special +protection has to be provided on the slope of the +mound adjacent to the outer toe of the superstructure.</p> + +<p>The forms of the superstructures exhibit considerable +variations, ranging from a few concrete blocks +laid in courses on the top of the mound, or +a paving furnishing a quay protected by a +narrow parapet wall on the sea side, up to +a large, solid structure, only differing from an upright-wall +<span class="sidenote">Superstructures.</span> +breakwater in being founded upon a mound, +instead of on the sea-bottom. Notwithstanding, +however, this great variety in design, these breakwaters +may be divided into two distinct classes, +namely, breakwaters having their superstructures +founded at or near low-water level, and breakwaters +with superstructures founded some depth below low +water. The object in the first case is to lay the foundations +of the superstructure on the mound at the +lowest level consistent with building a solid structure +with blocks set in mortar, out of water, in the ordinary +manner; and, in the second case, to stop the raising of the +mound at such a depth under water as to secure it from displacement +by the waves. In fact, the solidity and facility of +construction of the superstructure were the primary considerations +in the older form of breakwater; whereas the stability of the mound +and the avoidance of the undermining of the superstructure have +been regarded as the most important provisions in the more modern +form.</p> + +<p>Well-known examples of breakwaters formed of a rubble mound +surmounted by a superstructure founded at or near low water or +sea-level, are furnished by Cherbourg and Holyhead +breakwaters, the inner breakwater at Portland, and the +<span class="sidenote">Superstructures at low-water level.</span> +breakwaters at Marseilles, Genoa, Civita Vecchia, Naples, +Trieste and other Mediterranean ports. The very exposed +breakwater at Alderney was commenced on this +principle about the middle of the 19th century; and the +outer breakwaters at Leghorn and St Jean de Luz have superstructures +founded at low water on concrete-block mounds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:164px" src="images/img477a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Marseilles Breakwater, central portion.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The long, detached breakwater sheltering the series of basins +formed by wide projecting jetties along the sea coast at Marseilles +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dock</a></span>), is a typical instance of a breakwater where a quay has +been formed on the top of a sorted rubble mound, sheltered on the +sea side by a high wall, or narrow superstructure, founded at sea-level, +and protected on the sea slope of the mound from undermining +by large concrete blocks deposited at random (fig. 5). In +this case the quay has been rendered accessible for vessels on the +harbour side by a quay wall, formed of concrete blocks deposited +one above the other, providing a vertical face to a depth of about +22¾ ft. below sea-level; and a similar arrangement has been adopted +at Trieste, and in a less effective manner at Civita Vecchia and +Naples. At Marseilles, however, when the breakwater reached great +depths, the quay was abandoned on account of the increased exposure, +and the extension made of a simple rubble mound, protected +on the sea side, from the top down to 20 ft. below sea-level, by large +concrete blocks deposited at random.</p> + +<p>The superstructures at Holyhead and Portland, being built on +the old weak system of a sea wall and a harbour wall, with rubble +filling between, are protected on the sea side by raising the rubble +against them from low water up to high water of spring tides; +whereas the superstructure of Cherbourg breakwater, being built +solid and less exposed, is only protected on the sea side by large +rubble and some concrete blocks, forming an apron raised slightly +above low water. These three breakwaters are provided with a +quay sheltered by a raised wall or promenade on the sea side; but +as the mound on the harbour side is raised up to, or a little above +low water, the quay is only accessible for vessels near high water. +This, however, is of comparatively little importance, since these +quays, though very useful for access to the end of the breakwater in +fairly calm weather, are inaccessible in exposed situations with a +rough sea; and quays for the accommodation of vessels are better +provided well within the sheltered harbour.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:637px; height:264px" src="images/img477b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—San Vincenzo Breakwater, Naples.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The outer portions of the main breakwaters at Genoa and at +Naples (fig. 6), extending into depths of about 75 ft. and 110 ft. +respectively, have been provided with superstructures, similar in +type, but more solid than the superstructure at Marseilles; and +the sorted rubble mounds upon which the superstructures rest are +protected on the sea slope by stepped courses of concrete blocks +from a depth of 26 ft. below sea-level, covered over at the top by a +masonry apron forming a prolongation of the superstructure. The +outer extension of the main breakwater at Civita Vecchia furnishes +an interesting example of a composite form of breakwater, in which +the rubble mound has been protected, and greatly reduced in +volume and extent in deep water, by stepped courses of concrete +blocks carried up from near the bottom of the mound (fig. 7).</p> + + +<p>The breakwaters in front of Havre, constructed in 1896-1907, for +sheltering the altered entrance to the port, were formed of a sorted +rubble mound, protected on the sea slope by concrete blocks, and +raised a little above low water of spring tides, upon which large +blocks of masonry, built on land, were deposited with their upper +surfaces about 18 in. above low water of neap tides. As soon as +settlement of the mound under the action of the sea appeared to +have ceased, these masonry blocks were connected together by filling +the spaces between them with masonry; and a solid masonry +superstructure was built during low tide on this foundation layer, as +shown in fig. 8.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:596px; height:283px" src="images/img478a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Civita Vecchia Outer Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The breakwaters constructed for forming harbours on the sea +coast of the United States are almost all rubble-mound breakwaters. +The two old detached breakwaters sheltering Delaware Harbour near +the south-eastern extremity of Delaware Bay, were formed of simple +rubble mounds raised about 13 ft. above low water; but in closing +the gap between them towards the close of the 19th century, the +rubble mound was stopped at low water, and a sort of superstructure, +consisting of stepped courses of large rectangular blocks of stone +on the sea and harbour sides, with tightly packed rubble between +them and capped across the top for a width of 20 ft. with a course of +large blocks, was raised to 14 ft. above low water, resembling, on a +small scale, the upper part of the Civita Vecchia mound (fig. 7). A +similar construction was adopted for the new breakwater formed in +1897-1901 for providing a harbour of refuge at the mouth of Delaware +Bay; but in this instance the mound was made considerably wider +at the top, and had to be protected along the toe of the superstructure +on the sea side by large stones. The same form of superstructure, +also, on a narrower base, was resorted to for a breakwater in deeper +water at San Pedro in California with satisfactory results. When, +however, a breakwater of the Delaware type was in progress for +forming a harbour of refuge in Sandy Bay, Massachusetts, in front of +Rockport to the north of Boston, the upper 13 ft. of the 600 ft. of +completed superstructure were carried away during a severe storm +in 1898 leaving only a portion about 5 ft. in height above low water, +the average rise of tide there being 8<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> ft. The design was, accordingly, +modified in 1902, by commencing the stepped courses of large +stones at 12 ft. below mean low water on each slope, instead of at +low water raising this kind of superstructure to 22 ft. above low +water in place of 18 ft., and capping the stepped courses at the top +by large blocks of stone, 20 ft. long and 5 ft. deep, laid across the +breakwater, which thus presented a marked resemblance to the upper +section of the mound at Civita Vecchia.</p> + +<p>The breakwater at Sandy Bay just referred to, and the one at +Civita Vecchia, which it somewhat resembles, approximate to that +class of breakwater which has a superstructure founded +below low-water level, so far as stepped courses of blocks +<span class="sidenote">Superstructure below low-water level.</span> +can be regarded as forming part of a superstructure; +but as the protection afforded by these courses differs +only in the arrangement of the blocks from that obtained +by blocks deposited at random, it appears expedient +to restrict this class to the more solid structures, resembling upright-wall +breakwaters, founded on a mound at some depth below low +water As the main object of this class of breakwater is to keep the +mound below the zone of disturbance by waves in severe storms, +it is evident that the depth at which the superstructure is founded +should vary directly with +the exposure of the site, +and inversely with the +size of the materials forming +the mound.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:306px; height:165px" src="images/img478b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Havre Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The depth at which +waves striking against a +superstructure may affect +a rubble mound near its +toe by the recoil, has +been only very gradually +realized. Thus, in 1847, +the Alderney breakwater, +though fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, was begun with a superstructure +founded at low water of spring tides upon a rubble mound; +but within two years the foundations had to be carried down 12 it. +below low water, and this was adhered to till close to the head, +though the breakwater, completed in 1864, extended 4700 ft. from +the shore into a depth of 130 ft. at low tide, the rise of springs being +17 ft. The great recoil of the waves in storms from the promenade +wall on the sea side of the superstructure, raised 33 ft. above low +water, disturbed the sea slope of the mound along the outer portion, +situated in depths of 80 to 130 ft. at low water, out to a distance of +90 ft. from the superstructure and to a depth of 20 ft.; whilst the +outer toe of the superstructure was only preserved from being +undermined by frequent deposits of stone along the sea face.</p> + +<p>The south-west breakwater at Colombo Harbour, constructed in +1876-1884, facing the seas raised by the south-west monsoon, extends +into a depth of 39 ft. at low water, where the rise of tide is only +2 ft. at springs, and was built with a superstructure founded upon a +rubble mound at a depth of 20 ft. below low water, but raised only +12 ft. above this level without any parapet, and protected along its +sea face by an apron of concrete in bags. In this case, not only was +the depth of the sea much less than at Alderney, but the small +elevation of the superstructure above low water enabled a portion +of the waves in storms to pass over it without materially +impairing the shelter inside. These circumstances reduced +the shock and recoil of the waves; and the greater depth +of the foundations and the protection of the toe of the +superstructure greatly diminished the danger of undermining. +Consequently, the Colombo breakwater has been +preserved from the injuries to which the outer part of the +Alderney breakwater succumbed. Nevertheless, in subsequently +constructing the north-west detached breakwater, +less exposed to the south-west monsoon, but in somewhat +deeper water (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Colombo</a></span>), the experience of the action +of the sea on the south-west breakwater led to the laying of +the foundations of the superstructure on the rubble mound +at 30¾ ft. below low water (fig. 9).</p> + +<p>The breakwater for sheltering Peterhead Bay, where the +rise of springs is 11¼ ft., was begun in 1888, and designed +to extend into a depth of 9½ fathoms at low water (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>). It was built as an upright wall upon the rocky +bottom for 1000 ft. from the shore; but owing to the +increase in depth it was decided to construct the outer +portion with a rubble base, surmounted by a superstructure +originally designed to be founded 30 ft. below low water. +As, however, during a storm in October 1898, the recoil of the waves +from the breakwater, which is provided with a promenade wall rising +about 35 ft. above low water, disturbed rubble to a depth of 36½ ft., +the superstructure has been founded 43 ft. below low water on the +rubble base; and its outer toe is protected from being undermined +by two rows of concrete blocks on the rubble mound.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:185px" src="images/img478c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Colombo North-West Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Formerly, in constructing a large superstructure upon a rubble +mound, it was a common practice to build a sea wall and a harbour +wall several feet apart, and to fill up the intermediate,. +space between them with rubble, so as economically to +<span class="sidenote">Construction of the superstructure.</span> +form a wide structure on the top of the mound, and provide +an adequate width for a quay along the top. A sheltering +wall was also generally erected on the sea side. This, for +instance, was the system of construction adopted for the superstructures, +founded at low water, of Holyhead breakwater, Portland +inner breakwater, and +St Catherine’s, Jersey, +breakwater. Alderney +breakwater, the Tyne +breakwaters and Colombo +south-west breakwater +were also commenced +with a precisely +similar method of construction. +The system, +however, possesses a +Very serious defect for +exposed situations, +namely, that if once +the sea can force a small +opening through the sea wall, the scooping out of the rubble +filling, and the overthrow of the thinner harbour wall are rapidly +accomplished if the storm continues or recurs before repairs +can be effected. Experience soon proved at Alderney and Tynemouth +the unsuitability of the system for very exposed situations; +and the intermediate rubble filling was replaced by solid hearting +down to a certain depth. At Colombo, after the first 1326 ft. of +the south-west breakwater had been built with two walls and +intermediate rubble for the superstructure, as the exposure proved +greater than had been anticipated, and a slight displacement of part +of the sea wall, 24 ft. wide, had occurred, the rubble filling was discontinued, +and the two walls were united into a solid superstructure +34 ft. in width.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:346px; height:245px" src="images/img479a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Colombo North-West Breakwater with Titan Crane.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A difficulty experienced in constructing a solid superstructure +on the top of a rubble mound consists in the settlement of the +mound which takes place when the weight of the superstructure +comes on it, in spite of the consolidation of the +<span class="sidenote">sloping block system.</span> +rubble under the action of the sea for one or two years +before the erection of the superstructure on it is undertaken. +When the superstructure is carried out in long stepped-forward +courses, irregular settlement is particularly liable to occur, +as the weight is progressively imposed in an uneven manner on the +yielding rubble, in proportion to the height of the rubble base and +its deficiency in compactness. The open joints between the blocks +laid below low water enable the air to penetrate, on the recoil of +the waves at low tide, into any internal fissures resulting from +settlement; and the following wave, on striking the superstructure, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span> +compresses the air inside, which, on its expansion when the wave +recedes, forces out any unconnected face stones. The hole thus +formed is rapidly enlarged by the sea if the storm continues; and a +breach is eventually formed. The sloping-block system was, accordingly +devised to provide against the dislocation of superstructures +by the inevitable irregular settlement, by forming them of a series +of sloping sections, composed of concrete blocks laid at an angle, +free to settle independently on the mound, as shown in fig. 10. +In the first superstructure thus constructed, in 1869-1874, at the +entrance to Karachi harbour, founded 15 ft. below low water on a +rubble mound and 24 ft. high, the blocks in each section, consisting +of two rows of three superposed blocks laid at an inclination of 76° +shorewards, were entirely unconnected; and, consequently, though +the superstructure offered as little opposition as practicable to the +waves by having its top slightly below high water, the waves in a +storm forcing their way into the vertical joint between the two +rows, threw some of the top 27-ton blocks of the inner row down on +the harbour slope of the mound. This cause of damage was obviated +in effecting the repairs, by connecting the top blocks with the next +ones by stone dowels. The superstructures of the breakwaters +forming Madras harbour, commenced in 1876, were similarly constructed +in sloping, independent sections, 4½ ft. thick, composed of +two distinct rows of four tiers of blocks founded upon a rubble +mound 22 ft. below low water (the rise of tide at springs being 3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ft.), +and raised 3½ ft. above high water. The blocks in each row were +connected by a tenon, projecting at the top of each block, fitting +into a mortise in the block above it. The retention of the vertical +joint however, between the two rows led to the overthrow of the +greater part of the superstructures of the outer arms at Madras, +situated in a depth of 45 ft. and facing the Indian Ocean, during a +cyclone of 1881. In the reconstruction of these superstructures, +bond was introduced in the successive tiers of each sloping section; +and the blocks of the two upper tiers were cramped together. Alter +settlement on the +mound had ceased, a +thick capping of mass +concrete was laid all +along the top of the +superstructure; and, +finally, a mound of +concrete blocks was +deposited at random +on the mound in +front of the sea face +of the superstructure +to break the force of +the waves and prevent +undermining. A +similar wave-breaker, +with blocks somewhat +specially arranged, +was deposited in front +of the sloping concrete-block superstructure of the breakwater sheltering +the Portuguese harbour of Marmagao on the west coast of India, +more particularly with the object of preventing the undermining of +the superstructure founded only 18 ft. below low water of spring +tides, on a layer of rubble spread on the muddy sea-bottom, the +settlement in this case being occasioned by the yielding of the soft +clay bed. This breakwater having been commenced in 1884, subsequently +to the failure at Madras, the superstructure, formed of +concrete blocks weighing 28½ to 37½ tons was built +in accordance with the design adopted for the reconstructed +outer arms at Madras, with the exceptions +that the separate sections were given a +slope of 70° instead of 76° shorewards to ensure +greater stability, that the superstructure was made +30 ft in width instead of 24 ft., that the top tier of +blocks in each section was secured to the next tier +by two dowels, each formed of a bundle of four rails, +penetrating 3½ ft. into each tier, so as to enable the +top courses to be more correctly aligned than with +tenons and mortises, and that the outer side of the +continuous concrete-in-mass capping was raised +about 22 ft. above low water (fig. 11). The rise of +spring tides at Marmagao is 6 ft.</p> + + +<p>At Colombo the superstructures of both the +south-west and north-west breakwaters were built +on the sloping-block system in sections 5½ ft. thick, +and built at an angle of 68° shorewards (fig. 10); +and the blocks, from 16½ to 31 tons in weight, were +laid in bonded courses across each section, with four +tiers of blocks in the south-west breakwater founded +20 ft. below low water on the rubble mound, and six +tiers of blocks in the north-west breakwater, founded +30¾ ft below low water. Five oblong grooves, moreover, were +formed in moulding the blocks, in the adjacent faces of each sloping +section, extending from top to bottom of the sections. These, when +settlement on the mound had ceased, were filled with concrete in +bags which not only connected the tiers of blocks in each section +together, but also joined the several sections to one another, and +effectually closed the transverse joints between the successive +sections, which were further connected together by a continuous +capping of concrete-in-mass along the whole length of the breakwater.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:163px" src="images/img479b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Marmagao Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<p>These sloping blocks are laid by powerful overhanging, block-setting +cranes, called Titans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cranes</a></span>), which travel along the +completed portion of the breakwater, and lay the blocks in advance +on the mound levelled by divers, as shown in fig. 10. The earlier +Titans, employed for the sloping-block superstructures at Karachi +and Madras, were constructed to travel only backwards and forwards +on the completed work, with sufficient sideways movement of the +little trolley travelling along the overhanging arm, from which the +block is suspended at +the proper angle, to lay +the blocks for each side +of the superstructure. +In later forms, however, +such for instance +as the Titan laying the +14-ton blocks at Peterhead +breakwater in +horizontal courses, the +overhanging arm is +supported centrally on +a ring of rollers, placed +on the top of the truck on which the Titan travels, so that it can +revolve and deposit blocks at the side of the superstructure +for protecting the mound, as well as in advance of the finished +work. These Titans possess the important advantage over the +timber staging formerly employed for such breakwaters, that, in +exposed situations, they can be moved back into shelter on the +approach of a storm, or for the winter or stormy months, instead of, +as in the case of staging, remaining out exposed to the danger of being +carried away during stormy weather, or necessitating loss of time in +erection at the beginning of the working season.</p> + +<p>Though composite breakwaters are still occasionally constructed +with a superstructure founded on a rubble mound at, or above, low-water +level, these breakwaters are now almost always constructed +with the superstructure founded at some depth below low water, +even at harbours on the continent of Europe, where formerly broad +quays founded at sea-level, protected by a parapet wall and outer +concrete blocks, were the regular form of superstructure adopted. +The breakwater for the extension of the harbour at Naples provides +an interesting example of this change of design. A solid superstructure, +formed of large concrete blocks capped with masonry, +about 50 ft. wide at the base, is laid on a high rubble mound at a +depth of 31 ft. below mean sea-level, and provides a quay on the top, +24½ ft. wide, protected on the sea side by a promenade wall, 10 ft. +high and 12½ ft. wide at the top, raised 19<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ft. above sea-level (fig. 12). +In view of the increased depth at which superstructures are now +founded upon rubble mounds, causing the breakwaters to approximate +more and more to the upright-wall type, it might seem at +first sight that the rubble base might be dispensed with, and the +superstructure founded directly on the bed of the sea. Two circumstances, +however, still render the composite form of breakwater +indispensable in certain cases: (1) the great depth into +which breakwaters have sometimes to extend, reaching about +56 ft. below low water at Peterhead, and 102 ft. below mean +sea-level at Naples; and (2) the necessity, where the sea-bottom +is soft or liable: to be eroded by scour, of interposing a wide +base between the upright superstructure and the bed of the sea.