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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4
+       "Bradford, William" to "Brequigny, Louis"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 17, 2010 [EBook #33750]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 4 SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BRAIN: "The cough, the eye-closure, the impulse to smile,
+      all these can be suppressed." 'impulse' amended from 'impluse'.
+
+    ARTICLE BRAIN: "The deep ends of these olfactory neurones having
+      entered the central nervous organ come into contact with the of
+      large neurones, called, from their shape, mitral." 'dendrites'
+      amended from 'dentrites'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME IV, SLICE IV
+
+   Bradford, William to Brequigny, Louis
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BRADFORD, WILLIAM (governor)       BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE
+  BRADFORD, WILLIAM (printer)        BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND
+  BRADFORD, WILLIAM (painter)        BRAS D'OR
+  BRADFORD (England)                 BRASDOR, PIERRE
+  BRADFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)    BRASIDAS
+  BRADFORD CLAY                      BRASS (Nigeria)
+  BRADFORD-ON-AVON                   BRASS (alloy)
+  BRADLAUGH, CHARLES                 BRASSES, MONUMENTAL
+  BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE          BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES
+  BRADLEY, JAMES                     BRASSEY, THOMAS
+  BRADSHAW, GEORGE                   BRASSÓ
+  BRADSHAW, HENRY (English poet)     BRATHWAIT, RICHARD
+  BRADSHAW, HENRY (British scholar)  BRATIANU, ION C.
+  BRADSHAW, JOHN                     BRATLANDSDAL
+  BRADWARDINE, THOMAS                BRATTISHING
+  BRADY, NICHOLAS                    BRATTLEBORO
+  BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN DE          BRAUNAU
+  BRAEMAR                            BRAUNSBERG
+  BRAG                               BRAVO
+  BRAGA                              BRAWLING
+  BRAGANZA                           BRAY, SIR REGINALD
+  BRAGG, BRAXTON                     BRAY, THOMAS
+  BRAGI                              BRAY (England)
+  BRAHAM, JOHN                       BRAY (Ireland)
+  BRAHE, PER                         BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE
+  BRAHE, TYCHO                       BRAZIER
+  BRAHMAN                            BRAZIL (legendary island)
+  BRAHMANA                           BRAZIL (republic)
+  BRAHMANISM                         BRAZIL (Indiana, U.S.A.)
+  BRAHMAPUTRA                        BRAZIL NUTS
+  BRAHMA SAMAJ                       BRAZIL WOOD
+  BRAHMS, JOHANNES                   BRAZING AND SOLDERING
+  BRAHUI                             BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL SAVORGNAN DE
+  BRAID                              BRAZZA
+  BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS                  BREACH
+  BRAILA                             BREAD
+  BRAIN                              BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL
+  BRAINERD, DAVID                    BREADALBANE
+  BRAINERD                           BREAD-FRUIT
+  BRAINTREE (Essex, England)         BREAKING BULK
+  BRAINTREE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)  BREAKWATER
+  BRAKE (town of Germany)            BRÉAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED
+  BRAKE (engineering)                BREAM
+  BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE              BREAST
+  BRAMAH, JOSEPH                     BREAUTÉ, FALKES DE
+  BRAMANTE                           BRECCIA
+  BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS            BRECHIN
+  BRAMPTON                           BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL
+  BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM BRAMWELL  BRECON
+  BRAN (Welsh hero)                  BRECONSHIRE
+  BRAN (husk of cereals)             BREDA
+  BRANCH                             BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN
+  BRANCO                             BREDERODE, HENRY
+  BRANCOVAN                          BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL
+  BRAND, JOHN                        BREDOW
+  BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY              BREECH
+  BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS             BREEDS AND BREEDING
+  BRANDENBURG (Prussian electorate)  BREEZE
+  BRANDENBURG (Prussian province)    BREGENZ
+  BRANDENBURG (town of Germany)      BREHON LAWS
+  BRANDER, GUSTAVUS                  BREISACH
+  BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN        BREISGAU
+  BRANDING                           BREISLAK, SCIPIONE
+  BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST          BREITENFELD
+  BRANDON (Canada)                   BREMEN (German state)
+  BRANDON (England)                  BREMEN (German city)
+  BRANDY                             BREMER, FREDRIKA
+  BRANDYWINE                         BREMERHAVEN
+  BRANFORD                           BRENDAN
+  BRANGWYN, FRANK                    BRENHAM
+  BRANKS                             BRENNER PASS
+  BRANT, JOSEPH                      BRENNUS
+  BRANT, SEBASTIAN                   BRENTANO, KLEMENS
+  BRANTFORD                          BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH
+  BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE             BRENTFORD
+  BRANTÔME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE     BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL
+  BRANTÔME                           BRENTWOOD
+  BRANXHOLM                          BRENZ, JOHANN
+  BRANXTON                           BRÉQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES FEUDRIX DE
+
+
+BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1590-1657), American colonial governor and historian,
+was born in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, probably in March 1590. He
+became somewhat estranged from his family, which was one of considerable
+importance in the locality, when in early youth he joined the Puritan
+sect known as Separatists, and united in membership with the
+congregation at Scrooby. He prepared in 1607, with other members of the
+church, to migrate to Holland, but the plan was discovered and several
+of the leaders, among them Bradford, were imprisoned. In the year
+following, however, he joined the English colony at Amsterdam, where he
+learned the trade of silk weaving. He subsequently sold his Yorkshire
+property and embarked in business on his own account at Leiden, where
+the English refugees had removed. He became an active advocate of the
+proposed emigration to America, was one of the party that sailed in the
+"Mayflower" in September 1620, and was one of the signers of the compact
+on shipboard in Cape Cod Bay. After the death of Governor John Carver in
+April 1621, Bradford was elected governor of Plymouth Colony, and served
+as such, with the exception of five years (1633, 1634, 1636, 1638 and
+1644) until shortly before his death. After 1624, at Bradford's
+suggestion, a board of five and later seven assistants was chosen
+annually to share the executive responsibility. Bradford's rule was firm
+and judicious, and to his guidance more than to that of any other man
+the prosperity of the Plymouth Colony was due. His tact and kindness in
+dealing with the Indians helped to relieve the colony from the conflicts
+with which almost every other settlement was afflicted. In 1630 the
+council for New England granted to "William Bradford, his heires,
+associatts, and assignes," a new patent enlarging the original grant of
+territory made to the Plymouth settlers. This patent Bradford in the
+name of the trustees made over to the body corporate of the colony in
+1641. Bradford died in Plymouth on the 9th of May 1657. He was the
+author of a very important historical work, the _History of Plimouth
+Plantation_ (until 1646), first published in the _Proceedings_ of the
+Massachusetts Historical Society for 1856, and later by the state of
+Massachusetts (Boston, 1898), and in facsimile, with an introduction by
+John A. Doyle, in 1896. The manuscript disappeared from Boston during
+the War of Independence, was discovered in the Fulham library, London,
+in 1855, and was returned by the bishop of London to the state of
+Massachusetts in 1897. This work has been of inestimable value to
+writers on the history of the Pilgrims, and was freely used, in
+manuscript, by Morton, Hubbard, Mather, Prince and Hutchinson. Bradford
+was also undoubtedly part author, with Edward Winslow, of the "Diary of
+Occurrences" published in Mourts' _Relation_, edited by Dr H.M. Dexter
+(Boston, 1865). He also wrote a series of _Dialogues_, on church
+government, published in the Massachusetts Historical Society's
+Publications (1870.)