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:640px; height:325px" src="images/img479c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Naples Harbor Extension Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The injuries to which composite breakwaters appear to have been +specially subject must be attributed to the greater exposure and +depth of the sites in which they have been frequently constructed, +as compared with rubble mounds or upright walls. The latter types, +indeed, are not well suited for erection in deep water, in the first +case, on account of the very large quantity of materials required +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span> +for a high mound with flat slopes, and in the second, owing to the +increased pressure of air under which divers have to work in laying +blocks for an upright wall in deep water. The ample depth in which +superstructures are founded, the due protection afforded to their +outer toe, the adoption of the sloping-block system for their construction, +and the dispensing in most cases with a high sheltering +wall on the sea side of the superstructure, render modern superstructures +as stable as upright-wall breakwaters of similar height. +Nevertheless, superstructures require to be given a greater thickness +than similar upright walls, because the greater depth of water in +which such composite breakwaters are built causes them to be +exposed to larger waves under similar conditions.</p> + +<p>The superstructures of composite breakwaters erected by the +United States for harbours on the shores of Lake Superior were +formerly in some cases composed of timber cribs floated into position +and sunk by filling them with rubble stone. On account of the cheapness +of timber several years ago in those regions, this simple mode of +construction was also economical, even though the rapid decay of the +timber in the portions of the cribs where it was alternately wet and +dry involved its renewal about every fifteen years on the average. +Owing, however, to the fact that the price of timber has increased +considerably, whilst that of Portland cement has been reduced, +durable concrete superstructures are beginning to be substituted +for the rapidly decaying cribwork structures.</p> + +<p>With the exception perhaps of the Alderney breakwater, which, +owing to its exceptional exposure and the unparalleled depth into +which it extended, had its superstructure so often breached by the +sea that, owing to the cost of maintenance, the inner portion only +has been kept in repair, the composite breakwater of Bilbao harbour +has probably proved the most difficult to construct on account +of its great exposure. The original design consisted of a wide rubble +mound up to about 16½ ft. below low water, a mound of large concrete +blocks up to low water of equinoctial spring tides, and a solid masonry +superstructure well protected at its outer toe by a projection of +masonry, and raised several feet above high water, forming a quay +sheltered by a promenade wall. The rise of equinoctial spring tides +at the mouth of the river Nervion is 14¾ ft. In carrying out the work, +however, the superstructure built in the summer months was for the +most part destroyed by the following winter storms; and, accordingly, +the superstructure was eventually constructed on a widened +rubble base, so as to be sheltered to some extent by the outlying +concrete-block mound already deposited, a system subsequently +adopted in rebuilding the damaged portion of the North Pier at +Tynemouth under shelter of the ruins of the previous work. The +modified superstructure of the Bilbao breakwater was founded on +the extended rubble mound at a depth of 16¼ ft. below low water, +and formed of iron caissons partially filled with concrete and floated +out, sunk in position, and filled up with concrete blocks and concrete. +It thus consists of a continuous row of concrete blocks, each of them +being 42<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ft. in width across the breakwater, 23 ft. in length along +the line of the breakwater, 23 ft. high, and weighing 1400 tons. +These caisson blocks, raised 6¾ ft. above low water, form the base +of the superstructure, upon which the upper part was built of concrete +blocks on each face with mass concrete filling between them, forming +a continuous quay, 24 ft. wide, raised 8 ft. above high tide, and +slightly sheltered by a curved parapet block only 5 ft. high. The +outer toe of the caisson blocks is protected from being undermined +by two tiers of large concrete blocks laid flat on the rubble mound. +This superstructure has successfully resisted the attacks of the +Atlantic waves rolling into the bay. At this breakwater and at +Tynemouth advantage has been taken of the protection unintentionally +provided by previous failures, by which the waves are +broken before reaching the superstructure and pier respectively; +but instead of introducing a wave-breaker of concrete blocks, for a +protection to the superstructure, as arranged at Marmagao (fig. 11) +and the outer arms at Madras, it would appear preferable to increase +the width of the solid superstructure, if necessary, as carried out at +Naples (fig. 12). and to dispense with a parapet and keep the superstructure +low, as being unsuitable for a quay in exposed situations, +according to the plan adopted at Colombo (fig. 9).</p> + +<p>3. <i>Upright-Wall Breakwaters.</i>—The third type of breakwater +consists of a solid structure founded directly on the sea-bottom, +in the form of an upright wall, with only a moderate batter on each +face. This form of breakwater is strictly limited to sites where the +bed of the sea consists of rock, chalk, boulders, or other hard bottom +not subject to erosion by scour, and where the depth does not exceed +about 40 to 50 ft. If a solid breakwater were erected on a soft yielding +bottom, it would be exposed to dislocation from irregular settlement; +and such a structure, by obstructing or diverting the existing +currents, tends to create a scour along its base; whilst the waves in +recoiling from its sea face are very liable to produce erosion of the +sea-bottom along its outer toe. Moreover, when the foundations +for an upright-wall breakwater have to be levelled by divers, and +the blocks laid under water by their help, the extension of such a +breakwater into a considerable depth is undesirable on account of the +increased pressure imposed upon diving operations.</p> + +<p>The Admiralty pier at Dover was begun about the middle of the +19th century, and furnishes an early and notable example of an +upright-wall breakwater resting upon a hard chalk bottom; and it +was subsequently extended to a depth of about 42 ft. at low tide, in +connexion with the works for forming a closed naval harbour at +Dover. This breakwater, the Prince of Wales pier of the commercial +harbour, and the eastern breakwater and detached south breakwater +for the naval harbour, were all founded on a levelled bottom, carried +down to the hard chalk underlying the surface layer, by means of +men in diving-bells. The extension of the Admiralty pier and the +other breakwaters of Dover harbour consist of bonded courses of +concrete blocks, from 26 to 40 tons in weight, as shown in figs. 13 +and 14, the outer blocks above low water being formed on their +exposed side with a facing of granite rubble. The blocks, composed +of six parts of sand and stones to one part of Portland cement, +moulded in frames, and left to set thoroughly in the block-yard +before being used, are all joggled together, and above low-water +level are bedded in cement and the joints filled with cement grout. +The blocks were laid by Goliath travelling cranes running on +temporary staging supported at intervals of 50¼ ft. by clusters of +iron piles carried down into the chalk bottom. On each line of +staging there were four Goliaths, preceded by a stage-erecting +machine. The front Goliath was used for working a grab for excavating +the surface layer of chalk, which was finally levelled by +divers, the second for carrying the diving-bell, the third for laying +the blocks below low water, and the fourth for setting the blocks +above low water. This succession of Goliaths enabled more rapid +progress to be made than with a single Titan at the end of a breakwater; +but it involved a considerable increase in the cost of the plant, +owing to the temporary staging required. The foundations were +carried down from 4 to 6 ft. into the chalk bottom, the deepest being +53 ft. below low water of spring tides, and the average 47 ft. With +a rise of tide at springs of 18¾ ft., the average depth is thus approximately +66 ft. at high tide, necessitating a pressure of 29 ℔ on the +square inch, which is the limit at which men can work without inconvenience +in the diving-bells. The breakwaters are raised about +11 ft. above high water of springs. The detached southern breakwater +was finished off at this level; but the extended western breakwater, +or Admiralty pier, is provided with a promenade parapet on its +exposed side, rising 13 ft. above the quay; and the eastern breakwater +also has a parapet on its exposed eastern side, raised, however, +only 9 ft. above its quay. The breakwaters are protected from scour +along their outer toe by an apron of concrete blocks, extending 25 ft. +out from their sea face.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:517px; height:286px" src="images/img480.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Dover Breakwater.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.<br />South Breakwater.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.<br />Admiralty Pier Extension.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The levelling of the foundations for laying the courses of an +upright-wall breakwater is costly and tedious, even in chalk; and +the expense and delay are considerably enhanced where +the bottom is hard rock. Accordingly, in constructing +<span class="sidenote">Concrete-bag foundations.</span> +two breakwaters at the entrance to Aberdeen harbour +on a bottom of granite in 1870-1877, concrete bags were +laid on the sea-bed; and these bags, by adapting themselves +to the rocky irregularities, obviated levelling the bottom. They +formed the foundation for the concrete blocks in the south breakwater; +and by the deposit of successive layers of 50-ton concrete +bags till they rose above low water, they constituted the whole of the +submerged portion of the north breakwater. The 50-ton bags were +deposited from hopper barges towed out to the site; and the portions +of both breakwaters above low water were carried up with mass +concrete. Subsequently, the breakwater at Newhaven was constructed +on a foundation of chalk, with lop-ton concrete bags up +to low water, and mass concrete above. Still later, the two breakwaters +sheltering the approach to the river Wear (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>) +and the Sunderland docks were built with a foundation mound +of concrete in bags, 56 to 116 tons in weight, on the uneven sea-bottom, +raised slightly above low water of spring tides, on which +a solid upright wall was erected, formed of concrete blocks on each +side faced with granite, filled in the centre and capped on the top +with mass concrete. The most exposed northern Roker breakwater, +raised about 11 ft. above high water of springs where the rise is 14 ft. +5 in., is devoid of a parapet; but a subway formed near the top +in each breakwater gives access to the light on the pierhead in stormy +weather (fig. 15). These concrete bags are made by lining the hopper +of the barge with jute canvas, which receives the concrete and is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span> +sewn up to form a bag whilst the barge is being towed to the site. +The concrete is thus deposited unset, and readily accommodates +itself to the irregularities of the bottom or of the mound of bags; +and sufficient liquid grout oozes out of the canvas when the bag is +compressed, to unite the bags into a solid mass, so that with the +mass concrete on the top, the +breakwater forms a monolith. +This system has been extended +to the portion of the superstructure +of the eastern, little-exposed +breakwater of Bilbao +harbour below low water, where +the rubble mound is of moderate +height; but this application of +the system appears less satisfactory, +as settlement of the superstructure +on the mound would +produce cracks in the set concrete +in the bags.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:172px" src="images/img481a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Sunderland Southern Breakwater.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Foundation blocks of 2500 to +3000 tons have been deposited for raising the walls on each side +of the wide portion of the Zeebrugge breakwater (fig. 16) from +the sea-bottom to above low water, and also 4400-ton +<span class="sidenote">Foundations with large blocks.</span> +blocks along the narrow outer portion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>), +by building iron caissons, open at the top, in the dry +bed of the Bruges ship-canal, lining them with concrete, +and after the canal was filled with water, floating them +out one by one in calm weather, sinking them in position by +admitting water, and then filling them with concrete under water +from closed skips which open at the bottom directly they begin +to be raised. The firm sea-bed is levelled by small rubble for +receiving the large blocks, whose outer toe is protected from +undermining by a layer of big blocks of stone extending out for +a width of 50 ft.; and then the breakwater walls are raised above +high water by 55-ton concrete blocks, set in cement at low tide; +and the upper portions are completed by concrete-in-mass within +framing.</p> + +<p>Sometimes funds are not available for a large plant; and in such +cases small upright-wall breakwaters may be constructed in a +moderate depth of water on a hard bottom of rock, chalk +or boulders, by erecting timber framing in suitable +<span class="sidenote">Concrete monoliths.</span> +lengths, lining it inside with jute cloth, and then depositing +concrete below low water in closed hopper skips lowered to the +bottom before releasing the concrete, which must be effected with +great care to avoid allowing the concrete to fall through the water. +The portion of the breakwater above low water is then raised +by tide-work with mass concrete within frames, in which large +blocks of stone may be bedded, provided they do not touch one +another and are kept away from the face, which should be formed +with concrete containing a larger proportion of cement. As long +continuous lengths of concrete crack across under variations in +temperature, it is advisable to form fine straight divisions across +the upper part of a concrete breakwater in construction, as substitutes +for irregular cracks.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:531px; height:176px" src="images/img481b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Zeebrugge Harbour Breakwater with Quay.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Upright-wall breakwaters should not be formed with two narrow +walls and intermediate filling, as the safety of such a breakwater +depends entirely on the sea-wall being maintained intact. A warning +of the danger of this system of construction, combined with a high +parapet, was furnished by the south breakwater of Newcastle +harbour in Dundrum Bay, Ireland, which was breached by a storm +in 1868, and eventually almost wholly destroyed; whilst its ruins +for many years filled up the harbour which it had been erected +to protect. In designing its reconstruction in 1897, it was found +possible to provide a solid upright wall of suitable strength with +the materials scattered over the harbour, together with an extension +needed for providing proper protection at the entrance. This work +was completed in 1906.</p> + +<p>Upright-wall breakwaters and superstructures are generally made +of the same thickness throughout, irrespective of the differences +in depth and exposure which are often met with in different parts +of the same breakwater. This may be accounted for by the general +custom of regarding the top of an upright wall or superstructure +as a quay, which should naturally be given a uniform width; and +this view has also led to the very general practice of sheltering the +top of these structures with a parapet. Generally the width is +proportioned to the most exposed part, so that the only result is +an excess of expenditure in the inner portion to secure uniformity. +When, however, as at Madras, the width of the structure is reduced +to a minimum, the action of the sea demonstrates that the strength +of the structure must be proportioned to the depth and exposure. +In small fishery piers, where great economy is essential to obtain +the maximum shelter at limited expense, it appears expedient to +make the width of the breakwater proportionate to the depth. This +was done in Babbacombe Bay; and in reconstructing the southern +breakwater at Newcastle, Ireland, advantage was taken of a change +in direction of the outer half to introduce an addition to the width, +so as to make the strength of the breakwater proportionate to the +increase in depth and exposure. In large structures, however, +uniformity of design may be desirable for each straight length of +breakwater; though where two or more breakwaters or outer arms +enclose a harbour, the design should obviously be modified to suit +the depth and exposure. At Colombo harbour, the superstructure +of the less exposed north-west breakwater has been made slightly +narrower than that of the south-west breakwater; and a simple +rubble mound shelters the harbour from the moderate north-east +monsoon. In special cases, where a breakwater has to serve as a +quay, like the Admiralty pier at Dover, a high parapet wall is +essential; but in most cases, where a parapet merely enables the +breakwater to be more readily accessible in moderate weather, +it would be advisable to keep it very low, or to dispense with it +altogether, as at the southern Dover breakwater, the northern +breakwater at Sunderland, and the Colombo western breakwaters. +This course is particularly expedient in very exposed sites, as a high +parapet intensifies the shock of the waves against a breakwater +and their erosive recoil. Moreover, when a light has to be attended +to at the end of a breakwater, sheltered access can be provided by +a subway, as at Sunderland.</p> + +<p>Structures in the sea almost always require works of maintenance; +and when a severe storm has caused any injury, it is most important +to carry out the repairs at the earliest available moment, as the +waves rapidly enlarge any holes that they may have formed in weak +places.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. F. V.-H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRÉAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1832-   ), French +philologist, was born on the 26th of March 1832, at Landau +in Rhenish Bavaria, of French parents. After studying at +Weissenburg, Metz and Paris, he entered the École Normale +in 1852. In 1857 he went to Berlin, where he studied Sanskrit +under Bopp and Weber. On his return to France he obtained +an appointment in the department of oriental MSS. at the +Bibliothèque Impériale. In 1864 he became professor of comparative +grammar at the Collège de France, in 1875 member of +the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, in 1879 <i>inspecteur-général</i> +of public instruction for higher schools until the abolition +of the office in 1888. In 1890 he was made commander of the +Legion of Honour. Among his works, which deal mainly with +mythological and philological subjects, may be mentioned: +<i>L’Étude des origines de la religion Zoroastrienne</i> (1862), for which +a prize was awarded him by the Académie des Inscriptions; +<i>Hercule et Cacus</i> (1863), in which he disputes the principles of +the symbolic school in the interpretation of myths; <i>Le Mythe +d’Oedipe</i> (1864); <i>Les Tables Eugubines</i> (1875); <i>Mélanges de +mythologie et de linguistique</i> (2nd. ed., 1882); <i>Leçons de mots</i> (1882,1886), +<i>Dictionnaire étymologique latin</i> (1885) and <i>Grammaire latine</i> +(1890). His <i>Essai de Sémantique</i> (1897), on the signification of +words, has been translated into English by Mrs H. Cust with +preface by J.P. Postgate. His translation of Bopp’s <i>Comparative +Grammar</i> (1866-1874), with introductions, is highly valued. He +has also written pamphlets on education in France, the teaching +of ancient languages, and the reform of French orthography. +In 1906 he published <i>Pour mieux connaître Homère</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREAM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (<i>Abramis</i>), a fish of the Cyprinid family, characterized +by a deep, strongly compressed body, with short dorsal and long +anal fins, the latter with more than sixteen branched rays, and +the small inferior mouth. There are two species in the British +Isles, the common bream, <i>A. brama</i>, reaching a length of 2 ft. +and a weight of 12 ℔, and the white bream or bream flat, <i>A. +blicca</i>, a smaller and, in most places, rarer species. Both occur in +slow-running rivers, canals, ponds and reservoirs. Bream are +usually despised for the table in England, but fish from large +lakes, if well prepared, are by no means deserving of ostracism. +In the days of medieval abbeys, when the provident Cistercian +monks attached great importance to pond culture, they gave +the first place to the tench and bream, the carp still being unknown +in the greater part of Europe. At the present day, the +poorer Jews in large English cities make a great consumption +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span> +of bream—and other Cyprinids, most of them being imported +alive from Holland and sold in the Jewish fish markets. In +America the name bream is commonly given to the golden +shiner minnow (<i>Abramis chrysoleucus</i>), to the pumpkin-seed +sunfish (<i>Eupomotis gibbosus</i>), and to some kinds of porgy +(<i>Sparidae</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREAST<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages, of the +Ger. <i>Brust</i>, possibly connected with an O. Sax. <i>brustian</i>, to bud), +the term properly confined to the external projecting parts of the +thorax in females, which contain the mammary glands (for +anatomy, and diseases, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mammary Gland</a></span>); more generally +it is used of the external part of the thorax in animals, including +man, lying between the neck and the abdomen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREAUTÉ, FALKES DE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (d. 1226), one of the foreign mercenaries +of King John of England, from whom he received in marriage +the heiress of the earldom of Devon. On the outbreak of the +Barons’ War (1215) the king gave him the sheriffdoms of six +midland shires and the custody of many castles. He fulfilled +his military duties with as much skill as cruelty. The royalists +owed to his daring the decisive victory of Lincoln (1217). But +after the death of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, Falkes +joined the feudal opposition in conspiring against Hubert de +Burgh. Deprived in 1223 of most of his honours, he was drawn +into a rebellion by the imprudence of his brother, who captured +a royal justice and threw him into prison (1224). Falkes was +allowed to go into exile after his submission, and endeavoured +to obtain a pardon through the mediation of Pope Honorius III. +But this was refused, and Falkes died at St Cyriac in 1226.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Shirley, <i>Royal Letters</i>, vol. i.; the <i>Patent</i> and <i>Close Rolls</i>; +Pauli, <i>Geschichte von England</i>, vol. i. pp. 540-545.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRECCIA,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> in petrology, the name given to rocks consisting +of angular fragments embedded in a matrix. They may be +composed of volcanic rocks, limestones, siliceous charts, sandstones, +in fact of any kind of material, and the matrix, which +usually corresponds to some extent to the fragments it encloses, +may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous, &c. The distinctive +character of the group is the sharp-edged and unworn shapes +of the fragments; in conglomerates the pebbles are rounded +and water-worn, having been transported by waves and currents +from some distance. There are many ways in which breccias +may originate. Some are formed by ordinary processes of atmospheric +erosion; frost, rain and gravity break up exposed surfaces +of rock and detach pieces of all sizes; in this way screes are +formed at the bases of cliffs, and barren mountain-tops are +covered with broken debris. If such accumulations gather +and are changed into hard rock by pressure and other indurating +agencies they make typical breccias. Conglomerates often pass +into rocks of this type, the difference being merely that the +fragments are of purely local origin, and are unworn because +they have not been transported. In caves breccias of limestone +are produced by the collapse of part of the roof, covering the floor +with broken masses. Coral reefs often contain extensive areas of +limestone breccia, formed of detached pieces of rock which have +been dislodged from the surface and have been carried down +the steep external slopes of the reef. Volcanic breccias are very +common near active or extinct craters, as sudden outbursts of +steam bear fragments from the older rocks and scatter them +over the ground.</p> + +<p>Another group of breccias is due to crushing; these are +produced in fissures, faults and veins, below the surface, and +maybe described as “crush-breccias” and “friction-breccias.” +Very important and well-known examples of this class occur +as veinstones, which may be metalliferous or not. A fissure +is formed, probably by slight crustal movements, and is subsequently +filled with material deposited from solution (quartz, +calcite, barytes, &c.). Very often displacement of the walls +again takes place, and the infilling or “veinstone” is torn apart +and brecciated. It may then be cemented together by a further +introduction of mineral matter, which may be the same as that +first deposited or quite different. In important veins this process +is often repeated several times: detached pieces of the country +rock are mingled with the shattered veinstone, and generally +experience alteration by the percolating mineral solutions. +Other crush-breccias occurring on a much larger scale are due to +the folding of strata which have unequal plasticities. If, for +example, shales and sandstones are bent into a series of arches, +the sandstones being harder and more resistant will tend to +crack, while the shales, which are soft and flow under great +pressures, are injected into the crevices and separate the broken +pieces from one another. Continued movement will give the +brecciated fragments of sandstone a rounded form by rubbing +them against one another, and, in this way, a crush-conglomerate +is produced. Great masses of limestone in the Alps, Scottish +Highlands, and all regions of intense folding are thus converted +into breccias. Cherts frequently also show this structure; +igneous rocks less commonly do so; but it is perhaps most +common where there have been thin bedded alternations of rocks +of different character, such as limestone and dolerite, limestone +and quartzite, shale or phyllite and sandstone. Fault-breccias +closely resemble vein-breccias, except that usually their fragments +consist principally of the rocks which adjoin the fault +and not of mineral deposits introduced in solution; but many +veins occupy faults, and hence no hard and fast line can be +drawn between these types of breccia.</p> + +<p>A third group of breccias is due to movement in a partly +consolidated igneous rock, and may be called “fluxion-breccias.” +Lava streams, especially when they consist of rhyolite, dacite +and some kinds of andesite, may rapidly solidify, and then +become exceedingly brittle. If any part of the mass is still +liquid, it may break up the solid crust by pressure from within +and the angular fragments are enveloped by the fluid lava. +When the whole comes to rest and cools, it forms a typical +“volcanic-fluxion-breccia.” The same phenomena are sometimes +exemplified in intrusive sills and sheets. The fissures +which are occupied by igneous dikes may be the seat of repeated +injections following one another at longer or shorter intervals; +and the latter may shatter the earlier dike rocks, catching up +the fragments. Among the older formations, especially when +decomposition has gone on extensively, these fluxion and +injection-breccias are often very hard to distinguish from the +commoner volcanic-breccias and ash-beds, which have been +produced by weathering, or by the explosive power of superheated +steam.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRECHIN,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh of Forfarshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8941. It lies on the left bank of the South +Esk, 7¾ m. west of Montrose, and has a station on the loop line +of the Caledonian railway from Forfar to Bridge of Dun. Brechin +is a prosperous town, of great antiquity, having been the site +of a Culdee abbey. The Danes are said to have burned the town +in 1012. David I. erected it into a bishopric in 1150, and it is +still a see of the Episcopal Church of Scotland. In 1452 the +earl of Huntly crushed the insurrection led by the earl of Crawford +at the battle of Brechin Muir, and in 1645 the town and castle +were harried by the marquis of Montrose. James VI. gave a +grant for founding a hospital in the burgh, which yet supplies +the council with funds for charity. No trace remains of the old +walls and gates of the town, but the river is crossed by a two-arched +stone bridge of very early date. The cathedral church +of the Holy Trinity belongs to the 13th century. It is in the +Pointed style, but suffered maltreatment in 1806 at the hands +of restorers, whose work, however, disappeared during the +restoration completed in 1902. The western gable with its +flamboyant window and Gothic door and the massive square +tower are all that is left of the original edifice. The modern +stained glass in the chancel is reckoned amongst the finest in +Scotland. Immediately adjoining the cathedral to the south-west +stands the Round Tower, built about 1000. It is 86¾ ft. +high, has at the base a circumference of 50 ft. and a diameter of +16 ft., and is capped with a hexagonal spire of 18 ft., which was +added in the 15th century. This type of structure is somewhat +common in Ireland, but the only Scottish examples are those at +Brechin, Abernethy in Perthshire, and Egilshay in the Orkneys. +Brechin Castle played a prominent part in the Scottish War of +Independence. In 1303 it withstood for twenty days a siege in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span> +force by the English under Edward I., surrendering only when +its governor, Sir Thomas Maule, had been slain. From the Maule +family it descended to the Dalhousies. Its library contains +many important MSS., among them Burns’s correspondence +with George Thomson, and several cartularies including those +of St Andrews and Brechin. In the Vennel (alley or small street) +some ruins remain of the <i>maison dieu</i>, or <i>hospitium</i>, founded in +1256 by William of Brechin. Besides these historical buildings +the principal public structures include Smith’s school, the +municipal buildings, the free library, the episcopal library +(founded by Bishop Forbes, who, as well as Bishop Abernethy-Drummond, +presented a large number of volumes). The +principal industries include manufactures of linen and sailcloth, +bleaching, rope-making, brewing, distilling, paper-making, in +addition to nurseries and freestone quarries. Brechin—which +is controlled by a provost, bailies and council—unites with +Arbroath, Forfar, Inverbervie and Montrose to return one +member to parliament.</p> + +<p>Edzell (pronounced Edyell, and, locally, Aigle) lies about +6 m. north of Brechin, with which it is connected by rail. It is +situated on the North Esk and near the West Water, which falls +into the Esk 2 m. south-west. Edzell is on the threshold of +romantic Highland scenery. The picturesque ruins of Edzell +Castle lie a mile to the west of the town. Once the seat of the +Lindsays the estate now belongs to the earl of Dalhousie. The +church of the parish of Farnell, 3½ m. south-east of Brechin, +was erected in 1806 after the model, so it is stated, of the famous +Holy House (Casa Santa) of Loreto in Italy. It was here that +the old sculptured stone giving a version of the Fall was found. +Between Farnell and Brechin lies Kinnaird Castle, the seat of the +earl of Southesk.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1821-1875), American +soldier and political leader, was born near Lexington, Kentucky, +on the 21st of January 1821. He was a member of a family +prominent in the public life of Kentucky and the nation. +His grandfather, John Breckinridge (1760-1806), who revised +Jefferson’s draft of the “Kentucky Resolutions” of 1798, was +a United States senator from Kentucky in 1801-1805 and +attorney-general in President Jefferson’s cabinet in 1805-1806. +His uncles, John Breckinridge (1797-1841), professor of pastoral +theology in the Princeton Theological Seminary in 1836-1838 +and for many years after secretary of the Presbyterian Board of +Foreign Missions, and Robert Jefferson Breckinridge (1800-1871), +for several years superintendent of public instruction in Kentucky, +an important factor in the organization of the public school +system of the state, a professor from 1853 to 1871 in the Danville +Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Danville, Kentucky, and +the temporary chairman of the national Republican convention +of 1864, were both prominent clergymen of the Presbyterian +Church. His cousin, William Campbell Preston Breckinridge +(1837-1904), was a Democratic representative in Congress from +1885 to 1893. Another cousin, Joseph Cabell Breckinridge +(1842-   ), served on the Union side in the Civil War, was a +major-general of volunteers during the Spanish-American War +(1898), became a major-general in the regular United States +army in 1903, and was inspector-general of the United States +army from 1899 until his retirement from active service in 1904.</p> + +<p>John Cabell Breckinridge graduated in 1838 at Centre College, +Danville, Kentucky, continued his studies at Princeton, and +then studied law at Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky. +He practised law in Frankfort, Kentucky, in 1840-1841 +and in Burlington, Iowa, from 1841 to 1843, and then returned +to Kentucky and followed his profession at Lexington. In 1847 +he went to Mexico as major in a volunteer regiment, but arrived +too late for service in the field. In 1849 he was elected a Democratic +member of the Kentucky legislature, and in 1851-1855 +he served in the national House of Representatives. President +Pierce offered him the position of minister to Spain, but he +declined it. In 1856 he was chosen vice-president of the United +States on the Buchanan ticket, and although a strong pro-slavery +and states rights man, he presided over the Senate with conspicuous +fairness and impartiality during the trying years before +the Civil War. In 1860 he was nominated for the presidency by +the pro-slavery seceders from the Democratic national convention, +and received a total of 72 electoral votes, including those +of every Southern state except Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee +and Missouri. As vice-president and presiding officer of the +Senate, it was his duty to make the official announcement of +the election of his opponent, Lincoln. He succeeded John J. +Crittenden as United States senator from Kentucky in March +1861, but having subsequently entered the Confederate service +he was expelled from the Senate in December 1861. As brigadier-general +he commanded the Confederate reserve at Shiloh, and in +August 1862 he became major-general. On the 5th of this month +he was repulsed in his attack on Baton Rouge, but he won +distinction at Stone River (December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863), +where his division lost nearly a third of its number. He took +part in the battle of Chickamauga, defeated General Franz Sigel +at Newmarket, Virginia, on the 15th of May 1864, and then, +joined Lee and took part in the battles of Cold Harbor on the +1st and on the 3rd of June. In the autumn he operated in the +Shenandoah Valley, and with Early was defeated by Sheridan +at Winchester on the 19th of September. Being transferred to +the department of South-west Virginia, he fought a number of +minor engagements in eastern Tennessee, and in January 1865 +became secretary of war for the Confederate States. At the +close of the war he escaped to Cuba, and from there went to +Europe. In 1868 he returned to the United States and resumed +the practice of law at Lexington, Kentucky, where he died on +the 17th of May 1875.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRECON,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brecknock</span>, a market town and municipal +borough, the capital of Breconshire, Wales, 183 m. from London +by rail, picturesquely situated nearly in the centre of the county, +at the confluence of the Honddu with the Usk. Half a mile +higher up the Tarell also falls into the Usk from the south. The +ecclesiastical parish of Brecon consists of the two civil parishes +of St John the Evangelist and St Mary, both on the left bank of +the Usk, while St David’s in Llanfaes is on the other side of the +river, and was wholly outside the town walls. Pop. (1901) 5875. +There is only one line of railway, over which several companies, +however, have running powers, so that the town may be reached +by the Brecon & Merthyr railway from Merthyr, Cardiff and +Newport, by the Cambrian from Builth Wells, or by the Midland +from Hereford and Swansea respectively. The Great Western +railway has also a service of road motors between Abergavenny +and Brecon. A canal running past Abergavenny connects Brecon +with Merthyr.</p> + +<p>The Priory church of St John, a massive cruciform building, +originally Norman with Early English and Decorated additions, +is the finest parish church in Wales, and even taking into account +the cathedrals it is according to E.A. Freeman “indisputably +the third church not in a state of ruin in the principality,” its +choir furnishing “one of the choicest examples of the Early +English style.” Previous to the dissolution, a rood-screen +bearing a gigantic rood, the object of many pilgrimages, stood +to the west of the tower. The church was restored under Sir +Gilbert Scott between 1861 and 1875. St Mary’s, in the centre +of the town, and St David’s, beyond the Usk, are now mainly +modern, though the former has some of the Norman arches +of the original church. There is also a Roman Catholic church +(St Michael’s) opened in 1851, and chapels belonging to the +Baptists, Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists, and to the +Congregationalists. In Llanfaes there was formerly a Dominican +priory, but in 1542 Henry VIII. granted it with all its possessions +to a collegiate church, which was transferred thither from +Abergwili, and was given the name of Christ College. Many of +the bishops of St David’s during the 17th century occasionally +resided here, and several are also buried here. A small part of the +revenues went to the maintenance of a grammar-school, but in +1841 the collegiate body was dissolved, and its revenues, then +amounting to about £8000 a year, were transferred to the +ecclesiastical commissioners. In 1853 Henry VIII.’s charter +was repealed, and under a chancery scheme adopted two years +later, £1200 a year was appropriated for the school. New school +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span> +buildings were erected at a cost of about £10,000 in 1862, and +these were enlarged at a cost of about £5000 in 1880. The chancel +of the old Dominican chapel, dating from the 13th century, was +restored in 1864, and is now the school chapel. There is also +a Congregationalist theological college, built in 1869 at a cost of +£12,000, and now affiliated with the university of Wales. The +other chief buildings of the town are the shire hall built in 1842 +in the Doric style from designs by T.H. Wyatt; the Guildhall; +the barracks, which are the headquarters of two battalions +of the South Wales Borderers; the county infirmary founded +in 1832; and the prison (in Llanfaes) for the counties of Brecon +and Radnor. There is a bronze statue of the duke of Wellington +(erected in 1854) by John Evan Thomas, a native of the town. +The town commands a magnificent view of the Brecknock +Beacons, and is noted for its promenades on the banks of the +Usk, and in the priory groves. Brecon is favourably known as +a fishing centre, and there is also boating on the Usk and the +canal. There are several houses of interest, notably the Priory +and Dr Awbrey’s residence (now called Buckingham House), +both built about the middle of the 16th century, but the finest +specimen is Newton (about a mile out, near Llanfaes) built in +1582 by Sir John Games (a descendant of Sir David Gam), but +now a farmhouse. The “Shoulder of Mutton” Inn, now known +as the “Siddons Wine Vaults,” was the birthplace in 1755 of +Mrs Siddons.</p> + +<p>The name Brecknock is an anglicized form of Brycheiniog, +the Welsh name of the territory of Brychan (whence the alternative +form of Brecon), a Goidelic chieftain, who gained possession +of the Usk valley in the 5th century. The Welsh name of +the town, on the other hand, has always been Aber-Honddu (the +estuary of the Honddu). There is no evidence of any settlement +on the site of the present town prior to about 1092, when Bernard +Newmarch, after defeating Bleddin ab Maenarch, built here a +castle which he made his residence and the chief stronghold of +his new lordship. For this purpose he utilized what remained of +the materials of the Roman fort, 3 m. to the west, at Y Gaer, +which some identify as Bannium. He subsequently founded, +near the castle, the Benedictine priory of St John, which he +endowed and constituted a cell of Battle Abbey. In time a town +grew up outside the castle, and its inhabitants received a series +of charters from the de Bohuns, into which family the castle +and lordship passed, the earliest recorded charter being granted +by Humphrey, 3rd earl of Hereford. Under the patronage of +his great-grandson, the last earl of Hereford (who lived in great +splendour at the castle), the town became one of the chief centres +of trade in South Wales, and a sixteen days’ fair, which he +granted, still survives as a hiring fair held in November. Further +charters were granted by Henry IV. (who married Hereford’s +co-heiress), by Henry V., who gave the town two more fairs, and +by the Stafford family, to which the castle and lordship were +allotted on the partition of the Bohun estates in 1421. Henry +Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham, resided a good deal at the +castle, and Morton, bishop of Ely, whose custody as a prisoner +was entrusted to him, plotted with him there for the dethronement +of Richard III., for which Stafford was executed in 1483. +His son, Edward, the 3rd duke, who was born in the castle in 1478, +had the estates restored to him, but, in 1521, suffered a like fate +with his father, and the lordship and castle then vested in the +crown. Both were acquired in the next century by the ancestors +of Viscount Tredegar, to whom they now belong. By a statute +of 1535 Brecon was made the county town of the new shire of +Brecknock, and was granted the right of electing one burgess to +represent it in parliament, a right which it retained till it was +merged in the county representation in 1885. A chancery and +exchequer for the counties of Brecknock and Radnor were also +established at Brecon Castle, and from 1542 till 1830 the great +sessions, and since then the assizes, and at all times the quarter +sessions for the county, have been held at Brecon. The borough +had also a separate court of quarter sessions till 1835. The town +was incorporated by a charter granted by Philip and Mary in +1556 and confirmed by Elizabeth in the nineteenth year of her +reign. A charter granted by James II. was never acted upon. +The borough was placed under the Municipal Corporations Act +1835, and until then the town of Llywel, which is 10 m. off, +formed a ward of the borough. There were formerly five trade +gilds in the town, the chief industries being cloth and leather +manufactures. There are five ancient fairs for stock, and +formerly each of them was preceded by a leather fair. The fairs +held in May and November were also for hiring, much of the +hiring being now done at the Guildhall, and not in the streets as +used to be the case.</p> + +<p>During the Civil War the greater part of the castle and of +the town walls (which with their four gates were until then well +preserved) were demolished by the inhabitants in order to prevent +the town being either garrisoned or besieged. Charles I., however, +stayed a night at the priory house shortly after the battle of +Naseby. The chief ruins of the castle are now enclosed in the +grounds of the Castle Hotel, the principal object being Ely tower, +where Bishop Morton was imprisoned.</p> + +<p>Besides those already mentioned the persons of note born in the +town include Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham; Dr Hugh +Price, founder of Jesus College, Oxford; Dr Thomas Coke, the +first Wesleyan missionary bishop in America; and Theophilus +Jones, the historian of the county. Henry Vaughan, the Silurist, +at one time practised here as a doctor of medicine.</p> +<div class="author">(D. Ll. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRECONSHIRE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brecknockshire</span>, an inland county in +South Wales, and the fourth largest in all Wales, bounded N.W. +by Cardigan, N. and N.E. by Radnor, E. and S.E. by Monmouth, +S. by Glamorgan and W. by Carmarthen. The general aspect +of the county is mountainous, and the scenery is marked by +beauty and grandeur. The climate is moist but temperate and +healthy, and the soil of the valleys, often consisting of rich +alluvial deposits, is very fertile. The loftiest mountains in South +Wales, extending from Herefordshire and Monmouthshire +(where their eastern spurs form the Hatteral Hills) in a south-easterly +direction into Carmarthenshire, completely encircle the +county on the east and south except for the break formed by +the Vale of Usk at Crickhowell. Their highest summit north +of the Usk, on the eastern side, where they are known as the +Black Mountains, or sometimes the Black Forest Mountains, is +Pen y Gader (2624 ft.) between Talgarth and Llanthony, and on +the south-west the twin peaks of the Mynydd Du (“Black +Mountain”) or the so-called Carmarthenshire Vans or Beacons, +only the higher of which, Fan Brycheiniog (2632 ft.), is, however, +in Breconshire; while the centre of the crescent is occupied by +the masses of the Brecknockshire Beacons or Vans (often called +the Beacons simply), the highest point of which, Pen y Fan, +formerly also known as Cadair Arthur, or Arthur’s Chair, attains +an altitude of 2910 ft. In the north, a range of barren hills, +which goes by the general designation of Mynydd Eppynt (a +name more properly limited to its central portion), stretches +right across the county in a north-easterly direction, beginning +with Mynydd Bwlch-y-Groes on the boundary to the east of +Llandovery, and terminating near Builth. In the dreary country +still farther north there is a series of rounded hills covered with +peat and mosses, the chief feature being Drygarn Fawr (2115 ft.) +on the confines of Cardiganshire.</p> + +<p>Of the valleys, the most distinguished for beauty is that of +the Usk, stretching from east to west and dividing the county +into two nearly equal portions. The Wye is the chief river, and +forms the boundary between the county and Radnorshire on +the north and north-east, from Rhayader to Hay, a distance of +upwards of 20 m.; its tributary, the Elan, till it receives the +Claerwen, and then the latter river, continue the boundary +between the two counties on the north, while the Towy separates +the county from Cardigan on the north-west. The hilly country +to the north of the Eppynt is mainly drained by the Irfon, which +falls into the Wye near Builth. The Usk rises in the Carmarthenshire +Van on the west, and flowing in a direction nearly due east +through the centre of the county, collects the water from the +range of the Beacons in the south, and from the Eppynt range +in the north by means of numerous smaller streams, of which the +Tarell and the Honddu (which join it at Brecon) are the most +important, and it enters Monmouthshire near Abergavenny. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span> +The Taff, the Nêdd (with its tributaries the Hepste and the +Mellte) and the Tawe, all rise on the south of the Beacon range +and passing through Glamorganshire, flow into the Bristol +Channel, the upper reaches of the Nêdd and its tributaries in +the Vale of Neath being deservedly famous for its scenery. The +mountains of the county constitute one of the best water-producing +areas in Wales. Recognizing this, the corporation of +Birmingham, under an act of 1892, acquired the watershed of the +Elan and Claerwen, and constructed on the Elan three impounding +reservoirs whence the water is conducted through an aqueduct +to Birmingham (<i>q.v.</i>). Swansea obtains its chief supply from a +reservoir of one thousand million gallons constructed in 1898-1906 +on the Cray, a tributary of the Usk. A large industrial area +around Neath is supplied from Ystradfellte. Merthyr Tydfil +draws its supply from the lesser Taff, while Cardiff’s main supply +comes from the Great Taff valley, where, under acts of 1884 and +1894, two reservoirs with a capacity of 668 million gallons have +been constructed and a third authorized.</p> + +<p>In the east of the county, at the foot of the Black Forest +Mountains, is Llyn Safaddan, or Brecknock Mere, now more +generally known as Llangorse Lake (from being partly situated +in the parish of that name). It is about 3 m. long by 1 m. broad, +being the largest lake in South Wales. Upon an artificial island +in the lake traces of lake-dwellings were discovered in 1869, +together with the bones of red deer, wild boar and <i>Bos longifrons</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The oldest rocks in Brecknockshire are the Llandeilo +shales and intrusive diabases of pre-Llandovery age which near +Builth extend across the Wye from Radnorshire; another patch +with volcanic outflows comes up at Llanwrtyd, and at both places +they give rise to mineral springs. Next follow the Bala Beds, which, +with the succeeding Lower and Upper Llandovery shales, sandstones +and conglomerates, form the sparsely populated sheepwalks and +valleys which occupy most of the north-western part of the county. +These rocks are much folded and the shales are locally cleaved into +slates, while the sandstones and conglomerates form scarps and +ridges. To the south-east of this region a narrow outcrop of Upper +Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow sandstones and mudstones follows, +uncomformably overlying the Llandeilo and Bala rocks, and dipping +conformably under the Old Red Sandstone; they extend from +Newbridge-on-Wye and Builth through Llangammarch (where +there are mineral springs) towards Llandovery, while a tongue of +Ludlow rocks brought up by faulting extends from Erwood on the +Wye for 8 m. south-westwards into the Old Red Sandstone. The +remainder and greater part of the county is occupied chiefly by the +gently inclined Old Red Sandstone; in the dissected plateau of the +Black Mountains north of Crickhowell the lower marls and cornstones +are laid open, while south of Brecon the conglomeratic upper beds +form the escarpment and plateaus of the Beacons. The southern +edge of the county is formed by the scarps and moorlands of the +Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit (both of which form +also the outlier of Pen-ceryg-calch north of Crickhowell), while the +lowest beds of the Coal Measures of the South Wales coalfield are +reached in the Tawe and Neath valleys (where the beds are much +folded) and near Tredegar and Brynmawr. Glacial deposits spread +over the lower grounds and striae occur at great heights on the +Black Mountains.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—Agriculture is the chief industry, and the Agricultural +Society of the county, dating from 1755, is the oldest +in Wales. About one-fourth only of the area of the county is +under cultivation, and the chief crops grown are wheat and +barley, but above all, turnips and oats. The acreage devoted +to any other crop is practically infinitesimal, though in the +eastern part more attention is paid to fruit-growing than perhaps +in any other part of South Wales. The farming is, however, +chiefly pastoral, nearly one-third of the county is common or +waste land, and its number of sheep (mainly of the Radnor Forest +breed) far exceeds that of any other county in Wales. The +breeding of cobs and ponies comes next in importance, and +thirdly that of cattle, now mostly Herefords, though Speed +mentions a native breed, long since extinct, all white with red +ears. These, together with pigs, wool, butter, and (in small +quantities) cheese, form the staple of a considerable trade with +the Midlands and the industrial districts to the south and southwest. +The farms are of comparatively small size, the average +cultivated area of the holdings in 1894 being 63 acres, and the +hired labour averages about two men for each farm. A large +share of the work, especially on the highland farms, is done by +the occupiers and members of their own families, with the aid, +where required, of an indoor servant or two. Few hands are +employed in manufactures, but the mining industry is more +important, coal being extensively worked—chiefly anthracite +in the upper reaches of the Swansea and Neath valleys, and +bituminous in the south-eastern corner of the county. There +are also limestone and fireclay, firebrick and cement works, +chiefly on the northern outcrop of the carboniferous limestone, +as at Abernant in the Vale of Neath and at Penwyllt.</p> + +<p>The Central Wales section of the London & North-Western +railway from Craven Arms to Swansea crosses the north-west +corner of the county, and is intersected at Builth Road by a +branch of the Cambrian, which, running for the most part on the +Radnorshire side of the Wye, follows that river from Rhayader +to Three Cocks; the Midland railway from Hereford to Swansea +runs through the centre of the county, effecting junctions at +Three Cocks with the Cambrian, at Talyllyn with the Brecon & +Merthyr railway (which connects the county with the industrial +areas of East Glamorgan and West Monmouthshire), and at Capel +Colbren with the Neath and Brecon line. The North-Western +and Rhymney joint line skirts the south-eastern boundary of +the county. Brecon is also connected with Newport by means +of the Brecknock and Abergavenny Canal, which was completed +in 1801 and is 35 m. in length. The Swansea Canal and that of +the Vale of Neath have also their northern terminal within the +county, at Ystradgynlais and Abernant respectively. The main +roads of the county are probably the best in South Wales.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient +county is 475,224 acres, with a population in 1891 of 57,031 and +in 1901 of 59,907. The area of the administrative county is +469,301 acres. The only municipal borough is Brecon, which +is the county town, and had in 1901 a population of 5741. The +other urban districts are Brynmawr, Builth Wells and Hay, +with populations of 6833, of 1805 and of 1680 respectively +in 1901. Crickhowell and Talgarth are market towns, while +Llanwrtyd Wells is a rapidly developing health resort. The +county forms part of the South Wales circuit, and the assizes +are held at Brecon. It had one court of quarter sessions, and is +divided into ten petty sessional divisions. The borough of +Brecon has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate +court of quarter sessions. There are 94 civil parishes, while the +ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the +county number 70, of which 67 are in the diocese of St David’s +and the archdeaconry of Brecon, the remaining 3 being in the +diocese of Llandaff. The county is not divided for parliamentary +purposes, and returns one member to parliament. It contains +a small part of the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil.</p> + +<p>In the eastern parts and along the Wye valley, English has +become the predominant language, but in the rest of the county, +especially north of the Eppynt range, Welsh occupies that +position. In 1901 about 51% of the population above three +years could speak both English and Welsh, 38% could speak +English only and 11% Welsh only. The majority of the population +is Nonconformist in religion, the chief denominations being +the Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists and Congregationalists. +Besides an endowed grammar-school (Christ College) at Brecon, +there are in the county four secondary schools, established under +the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1899, viz. separate schools +for boys and girls at Brecon, and dual schools at Builth and +Brynmawr. Most of the county institutions are in the town of +Brecon, but the joint asylum for the counties of Brecon and +Radnor is at Talgarth. It was opened in February 1903. At +Trevecca, near the same town, was a theological college for +ministerial students attached to the Calvinistic Methodist body, +but in October 1906 the institution was removed to Aberystwyth, +and the buildings have since been utilized for a preparatory +school belonging to the same body.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—There are no traces or record of Breconshire being +inhabited before the Neolithic period, but to that period may be +ascribed a number of cairns, menhirs and one cromlech (near +Glanusk). In Roman times the eastern half of the county formed +part of the territory of the Silures, a pre-Celtic race, whose +governing class at that time probably consisted of Brythonic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span> +Celts. But an earlier wave of Celtic invasion represented by the +Goidels had passed westwards along the valleys of the Usk and +Wye, leaving traces in place-names (<i>e.g. llwch</i>, lake), and in the +Ogham inscribed stones found at Glanusk, Trallwng and Trecastle, +and probably surviving into historic times around the +Beacon range and farther south even to Gower and Kidwelly. +The conquest of the district by the Romans was effected between +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 75 and 80, and they established a frontier fort (which +some have called Caer Bannau, identifying it as Bannium) some +3 m. out of the present town of Brecon, with smaller stations +on roads leading thereto at Y Gaer near Crickhowell, and at +Capel Colbren in the direction of Neath. On the departure of +the Romans, the Goidelic hill-tribes, probably with help from +Gower and Ireland, seem to have regained possession of the Usk +valley under the leadership of a chieftain of their own race, +Brychan, who became the ancestor of one of the three chief +tribes of hereditary Welsh saints. His territory (named after +him Brycheiniog, whence Brecknock) lay wholly east of the +Eppynt range, for the lordship of Buallt, corresponding to the +modern hundred of Builth, to the west, remained independent, +probably till the Norman invasion. Most of the older churches +of central Brecknockshire and east Carmarthenshire were founded +by or dedicated to members of Brychan’s family.</p> + +<p>From the middle of the 8th century to the 10th, Brycheiniog +proper often bore the brunt of Mercian attacks, and many of +the castles on its eastern border had their origin in that period. +Subsequently, when Bernard de Newmarch and his Norman +followers obtained possession of the country in the last quarter +of the 11th century, these were converted into regular fortresses. +Bernard himself initiated this policy by building a castle at +Talgarth on the Upper Wye, but in 1091 he moved southwards, +defeated the regulus of Brycheiniog, Bleddyn ab Maenarch, and +his brother-in-law Rhys ap Tewdwr, the prince of south-west +Wales, and with materials obtained from the Roman fort of +Caer Bannau, built a castle at Brecon, which he made his <i>caput +baroniae</i>. Brycheiniog was then converted into a lordship +marcher and passed to the Fitzwalter, de Breos, the Bohun and +the Stafford families in succession, remaining unaffected by the +Statute of Rhuddlan (1282), as it formed part of the marches, and +not of the principality of Wales.</p> + +<p>The Irfon valley, near Builth, was, however, the scene of the +last struggle between the English and Llewelyn, who in 1282 +fell in a petty skirmish in that district. The old spirit of independence +flickered once again when Owen Glendower marched +to Brecon in 1403. Upon the attainder of Edward, duke of +Buckingham, in 1521, the lordship of Brecon with its dependencies +became vested in the crown. In 1536 it was grouped with +a whole series of petty lordships marcher and the lordship of +Builth to form the county of Brecknock with Brecon as the +county town, and the place for holding the county court. The +county returns one member to parliament, and has done so since +1536; the borough of Brecon, with the town of Llywel, had also +a separate representative from the same date till 1885, when it +became merged in the county.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREDA,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a fortified town in the province of North Brabant, +Holland, at the confluence of the canalized rivers Merk and Aa, +15 m. by rail E.N.E. of Roozendaal. Pop. (1900) 26,296. It is +connected by steam tramway with Antwerp (30 m. S.S.W.), and +with Geertruidenberg in the north, and the island of Duiveland +on the west. The fortress of Breda, which was once considered +impregnable, has been dismantled, but the town is still protected +by extensive lines of fortification and lies in the midst of a district +which can be readily laid under water. It has a fine quay, town-hall +and park. There are several Roman Catholic and Protestant +churches. The principal Protestant church is a Gothic building +dating from the end of the 13th century, with a fine tower, and +a choir of later date (1410). Among the many interesting monuments +is the imposing tomb of the stadtholder Count Engelbert +II. of Nassau and his wife. This is the work of Tomasino Vincenz +of Bologna, who, though a pupil of Raphael in painting, in +sculpture followed Michelangelo, to whom the work is sometimes +ascribed. Since 1828 Breda has been the seat of a royal +military academy for all arms of the service. It also possesses +a Latin school, an arsenal, and a modern prison built on the +isolated-cell principle. The prison is in the form of a rotunda, +58 yds. in diameter, and covered by a high dome. In the middle +is the office of the administration, and on the top of this a small +watch-tower. Round the walls of the rotunda are the cells, 208 +in number, and arranged in four tiers with balconies reached +by iron staircases. Each cell measures 35 cub. yds., is provided +with an electric bell communicating with the warder in the +tower, heated by hot-air pipes, and lighted by day through a +window on the outer wall of the rotunda, and from sunset till +ten o’clock by electric light. The industries of Breda comprise +the manufacture of linen and woollen goods, carpets, hats, beer +and musical instruments. In the neighbourhood of the town are +the villages of Ginneken and Prinsenhage, situated in the midst +of pretty pine woods. They form favourite places of excursion, +and in the woods at Ginneken is a Kneipp sanatorium.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Breda was in the 11th century a direct fief of the Holy +Roman Empire, its earliest known lord being Henry I. (1098-1125), +in whose family it continued, though, from the latter part +of the 13th century, in the female line, until Alix, heiress of +Philip (d. 1323), sold it to Brabant. In 1350 the fief was resold +to John (Jan) of Polanen (d. 1377), the heiress of whose line, +Joanna (d. 1445), married Engelbert of Nassau-Dillenburg (d. +1442). Henceforth it remained in the house of Nassau, passing +ultimately to William I. (1533-1584), the first stadtholder of the +Netherlands. Breda obtained municipal rights in 1252, but was +first surrounded with walls in 1534 by Count Henry of Nassau, +who also restored the old castle, originally built by John of +Polanen in 1350. From this period until late in the 19th century +it remained the most important of the line of fortresses along +the Meuse. Breda was captured by surprise by the Spaniards +in 1581; but in 1590 it fell again into the hands of Maurice of +Nassau, 68 picked men contriving to get into the town concealed +under the turf in a peat-boat. The so-called “Spaniard’s Hole” +still marks the spot where the peat-boat lay. Its surrender in +1625, after a ten months’ siege, to the Spaniards under Spinola +is the subject of the famous picture by Velasquez in the Museo +del Prado in Madrid. In 1637 Breda was recaptured by Frederick +Henry of Orange after a four months’ siege, and in 1648 it was +finally ceded to Holland by the treaty of Westphalia. During +the wars of the French Revolution, it was taken by Dumouriez +in 1793, evacuated soon after and retaken by Pichegru in 1795, +after the whole of Holland had already succumbed to the French. +In 1813, a sally being made by the French garrison on an advance-guard +of the Russians under Benckendorff, the citizens of Breda +again made themselves masters of the town.</p> + +<p>Breda was the residence, during his exile, of Charles II., who, +by the declaration of Breda (1660), made known the conditions +of his acceptance of the crown of England. In 1696 William, +prince of Orange and king of England, built the new castle, one +of the finest buildings of the period, which now serves as the +military academy. Breda also derives some celebrity from the +various political congresses of which it has been the scene. In +1575 a conference was held here between the ambassadors of +Spain and those of the United Provinces; in 1667 a peace was +signed between England, Holland, France and Denmark; and +in 1746-1747 the representatives of the same powers met in the +town to discuss the terms of another treaty.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1683-1750), Flemish painter, +son of Alexander van Bredael (d. 1720), who was also an artist, +was born in Antwerp. He imitated the style of Wouverman +and Breughel with such dexterity that even connoisseurs are +often unable to distinguish his copies of their pictures from the +originals. He visited England, where he was so well employed +that in a few years he was able to retire to his native country with +a competency. The earl of Derwentwater was one of his chief +patrons. There were several other van Bredaels, who won +honour as artists—notably <span class="sc">Pieter</span> (1622-1719), Alexander’s +father, and <span class="sc">Jozef</span> (1688-1739). They were formerly known as +“Breda,” but this apparently is incorrect, though it occurs as a +signature on a picture by Jan Frans in the Amsterdam gallery.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREDERODE, HENRY,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span> (1531-1568), was born at +Brussels in 1531. He was the descendant of an ancient race, +which had for some centuries been settled in Holland, and had +taken an active part in the affairs of war and peace. Count +Henry became a convert to the Reformed faith and placed himself +at the side of the prince of Orange and Count Egmont in +resisting the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition and Spanish +despotism into the Netherlands. In 1566 he was one of the +founders of the confederacy of nobles who bound themselves to +maintain the rights and liberties of the country by signing a +document known as “the Compromise.” On the 5th of April +of that year Brederode accompanied to the palace a body of 250 +confederates, of whom he acted as the spokesman, to present to +the regent, Margaret of Parma, a petition setting forth their +grievances, called “the Request.” It was at a banquet at the +Hotel Culemburg on the 8th of April, presided over by Brederode, +that the sobriquet of <i>les Gueux</i>, or “the Beggars,” was first +given to the opponents of Spanish rule. Brederode was banished +from the Netherlands by Alva, and died in exile shortly afterwards +at the early age of thirty-six.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1773-1814), German +historian, was born at Berlin on the 14th of December 1773, and +became successively professor at the universities of Helmstadt, +Frankfort-on-Oder and Breslau. He died at Breslau on the +5th of September 1814. Bredow’s principal works are <i>Handbuch +der alien Geschichte, Geographic und Chronologie</i> (Eutin, 1799; +English trans., London, 1827); <i>Chronik des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> +(Altona, 1801); <i>Entwurf der Weltkunde der Alten</i> (Altona, 1816); +<i>Weltgeschichte in Tabellen</i> (Altona, 1801; English trans, by +J. Bell, London, 1820); <i>Grundriss einer Geschichte der merkwürdigsten +Welthändel von 1796-1810</i> (Hamburg, 1810).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bredow’s posthumous writings were edited by J.G. Kunisch +(Breslau, 1823), who added a biography of the author.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREDOW<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, +immediately north of Stettin, of which it forms a suburb. Here +are the Vulcan iron-works and shipbuilding yards, where the +liners “Deutschland” (1900), the “Kaiserin Augusta Victoria” +(1906), and the “George Washington” (1908), the largest vessel +(722 ft. long, 27,000 tons) in the German mercantile marine, +were built; and also sugar, cement and other factories.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREECH<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (common in early forms to Teutonic languages), a +covering for the lower part of the body and legs. The Latin +<i>braca</i> or <i>bracca</i> is a Celtic word, probably cognate with the +Teutonic. The word in its proper meaning is used in the plural, +and, strictly, is confined to a garment reaching to the knees only. +The meaning of “the hinder part of the body” is later than, +and derived from, its first meaning; this sense appears in the +“breech” or hinder part of a gun. The word is also found in +“breeches buoy,” a sling life-saving apparatus, consisting of a +support of canvas breeches. The “Breeches Bible,” a name +for the Geneva Bible of 1560, is so called because “breeches” +is used for the aprons of fig-leaves made by Adam and Eve. On +the stage the phrase a “breeches” part is used when a woman +plays in male costume. “Breeching” is a strap passed round +the breech of a harnessed horse and joined to the shafts to allow +a vehicle to be backed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREEDS AND BREEDING.<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> Breeds may be defined as domestic +varieties of animals or plants which man has been able to bring +into existence and to maintain in existence. The process of +breeding includes all the modifying influences which man may +bring to bear on a wild stock for the purpose, conscious or +unconscious, of establishing and maintaining breeds. Charles +Darwin’s <i>Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication</i> +(1868) was the starting-point of exact knowledge on this subject; +when it appeared, it contained not only the best collection of +empirical facts, but the only rational theory of the facts. The +first relations between man and domesticated animals and plants +were due to unconscious or accidental selection of wild stocks +that tolerated the vicinity of man and that were useful or +attractive to him. The new conditions must have produced +modifications in these stocks, whether these were caused by a +survival in each generation of individuals with the power of +response to the new environment, or were due to a conscious +selection of individuals capable of such favourable response. +The essence of the process, however, came to be a conscious +selection in each generation of the best individuals, that is to say, +of those individuals that seemed to man to be most adapted to his +wants. The possibility of establishing a breed depended, therefore, +in the first place on the natural variability of wild animals +and plants, then on the variations induced in animals and plants +under subjection to the new conditions brought about by man’s +interference, next on the extent to which these variations, +natural or artificial, persisted through the series of generations, +and finally on man’s intelligence in altering or maintaining the +conditions of the environment, and in selective mating. The +theory of breeds and breeding depends, in fact, on knowledge of +variation, of modification by the environment, and of heredity. +Any attempt to give an account of what actually has been done +by man in establishing breeds would be little more than an +imperfect summary of Darwin’s work. The articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heredity</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mendelism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variation and Selection</a></span> show that what +may be called the theoretical and experimental knowledge of +variation and heredity is far in advance of the practical art +of breeding. Even horticulturists, who have been much more +successful than those who deal with animals, are still far from +being able to predict the result of their selections and crossings. +None the less it may be stated definitely that such prediction +is already so nearly within the power of the practical breeder +that it would be a waste of time to give a summary of the existing +rule-of-thumb methods. The art of breeding is so immediately +destined to become a science of breeding that existing knowledge +and conceptions must be dismissed as of no more than historical +interest.