+
+  For Bradford's ancestry and early life see Joseph Hunter, _Collections
+  concerning the Founders of New Plymouth_, in Massachusetts Historical
+  Society's _Collections_ (Boston, 1852); also the quaint sketch in
+  Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_ (London, 1702), and a chapter in Williston
+  Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1663-1752), American colonial printer, was born in
+Leicestershire, England, on the 20th of May 1663. He learned the
+printer's trade in London with Andrew Sowle, and in 1682 emigrated with
+William Penn to Pennsylvania, where in 1685 he introduced the "art and
+mystery" of printing into the Middle Colonies. His first imprint was an
+almanac, _Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense or America's Messenger_ (1685). At
+the outset he was ordered "not to print anything but what shall have
+lycence from ye council," and in 1692, the colony then being torn by
+schism, he issued a tract for the minority sect of Friends, whereupon
+his press was seized and he was arrested. He was released, however, and
+his press was restored on his appeal to Governor Benjamin Fletcher. In
+1690, with William Rittenhouse (1644-1708) and others, he established in
+Roxboro, Pennsylvania, now a part of Philadelphia, the first paper mill
+in America. In the spring of 1693 he removed to New York, where he was
+appointed royal printer for the colony, a position which he held for
+more than fifty years; and on the 8th of November 1725 he issued the
+first number of the _New York Gazette_, the first paper established in
+New York and from 1725 to 1733 the only paper in the colony. Bradford
+died in New York on the 23rd of May 1752.
+
+His son, ANDREW SOWLE BRADFORD (1686-1742), removed from New York to
+Philadelphia in 1712, and there on the 22nd of December 1719 issued the
+first number of the _American Weekly Mercury_, the first newspaper in
+the Middle Colonies. Benjamin Franklin, for a time a compositor in the
+office, characterized the paper as "a paltry thing, in no way
+interesting"; but it was continued for many years and was edited by
+Bradford until his death.
+
+The latter's nephew, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1722-1791), established in
+December 1742 the _Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser_, which
+was for sixty years under his control or that of his son, and which in
+1774-1775 bore the oft-reproduced device of a divided serpent with the
+motto "Unite or Die." He served in the War of American Independence,
+rising to the rank of colonel. His son, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1755-1795),
+also served in the War of Independence, and afterwards was
+attorney-general of Pennsylvania (1791), a judge of the supreme court of
+the state, and in 1794-1795 attorney-general of the United States.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1827-1892), American marine painter, was born at New
+Bedford, Massachusetts. He was a Quaker, and was self-taught, painting
+the ships and the marine views he saw along the coast of Massachusetts,
+Labrador and Nova Scotia; he went on several Arctic expeditions with Dr
+Hayes, and was the first American painter to portray the frozen regions
+of the north. His pictures attracted much attention by reason of their
+novelty and gorgeous colour effects. His "Steamer 'Panther' in Melville
+Bay, under the Light of the Midnight Sun" was exhibited at the Royal
+Academy in London in 1875. Bradford was a member of the National Academy
+of Design, New York, and died in that city on the 25th of April 1892.
+His style was somewhat influenced by Albert van Beest, who worked with
+Bradford at Fairhaven for a time; but Bradford is minute and observant
+of detail where van Beest's aim is general effect.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, a city, and municipal, county and parliamentary borough, in
+the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 192 m. N.N.W. of London and 8 m.
+W. of Leeds. Pop. (1891) 265,728; (1901) 279,767. It is served by the
+Midland and the North Eastern railways (Midland station), and by the
+Great Northern and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Exchange
+station). It lies in a small valley opening southward from that of the
+Aire, and extends up the hills on either side. Most of the principal
+streets radiate from a centre between the Midland and Exchange stations
+and the town hall. This last is a handsome building, opened in 1873,
+surmounted by a bell tower. The exterior is ornamented with statues of
+English monarchs. The council-chamber contains excellent wood-carving.
+The extension of the building was undertaken in 1905. The parish church
+of St Peter is Perpendicular, dating from 1485, and occupies the site of
+a Norman church. Its most noteworthy feature is the fine original roof
+of oak. There was no other church in the town until 1815, but modern
+churches and chapels are numerous. Among educational institutions, the
+grammar school existed in the 16th century, and in 1663 received a
+charter of incorporation from Charles II. It occupies a building erected
+in 1873, and is largely endowed, possessing several scholarships founded
+by prominent citizens. The technical college, under the corporation
+since 1899, was opened in 1882. A mechanics' institute was founded in
+1832, and in 1871 the handsome mechanics' hall, close to the town hall,
+was opened. Other establishments are the Airedale College of students
+for the Independent ministry, and the United Independent College (1888).
+The general infirmary is the principal of numerous charitable
+institutions. The most noteworthy public buildings beside the town hall
+are St George's hall (1853), used for concerts and public meetings, the
+exchange (1867), extensive market buildings, and two court-houses. The
+Cartwright memorial hall, principally the gift of Lord Masham, opened in
+1904 and containing an art gallery and museum, commemorates Dr Edmund
+Cartwright (1743-1823) as the inventor of the power-loom and the
+combing-machine. The hall stands in Lister Park, and was opened
+immediately before, and used in connexion with, the industrial
+exhibition held here in 1904. The Temperance hall is of interest
+inasmuch as the first hall of this character in England was erected at
+Bradford in 1837. Some of the great warehouses are of considerable
+architectural merit. Statues commemorate several of those who have been
+foremost in the development of the city, such as Sir Titus Salt, Mr S.C.
+Lister (Lord Masham), and W.E. Forster. Of several parks the largest are
+Lister, Peel, and Bowling parks, each exceeding fifty acres. In the last
+is an ancient and picturesque mansion, which formerly belonged to the
+Bowling or Bolling family. A large acreage of high-lying moorland near
+the city is maintained by the corporation as a public recreation ground.