</p> +<div class="author">(P. C. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREEZE,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1) A current of air generally taken as somewhat +less than a “wind,” which in turn is less than a “gale.” The +term is particularly applied to the light wind blowing landwards +by day, “sea-breeze,” and the counter wind, blowing off the +land at night, “land-breeze.” The word appears in Fr. <i>brise</i> +(admitted by the Academy in 1762). The Span, <i>brisa</i>, Port. +<i>briza</i>, and Ital. <i>brezza</i> are used for a wind blowing from the +north or north-east. According to Cotgrave, Rabelais uses +<i>brize</i> in the sense of <i>bise</i>, the name of a dry north or north-east +wind prevalent in Switzerland and the bordering parts of France, +Italy and Germany. The word is first used in English as applied +to the cool sea-breeze blowing usually from the east or north-east +in the West Indies and Atlantic sea-coast of Central America. +It was then applied to sea-breezes from any quarter, and also +to the land-breeze, and so to any light wind or current of air. +(2) Fine ashes or cinders, the refuse of coal, coke and charcoal +burning. This is probably from the O. Fr. <i>brese</i>, modern <i>braise</i>, +a word connected with <i>braser</i>, whence Eng. <i>brazier</i>, a pan for +burning coals, charcoal, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREGENZ<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (anc. <i>Brigantium</i>), the capital of the Austrian, +province of Vorarlberg, as well as of the administrative district +of Bregenz. In 1900 its population was 7595, German-speaking +and Roman Catholic. It is situated at the south-east angle +of the Lake of Constance, and, besides communications by water +with the other towns on the shores of that lake, is connected by: +rail with Feldkirch on the Arlberg line (24 m.) and with Munich. +The old town is on a hillock, crowned by the ancient castle, while +the new town is built on the level ground at the foot of the hill. +The fine parish church (dedicated to St Gall) stands on another +mound more to the south. In the local museum are collections +of various kinds, especially of the Roman antiquities which have +been dug up on the site of the old town. The position of the town +on the lake has always made it an important port and commercial +centre. Nowadays the main trade is in grain, but much is done +also in cattle and in the products of the cotton-spinning factories +of Vorarlberg.</p> + +<p>We hear of counts of Bregenz as early as the 10th century, +their heirs in the early 13th century being the counts of Montfort +(a castle north of Feldkirch), who gradually acquired most of +the surrounding country (including Feldkirch and Bludenz). +But little by little the Habsburgers, counts of Tirol since 1363 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span> +bought from them most of their domains—first Feldkirch in +1375, next Bludenz and the Montafon valley in 1394, finally the +county of Bregenz in two parts, acquired in 1451 and 1523. In +1408 the Appenzellers were defeated before Bregenz, while in +1647, during the Thirty Years’ War, the town was sacked by +the Swedes under Wrangel.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREHON LAWS,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> the English but incorrect appellation of +the ancient laws of Ireland, the proper name for which is <i>Feineachas</i>, +meaning the laws of the Feine or Feini (fainyeh), who +were the free Gaelic farmers. <i>Dlighthe Feine</i> is another name +for the laws, with the same meaning. Laws of universal application +which could be administered only by duly qualified judges +were called <i>Câin</i> law, while minor laws administered by nobles +and magistrates were called <i>Urradhus</i> law. Regular courts and +judges existed in Ireland from prehistoric times. The Anglo-Irish +word “Brehon” is derived from the Gaelic word <i>Brethem</i> +(= judge).</p> + +<p>The extant remains of these laws are manuscript transcripts +from earlier copies made on vellum from the 8th to the 13th +century, now preserved with other Gaelic manuscripts in Trinity +College and the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, the British +Museum, Oxford University, some private collections and several +libraries on the continent of Europe. The largest and most +important of these documents is the <i>Senchus Mór</i> or “Great Old +Law Book.” No copy of it now existing is complete, and some +portions are missing from all. What remains of it occupies the +first, second, and a portion of the third of the volumes produced +by the Brehon Law Commission, which was appointed in 1852.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i> it is said: “The age of +Christ 438, the tenth year of King Laeghaire (Lairy), the <i>Senchus +Mór</i> and <i>Feineachas</i> of Ireland were purified and written.” +This entry has ample historical corroboration. Of many separate +treatises dealing with special branches of the law, the <i>Book of +Aicill</i>, composed of opinions or placita of King Cormac Mac Art, +otherwise Cormac ua Quim, Ard-Rig of Erinn from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 227 until +266, and Cennfaeladh the Learned, who lived in the first part +of the 7th century, is the most important.</p> + +<p>The text and earlier commentaries are in the <i>Bearla Feini</i>—the +most archaic form of the Celtic or Gaelic language. From +gradual changes in the living tongue through a long expanse of +time many words, phrases and idioms in the <i>Bearla Feini</i> became +obsolete, and are so difficult to translate that the official translations +are to some extent confessedly conjectural. In many cases +only opening words of the original text remain. Wherever the +text is whole, it is curt, elliptical, and yet rhythmical to a degree +attainable only through long use. The rigorously authentic +character of these laws, relating to, and dealing with, the actual +realities of life, and with institutions and a state of society +nowhere else revealed to the same extent, the extreme antiquity +both of the provisions and of the language, and the meagreness +of continental material illustrative of the same things, endow +them with exceptional archaic, archaeological and philological +interest.</p> + +<p>In the earliest times all learned men, whether specially learned +in law or not, appear to have acted as judges. Gradually as +literature and learning increased, judgments delivered by men +without special legal training fell into disfavour. In the 1st +century of the Christian era, when Conchobhar or Conor Mac +Nessa was king of Ulster, a crisis was reached, the result of which +was that no man was allowed to act as Brehon until he had +studied the full law course, which occupied twenty years, and +had passed a rigorous public examination. The course of study +for Brehon and Ollamh, advocate and law-agent respectively, is +carefully laid down in the law itself. The Brehonship was not +an office of state like that of the modern judge, but a profession +in which success depended upon ability and judgment. The +Brehon was an arbitrator, umpire, and expounder of the law, +rather than a judge in the modern acceptation. It appears, +without being expressly stated, that the facts of a case were +investigated and ascertained by laymen, probably by the +<i>Aireachtas</i>—a local assembly or jury—before submission to a +Breton for legal decision. A Brehon whose decision was reversed +upon appeal was liable to damages, loss of position and of free +lands, if any, disgrace, and a consequent loss of his profession. +No Brehon had any fixed territorial jurisdiction. A party +initiating proceedings could select any Brehon he pleased, if +there were more than one in his district. Every king or chief +of sufficient territory retained an official Brehon, who was provided +with free land for his maintenance. In ordinary cases the +Brehon’s fee was said to have been one-twelfth of the amount +at stake.</p> + +<p>Assemblies, national, provincial and local, were a marked +characteristic of ancient Irish life. They all, without exception, +discharged some legal functions, legislative or administrative, +and even in those in which amusement predominated, the <i>Cáin</i> +law was publicly rehearsed. Most of the assemblies were annual, +some triennial, some lasted only a day or two, others a week and +occasionally longer. All originated in pagan funeral or commemorative +rites, and continued to be held, even in Christian +times, in very ancient cemeteries. They were called by different +names—<i>Feis, Aenach, Aireachtas, Dál, &c.</i></p> + +<p>The Feis of Tara, in Meath, was from its origin seven centuries +before Christ down to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 560, mainly national and political, +being convened by the Ard-Rig, held at his residence, presided +over by him, and consisting of the provincial kings, tanists, +flaiths, Brehons, warriors, historians, poets and other distinguished +men from the whole of Ireland. It was due to be held +every third year for the purpose of “preserving the laws and +rules,” and it might be called specially on any urgent occasion. +After the statesmen had consulted, the laws were proclaimed, +with any modifications agreed upon. Then the proceedings +became festive, queens and great ladies taking part. The Feis +of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 560 was the last regular one held at Tara because the +monarch ceased to reside there. One national assembly of an +exceptional character was held at Tara in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 697, by a decree +of which women were emancipated from liability to military +service.</p> + +<p>The Aenach held annually at Tailltenn, also in Meath, was a +general assembly of the people without restriction of rank, clan +or country, and became the most celebrated for athletic sports, +games and contests. Yet even here the laws were read aloud, +and it is not without significance that the last national assembly +held at Tailltenn under King Rhoderic O’Connor in 1168 was +a political one.</p> + +<p>The <i>Dál-Criche</i> (= territorial assembly), held at Uisneach in +Westmeath, was a gathering for political and quasi-legislative +purposes. At one assembly there about a century before Christ, +a uniform law of distraint for the whole of Ireland was adopted +on the motion of Sen, son of Aigé. This did not prevent the +gatherings at Uisneach from being for ages celebrated for gaiety +and amusement.</p> + +<p>Each provincial kingdom and each tuath had assemblies of +its own. Every <i>flaith</i> and <i>flaith-fine</i> was a member of a local +assembly, the clan system conferring the qualification, and there +being no other election.</p> + +<p>An assembly when convened by the <i>Bruigh-fer</i> for the special +purpose of electing a tanist or successor to the king was called +a <i>Tocomra</i>.</p> + +<p>Very careful provision is made for the preparation of the sites +of great assemblies, and the preservation of peace and order at +them is sanctioned by the severest penalties of the law. The +operation of every legal process calculated to occasion friction, +such as seizure of property, was suspended during the time the +assemblies lasted.</p> + +<p>The term <i>Rig</i> (reeh = <i>rex</i>, king) was applied to four classes or +grades of rulers, the lower grades being grouped, each group being +subject to one of their number, and all being subject to, and owing +tribute and allegiance to the Ard-Rig (= supreme king of Erinn). +The Ard-Rig had an official residence at Tara and the kingdom +of Meath for his special use. The provincial king, Rig Cuicidh, +also had an official residence and kingdom of his own, together with +allegiance and tribute from each Rig-mor-Tuatha in his province, +who in his turn received tribute and allegiance from each Rig-Tuatha +under subjection to him. The Rig-Tuatha received +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span> +tribute and allegiance from the flaiths or nobles in his tuath. +The tuath was the political unit, and the ruler of it was the lowest +to whom the term “king” was applied. For each payment of +tribute a king always made some return. Every king was obliged, +on his inauguration, to swear that he would govern justly and +according to law, to which he remained always subject. The +Ard-Rig was selected by the sub-kings and other leading men +who legally constituted the Feis of Tara, the sub-kings by those +under them in their respective spheres. No person not of full +age, imperfectly educated, stupid, blind, deaf, deformed or otherwise +defective in mind or body, or for any reason whatsoever +unfit to discharge the duties or unworthy to represent the manhood +of the nation, could be king, even though he were the +eldest son of the preceding king. “It is a forbidden thing for +one with a blemish to be king at Tara.”</p> + +<p><i>Tuath, Cinel</i> and <i>Clann</i> were synonyms meaning a small +tribe or nation descended from a common ancestor. A king and +clan being able, subject to certain limitations, to adopt new +members or families, or amalgamate with another clan, the +theory of common origin was not rigidly adhered to. Kinship +with the clan was an essential qualification for holding any office +or property. The rules of kinship largely determined status with +its correlative rights and obligations, supplied the place of +contract and of laws affecting the ownership, disposition and +devolution of property, constituting the clan an organic, self-contained +entity, a political, social and mutual insurance co-partnership. +The solidarity of the clan was its most important +and all-pervading characteristic. The entire territory occupied +by a clan was the common and absolute property of that clan. +Subject to this permanent and fundamental ownership, part of the +land was set apart for the maintenance of the king as such. +Warriors, statesmen, Brehons, Ollamhs, physicians, poets, and +even eminent workers in the more important arts, were, in +different degrees, rewarded with free lands for their respective +public services. On the death of any person so rewarded, the +land in theory reverted to the clan; but if like services continued +to be rendered by the son or other successor, and accepted by the +clan, the land was not withdrawn. The successors of statesmen, +for whom the largest provision was made, became a permanent +nobility. Flaith (flah = noble chief) was a term applied to a man +of this rank. Rank, with the accompanying privileges, jurisdiction +and responsibility, was based upon a qualification of +kinship and of property, held by a family for a specified number +of generations, together with certain concurrent conditions; and +it could be lost by loss of property, crime, cowardice or other disgraceful +conduct. The flaiths in every tuath and all ranks of +society were organized on the same hierarchical pattern as +royalty. A portion of land called the <i>Cumhal Senorba</i> was devoted +to the support of widows, orphans and old childless people.</p> + +<p><i>Fine</i> (finna), originally meaning family, came in course of time +to be applied to a group of kindred families or to a whole clan. +From differences between incidental accounts written in different +ages, it appears that the social system underwent some change. +For the purpose of conveying some idea, one theory may be +taken, according to which the <i>fine</i> was made up of seventeen +clansmen, with their families, viz. the <i>Geilfine</i> consisting of +the flaith-fine and four others in the same or nearest degree of +kinship to the centre, and the <i>Deirbhfine, Tarfine</i> and <i>Innfine</i>, +each consisting of four heads of families, forming widening +concentric circles of kinship to which the rights and liabilities +of the <i>fine</i> extended with certainty, but in diminishing degrees.</p> + +<p>In course of time a large and increasing proportion of the good +land became, under the titles so far described, limited private +property. The area of arable land available for the common use +of the clansmen was gradually diminished by these encroachments, +but was still always substantial. A share of this was the birthright +of every law-abiding member of the Feini who needed it. +To satisfy this title and give a start in life to some young men +who would otherwise have got none, this land was subject to +<i>Gabhailcine</i> (= clan-resumption), meaning that the clan resumed +the whole area at intervals of a few years for a fresh distribution +after some occupants had died, and young men by attaining +manhood had become entitled. Hence the Anglo-Irish word +<i>gavelkind</i>. Anciently this re-distribution extended throughout +the clan at the same time. Later it extended only to the land of +a <i>fine</i>, each <i>fine</i> making its own distribution at its own time and +in its own way as determined by the seventeen men above +specified. In this distribution men might or might not receive +again their former portions. In the latter case compensation +was made for unexhausted improvements. This land could not +be sold, nor even let except for a season in case of domestic +necessity. The Feini who used it had no landlord and no rent +to pay for this land, and could not be deprived of it except by +the clan for a crime. They were subject only to public tributes +and the ordinary obligations of free men. Presumably their +homesteads were not on this land and were not subject to +<i>Gabhailcine</i>. Neither were the unfenced and unappropriated +common lands—waste, bog, forest and mountain—which all +clansmen were free to use promiscuously at will.</p> + +<p>There was hardly any selling and little letting of land in ancient +times. Flaiths and other persons holding large areas let to +clansmen, who then became <i>Ceiles</i>, not land, but the privilege +of feeding upon land a number of cattle specified by agreement. +Flaiths and Bo-aires also let cattle to a <i>ceile</i> who had none or +not enough, and this was the most prevalent practice. There +were two distinct methods of letting and hiring—<i>saer</i> (= free) +and <i>daer</i> (= base), the conditions being fundamentally different. +The conditions of <i>saer</i>-tenure were largely settled by the law, +were comparatively easy, did not require any security to be +given, left the <i>ceile</i> free within the limits of justice to end the +connexion, left him competent in case of dispute to give evidence +against that of the flaith, and did not impose any liability on +the <i>fine</i> of the <i>ceile</i>. By continued user of the same land for some +years and discharge of the public obligations in respect of it in +addition to the <i>ciss</i> or payment as tenant, a <i>ceile</i> became a sub-owner +or permanent tenant and could not be evicted. There is +no provision in these laws for evicting any one. For the hire of +cattle a usual payment was one beast in seven per annum for +seven years; after which the cattle that remained became the +property of the hirer. A <i>saer-ceile</i> on growing wealthy might +become a <i>bo-aire</i>. <i>Daer-tenure</i>, whether of cattle or of the +right to graze cattle upon land, was subject to a <i>ciss-ninsciss</i> +(= wearisome tribute), for the payment of which security had to +be given. A man not in the enjoyment of full civil rights, if +able to find security, could become a <i>daer-ceile</i>. A free clansman +by becoming a <i>daer-ceile</i> lowered his own status and that of his +<i>fine</i>, became incompetent to give evidence against that of a flaith, +and could not end the connexion until the end of the term except +by a large payment. The members of his <i>fine</i> were liable, in +the degree of their relationship, to make good out of their own +property any default in the payments. Hence this tenure could +not be legally entered into by a free clansman without the permission +of his fine. <i>Daer-ceiles</i> were also exposed to casual burdens, +like that of lodging and feeding soldiers when in their district. +All payments were made in kind. When the particular kind was +not specified by the law or by agreement, the payments were +made according to convenience in horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, +wool, butter, bacon, corn, vegetables, yarn, dye-plants, leather, +cloth, articles of use or ornament, &c. As the clan system +relaxed, and the fine lost its legal power of fixing the amounts +of public tributes, which were similarly payable to the <i>flaith</i>, +and neglected its duty of seeing that those tributes were duly +applied, the <i>flaith</i> became able to increase these tributes with +little check, to confuse them with rent, to confuse jurisdiction +with ownership, and to exalt himself at the expense of his fellow-clansmen. +A <i>flaith</i> by arranging that his tenants should make +their payments at different periods of the year, secured a constant +and copious supply without an inconvenient surplus.</p> + +<p>People who did not belong to the clan and were not citizens were +in a base condition and incompetent to appear in court in suit +or defence except through a freeman. The <i>Bothach</i> (= cottier) +and the <i>Sen-clèithe</i> (= old dependent) were people who, though +living for successive generations attached to the families +of flaiths, did not belong to the clan and had no rights of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span> +citizenship. <i>Fuidhirs</i>, or manual labourers without property, were +the lowest section of the population. Some were born in this +condition, some clansmen were depressed into it by crime, consequences +of war or other misfortune; and strangers of a low class +coming into the territory found their level in it. The <i>fuidhirs</i> +also were divided into <i>saer</i> and <i>daer</i>; the former being free by +industry and thrift to acquire some property, after which five +of them could club together to acquire rights corresponding to +those of one freeman. The <i>daer-fuidhirs</i> were tramps, fugitives, +captives, &c.</p> + +<p>Fosterage, the custom of sending children to be reared and +educated in the families of fellow-clansmen, was so prevalent, +especially among the wealthy classes, and the laws governing it are +so elaborate and occupied such a large space, that some mention +of it here is inevitable. Beyond mention, there is little to be +said, owing to the absence of general principles in an infinity of +specific details, mostly domestic and apparently trivial. A child +in fosterage was reared and educated suitably for the position +it was destined to fill in life. There was fosterage for affection, +for payment and for a literary education. Fosterage began +when the child was a year old and ended when the marriageable +age was reached, unless previously terminated by death or crime. +Every fostered person was under an obligation to provide, if +necessary, for the old age of foster-parents. The affection +arising from this relationship was usually greater, and was +regarded as more sacred than that of blood relationship.</p> + +<p>The solidarity of clan and <i>fine</i> in their respective spheres, the +provisions of the system, the simple rural life, and the prevalence +of barter and payments in kind, left comparatively little occasion +for contracts between individuals. Consequently the rules +relating to contract are not very numerous. They are, however, +sufficiently solemn. No contract affecting land was valid unless +made with the consent of the <i>fine</i> and in the presence of the +<i>Aire-Forgaill</i>. Contracts relating to other kinds of property +are more numerous. When important or involving a considerable +amount, they had to be made in the presence of a <i>flaith</i> or +magistrate. The <i>Aire-Coisring</i> presided over most of the contracts +of the common people. The parties to a contract should be free +citizens, of full age, sound mind, free to contract or not, and +under no legal disability. “The world would be in a state of +confusion if express contracts were not binding.” From the +repeated correlative dicta that “nothing is due without deserving,” +and that a thing done “for God’s sake,” <i>i.e.</i> gratis, imposed +little obligation, it is clear that the importance of valuable consideration +was fully recognized. So also was the importance +of time. “To be asleep avails no one”; “Sloth takes away a +man’s welfare.” Contracts made by the following persons were +invalid: (1) a servant without his master’s authority; (2) a +monk without authority from his abbot or manager of temporalities; +(3) a son subject to his father without the father’s +authority; (4) an infant, lunatic, or “one who had not the full +vigilance of reason”; (5) a wife in relation to her husband’s +property without his authority. She was free to hold and deal +with property of her own and bind it by contract. If a son +living with his father entered into a contract with his father’s +knowledge, the father was held to have ratified the contract +unless he promptly repudiated it. “One is held to adopt what +he does not repudiate after knowledge, having the power.” +Contract of sale or barter with warranty could be dissolved for +fraud, provided action was taken within a limited time after the +fraud had become known. Treaties and occasional very important +contracts were made “blood-covenants” and inviolable +by drawing a drop of blood from the little finger of each of the +contracting parties, blending this with water, and both drinking +the mixture out of the same cup. The forms of legal evidence +were pledges, documents, witnesses and oaths. In cases of +special importance the pledges were human beings, “hostage +sureties.” These were treated as in their own homes according +to the rank to which they belonged, and were discharged on +the performance of the contract. If the contract was broken, +they became prisoners and might be fettered or made to work as +slaves until the obligation was satisfied. Authentic documents +were considered good evidence. A witness was in all cases +important, and in some essential to the validity of a contract. +His status affected the force of the contract as well as the value +of his evidence; and the laws appear to imply that by becoming +a witness, a man incurred liabilities as a surety. The pre-Christian +oath might be by one or more of the elements, powers +or phenomena of nature, as the sun, moon, water, night, day, +sea, land. The Christian oath might be on a copy of the Gospels, +a saint’s crozier, relic or other holy thing.</p> + +<p>These laws recognized crime, but in the same calm and deliberate +way in which they recognized contract and other things seriously +affecting the people. Although we find in the poems of Dubhthach, +written in the 5th century and prefixed to the <i>Senchus +Mór</i>, the sentences, “Let every one die who kills a human being,” +and “Every living person that inflicts death shall suffer death,” +capital punishment did not prevail in Ireland before or after. +The laws uniformly discountenanced revenge, retaliation, the +punishment of one crime by another, and permitted capital +punishment only in the last resort and in ultimate default of +every other form of redress. They contain elaborate provision +for dealing with crime, but the standpoint from which it is +regarded and treated is essentially different from ours. The +state, for all its elaborate structure, did not assume jurisdiction +in relation to any crimes except political ones, such as treason +or the disturbance of a large assembly. For these it inflicted +the severest penalties known to the law—banishment, confiscation +of property, death or putting out of eyes. A crime against +the person, character or property of an individual or family was +regarded as a thing for which reparation should be made, but the +individual or family had to seek the reparation by a personal +action. This differed from a civil action only in the terms +employed and the elements used in calculating the amount of +the reparation. The function of a judge in a criminal as in a +civil action was to see that the facts, with modifying circumstances, +were fully and truly submitted to him, and then by +applying the law to these facts to ascertain and declare the +amount of compensation that would make a legal adjustment. +For this amount the guilty person, and in his default his kindred, +became legally debtor, and the injured person or family became +entitled to recover the amount like a civil debt by distraint, if +not paid voluntarily. There were no police, sheriffs or public +prisons. The decisions of the law were executed by the persons +concerned, supported by a highly organized and disciplined +public opinion springing from honour and interest and inherent +in the solidarity of the clan. There is good reason to believe +that the system was as effectual in the prevention and punishment +of crime and in the redress of wrongs as any other human +contrivance has ever been.</p> + +<p>In calculating the amount of compensation the most characteristic +and important element was <i>Einechlan</i> (= honour-price, +honour-value), a value attaching to every free person, varying +in amount from one cow to thirty cows according to rank. It was +the assessed value of <i>status</i> or <i>caput</i>. It was frequently of consequence +in relation to contracts and other clan affairs; but it +emerges most clearly in connexion with crime. By the commission +of crime, breach of contract, or other disgraceful or injurious +conduct, Einechlan was diminished or destroyed, a <i>capitis +diminutio</i> occurred, apart from any other punishment. Though +existing apart from fine, Einechlan was the first element in almost +every fine. <i>Dire</i> was the commonest word for fine, whether great +or small. <i>Eric</i> (= reparation, redemption) was the fine for +“separating body from soul”; but the term was used in lighter +cases also. In capital cases the word sometimes meant Einechlan, +sometimes <i>coirp-dire</i> (= body-fine), but most correctly the sum +of these two. It may be taken that, subject to modifying circumstances, +a person guilty of homicide had to pay (i) <i>coirp-dire</i> +for the destruction of life, irrespective of rank; (2) the honour-value +of the victim; (3) his own honour-value if the deed was +unintentional; and (4) double his own honour-value if committed +with malice aforethought. The sum of these was in all cases +heavy; heaviest when the parties were wealthy. The amount +was recoverable as a debt from the criminal to the extent of his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span> +property, and in his default from the members of his <i>fine</i> in sums +determined by the degree of relationship; and it was distributable +among the members of the <i>fine</i> of a murdered person in the +same proportions, like a distribution among the next of kin. +The <i>fine</i> of a murderer could free themselves from liability by +giving up the murderer and his goods, or if he escaped, by giving +up any goods he had left, depriving him of clanship, and lodging +a pledge against his future misdeeds. In these circumstances +the law held the criminal’s life forfeit, and he might be slain or +taken as a prisoner or slave. He could escape only by becoming +a <i>daer-fuidhir</i> in some distant territory. When the effect of a +crime did not go beyond an individual, if that individual’s <i>fine</i> +did not make good their claim while the criminal lived, it lapsed +on his death. “The crime dies with the criminal.” If an unknown +stranger or person without property caught red-handed +in the commission of a crime refused to submit to arrest, it was +lawful to maim or slay him according to the magnitude of the +attempted crime. “A person who came to inflict a wound on +the body may be safely killed when unknown and without a +name, and when there is no power to arrest him at the time of +committing the trespass.” For crimes against property the +usual penalty, as in breach of contract, was generic restitution, +the quantity, subject to modifying circumstances, being twice +the amount taken or destroyed.</p> + +<p>Distress of seizure of property being the universal mode of +obtaining satisfaction, whether for crime, breach of contract, +non-payment of debt, or any other cause, the law of distress +came into operation as the solvent of almost every dispute. +Hence it is the most extensive and important branch, if not +more than a branch, of these ancient laws. Of several words +meaning distress, <i>athgabail</i> was the most frequently used. A +person having a liquidated claim might either sue a debtor or +proceed at his peril to seize without this preliminary. In the +latter case the defendant could stop the progress of the seizure +by paying the debt, giving a pledge, or demanding a trial; and +he then could choose a Brehon. Distress was of two kinds—(1) +<i>athgabal ar fut</i> (= distress on length, <i>i.e.</i> with time, with +delays); and (2) <i>athgabail tulla</i> (= immediate distress). Which +method was pursued depended partly upon the facts of the case +and partly upon the respective ranks of the parties. A person +entitled to seize property had to do it himself, accompanied, if +the amount was large, by a law agent and witnesses. No man +was entitled to seize unless he owned, or had a surety who owned, +sufficient property for indemnity or adjustment in case the +seizure should be found to have been wrongful. The formalities +varied in different circumstances and also at different times in +the long ages in which these laws prevailed. Some forms may, +in the Irish as in other legal systems, have become merely ceremonial +and fictitious.</p> + +<p><i>Tellach</i> (= seizure of immovable property) was made in three +periods or delays of ten days each (= 30 days). The first step +was a notice that unless the debt was paid immediately seizure +would be made. Ten days later, the plaintiff crossed the fence +in upon the land, with a law agent, a witness and a pair of +horses yoked or harnessed, and in a loud voice stated the amount +of the debt and called upon the defendant to pay it according +to law. On receiving no answer, or an unsatisfactory one, he +withdrew. After an interval of ten days more, the creditor +entered with his law agent, two witnesses and four horses, went +farther in upon the land, repeated his demand, and if refused +withdrew. Finally, after a further interval of ten days, he +entered once more with his law agent, three witnesses and eight +horses, drove up to the debtor’s house, repeated his demand, and +if not satisfied drove a herd of cattle or a flock of sheep in upon +the farm and left men to care for them.</p> + +<p><i>Athgabail</i> ordinarily meant the seizure of movable property. +The following technical terms will indicate the procedure in +distress with time:—<i>Aurfocre</i> (= demand of payment, stating +the amount in presence of witnesses); <i>apad</i> (= delay); <i>athgabail</i> +(= the actual seizure); <i>anad</i> (= delay after seizure, the thing +remaining in the debtor’s possession); <i>toxal</i> (= the taking away +of the thing seized); <i>fasc</i> (= notice to the debtor of the amount +due, the <i>mainder</i> or pound in which the thing seized is impounded, +and the name of the law agent); <i>dithim</i> (= delay during which +the thing is in pound); <i>lobad</i> (= destruction or forfeiture of the +debtor’s ownership and substitution of the creditor’s ownership). +There was no sale, because sale for money was little known. +The property in the thing seized, to the amount of the debt and +expenses, became legally transferred from the debtor to the +creditor, not all at once but in stages fixed by law. A creditor +was not at liberty to seize household goods, farming utensils, +or any goods the loss of which would prevent the debtor recovering +from embarrassment, so long as there was other property +which could be seized. A seizure could be made only between sunrise +and sunset. “If a man who is sued evades justice, +knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable +by him and a fine of five seds.” When a large debt was clearly +due, and there was no property to seize, the debtor himself could +be seized and compelled to work as a prisoner or slave until the +debt was paid.</p> + +<p>When a defendant was of rank superior to that of the plaintiff, +distress had to be preceded by <i>troscad</i> (= fasting). This is a +legal process unknown elsewhere except in parts of India. The +plaintiff having made his demand and waited a certain time +without result, went and sat without food before the door of +the defendant. To refuse to submit to fasting was considered +indelibly disgraceful, and was one of the things which legally +degraded a man by reducing or destroying his honour-value. +The law said “he who does not give a pledge to fasting is an +evader of all; he who disregards all things shall not be paid by +God or man.” If a plaintiff having duly fasted did not receive +within a certain time the satisfaction of his claim, he was entitled +to distrain as in the case of an ordinary defendant, and to seize +double the amount that would have satisfied him in the first +instance. If a person fasting in accordance with law died during +or in consequence of the fast, the person fasted upon was held +guilty of murder. Fasting could be stopped by paying the debt, +giving a pledge, or submitting to the decision of a Brehon. A +creditor fasting after a reasonable offer of settlement had been +made to him forfeited his claim. “He who fasts notwithstanding +the offer of what should be accorded to him, forfeits his legal +right according to the decision of the Feini.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Since Sir Samuel Ferguson wrote his article on +“Brehon Laws” in the 9th edition of this <i>Encyclopaedia</i>, much research +has been done on the subject, and Ferguson’s account is no longer +accepted by scholars, either as regards the language or the substance +of the laws. Pending the work of a second Brehon Law Commission, +the Laws are best studied in the six imperfect volumes (<i>Ancient +Laws of Ireland</i>, 1865-1901) produced by the first Commission +(ignoring their long and worthless introductions), together with, +Dr. Whitley Stokes’s <i>Criticism</i> (London, Nutt, 1903) of Atkinson’s +<i>Glossary</i> (Dublin, 1901). The following are important references +(kindly supplied by Dr Whitley Stokes) for detailed research:— +R. Dareste, <i>Études d’histoire de droit</i>, pp. 356-381 (Paris, 1889); +Arbois de Jubainville and Paul Collinet, <i>Études sur le droit celtique</i> +(2 vols., Paris, 1895); Joyce, <i>Social History of Ancient Ireland</i>, +vol. i. pp. 168-214 (2 vols., London, 1903); <i>Zeitschrift für celtische +Philologie</i>, iv. 221, the Copenhagen fragments of the Laws (Halle, +1903); important letters in <i>The Academy</i>, Nos. 699, 700, 701, 702, +703, 704, 706, 707 (substantially covered by Stokes’s <i>Criticism</i>); +<i>Revue Celtique</i>, xxv. 344; <i>Erin</i>, i. 209-315 (collation by Kuno Meyer +of the Law-tract Crith Gablach); Maine’s <i>Early Hist, of Institutions</i> +(1875) and <i>Early Law and Custom</i>, pp. 162, 180 (1883); Hearn’s +<i>Aryan Household</i> (1879), and Maclennan’s <i>Studies in Ancient History</i>, +pp. 453-507 (1876), contain interesting general reference, but the +writers were not themselves original students of the laws. L. +Ginnell’s <i>Brehon Laws</i> (1894) may also be consulted. See further +the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>, sections <i>Language</i> and <i>Literature</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREISACH,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Altbreisach</span>, a town of Germany, in the +grand duchy of Baden, on the left bank of the Rhine, standing +on a basalt rock 250 ft. above the river, 10 m. W. of Freiburg-im-Breisgau, +and on the railway connecting that city with Colmar. +Pop. (1900) 3537. It has a fine minster, partly Romanesque, +partly Gothic, dating from the 10th to the 15th centuries; of +its two principal towers one is 13th century Gothic, the other +Romanesque. The interior is remarkable for its rich decorations, +especially the wood-carving of the high altar, and for many +interesting tombs and pictures. There is little industry, but a +considerable trade is done in wines and other agricultural +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span> +produce. On the opposite bank of the Rhine, here crossed by a +railway bridge, lies the little town of Neubreisach and the fort +Mortier.</p> + +<p>Breisach (<i>Brisiacum</i>), formerly an imperial city and until the +middle of the 18th century one of the chief fortresses of the +Empire, is of great antiquity. A stronghold of the <i>Sequani</i> +(a Gallic tribe, which occupied the country of the Doubs and +Burgundy), it was captured in the time of Julius Caesar by +Ariovistus and became known as the <i>Mons Brisiacus</i>. Fortified +by the emperor Valentian in 369 to defend the Rhine against the +Germans, it retained its position throughout the middle ages as +one of the chief bulwarks of Germany and was called the “cushion +and key (<i>Kissen und Schlussel</i>) of the German empire.” Its +importance was such that it gave its name to the district Breisgau, +in which it is situated. In 939 it was taken by the emperor +Otto I., and after remaining in the exclusive possession of the +emperors for two centuries, was strengthened and shared for a +while between them and the bishops of Basel. In 1254 and 1262 +the bishops obtained full control over it; but in 1275 it was +made an imperial city by King Rudolph I., and at the beginning +of the 14th century his son brought it definitively into the possession +of the Habsburg monarchs, leaving the bishops but few +privileges. In the Thirty Years’ War Breisach successfully +resisted the Swedes, but after a memorable siege and a defence +by General von Reisach, one of the most famous in military +annals, it was forced to capitulate to Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar +on the 18th of December 1638. The endeavours of the +emperor Ferdinand III. to retake it were fruitless, and by the +peace of Westphalia (1648) Breisach was annexed to France. +By the peace of Ryswick (1697) it was restored to Austria, when +Louis XIV. built the town and fortress of Neubreisach on the +left bank of the Rhine. Again in 1703 it fell into the hands of +the French, owing to treachery, but was ceded to Austria by the +peace of Rastatt (1714)—Yet again, in the War of the Austrian +Succession, it was captured (1744) by the French, who dismantled +the fortifications. They refortified it in 1796, and after passing, +by the peace of Lunéville (1801), together with the Breisgau to +the duke of Modena, Breisach was by the peace of Pressburg +(1805) finally incorporated with Baden, when the fortifications +were razed. During the Franco-German War (1870) Breisach +suffered severely from bombardment directed against it from +Neubreisach.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREISGAU,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a district of Germany, in the grand duchy of +Baden. It extends along the right bank of the Rhine from Basel +to Kehl, and includes the principal peaks of the southern Black +Forest and the Freiburg valley. The Breisgau, originally a <i>pagus</i> +or <i>gau</i> of the Frankish empire, was ruled during the middle ages +by hereditary counts. Of these the earliest recorded is Birtilo +(962-995), ancestor of the counts and dukes of Zähringen. +On the death of Berchthold V. of Zähringen in 1218, his coheiresses +brought parts of the Breisgau to the counts of Urach +and Kyburg, while part went to the margraves of Baden. At +the close of the 13th century the Kyburg part of the Breisgau +passed to the Habsburgs, who in 1368 acquired also the town +and countship of Freiburg, which had been sold by the counts +of Urach to the Freiburgers and given in pledge by them to the +house of Austria in exchange for a loan of the purchase price, +which they were unable to repay. The male Urach line becoming +extinct in 1457, an heiress carried what remained of their possessions +in the Breisgau to the house of Baden. In the struggle +between France and Austria from the 17th century onwards the +Breisgau frequently changed masters. In 1801 Austria was +forced to cede it to Ercole III., duke of Modena, in compensation +for the duchy of which Napoleon had deprived him. His successor +Ferdinand took the title of duke of Modena-Breisgau, but +on his death in 1805 the Breisgau was divided between Baden +and Württemberg. The latter ceded its portion to Baden in 1810.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Stokvis, <i>Manuel d’histoire, &c.</i> (Leiden, 1890-1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREISLAK, SCIPIONE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1748-1826), Italian geologist of +German parentage, was born at Rome in 1748. He early distinguished +himself as professor of mathematical and mechanical +philosophy in the college of Ragusa; but after residing there for +several years he returned to his native city, where he became a +professor in the Collegio Nazareno, and began to form the fine +mineralogical cabinet in that institution. His leisure was +dedicated to geological researches in the papal states. His +account of the aluminous district of Tolfa and adjacent hills, +published in 1786, gained for him the notice of the king of Naples, +who invited him to inspect the mines and similar works in that +kingdom, and appointed him professor of mineralogy to the +royal artillery. The vast works for the refining of sulphur in the +volcanic district of Solfatara were erected under his direction. +He afterwards made many journeys through the ancient Campania +to illustrate its geology, and published in 1798 his <i>Topografia +fisica della Campania</i>, which contains the results of much +accurate observation. Breislak also published an essay on the +physical condition of the seven hills of Rome, which he regarded +as the remains of a local volcano,—an opinion shown to be +erroneous by the later researches of G.B. Brocchi. The political +convulsions of Italy in 1799 brought Breislak to Paris, where he +remained until 1802, when, being appointed inspector of the +saltpetre and powder manufactories near Milan, he removed to +that city. The mineral Breislakite was named after him. He +died on the 15th of February 1826. His other publications +include:—<i>Introduzione alla geologia</i> (1811, French ed. 1819); +<i>Traité sur la structure extérieure du globe</i>, 3 vols. and atlas +(Milan, 1818, 1822); <i>Descrizione geologica della provincia di +Milano</i> (1822).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREITENFELD,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a village of Germany in the kingdom of +Saxony, 5½ m. N.N.W. of Leipzig, noted in military history. +The first battle of Breitenfeld was fought on the 17th of September +1631, between the allied Swedish and Saxon armies +under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperial forces under Count +Tilly. The battlefield is a low ridge running east and west +between the villages of Göbschelwitz and Breitenfeld, the +position of the Imperialists lying along the crest from Göbschelwitz +on the right to a point about 1 m. short of Breitenfeld on +the left; opposite this position, and behind a group of villages +on the Loberbach stream, lay the Swedish forces, flanked on +their left by the Saxon contingent under the elector, who was +assisted by Arnim. The villages formed the only obstacle on +the gentle slope lying between the Loberbach and Tilly’s line; +through these villages the Swedes defiled slowly, and formed up +on the open ground beyond them. Tilly’s army was drawn up +in a continuous line, the infantry ranged in heavy battalions in +the centre, the cavalry on the wings, and the heavy artillery in a +mass in front of the infantry. Gustavus arrayed the Swedes in +two lines and a reserve, infantry in the centre, cavalry on the +flanks, and the Saxons were drawn up in a similar formation on +the left of the Swedish left-wing cavalry. So far as can be gauged +the respective numbers were at least 32,000 Imperialists, 22,000 +Swedes and 15,000 Saxons. The Swedish infantry was drawn +up on an entirely novel system; each brigade of infantry, composed +of several battalions, was formed in many small and handy +corps of pikemen and musketeers, and parties of musketeers were +also detached to support the cavalry. The guns were scattered +along the front. The Saxons were ranged, like Tilly’s army, in +heavy masses of foot and horse preceded by a great battery of +guns. At 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> Pappenheim, commanding Tilly’s left wing, +led forward the whole of his cavalry in a furious charge. Feeling +the fire of the musketeers who were intercalated amongst the +Swedish horse, Pappenheim swung round to his left and charged +the Swedish right wing in flank. The Swedes of both lines +promptly wheeled up, and after a prolonged conflict the Imperial +horse were driven completely off the field. The attack of Tilly’s +right wing under Fürstenberg directed against the Saxons was +more successful. The Saxons were at once broken and routed, +only a handful under Arnim maintaining the ground. Fürstenberg +pursued the fugitives for many miles, and Tilly with the +centre of infantry (which, considering the depth of its formations, +must have possessed great manoeuvring power) rapidly followed +him and formed up opposite the now exposed left of the Swedes. +Thereupon the Swedes, in their light and handy formation, +changed position rapidly and easily to meet him. Tilly’s attack +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span> +was strenuously opposed, and at this moment the decisive stroke +of the battle was delivered by the Swedish right wing, which, +having disposed of Pappenheim, swung round and occupied the +ground originally held by the Imperial infantry, seized Tilly’s +guns, and with them enfiladed the enemy’s new line. This put +an end to the attack of the Imperial foot, and before sunset Tilly +was in full retreat, hotly pursued and losing heavily in prisoners. +His losses on the field have been estimated at 7000 killed and +wounded and almost as many prisoners; the Swedes lost about +2000 and the Saxons over 4000 men.