+
+As a commercial centre Bradford is advantageously placed with regard to
+both railway communication and connexion with the Humber and with
+Liverpool by canal, and through the presence in its immediate vicinity
+of valuable deposits of coal and iron. The principal textile
+manufactures in order of importance are worsted, employing some 36,000
+hands, females considerably outnumbering males; woollens, employing some
+8000, silk and cotton. The corporation maintains a conditioning-hall for
+testing textile materials. A new hall was opened in 1902. Engineering
+and iron works (as at Bowling and Low Moor) are extensive; and the
+freestone of the neighbourhood is largely quarried, and in Bradford
+itself its use is general for building. It blackens easily under the
+influence of smoke, and the town has consequently a somewhat gloomy
+appearance. The trade of Bradford, according to an official estimate,
+advanced between 1836 and 1884 from a total of five to at least
+thirty-five millions sterling, and from not more than six to at least
+fifty staple articles. The annual turn-over in the staple trade is
+estimated at about one hundred millions sterling.
+
+Bradford was created a city in 1897. The parliamentary borough returned
+two members from 1832 until 1885, when it was divided into three
+divisions, each returning one member. The county borough was created in
+1888. Its boundaries include the suburbs, formerly separate urban
+districts, of Eccleshill, Idle and others. The corporation consists of a
+lord mayor (this dignity was conferred in 1907), 21 aldermen, and 63
+councillors. One feature of municipal activity in Bradford deserves
+special notice--there is a municipal railway, opened in 1907, extending
+from Pateley Bridge to Lofthouse (6 m.) and serving the Nidd valley,
+the district from which the main water-supply of the city is obtained.
+Area of the city, 22,879 acres.
+
+Bradford, which is mentioned as having belonged before 1066, with
+several other manors in Yorkshire, to one Gamel, appears to have been
+almost destroyed during the conquest of the north of England and was
+still waste in 1086. By that time it had been granted to Ilbert de Lacy,
+in whose family it continued until 1311. The inquisition taken after the
+death of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, in that year gives several
+interesting facts about the manor; the earl had there a hall or
+manor-house, a fulling mill, a market every Sunday, and a fair on the
+feast of St Andrew. There were also certain burgesses holding
+twenty-eight burgages. Alice, only daughter and heiress of Henry de
+Lacy, married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, and on the
+attainder of her husband she and Joan, widow of Henry, were obliged to
+release their rights in the manor to the king. The earl of Lancaster's
+attainder being reversed in 1327, Bradford, with his other property, was
+restored to his brother and heir, Henry Plantagenet, but again passed to
+the crown on the accession of Henry IV., through the marriage of John of
+Gaunt with Blanche, one of the daughters and heirs of Henry Plantagenet.
+Bradford was evidently a borough by prescription and was not
+incorporated until 1847. Previous to that date the chief officer in the
+town had been the chief constable, who was appointed annually at the
+court leet of the manor. Before the 19th century Bradford was never
+represented in parliament, but in 1832 it was created a parliamentary
+borough returning two members. A weekly market on Thursdays was granted
+to Edward de Lacy in 1251 and confirmed in 1294 to Henry de Lacy, earl
+of Lincoln, with the additional grant of a fair on the eve and day of St
+Peter ad Vincula and three days following. In 1481 Edward IV. granted to
+certain feoffees in whom he had vested his manor of Bradford a market on
+Thursday every week and two yearly fairs, one on the feast of the
+Deposition of St William of York and two days preceding, the other on
+the feast of St Peter in Cathedra and two days preceding.
+
+From the mention of a fulling mill in 1311 it is possible that woollen
+manufacture had been begun at that time. By the reign of Henry VIII. it
+had become an important industry and added much to the status of the
+town. Towards the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century the
+woollen trade decreased and worsted manufacture began to take its place.
+Leland in his _Itinerary_ says that Bradford is "a praty quik Market
+Toune. It standith much by clothing." In 1773 a piece hall was erected
+and for many years served as a market-place for the manufacturers and
+merchants of the district. On the introduction of steam-power and
+machinery the worsted trade advanced with great rapidity. The first mill
+in Bradford was built in 1798; there were 20 mills in the town in 1820,
+34 in 1833, and 70 in 1841; and at the present time there are over 300,
+of much greater magnitude than the earlier factories. In 1836 Mr
+(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt developed the alpaca manufacture in the
+town; mohair was shortly afterwards introduced; and the great works at
+Saltaire were opened (see SHIPLEY). Later, Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham)
+introduced the silk and velvet manufacture, having invented a process of
+manipulating silk waste, whereby what was previously treated as refuse
+is made into goods that will compete with those manufactured from the
+perfect cocoon.
+
+  See John James, _History of Bradford_ (1844, new and enlarged ed.,
+  1866); A. Holroyd, _Collectanea Bradfordiana_ (1873); _Victoria County
+  History--Yorkshire_.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, a city of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., near the N.
+border of the state, about 80 m. E. by S. of Erie. Pop. (1890) 10,514;
+(1900) 15,029, of whom 2211 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,544. It
+is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, and the Buffalo, Rochester &
+Pittsburg railways, and is connected with Olean, New York, by an
+electric line. Bradford is situated 1427 ft. above sea-level in the
+valley of the Tuna, and is shut in by hills on either side. Since 1876
+it has been one of the most important oil centres of the state, and it
+has been connected by pipe lines with cities along the Atlantic coast;
+petroleum refining is an important industry. Among the city's
+manufactures are boilers, machines, glass, chemicals, terra cotta,
+brick, iron pipes and couplings, gas engines, cutlery and silk. The
+place was first settled about 1827; in 1838 it was laid out as a town
+and named Littleton; in 1858 the present name, in honour of William
+Bradford (1755-1795), was substituted; and Bradford was incorporated as
+a borough in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1879. Kendall borough
+was annexed to Bradford in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD CLAY, in geology, a thin, rather inconstant bed of clay or marl
+situated in England at the base of the Forest Marble, the two together
+constituting the Bradfordian group in the Bathonian series of Jurassic
+rocks. The term "Bradford Clay" appears to have been first used by J.
+de. C. Sowerby in 1823 (_Mineral Conchology_, vol. v.) as an alternative
+for W. Smith's "Clay on Upper Oolite." The clay came into notice late in
+the 18th century on account of the local abundance of the crinoid
+_Apiocrinus Parkinsoni_. It takes its name from Bradford-on-Avon in
+Wiltshire, whence it is traceable southward to the Dorset coast and
+northward towards Cirencester. It may be regarded as a local phase of
+the basement beds of the Forest Marble, from which it cannot be
+separated upon either stratigraphical or palaeontological grounds. It is
+seldom more than 10 ft. thick, and it contains as a rule a few irregular
+layers of limestone and calcareous sandstone. The lowest layer is often
+highly fossiliferous; some of the common forms being _Arca minuta,
+Ostrea gregaria, Waldheimia digona, Terebratula coarctata, Cidaris
+bradfordensis_, &c.
+
+  See H.B. Woodward, "Jurassic Rocks of Britain," _Mem. Geol. Survey_,
+  vol. iv. (1904).
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD-ON-AVON, a market town in the Westbury parliamentary division
+of Wiltshire, England, on the rivers Avon and Kennet, and the Kennet &
+Avon Canal, 98 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 4514. Its houses, all built of grey stone, rise
+in picturesque disorder up the steep sides of the Avon valley, here
+crossed by an ancient bridge of nine arches, with a chapel in the
+centre. Among many places of worship may be mentioned the restored
+parish church of Holy Trinity, which dates from the 12th century and
+contains some interesting monuments and brasses; and the Perpendicular
+Hermitage or Tory chapel, with a 15th or 16th century chantry-house. But
+most notable is the Saxon church of St Lawrence, the foundation of which
+is generally attributed, according to William of Malmesbury (1125), to
+St Aldhelm, early in the 8th century. It consists of a chancel, nave and
+porch, in such unchanged condition that E.A. Freeman considered it "the
+most perfect surviving church of its kind in England, if not in Europe."
+It has more lately, however, been held that the present building is not
+Aldhelm's, but a restoration, dating from about 975, and attributable to
+the influence of Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. Kingston House, long
+the seat of the dukes of Kingston, is a beautiful example of early
+17th-century domestic architecture. The local industries include the
+manufacture of rubber goods, brewing, quarrying and iron-founding.
+
+  Bradford (Bradauford, Bradeford) was the site of a battle in 652
+  between Kenwal and his kinsman Cuthred. A monastery existed here in
+  the 8th century, of which St Aldhelm was abbot at the time of his
+  being made bishop of Sherborne in A.D. 705. In 1001 Æthelred gave this
+  monastery and the town of Bradford to the nunnery of Shaftesbury, in
+  order that the nuns might have a safe refuge against the insults of
+  the Danes. No mention of the monastery occurs after the Conquest, but
+  the nunnery of Shaftesbury retained the lordship of the manor until
+  the dissolution in the reign of Henry VIII. In a synod held here in
+  954, Dunstan was elected bishop of Winchester. Bradford appears as a
+  borough in the Domesday survey, and is there assessed at 42 hides. No
+  charter of incorporation is recorded, however, and after returning two
+  members to the parliament of 1295 the town does not appear to have
+  enjoyed any of the privileges of a borough. The market is of ancient
+  origin, and was formerly held on Monday; in the survey the tolls are
+  assessed at 45 shillings. Bradford was at one time the centre of the
+  clothing industry in the west of England, and was especially famous
+  for its broadcloths and mixtures, the waters of the Avon being
+  especially favourable to the production of good colours and superior
+  dyes. The industry declined in the 18th century, and in 1740 we find
+  the woollen merchants of Bradford petitioning for an act of parliament
+  to improve their trade and so re-establish their credit in foreign
+  markets.
+
+
+
+
+BRADLAUGH, CHARLES (1833-1891), English free-thinker and politician, was
+born at Hoxton, London, on the 26th of September 1833. His father was a
+poor solicitor's clerk, who also had a small business as a law
+stationer, and his mother had been a nursemaid. At twelve years old he
+became office-boy to his father's employer, and at fourteen wharf-clerk
+and cashier to a coal merchant in the City Road. He had been baptized
+and brought up in the Church of England, but he now came into contact
+with a group of free-thinkers who were disciples of Richard Carlile. He
+was hastily labelled an "atheist," and was turned out of his situation.
+Thus driven into the arms of the secularists, he managed to earn a
+living by odd jobs, and became further immersed in the study of
+free-thought. At the end of 1850 he enlisted as a soldier, but in 1853
+was bought out with money provided by his mother. He then found
+employment as a lawyer's clerk, and gradually became known as a
+free-thought lecturer, under the name of "Iconoclast." From 1860 he
+conducted the _National Reformer_ for several years, and displayed much
+resource in legal defence when the paper was prosecuted by the
+government on account of its alleged blasphemy and sedition in
+1868-1869. Bradlaugh became notorious as a leading "infidel," and was
+supported by the sympathy of those who were enthusiasts at that time for
+liberty of speech and thought. He was a constant figure in the law
+courts; and his competence to take the oath was continually being called
+in question, while his atheism and republican opinions were adduced as
+reasons why no jury should give damages for attacks on his character. In
+1874 he became acquainted with Mrs Annie Besant (b. 1847), who
+afterwards became famous for her gifts as a lecturer on socialism and
+theosophy. She began by writing for the _National Reformer_ and soon
+became co-editor. In 1876 the Bristol publisher of an American pamphlet
+on the population question, called _Fruits of Philosophy_, was indicted
+for selling a work full of indecent physiological details, and, pleading
+guilty, was lightly sentenced; but Bradlaugh and Mrs Besant took the
+matter up, in order to vindicate their ideas of liberty, and
+aggressively republished and circulated the pamphlet. The prosecution
+which resulted created considerable scandal. They were convicted and
+sentenced to a heavy fine and imprisonment, but the sentence was stayed
+and the indictment ultimately quashed on a technical point. The affair,
+however, had several side issues in the courts and led to much prejudice
+against the defendants, the distinction being ignored between a protest
+against the suppression of opinion and the championship of the
+particular opinions in question. Mrs Besant's close alliance with
+Bradlaugh eventually terminated in 1886, when she drifted from
+secularism, first into socialistic and labour agitation and then into
+theosophy as a pupil of Mme Blavatsky. Bradlaugh himself took up
+politics with increasing fervour. He had been unsuccessful in standing
+for Northampton in 1868, but in 1880 he was returned by that
+constituency to parliament as an advanced Radical. A long and
+sensational parliamentary struggle now began. He claimed to be allowed
+to affirm under the Parliamentary Oaths Act, and the rejection of this
+pretension, and the refusal to allow him to take the oath on his
+professing his willingness to do so, terminated in Bradlaugh's victory
+in 1886. But this result was not obtained without protracted scenes in
+the House, in which Lord Randolph Churchill took a leading part. When
+the long struggle was over, the public had gradually got used to
+Bradlaugh, and his transparent honesty and courageous contempt for mere
+popularity gained him increasing respect. Experience of public life in
+the House of Commons appeared to give him a more balanced view of
+things; and before he died, on the 30th of January 1891, the progress of
+events was such that it was beginning to be said of him that he was in a
+fair way to end as a Conservative. Hard, arrogant and dogmatic, with a
+powerful physique and a real gift for popular oratory, he was a natural
+leader in causes which had society against them, but his sincerity was
+as unquestionable as his combativeness.