</p> + +<p>The village of Breitenfeld also gives its name to another great +battle in the Thirty Years’ War (November 2, 1642), in which +the Swedes under Torstensson defeated the Imperialists under +the archduke Leopold and Prince Piccolomini, who were seeking +to relieve Leipzig. The Swedish cavalry decided the day on this +occasion also.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREMEN,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a free state in the German empire, bearing the title +<i>Freie Hansestadt Bremen</i>. It falls into three distinct parts: +(1) the largest portion, with the city of Bremen, lying on both +banks, but chiefly on the right, of the lower course of the Weser, +surrounded by the Prussian province of Hanover and the grand-duchy +of Oldenburg, and consisting in the main of lowland +country intersected by canals and dykes; (2) the town and +district of Vegesack, lying separate from, but immediately north +of the main portion, on the right bank of the river; (3) the port +of Bremerhaven, 46 m. down the Weser, at its mouth. Of the +whole territory, which has an area of 99 sq. m., about one-half +is meadow and grazing land, one-quarter under tillage, and the +remainder occupied by a little woodland, some unprofitable +sandy wastes, the bed of the Weser and the towns. Market +gardening, the rearing of cattle, for which the district is widely +famed, and fishing, form the chief occupations of the rural +population. The climate is mild, but the rainfall (26.9 in. +annually on the average) is relatively considerable. The population +is shown as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1900</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bremen, city</td> <td class="tcr rb">186,822</td> <td class="tcr rb">214,953</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vegesack</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,943</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,130</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bremerhaven</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,315</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,159</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rural districts</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,327</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,431</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">248,407</td> <td class="tcr allb">263,673</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Of the inhabitants, who belong to the Lower Saxon (<i>Nieder-Sachsen</i>) +race and in daily intercourse mostly speak the Low +German (<i>Plattdeutsch</i>) dialect, about two-thirds are natives of +the state and one-third immigrants from other parts of Germany, +chiefly from Hanover and Oldenburg. About 93% are Protestants, +6% Roman Catholics, and only ½% Jews. The form +of government is that of a republic, under a constitution proclaimed +on the 8th of March 1849, revised on the 21st of February +1854, the 17th of November 1875, and the 1st of January 1894. +The sovereignty resides jointly in the senate and the Bürgerschaft, +or Convent of Burgesses. The senate, which is the executive +power, is composed of sixteen life members, elected by the +convent, on presentation by the senate. Of these ten at least +must be lawyers and three merchants. Two of the number +are nominated by their colleagues as burgomasters, who preside +in succession for a year at a time and hold office four years, one +retiring every two years. The Bürgerschaft consists of 150 +(formerly 300) representatives, chosen by the citizens for six +years, and forms the legislative body. Fourteen members are +elected by such citizens of Bremen (city) as have enjoyed a +university education, forty by the merchants, twenty by the +manufacturers and artisans, and forty-eight by the other citizens. +Of the remaining representatives, twelve are furnished by Bremerhaven +and Vegesack and sixteen by the rural districts. As a +member of the German empire, the state of Bremen has one voice +in the Bundesrat and returns one member to the Imperial diet +(Reichstag). Formerly Bremen was a free port, but from the 1st +of October 1888 the whole of the state, with the exception of two +small free districts in Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively, +joined the German customs union. The state has two Amtsgerichte +(courts of first instance) at Bremen and Bremerhaven +respectively, and a superior court, Landgericht, at Bremen, +whence appeals lie to the Oberlandesgericht for the Hanseatic +towns in Hamburg. The judges of the Bremen courts are +appointed by a committee of members of the senate, the Bürgerschaft +and the bench of judges. By the convention with Prussia +of the 27th of June 1867, the free state surrendered its right to +furnish its own contingent to the army, the recruits being after +that time drafted into the Hanseatic infantry regiment, forming +a portion of the Prussian IX. army corps.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREMEN,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a city of Germany, capital of the free state of +Bremen, and one of the Hanseatic towns. It lies on a sandy +plain on both banks of the Weser, 46 m. from the North Sea and +71 m. S.W. from Hamburg by rail, on the mainline to Cologne. +Pop. (1905) 214,953. It has also direct railway communication +with Berlin via Uelzen, Hanover and Bremerhaven. The city +consists of four quarters,—the old town (Altstadt) and its +suburban extensions (Vorstadt) being on the right bank of the +river, and the new town (Neustadt) with its southern suburb +(Südervorstadt) on the left bank. The river is crossed by three +bridges, the old, the new (1872-1875) Kaiserbrücke, and the +railway bridge, with a gangway for foot passengers. The +ramparts of the old town have long been converted into beautiful +promenades and gardens, the moats forming a chain of lakes.</p> + +<p>The romantic old town, with its winding streets and lanes, +flanked by massive gabled houses, dates from the medieval days +of Hanseatic prosperity. On the market square stands the fine +town hall (Rathaus), dating from the 15th century, with a handsome +Renaissance <i>façade</i> of a somewhat later date, and before it +a stone statue of Roland, the emblem of civic power. Its celebrated +underground wine cellar has been immortalized by Wilhelm +Hauff in his <i>Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller</i>. The town hall +is internally richly embellished and has a gallery of interesting +paintings. In an upper hall a model of an old Hanseatic frigate, +with the device <i>Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse</i>, hangs +from the ceiling. Among other ancient buildings, situated +chiefly in the old town, are the following:—the cathedral of +St Peter (formerly the archiepiscopal and now the Lutheran +parish church), erected in the 12th century on the site of Charlemagne’s +wooden church, and famous for its Bleikeller, or lead +vault, in which bodies can be preserved for a long time without +suffering decomposition; the church of St Ansgarius, built about +1243, with a spire 400 ft. high; the church of Our Lady, dating +from the 12th and 13th centuries; the 12th century Romanesque +church of St Stephen; the Schütting, or merchants’ hall, originally +built in 1619 for the cloth-traders’ gild; the Stadthaus (town +house), formerly the archiepiscopal palace, and converted to its +present uses only in 1819. The most important and imposing +among the more modern architectural additions to the city are +the handsome Gothic exchange, completed in 1867, the municipal +theatre, the municipal library, the post office (1878), the law +courts (1891-1895), the wool exchange, the German bank, the +municipal museum for natural science, ethnology and commerce, +and the fine railway station (1888). The principal memorials +embrace, besides the Roland, the Willehad fountain (1883), the +monument of the Franco-German War (erected 1875), the centaur +fountain (1891), an equestrian statue of the emperor William I. +(1893), and a statue of the poet Theodor Körner. A beautiful +park, Bürgerpark, has been laid out in the Bürgerweide, or +meadows, lying beyond the railway station to the north-east of +the city. It is a peculiarity of the domestic accommodation of +Bremen that the majority of the houses, unlike the custom in +most other German towns, where flats prevail, are occupied by +a single family only.</p> + +<p>The industries and manufactures of Bremen are of considerable +variety and extent, but are more particularly developed in such +branches as are closely allied to navigation, such as shipbuilding, +founding, engine-building and rope-making. Next in importance +come those of tobacco, snuff, cigars, the making of cigar boxes, +jute-spinning, distilling, sugar refining and the shelling of rice. +Bremen owes its fame almost exclusively to its transmaritime +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span> +trade, mainly imports. By the completion of the engineering +works on the Weser in 1887-1899, whereby, among other improvements, +the river was straightened and deepened, to 18 ft., +large ocean-going vessels are able to steam right up to the city +itself. It has excellent railway connexions with the chief +industrial districts of Germany. Like Hamburg, it does predominantly +a transit trade; it is especially important as the +importer of raw products from America. In two articles, tobacco +and rice, Bremen is the greatest market in the world; in cotton +and indigo it takes the first place on the continent, and it is a +serious rival of Hamburg and Antwerp in the import of wool +and petroleum. The value of the total imports (both sea-borne +and by river and rail) increased from £22,721,700 in 1883 to +about £60,000,000 in 1905; the imports from the United States, +from £9,755,000 in 1883 to about £25,000,000 in 1905. The +countries from which imports principally come are the United +States, England, Germany, Russia, the republics of South +America, the Far East and Australia. The exports rose from +a total of £26,096,500 in 1883 to £62,000,000 in 1905. The +number of vessels which entered the ports of the free state (<i>i.e.</i> +Bremen city, Bremerhaven and Vegesack) increased from 2869 +of 1,258,529 aggregate tonnage in 1883, to 4024 of 2,716,633 tons +in 1900. Bremen is the centre for some of the more important +of the German shipping companies, especially of the North +German Lloyd (founded in 1856), which, on the 1st of January +1905, possessed a fleet of 382 steamers of 693,892 tons, besides +lighters and similar craft. Bremen also shares with Hamburg +the position of being one of the two chief emigration ports of +Germany. There are three docks, all to the north-west of the +city—namely, the free harbour (which was opened in 1888), the +winter harbour, and the timber and industrial harbour. Internal +communication is served by an excellent system of electric +tramways, and there is also a local steamboat service with +neighbouring villages on the Weser.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—According to Brandes, quoting Martin Luther in +the <i>Lexicon Philologicum</i>, the name is derived from <i>Bram, Bräm, +i.e. hem</i> = the river-bank, or confine of the land on which it was +built. In 787 Bremen was chosen by St Willehad, whom Charlemagne +had established as bishop in the <i>pagi</i> of the lower Weser, +as his see. In 848 the destruction of Hamburg by the Normans +led to the transference of the archiepiscopal see of Hamburg to +Bremen, which became the seat of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen. +In 965 the emperor Otto I. granted to Archbishop +Adaldag “in the place called Bremen” (<i>in loco Bremun nuncupato</i>) +the right to establish a market, and the full administrative, +fiscal and judicial powers of a count, no one but the bishop or his +<i>advocatus</i> being allowed to exercise authority in the city. This +privilege, by which the archbishop was lord of the city and his +<i>Vogt</i> its judge, was frequently confirmed by subsequent emperors, +ending under Frederick I. in 1158. Though, however, there is no +direct evidence of the existence of any communal organization +during this period, it is clear from the vigorous part taken by +the burghers in the struggle of the emperor Frederick with Henry +the Lion of Saxony that some such organization very early +existed. Yet in the <i>privilegium</i> granted to the townspeople by +Frederick I. in 1186 the emperor had done no more than +guarantee them their personal liberties. The earliest recognition +of any civic organization they may have possessed they owed to +Archbishop Hartwig II. (1184-1207), who had succeeded in +uniting against him his chapter, the nobles and the citizens; and +the first mention of the city council occurs in a charter of Archbishop +Gerhard II. in 1225, though the <i>consules</i> here named +doubtless represented a considerably older institution. In the +13th century, however, whatever the civic organization of the +townsfolk may have been, it was still strictly subordinate to the +archbishop and his <i>Vogt</i>; the council could issue regulations +only with the consent of the former, while in the judicial work of +the latter, save in small questions of commercial dishonesty, +its sole function was advisory. By the middle of the 14th century +this situation was exactly reversed; the elected town council +was the supreme legislative power in all criminal and civil causes, +and in the court of the <i>advocatus</i> two <i>Ratsmänner</i> sat as assessors. +The victory had been won over the archbishop; but a fresh peril +had developed in the course of the 13th century in the growth +of a patrician class, which, as in so many other cities, threatened +to absorb all power into the hands of a close oligarchy. In 1304 +the commonalty rose against the patricians and drove them from +the city, and in the following year gained a victory over the exiles +and their allies, the knights, which was long celebrated by an +annual service of thanksgiving. This was the beginning of +troubles that lasted intermittently throughout the century. +Bremen had been admitted to the Hanseatic league in 1283, +but was excluded in 1285, and not readmitted until 1358. Owing +to the continued civic unrest it was again excluded in 1427, and +only readmitted in 1433 when the old aristocratic constitution +was definitively restored. But though in Bremen the efforts of +the craftsmen’s “arts” to secure a share of power had been held +in check and the gilds never gained any importance, the city +government did not, as at Cologne and elsewhere, develop into +a close patrician oligarchy. Power was in the hands of the +wealthy, but the avenues to power were open to those who knew +how to acquire the necessary qualification. There was thus no +artificial restraint put upon individual enterprise, and the +question of the government having been settled, Bremen rapidly +developed in wealth and influence.</p> + +<p>The Reformation was introduced into Bremen in 1522 by +Heinrich von Zütphen. Archbishop Christopher of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel +(1487-1558), a brutal libertine, hated for his lusts +and avarice, looked on the reforming movement as a revolt against +himself. He succeeded in getting the reformer burned; but +found himself involved in a life and death struggle with the city. +In 1532 Bremen joined the league of Schmalkalden, and twice +endured a siege by the imperial forces. In 1547 it was only saved +by Mansfeld’s victory at Drakenburg. Archbishop Christopher +was succeeded in 1558 by his brother Georg, bishop of Minden +(d. 1566), who, though he himself was instrumental in introducing +the reformed model into his other diocese of Verden, is reckoned +as the last Roman Catholic archbishop of Bremen. His successor, +Henry III. (1550-1585), a son of Duke Francis I. of Lauenburg, +who had been bishop of Osnabrück and Paderborn, was a +Lutheran and married. Protestantism was not, however, +definitively proclaimed as the state religion in Bremen until 1618. +The last archbishop, Frederick II. (of Denmark), was deposed by +the Swedes in 1644. In 1646 Bremen received the privileges +of a free imperial city from the emperor Ferdinand III.; but +Sweden, whose possession of the archbishopric was recognized +two years later, refused to consent to this, and in 1666 attempted +vainly to assert her claims over the city by arms—in the so-called +Bremen War. When, however, in 1720 the elector of +Hanover (George I. of Great Britain) acquired the archbishopric, +he recognized Bremen as a free city. In 1803 this was again +recognized and the territory of the city was even extended. In +1806 it was taken by the French, was subsequently annexed by +Napoleon to his empire, and from 1810 to 1813 was the capital +of the department of the Mouths of the Weser. Restored to +independence by the congress of Vienna in 1815, it subsequently +became a member of the German Confederation, and in 1867 +joined the new North German Confederation, with which it +was merged in the new German empire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Buchenau, <i>Die freie Hansestadt Bremen</i> (3rd ed., Bremen, +1900, 5 vols.); <i>Bremisches Urkundenbuch</i>, edited by R. Ehmck +and W. von Bippen (1863, fol.); W. von Bippen, <i>Geschichte der +Stadt Bremen</i> (Bremen, 1892-1898); F. Donandt, <i>Versuch einer +Geschichte des bremischen Stadtrechts</i> (Bremen, 1830, 2 vols.); +<i>Bremisches Jahrbuch</i> (historical, 19 vols., 1864-1900); and Karl +Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden</i>, vol. ii. p. 461 (Leipzig, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREMER, FREDRIKA<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1801-1865), Swedish novelist, was +born near Åbo, in Finland, on the 17th of August 1801. Her +father, a descendant of an old German family, a wealthy iron +master and merchant, left Finland when Fredrika was three +years old, and after a year’s residence in Stockholm, purchased an +estate at Årsta, about 20 m. from the capital. There, with occasional +visits to Stockholm and to a neighbouring estate, which +belonged for a time to her father, Fredrika passed her time till +1820. The education to which she and her sisters were subjected +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span> +was unusually strict; Fredrika’s health began to give way; +and in 1821 the family set out for the south of France. They +travelled slowly by way of Germany and Switzerland, and +returned by Paris and the Netherlands. It was shortly after this +time that Miss Bremer became acquainted with Schiller’s works, +which made a very deep impression on her. She had begun to +write verses from the age of eight, and in 1828 she succeeded +in finding a publisher for the first volume of her <i>Teckningar ur +hvardagslifvet</i> (1828), which at once attracted attention. The +second volume (1831), containing one of her best tales, <i>Familjen +H.</i>, gave decisive evidence that a real novelist had been found in +Sweden. The Swedish Academy awarded her their smaller gold +medal, and she increased her reputation by <i>Presidentens döttrar</i> +(1834), <i>Grannarne</i> (1837) and others. Her father had died in +1830, and her life was thereafter regulated in accordance with her +own wishes and tastes. She lived for some years in Norway with +a friend, after whose death she travelled in the autumn of 1849 +to America, and after spending nearly two years there returned +through England. The admirable translations (1846, &c.) of her +works by Mary Howitt, which had been received with even greater +eagerness in America and England than in Sweden, secured for +her a warm and kindly reception. Her impressions of America, +<i>Hemmen i nya verlden</i>, were published in 1853-1854, and at +once translated into English. After her return Miss Bremer +devoted herself to her scheme for the advancement and emancipation +of women. Her views on these questions were expounded in +her later novels—<i>Hertha</i> (1856) and <i>Far och dotter</i> (1858). Miss +Bremer organized a society of ladies in Stockholm for the purpose +of visiting the prisons, and during the cholera started a society, +the object of which was the care of children left orphans by the +epidemic. She devoted herself to other philanthropic and social +schemes, and gradually abandoned her earlier simple and charming +type of story for novels directed to the furtherance of her +views. In these she was less successful. In 1856 she again +travelled, and spent five years on the continent and in Palestine. +Her reminiscences of these countries have all been translated into +English. On her return she settled at Årsta, where, with the +exception of a visit to Germany, she spent the remaining years of +her life. She died on the 31st of December 1865.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life, Letters and Posthumous Works of F. Bremer</i>, by her +sister, Charlotte Bremer, translated by F. Milow, London, 1868. +A selection of her works in 6 vols. appeared at Örebro, 1868-1872.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BREMERHAVEN,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a seaport town of Germany, in the free state +of Bremen, on the right bank and estuary of the Weser, at the +confluence of the Geeste, 38 m. N. of the city of Bremen by rail. +Pop. (1895) 18,366; (1905) 24,159. It is built on a tract of +territory ceded to Bremen by Hanover in 1826, and further +increased by treaty with Prussia in 1869. It forms practically +a single town with Geestemünde (Prussia), which lies across the +Geeste and with which it is connected by a drawbridge. The +port was opened in 1830, and besides an excellent harbour, there +are three large wet docks, including the Kaiserhafen, enlarged +in 1897-1899 at a cost of £900,000. This, together with the +north portion of the Neuerhafen, constitutes the free harbour. +Here are the workshops and dry docks of the North German +Lloyd steamship company. The whole internal harbour system +is furnished with powerful hydraulic cranes and lines of railway +running alongside the quays. The entrance to the port is free +from ice nearly all the year round, is excellently buoyed, and +lighted by two lightships and eight lighthouses, among the +latter the remarkable Rothesand Leuchtturm, erected 1884-1885. +The Hanoverian fort and batteries, which formerly protected the +town, have been removed, and their place is supplied by four +modern forts, with revolving turtleback turrets, lower down. +The town possesses two Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, +a technical institute, a natural history museum, a library, a +theatre, a monument to the emperor William I. and one to Johann +Smidt (1773-1859), the burgomaster of Bremen to whose enterprise +the harbour of Bremerhaven is due. Shipbuilding and +kindred industries are carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENDAN,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> <span class="sc">Brandon</span>, or <span class="sc">Brandan</span> (<i>c.