+
+  His _Life_ was written, from a sympathetic point of view, with much
+  interesting detail as to the history of secularism, by his daughter,
+  Mrs Bradlaugh Bonner, and J.M. Robertson (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE (1821-1903), English divine and scholar, was
+born on the 11th of December 1821, his father, Charles Bradley, being at
+that time vicar of Glasbury, Brecon. He was educated at Rugby under
+Thomas Arnold, and at University College, Oxford, of which he became a
+fellow in 1844. He was an assistant master at Rugby from 1846 to 1858,
+when he succeeded G.E.L. Cotton as headmaster at Marlborough. In 1870 he
+was elected master of his old college at Oxford, and in August 1881 he
+was made dean of Westminster in succession to A.P. Stanley, whose pupil
+and intimate friend he had been, and whose biographer he became. Besides
+his _Recollections of A.P. Stanley_ (1883) and _Life of Dean Stanley_
+(1892), he published _Aids to writing Latin Prose Composition_ and
+_Lectures on Job_ (1884) and _Ecclesiastes_ (1885). He took part in the
+coronation of Edward VII., resigned the deanery in 1902, and died on the
+13th of March 1903.
+
+Dean Bradley's family produced various other members distinguished in
+literature. His half-brother, ANDREW CECIL BRADLEY (b. 1851), fellow of
+Balliol, Oxford, became professor of modern literature and history
+(1881) at University College, Liverpool, and in 1889 regius professor of
+English language and literature at Glasgow University; and he was
+professor of poetry at Oxford (1901-1906). Of Dean Bradley's own
+children the most distinguished in literature were his son, ARTHUR
+GRANVILLE BRADLEY (b. 1850), author of various historical and
+topographical works; and especially his daughter, Mrs MARGARET LOUISA
+WOODS (b. 1856), wife of the Rev. Henry George Woods, president of
+Trinity, Oxford (1887-1897), and master of the Temple (1904), London.
+Mrs Woods became well known for her accomplished verse (_Lyrics and
+Ballads_, 1889), largely influenced by Robert Bridges, and for her
+novels, of which her _Village Tragedy_ (1887) was the earliest and
+strongest.
+
+
+
+
+BRADLEY, JAMES (1693-1762), English astronomer, was born at Sherborne in
+Gloucestershire in March 1693. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, on
+the 15th of March 1711, and took degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1714 and
+1717 respectively. His early observations were made at the rectory of
+Wanstead in Essex, under the tutelage of his uncle, the Rev. James Pound
+(1669-1724), himself a skilled astronomer, and he was elected a fellow
+of the Royal Society on the 6th of November 1718. He took orders on his
+presentation to the vicarage of Bridstow in the following year, and a
+small sinecure living in Wales was besides procured for him by his
+friend Samuel Molyneux (1689-1728). He, however, resigned his
+ecclesiastical preferments in 1721, on his appointment to the Savilian
+professorship of astronomy at Oxford, while as reader on experimental
+philosophy (1729-1760) he delivered 79 courses of lectures in the
+Ashmolean museum. His memorable discovery of the aberration of light
+(see ABERRATION) was communicated to the Royal Society in January 1729
+(_Phil. Trans._ xxxv. 637). The observations upon which it was founded
+were made at Molyneux's house on Kew Green. He refrained from announcing
+the supplementary detection of nutation (q.v.) until the 14th of
+February 1748 (_Phil. Trans._ xlv. 1), when he had tested its reality by
+minute observations during an entire revolution (18.6 years) of the
+moon's nodes. He had meantime (in 1742) been appointed to succeed Edmund
+Halley as astronomer royal; his enhanced reputation enabled him to apply
+successfully for an instrumental outfit at a cost of £1000; and with an
+8-foot quadrant completed for him in 1750 by John Bird (1700-1776), he
+accumulated at Greenwich in ten years materials of inestimable value for
+the reform of astronomy. A crown pension of £250 a year was conferred
+upon him in 1752. He retired in broken health, nine years later, to
+Chalford in Gloucestershire, and there died on the 13th of July 1762.
+The printing of his observations was delayed by disputes about their
+ownership; but they were finally issued from the Clarendon Press,
+Oxford, in two folio volumes (1798, 1805). The insight and industry of
+F.W. Bessel were, however, needed for the development of their
+fundamental importance.
+
+  Rigaud's Memoir prefixed to _Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence of
+  James Bradley, D.D._ (Oxford, 1832), is practically exhaustive. Other
+  sources of information are: _New and General Biographical Dictionary_,
+  xii. 54 (1767); _Biog. Brit._ (Kippis); Fouchy's "Éloge," _Paris
+  Memoirs_ (1762), p. 231 (Histoire); Delambre's _Hist. de l'astronomie
+  au 18^me siècle_, p. 413.
+
+
+
+
+BRADSHAW, GEORGE (1801-1853), English printer and publisher, was born at
+Windsor Bridge, Pendleton, Lancashire, on the 29th of July 1801. On
+leaving school he was apprenticed to an engraver at Manchester,
+eventually setting up on his own account in that city as an engraver and
+printer--principally of maps. His name was already known as the
+publisher of _Bradshaw's Maps of Inland Navigation_, when in 1839, soon
+after the introduction of railways, he published, at sixpence,
+_Bradshaw's Railway Time Tables_, the title being changed in 1840 to
+_Bradshaw's Railway Companion_, and the price raised to one shilling. A
+new volume was issued at occasional intervals, a supplementary monthly
+time-sheet serving to keep the book up to date. In December 1841, acting
+on a suggestion made by his London agent, Mr W.J. Adams, Bradshaw
+reduced the price of his time-tables to the original sixpence, and began
+to issue them monthly under the title _Bradshaw's Monthly Railway
+Guide._ In June 1847 was issued the first number of _Bradshaw's
+Continental Railway Guide_, giving the time-tables of the Continental
+railways just as _Bradshaw's Monthly Railway Guide_ gave the time-tables
+of the railways of the United Kingdom. Bradshaw, who was a well-known
+member of the Society of Friends, and gave considerable time to
+philanthropic work, died in 1853.
+
+
+
+
+BRADSHAW, HENRY (c. 1450-1513), English poet, was born at Chester. In
+his boyhood he was received into the Benedictine monastery of St
+Werburgh, and after studying with other novices of his order at
+Gloucester (afterwards Worcester) College, Oxford, he returned to his
+monastery at Chester. He wrote a Latin treatise _De antiquitate et
+magnificentia Urbis Cestriae_, which is lost, and a life of the patron
+saint of his monastery in English seven-lined stanza. This work was
+completed in the year of its author's death, 1513, mentioned in "A
+balade to the auctour" printed at the close of the work. A second ballad
+describes him as "Harry Braddeshaa, of Chestre abbey monke." Bradshaw
+disclaims the merit of originality and quotes the authorities from which
+he translates--Bede, William of Malmesbury, Giraldus Cambrensis, Alfred
+of Beverley, Henry of Huntingdon, Ranulph Higden, and especially the
+"Passionary" or life of the saint preserved in the monastery. The poem,
+therefore, which is defined by its editor, Dr Carl Horstmann, as a
+"legendary epic," is rather a compilation than a translation. It
+contains a good deal of history beside the actual life of the saint. St
+Werburgh was the daughter of Wulfere, king of Mercia, and Bradshaw gives
+a description of the kingdom of Mercia, with a full account of its royal
+house. He relates the history of St Ermenilde and St Sexburge, mother
+and grandmother of Werburgh, who were successively abbesses of Ely. He
+does not neglect the miraculous elements of the story, but he is more
+attracted by historical fact than legend, and the second book narrates
+the Danish invasion of 875, and describes the history and antiquities of
+Chester, from its foundation by the legendary giant Leon Gaur, from
+which he derives the British name of Caerleon, down to the great fire
+which devastated the city in 1180, but was suddenly extinguished when
+the shrine of St Werburgh was carried in procession through the streets.
+_The Holy Lyfe and History of saynt Werburge very frutefull for all
+Christen people to rede_ (printed by Richard Pynson, 1521) has been very
+variously estimated. Thomas Warton, who deals with Bradshaw at some
+length,[1] quotes as the most splendid passage of the poem the
+description of the feast preceding Werburgh's entry into the religious
+life. He considered Bradshaw's versification "infinitely inferior to
+Lydgate's worst manner." Dr Horstmann, on the other hand, finds in the
+poem "original genius, of a truly epic tone, with a native simplicity
+of feeling which sometimes reminds the reader of Homer." Most readers
+will probably adopt a view between these extremes. Bradshaw expresses
+the humblest opinion of his own abilities, and he certainly had no
+delicate ear for rhythm. His sincerity is abundantly evident, and his
+piety is admitted even by John Bale[2], hostile as he was to monkish
+writers. W. Herbert[3] thought that a _Lyfe of Saynt Radegunde_, also
+printed by Pynson, was certainly by Bradshaw. The only extant copy is in
+the Britwell library.
+
+  Pynson's edition of the _Holy Lyfe_ is very rare, only five copies
+  being known. A reprint copying the original type was edited by Mr.
+  Edward Hawkins for the Chetham Society in 1848, and by Dr Carl
+  Hortsmann for the Early English Text Society in 1887.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _History of English Poetry_ (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1871; iii. pp.
+    140-149).
+
+  [2] _Scriptorum Illustrium, cant. ix._ No. 17.
+
+  [3] Ames, _Typographical Antiquities_ (ed. W. Herbert, 1785; i. p.
+    294).
+
+
+
+
+BRADSHAW, HENRY (1831-1886), British scholar and librarian, was born in
+London on the 2nd of February 1831, and educated at Eton. He became a
+fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and after a short scholastic career
+in Ireland he accepted an appointment in the Cambridge university
+library as an extra assistant. When he found that his official duties
+absorbed all his leisure he resigned his post, but continued to give his
+time to the examination of the MSS. and early printed books in the
+library. There was then no complete catalogue of these sections, and
+Bradshaw soon showed a rare faculty for investigations respecting old
+books and curious MSS. In addition to his achievements in black-letter
+bibliography he threw great light on ancient Celtic language and
+literature by the discovery, in 1857, of the _Book of Deer_, a
+manuscript copy of the Gospel in the Vulgate version, in which were
+inscribed old Gaelic charters. This was published by the Spalding Club
+in 1869. Bradshaw also discovered some Celtic glosses on the MS. of a
+metrical paraphrase of the Gospels by Juvencus. He made another find in
+the Cambridge library of considerable philological and historical
+importance. Cromwell's envoy, Sir Samuel Morland (1625-1695), had
+brought back from Piedmont MSS. containing the earliest known Waldensian
+records, consisting of translations from the Bible, religious treatises
+and poems. One of the poems referred the work to the beginning of the
+11th century, though the MSS. did not appear to be of earlier date than
+the 15th century. On this Morland had based his theory of the antiquity
+of the Waldensian doctrine, and, in the absence of the MSS., which were
+supposed to be irretrievably lost, the conclusion was accepted. Bradshaw
+discovered the MSS. in the university library, and found in the passage
+indicated traces of erasure. The original date proved to be 1400.
+Incidentally the correct date was of great value in the study of the
+history of the language. He had a share in exposing the frauds of
+Constantine Simonides, who had asserted that the _Codex Sinaiticus_
+brought by Tischendorf from the Greek monastery of Mount Sinai was a
+modern forgery of which he was himself the author. Bradshaw exposed the
+absurdity of these claims in a letter to the _Guardian_ (January 26,
+1863). In 1866 he made a valuable contribution to the history of
+Scottish literature by the discovery of 2200 lines on the siege of Troy
+incorporated in a MS. of Lydgate's _Troye Booke_, and of the _Legends of
+the Saints_, an important work of some 40,000 lines. These poems he
+attributed, erroneously, as has since been proved, to Barbour (q.v.).
+Unfortunately Bradshaw allowed his attention to be distracted by a
+multiplicity of subjects, so that he has not left any literary work
+commensurate with his powers. The strain upon him was increased when he
+was elected (1867) university librarian, and as dean of his college
+(1857-1865) and praelector (1863-1868) he was involved in further
+routine duties. Besides his brilliant isolated discoveries in
+bibliography, he did much by his untiring zeal to improve the standard
+of library administration. He died very suddenly on the 10th of February
+1886. His fugitive papers on antiquarian subjects were collected and
+edited by Mr F. Jenkinson in 1889.