</i> 484-578), Irish saint +and hero of a legendary voyage in the Atlantic, is said to have +been born at Tralee in Kerry in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 484. The Irish form of his +name is <i>Brennain</i>, the Latin <i>Brendanus</i>. Medieval historians +usually call him Brendan of Clonfert, or Brendan son of Finnloga, +to distinguish him from his contemporary, St Brendan of +Birr (573). Little is known of the historical Brendan, who died +in 578 as abbot of a Benedictine monastery which he had founded +twenty years previously at Clonfert in eastern Galway. The +story of his voyage across the Atlantic to the “Promised Land +of the Saints,” afterwards designated “St Brendan’s Island,” +ranks among the most celebrated of the medieval sagas of western +Europe. Its traditional date is 565-573. The legend is found, +in prose or verse and with many variations, in Latin, French, +English, Saxon, Flemish, Irish, Welsh, Breton and Scottish +Gaelic. Although it does not occur in the writings of any +Arabian geographer, several of its incidents—such as the landing +on a whale in mistake for an island—belong also to Arabic folk-literature. +Many of Brendan’s fabulous adventures seem to be +borrowed from the half-pagan Irish saga of Maelduin or Maeldune, +and others belong also to Scandinavian mythology. The oldest +extant version of the legend is the 11th century <i>Navigatio +Brendani.</i></p> + +<p>St Brendan’s island was long accepted as a reality by geographers. +In a Venetian map dated 1367, in the anonymous +Weimar map of 1424, and in B. Beccario’s map of 1435, it is +identified with Madeira. Columbus, in his journal for the 9th +of August 1492, states that the inhabitants of Hierro, Gomera +and Madeira had seen the island in the west; and Martin Behaim, +in the globe he made at Nuremberg in the same year, places it +west of the Canaries and near the equator. During the 16th +century the progress of exploration in these latitudes compelled +many cartographers to locate the island elsewhere; and it was +marked about 100 m. west of Ireland, or afterwards among the +West Indies. But in Spain and Portugal the older belief as to +its situation was maintained. In 1526 an expedition under +Fernando Alvarez left Grand Canary in search of St Brendan’s +island, which had again been reported as seen by many trustworthy +witnesses. In 1570 an official inquiry was held, and a +second expedition undertaken, by Fernando de Villalobos, +governor of Palma. Similar voyages of discovery were made by +the Canarians in 1604 and 1721; and only in 1759 was the +apparition of St Brendan’s island explained as an effect of +mirage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the numerous books which deal with the legend, the +following are important: <i>Die altfranzösische Prosaübersetzung von +Brendans Meerfahrt</i>, by C. Wahlund (Upsala, 1900); <i>La “Navigatio +Sancti Brendani” in antico Veneziano</i>, by F. Novati (Bergamo, +1892); <i>Zur Brendanus-Legende</i>, &c., by G. Schirmer (Leipzig, 1888); +<i>Les Voyages merveilleux de St. Brendan</i>, &c., by F. Michel (Paris, +1878); and <i>Acta Sancti Brendani.... Original Latin Documents +connected with the Life of St Brendan</i>, by P.F. Moran (Dublin, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENHAM,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Washington county, +Texas, U.S.A., situated in the S.E. part of the state, about 68 m. +N.W. of Houston. Pop. (1890) 5209; (1900) 5968, including +2701 negroes and 531 foreign-born; (1910) 4718. Brenham +is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé (controlled by the +Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé) and the Houston & Texas Central +railways. It is the seat of Blinn Memorial College (German +Methodist Episcopal), opened as “Mission Institute” in 1883, +and renamed in 1889 in honour of the Rev. Christian Blinn, of +New York, a liberal benefactor; of Brenham Evangelical +Lutheran College, and of a German-American institute (1898). +The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. The city +is situated in an agricultural and cotton-raising region, and has +cotton compresses and gins, cotton mills, cotton-seed oil refineries, +foundries and machine shops, and furniture and wagon +factories. Brenham was settled about 1844, was incorporated +in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENNER PASS,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> the lowest (4495 ft.) and one of the most +frequented passes across the Alps in all ages, though the name +itself rarely occurs in the middle ages, the route over it being +said to lie through “the valley of Trent.” It may be described +as the great gate of Italy, and by it most of the Teutonic tribes +made their way to Italy. One reason of its importance is that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span> +many side passes in the end join this great thoroughfare. It was +crossed no fewer than 66 times by various emperors, between +793 and 1402. A carriage road was constructed over it as far +back as 1772, while the railway over it was built in 1864-1867. +From Innsbruck to the summit of the pass is a distance by rail +of 25 m. The line then descends through the Eisack valley past +Brixen (34 m.) to Botzen (24 m.). Thence it follows the valley +of the Adige to Trent (35 m.) and on to Verona (56½ m.)—in all +174½ m. by rail from Innsbruck to Verona.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENNUS,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> the name, or perhaps the official title, of two chiefs +of the Celtic Gauls.</p> + +<p>(1) The first Brennus crossed the Apennines in 391 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +ravaged Etruria, and annihilated a Roman army of about 40,000 +men on the Allia some 12 m. from Clusium (July 16, 390). Rome +thus lay at his mercy, but he wasted time, and the Romans were +able to occupy and provision the Capitol (though they had not +sufficient forces to defend their walls) and to send their women +and children to Veii. When on the third day the Gauls took +possession, they found the city occupied only by those aged +patricians who had held high office in the state. For a while the +Gauls withheld their hands out of awe and reverence, but the +ruder passions soon prevailed. The city was sacked and burnt; +but the Capitol itself withstood a siege of more than six months, +saved from surprise on one occasion only by the wakefulness of +the sacred geese and the courage of Marcus Manlius. At last +the Gauls consented to accept a ransom of a thousand pounds of +gold. As it was being weighed out, the Roman tribune complained +of some unfairness. Brennus at once threw his heavy +sword into the scale; and when asked the meaning of the act, +replied that it meant <i>Vae victis</i> (“woe to the conquered”). +The Gauls returned home with their plunder, leaving Rome in a +condition from which she took long to recover. A later legend, +probably an invention, represents M. Furius Camillus as suddenly +appearing with an avenging army at the moment when the +gold was being weighed, and defeating Brennus and all his +host.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See null v. 33-49; Plutarch, <i>Camillus</i>, 17, 22, 28; Polybius i. 6, +ii. 18; Dion. Halic. xiii. 7.</p> +</div> + +<p>(2) The second Brennus is said to have been one of the leaders +of an inroad made by the Gauls from the east of the Adriatic into +Thrace and Macedonia (280), when they defeated and slew +Ptolemy Ceraunus, then king of Macedonia. Whether Brennus +took part in this first invasion or not is uncertain; but its success +led him to urge his countrymen to a second expedition, when he +marched with a large army through Macedonia and Thessaly +until he reached Thermopylae. To this point the united forces +of the northern Greeks—Athenians, Phocians, Boeotians and +Aetolians—had fallen back; and here the Greeks a second time +held their foreign invaders in check for many days, and a second +time had their rear turned, owing to the treachery of some of the +natives, by the same path which had been discovered to the +Persians two hundred years before. Brennus and his Gauls +marched on to Delphi, of whose sacred treasures they had heard +much. But the little force which the Delphians and their +neighbours had collected—about 4000 men—favoured by the +strength of their position, made a successful defence. They +rolled down rocks upon their enemies as they crowded into the +defile, and showered missiles on them from above. A thunderstorm, +with hail and intense cold, increased their confusion, and +on Brennus himself being wounded they took to flight, pursued +by the Greeks all the way back to Thermopylae. Brennus killed +himself, “unable to endure the pain of his wounds,” says Justin; +more probably determined not to return home defeated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Justin xxiv. 6; Diod. Sic. xxii. 11; Pausanias x. 19-23; +L. Contzen, <i>Die Wanderungen der Kelten</i> (Leipzig, 1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENTANO, KLEMENS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1778-1842), German poet and +novelist, was born at Ehrenbreitstein on the 8th of September +1778. His sister was the well-known Bettina von Arnim (<i>q.v.</i>), +Goethe’s correspondent. He studied at Jena, and afterwards +resided at Heidelberg, Vienna and Berlin. In 1818, weary of +his somewhat restless and unsettled life, he joined the Roman +Catholic Church and withdrew to the monastery of Dülmen +where he lived for some years in strict seclusion. The latter part +of his life he spent in Regensburg, Frankfort and Munich, actively +engaged in Catholic propaganda. He died at Aschaffenburg on +the 28th of July 1842. Brentano, whose early writings were +published under the pseudonym Maria, belonged to the Heidelberg +group of German romantic writers, and his works are marked +by excess of fantastic imagery and by abrupt, bizarre modes of +expression. His first published writings were <i>Satiren und poetische +Spiele</i> (1800), and a romance <i>Godwi</i> (1801-1802); of his +dramas the best are <i>Ponce de Leon</i> (1804), <i>Victoria</i> (1817) and +<i>Die Gründung Prags</i> (1815). On the whole his finest work is the +collection of <i>Romanzen vom Rosenkranz</i> (published posthumously +in 1852); his short stories, and more especially the charming +<i>Geschichte vom braven Kasperl und dem schönen Annerl</i> (1838), +which has been translated into English, are still popular. +Brentano also assisted Ludwig Achim von Arnim, his brother-in-law, +in the collection of folk-songs forming <i>Des Knaben Wunderhorn</i> +(1806-1808).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Brentano’s collected works, edited by his brother Christian, +appeared at Frankfort in 9 vols. (1851-1855). Selections have been +edited by J.B. Diel (1873), M. Koch (1892), and J. Dohmke +(1893). See J.B. Diel and W. Kreiten, <i>Klemens Brentano</i> (2 vols., +1877-1878), the introduction to Koch’s edition, and R. Steig, <i>A. von +Arnim und K. Brentano</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> [called <span class="sc">Lujo</span>] (1844-  ), +German economist, a member of the same family as the preceding, +was born at Aschaffenburg on the 18th of December 1844. +He received some of his academical education in Dublin. In 1868 +he made a thorough study of trade-unionism in England, which +resulted in his principal work, <i>Die Arbeitergilden der Gegenwart</i> +(Leipzig, 1871-1872; Eng. trans, by L.T. Smith). The book +was assailed by Bamberger and other economists, but is important +not only as an authority on modern associations of workmen, +but for having given an impetus to the study of the gilds of the +middle ages, and the examination of the great stores of neglected +information bearing upon the condition of the people in olden +days. Brentano’s other works are of a more theoretical character, +and chiefly relate to political economy, of which he was professor +at Breslau from 1872 to 1882, at Strassburg from 1882 to 1888, +at Vienna 1888-1889, at Leipzig 1889-1891, and at Munich since +1891. We may mention <i>Das Arbeitsverhältnis gemäss dem heutigen +Recht</i> (1877); <i>Die christlich-soziale Bewegung in England</i> (1883); +<i>Über das Verhältnis von Arbeitslohn und Arbeitszeit zur Arbeitsleistung</i> +(1893); <i>Agrarpolitik</i> (1897).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENTFORD,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a market town in the Brentford parliamentary +division of Middlesex, England, 10½ m. W. of Waterloo terminus, +London, by the London & South-Western railway, at the junction +of the river Brent with the Thames. Pop. of urban district (1901) +15,171. The Grand Junction Canal joins the Brent, affording +ample water-communications to the town, which has considerable +industries in brewing, soap-making, saw-milling, market-gardening, +&c. The Grand Junction waterworks are situated +here. Brentford has been the county-town for elections since +1701.</p> + +<p>In 1016 Brentford, or, as it was often called Braynford, was +the scene of a great defeat inflicted on the Danes by Edmund +Ironside. In 1280 a toll was granted by Edward I., who granted +the town a market, for the construction of a bridge across the +river, and in the reign of Henry VI. a hospital of the Nine Orders +of Angels was founded near its western side. In 1642 a battle +was fought here in which the royalists defeated the parliamentary +forces. For his services on this occasion the Scotsman Ruthven, +earl of Forth, was made earl of Brentford, a title afterwards +conferred by William III. on Marshal Schomberg. Brentford +was during the 16th and 17th centuries a favourite resort of +London citizens; and its inn of the Three Pigeons, which was +kept for a time by John Lowin, one of the first actors of Shakespeare’s +plays, is frequently alluded to by the dramatists of the +period. Falstaff is disguised as the “Fat Woman of Brentford” +in Shakespeare’s <i>Merry Wives of Windsor</i>, and numerous other +references to the town in literature point, in most cases, to its +reputation for excessive dirt. The “two kings of Brentford” +mentioned in Cowper’s <i>Task</i>, and elsewhere, seem to owe their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span> +mythical existence to the play, <i>The Rehearsal</i>, by George Villiers, +second duke of Buckingham, produced in 1671.</p> + +<p>South of Brentford, towards Isleworth, is Sion House, a mansion +founded by Lord Protector Somerset in 1547, and rebuilt +and enlarged by the 10th earl of Northumberland and Sir Hugh +Smithson, afterwards duke of Northumberland, the architects +being Inigo Jones and Robert Adam. The gardens are very +beautiful. The site of Sion or Syon House was previously +occupied by a convent of Bridgetine nuns established at Twickenham +by Henry V. in 1415 and removed here in 1431.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1770-1844), British admiral, +was born in Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the 22nd of August 1770. +He was the son of Rear-Admiral Jahleel Brenton (1729-1802), +who belonged to a loyalist family which suffered the loss of most +of its property in the insurrection of the American colonies. +He was a lieutenant in the British navy when the war began, +and emigrated with his family to the mother country. Three +of the sons entered the navy—Jahleel (the eldest), Captain +Edward Pelham Brenton (1774-1839), and James Wallace +Brenton, who was killed young in 1799 when attacking a Spanish +privateer near Barcelona in the boats of the “Petrel,” of which he +was lieutenant. Jahleel went to sea first with his father in 1781, +and on the return of peace was sent to the “maritime school” +at Chelsea. He served in the peace before the beginning of the +war in 1793, and passed his examination as lieutenant, but seeing +no chance of employment went with other English naval officers +to serve in the Swedish navy against the Russians. In 1790 +he received his commission and returned home. Till 1799 he +served as lieutenant, or acting commander, mostly under Earl +St Vincent, and was present in the battle from which the admiral +received his title. As commander of the “Speedy” brig he won +much distinction in actions with Spanish gunboats in the Straits +of Gibraltar. In 1800 he reached the rank of post-captain, and +had the good fortune to serve as flag-captain to Sir James +(afterwards Lord) Saumarez in the action at Algeciras, and in the +Straits in 1801. During the peace of Amiens he married Miss +Stewart, a lady belonging to a loyalist family of Nova Scotia. +After the renewal of the war he commanded a succession of frigates. +In 1803 he had the misfortune to be wrecked on the coast of +France, and remained for a time in prison, where his wife joined +him. Having been exchanged he was named to another ship. +His most brilliant action was fought with a flotilla of +Franco-Neapolitan vessels outside of Naples in May 1801. He was +severely wounded, and Murat, then king of Naples, praised him +effusively. He was made a baronet in 1812 and K.C.B. in 1815. +After his recovery from his wound he was unable to bear sea +service, but was made commissioner of the dockyard at Port +Mahon, and then at the Cape, and was afterwards lieutenant-governor +of Greenwich hospital till 1840. He reached flag rank +in 1830. In his later years he took an active part in philanthropic +work, in association with his brother, Captain E.P. Brenton, +who had seen much service but is best remembered by his +writings on naval and military history,—<i>Naval History of Great +Britain from the Year 1783 to 1822</i> (1823), and <i>The Life and +Correspondence of John, Earl of St Vincent</i> (1838).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>A Memoir of the Life and Services of Vice-Admiral Sir Jahleel +Brenton</i>, based on his own papers, was published in 1846 by the Rev. +Henry Raikes, and reissued by the admiral’s son, Sir L.C.L. +Brenton, in 1855.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENTWOOD,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a market town in the mid or Chelmsford +parliamentary division of Essex, England; 18 m. E.N.E. of +London by the Great Eastern railway (Brentwood and Worley +station). Pop. of urban district (1901) 4932. The neighbouring +country is pleasantly undulating and well wooded. The church +of St Thomas the Martyr, with several chapels, is modern. The +old assize house, an Elizabethan structure, remains. A free +grammar school was founded in 1557. The county asylum is in +the vicinity. There are breweries and brick works. To the +south lies the fine upland of Worley Common, with large barracks. +Adjoining Brentwood to the north-east is Shenfield, with the +church of St Mary the Virgin, Early English and later. Brentwood +was formerly an important posting station on the main +road to the eastern counties, which follows the line of the railway +to Colchester. The name (<i>Burntwood</i>) is supposed to record an +original settlement made in a clearing of the forest. The district +is largely residential.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRENZ, JOHANN<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1499-1570), Lutheran divine, eldest son +of Martin Brenz, was born at Weil, Württemberg, on the 24th +of June 1499. In 1514 he entered the university of Heidelberg, +where Oecolampadius was one of his teachers, and where in 1518 +he heard Luther discuss. Ordained priest in 1520, and appointed +preacher (1522) at Hall in Swabia, he gave himself to biblical +exposition. He ceased to celebrate mass in 1523, and reorganized +his church in 1524. Successful in resisting the peasant +insurrection (1525), his fortunes were affected by the Schmalkaldic +War. From Hall, when taken by the imperial forces, he +fled on his birthday in 1548. Protected by Duke Ulrich of +Württemberg, he was appointed (January 1553) provost of the +collegiate church of Stuttgart. As organizer of the reformation +in Württemberg he did much fruitful work. A strong advocate +of Lutheran doctrine, and author of the <i>Syngramma Suevicum</i> +(October 21, 1525), which set forth Luther’s doctrine of the +Eucharist, he was free from the persecuting tendencies of the age. +He is praised and quoted (as Joannes Witlingius) for his judgment +against applying the death penalty to anabaptists or other +heretics in the <i>De Haereticis, an sint persequendi</i> (1554), issued +by Sebastian Castellio under the pseudonym of Martinus Bellius. +An incomplete edition of his works (largely expository) appeared +at Tübingen, 1576-1590. Several of his sermons were reproduced +in contemporary English versions. A volume of <i>Anecdota +Brentiana</i> was edited by Pressel in 1868. He died on the 11th +of September 1570, and was buried in his church at Stuttgart; +his grave was subsequently violated. He was twice married, +and his eldest son, Johann Brenz, was appointed (1562) professor +of theology in Tübingen at the early age of twenty-two.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hartmann and Jäger, <i>Johann Brenz</i> (1840-1842); Bossert, in +Hauck’s <i>Realencyklop</i>. (1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRÉQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD FEUDRIX DE<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> +(1714-1795), French scholar, was born at Gainneville near Havre, +on the 22nd of February 1714, and died at Paris on the 3rd of +July 1795. His first publications were anonymous: an <i>Histoire +des révolutions de Gènes jusqu’à la paix de 1748</i> (1750), and a +series of <i>Vies des orateurs grecs</i> (1752). Elected a member of the +Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres in 1759, he contributed +an <i>Histoire de Posthume empereur des Gaules</i> (vol. xxx., 1760) to +the collected works of that illustrious society, and also a <i>Mémoire +sur l’établissement de la religion et de l’empire de Mahomet</i> (vol. +xxxii., 1761-1763). After the close of the Seven Years’ War he +was sent to search in the archives of England for documents +bearing upon the history of France, more particularly upon that +of the French provinces which once belonged to England. This +mission (1764-1766) was very fruitful in results; Bréquigny +brought back from it copies of about 7000 documents, which are +now in the Bibliothèque Nationale. A useful selection of these +documents was published (unfortunately without adequate +critical treatment) by Jean Jacques Champollion-Figeac, under +the title <i>Lettres de rois, reines et autres personnages des cours de +France et d’Angleterre, depuis Louis VII. jusqu’à Henri IV., +tirées des archives de Londres par Bréquigny</i> (collection of <i>Documents +inédits relatifs a l’histoire de France</i>, 2 vols., 1839, 1847). +Bréquigny himself drew the material for many important studies +from the rich mine which he had thus exploited. These were +included in the collection of the Académie des Inscriptions: +<i>Mémoire sur les différends entre la France et l’Angleterre sous le +règne de Charles le Bel</i> (vol. xli.); <i>Mémoire sur la vie de Marie, +reine de France, soeur de Henri VIII., roi d’Angleterre</i> (vol. xlii.); +four <i>Mémoires pour senir à l’histoire de Calais</i> (vols. xliii. and l.); +and <i>Mémoire sur les négotiations touchant les projets de mariage +d’Elizabeth, reine d’Angleterre, d’abord avec le duc d’Anjou, +ensuite avec le due d’Alençon, tons deux frères de Charles IX.</i> +(vol. l.). This last was read to the Academy on the 22nd of +January 1793, the morrow of Louis XVI.’s execution. Meanwhile, +Bréquigny had taken part in three great and erudite works. +For the <i>Recueil des ordonnances des rois de France</i> he had prepared +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +volumes x.-xiv., the preface to vol. xi. containing important +researches into the French communes. To the <i>Table chronologique des +diplômes, chartes, lettres, et actes imprimés concernant l’histoire de +France</i> he contributed three volumes in collaboration with Mouchet +(1769-1783). Charged with the supervision of a large collection of +documents bearing on French history, analogous to Rymer’s <i>Foedera</i>, he +published the first volume (<i>Diplomatat. Chartae</i>, &c., 1791). The +Revolution interrupted him in his collection of <i>Mémoires concernant +l’histoire, les sciences, les lettres, et les arts des Chinois</i>, begun in +1776 at the instance of the minister Bertin, when fifteen volumes had +appeared.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the note on Bréquigny at the end of vol. i. of the <i>Mémoires de +l’Académie des Inscriptions</i> (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv. of the +<i>Table chronologique des diplômes</i> (1836); Champollion-Figeac’s preface to +the <i>Lettres des rois et reines</i>; the <i>Comité des travaux historiques</i>, by +X. Charmes, vol. i. <i>passim</i>; N. Oursel, <i>Nouvelle biographie normande</i> +(1886); and the <i>Catalogue des manuscrits des collections Duchesne et +Bréquigny</i> (in the Bibliothèque Nationale), by René Poupardin (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 4 SL 4 *** + +***** This file should be named 33750-h.htm or 33750-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/5/33750/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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