+
+  An excellent _Memoir of Henry Bradshaw_, by Mr G.W. Prothero, appeared
+  in 1888. See also C.F. Newcombe, _Some Aspects of the Work of Henry
+  Bradshaw_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+
+BRADSHAW, JOHN (1602-1659), president of the "High Court of Justice"
+which tried Charles I., was the second son of Henry Bradshaw, of Marple
+and Wibersley in Cheshire. He was baptized on the 10th of December 1602,
+was educated at Banbury in Cheshire and at Middleton in Lancashire,
+studied subsequently with an attorney at Congleton, was admitted into
+Gray's Inn in 1620, and was called to the bar in 1627, becoming a
+bencher in 1647. He was mayor of Congleton in 1637, and later high
+steward or recorder of the borough. According to Milton he was assiduous
+in his legal studies and acquired considerable reputation and practice
+at the bar. On the 21st of September 1643 he was appointed judge of the
+sheriff's court in London. In October 1644 he was counsel with Prynne in
+the prosecution of Lord Maguire and Hugh Macmahon, implicated in the
+Irish rebellion, in 1645 for John Lilburne in his appeal to the Lords
+against the sentence of the Star Chamber, and in 1647 in the prosecution
+of Judge Jenkins. On the 8th of October 1646 he had been nominated by
+the Commons a commissioner of the great seal, but his appointment was
+not confirmed by the Lords. In 1647 he was made chief justice of Chester
+and a judge in Wales, and on the 12th of October 1648 he was presented
+to the degree of serjeant-at-law. On the 2nd of January 1649 the Lords
+threw out the ordinance for bringing the king to trial, and the small
+remnant of the House of Commons which survived Pride's Purge, consisting
+of 53 independents, determined to carry out the ordinance on their own
+authority. The leading members of the bar, on the parliamentary as well
+as on the royalist side, having refused to participate in proceedings
+not only illegal and unconstitutional, but opposed to the plainest
+principles of equity, Bradshaw was selected to preside, and, after some
+protestations of humility and unfitness, accepted the office. The king
+refused to plead before the tribunal, but Bradshaw silenced every legal
+objection and denied to Charles an opportunity to speak in his defence.
+He continued after the king's death to conduct, as lord president, the
+trials of the royalists, including the duke of Hamilton, Lord Capel, and
+Henry Rich, earl of Holland, all of whom he condemned to death, his
+behaviour being especially censured in the case of Eusebius Andrews, a
+royalist who had joined a conspiracy against the government. He received
+large rewards for his services. He was appointed in 1649
+attorney-general of Cheshire and North Wales, and chancellor of the
+duchy of Lancaster, and was given a sum of £1000, together with
+confiscated estates worth £2000 a year. He had been nominated a member
+of the council of state on the 14th of February 1649, and on the 10th of
+March became president. He disapproved strongly of the expulsion of the
+Long Parliament, and on Cromwell's coming subsequently to dismiss the
+council Bradshaw is said, on the authority of Ludlow, to have confronted
+him boldly, and denied his power to dissolve the parliament. An ardent
+republican, he showed himself ever afterwards an uncompromising
+adversary of Cromwell. He was returned for Stafford in the parliament of
+1654, and spoke strongly against vesting power in a single person. He
+refused to sign the "engagement" drawn up by Cromwell, and in
+consequence withdrew from parliament and was subsequently suspected of
+complicity in plots against the government. He failed to obtain a seat
+in the parliament of 1656, and in August of the same year Cromwell
+attempted to remove him from the chief-justiceship of Cheshire. After
+the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Bradshaw again entered parliament,
+became a member of the council of state, and on the 3rd of June 1659 was
+appointed a commissioner of the great seal. His health, however, was
+bad, and his last public effort was a vehement speech, in the council,
+when he declared his abhorrence of the arrest of Speaker Lenthall. He
+died on the 31st of October 1659, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+His body was disinterred at the Restoration, and exposed on a gibbet
+along with those of Cromwell and Ireton. Bradshaw married Mary, daughter
+of Thomas Marbury of Marbury, Cheshire, but left no children.
+
+
+
+
+BRADWARDINE, THOMAS (c. 1290-1349), English archbishop, called "the
+Profound Doctor," was born either at Hartfield in Sussex or at
+Chichester. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, where he took
+the degree of doctor of divinity, and acquired the reputation of a
+profound scholar, a skilful mathematician and an able divine. He was
+afterwards raised to the high offices of chancellor of the university
+and professor of divinity. From being chancellor of the diocese of
+London, he became chaplain and confessor to Edward III., whom he
+attended during his wars in France. On his return to England, he was
+successively appointed prebendary of Lincoln, archdeacon of Lincoln
+(1347), and in 1349 archbishop of Canterbury. He died of the plague at
+Lambeth on the 26th of August 1349, forty days after his consecration.
+Chaucer in his _Nun's Priest's Tale_ ranks Bradwardine with St
+Augustine. His great work is a treatise against the Pelagians, entitled
+_De causa Dei contra Pelagium et de virtute causarum_, edited by Sir
+Henry Savile (London, 1618). He wrote also _De Geometria speculativa_
+(Paris, 1530); _De Arithmetica practica_ (Paris, 1502); _De
+Proportionibus_ (Paris, 1495; Venice, 1505); _De Quadratura Circuli_
+(Paris, 1495); and an _Ars Memorativa_, Sloane MSS. No. 3974 in the
+British Museum.
+
+  See Quétif-Échard, _Script. Praedic._ (1719), i. 744; W.F. Hook,
+  _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv.
+
+
+
+
+BRADY, NICHOLAS (1659-1726), Anglican divine and poet, was born at
+Bandon, Co. Cork, on the 28th of October 1659. He received his education
+at Westminster school, and at Christ Church, Oxford; but he graduated at
+Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders, and in 1688 was made a
+prebendary of Cork. He was a zealous promoter of the Revolution and
+suffered in consequence. When the troubles broke out in Ireland in 1690,
+Brady, by his influence, thrice prevented the burning of the town of
+Bandon, after James II. had given orders for its destruction; and the
+same year he was employed by the people of Bandon to lay their
+grievances before the English parliament. He soon afterwards settled in
+London, where he obtained various preferments. At the time of his death,
+on the 20th of May 1726, he held the livings of Clapham and Richmond.
+Brady's best-known work is his metrical version of the Psalms, in which
+Nahum Tate collaborated with him. It was licensed in 1696, and largely
+ousted the old version of T. Sternhold and J. Hopkins. He also
+translated Virgil's _Aeneid_, and wrote several smaller poems and
+dramas, as well as sermons.
+
+
+
+
+BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE (1840-1888), Belgian painter, was
+born at Antwerp. He was trained by his father, a _genre_ painter, and
+his uncle, Baron Henri Leys, and devoted himself to scenes of everyday
+Antwerp life. The first pictures he exhibited, "The Laundry" (Van Cutsem
+collection, Brussels), and "The Coppersmith's Workshop" (Vleeshovwer
+collection, Antwerp), were shown at the Antwerp exhibition in 1861. He
+received the gold medal at Brussels in 1872 for "The Geographer" and
+"The Lesson" (both in the Brussels gallery); the gold medal at Vienna in
+1873 for "The Painter's Studio" and "Grandmother's Birthday"; and the
+medal of honour at the Exposition Universelle at Amsterdam for "The
+Pilot House." Among his more notable works are "A Shoemaker" (1862), "A
+Tailor's Workroom" (1863), "A Gardener" (1864, Antwerp gallery),
+"Interior of a Church" (1866), "Interior, Flanders" (1867), "Woman
+spinning" (1869), "Man reading" (1871), "The rue du Serment, Antwerp"
+(1875), "A Copperplate Printer," "The Sailor's Return," "The Man at the
+Window" (Couteaux collection, Brussels), "The Horn-blower" (Couteaux
+collection), "Man retouching a Picture" (Couteaux collection), "The
+Potters" (Marlier collection, Brussels), "Staircase in the Hydraulic
+House at Antwerp" (Marlier collection), and "The Brewer's House at
+Antwerp" (Marlier collection). The last, better known as "A Man
+sitting," is generally regarded as his masterpiece. As a lithographer
+and etcher, his work resembles that of Henri Leys. Towards the end of
+his life de Braekeleer did some dot painting (_pointillisme_), in which
+he achieved admirable effects of light.
+
+
+
+
+BRAEMAR, a district in S.W. Aberdeenshire, Scotland, extending from
+Ballater in the E. to Glen Dee in the W., a distance of 24 m. with a
+breadth varying from 3 to 6 m. It is drained throughout by the river
+Dee, both banks of which are bounded by hills varying from 1000 to
+nearly 3000 ft. in height. The whole area is distinguished by typical
+Highland scenery, and is a resort alike for sportsmen and tourists. The
+villages and clachans (Gaelic for hamlet) being situated at an altitude
+of from 600 to more than 1000 ft. above the sea, the air is everywhere
+pure and bracing. The deer forests comprise the royal forests of
+Balmoral and Ballochbuie, Glen Ey Forest, Mar Forest and Invercauld
+Forest. At various points on either side of the Dee, granite castles,
+mansions and lodges have been built, mostly in the Scottish baronial
+style, and all effectively situated with reference to the wooded hills
+or the river. The chief of these are Balmoral and Abergeldie Castles
+belonging to the crown, Invercauld House, Braemar Castle, Mar Lodge and
+Old Mar Lodge. Castleton of Braemar is the foremost of the villages,
+being sometimes styled the capital of the Deeside Highlands. Its public
+buildings include halls erected by the duke of Fife and Colonel
+Farquharson of Invercauld to commemorate the Victorian jubilee of 1887.
+Not far from the spot where the brawling Clunie joins the Dee the earl
+of Mar raised the standard of revolt in 1715. His seat, Braemar Castle,
+reputed to be a hunting-lodge of Malcolm Canmore, was forfeit along with
+the estates. The new castle built by the purchasers in 1720 was acquired
+at a later date by Farquharson of Invercauld, who gave government the
+use of it during the pacification of the Highlands after the battle of
+Culloden in 1746. Population of Crathie and Braemar (1901) 1452.
+
+
+
+
+BRAG, a very old game of cards, probably evolved from the ancient
+Spanish _primero_, played by five or six, or more players. It is the
+ancestor of poker. A full pack is used, the cards ranking as at whist,
+with certain exceptions. There are no trumps. Each player receives three
+cards and puts up three stakes. The last round is dealt face upwards:
+the holder of the highest card irrespective of suits wins the first
+stake from all the players. In the case of equality the elder hand wins,
+but the ace of diamonds is always a winning card. For the second stake
+the players _brag_ or bet against each other, if they hold either a
+pair, or a pair-royal (three cards of the same rank). Pairs and
+pairs-royal take precedence according to the value of the cards
+composing them, but any pair-royal beats any pair. The knave of clubs
+may be counted as any card, e.g. two twos and the knave of clubs rank as
+a pair-royal in twos; two aces and the knave as a pair-royal in aces.
+Sometimes the knave of diamonds is allowed the same privilege, but is
+inferior to the club knave; e.g. two threes and the club would beat the
+other two threes and the diamond. Players who accept another's brag must
+cover his. bet and offer another. The third stake is won by the player
+whose cards make 31 or are nearest to 31 by their pips, aces and court
+counting ten; but the ace may by arrangement count as 1 or 11. Players
+may draw from the stock, losing if they over-draw. If one player wins
+all three stakes, he may receive the value of another stake, or of two
+or three stakes, all round, as arranged. The deal passes as at whist.
+Each player should have the same number of deals before the game is
+abandoned.
+
+
+
+
+BRAGA, a city of northern Portugal, formerly included in the province of
+Entre Minho e Douro, situated on the right-bank of the small river Deste
+near its source, and at the head of a railway from Oporto. Pop. (1900)
+24,202. Braga, which ranks after Lisbon and Oporto as the third city of
+the kingdom, is the capital of an administrative district, and an
+archiepiscopal see. Its cathedral, founded in the 12th century, was
+rebuilt during the 16th century in the blend of Moorish and florid
+Gothic styles known as Manoellian. It contains several tombs of
+considerable historical interest, some fine woodwork carved in the 15th
+century, and a collection of ancient vestments, plate and other objects
+of art. Among the other churches Santa Cruz is noteworthy for its
+handsome façade, which dates from 1642. There are several convents, an
+archiepiscopal palace, a library, containing many rare books and
+manuscripts, an orphan asylum, and a large hospital; also the ruins of a
+theatre, a temple and an aqueduct of Roman workmanship, and a great
+variety of minor antiquities of different ages. The principal
+manufactures are firearms, jewelry, cutlery, cloth and felt hats. Large
+cattle fairs are held in June and September, for cattle-breeding and
+dairy-farming are among the foremost local industries. On a hill about
+3 m. E. by S. stands the celebrated sanctuary of Bom Jesus, or Bom Jesus
+do Monte, visited at Whitsuntide by many thousands of pilgrims, who do
+public penance as they ascend to the shrine; and about 1 m. beyond it is
+Mount Sameiro (2535 ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the Virgin
+Mary, and commanding a magnificent view of the mountainous country which
+culminates in the Serra do Gerez, on the north-east.
+
+Braga is the Roman _Bracara Augusta_, capital of the _Callaici
+Bracarii_, or _Bracarenses_, a tribe who occupied what is now Galicia
+and northern Portugal. Early in the 5th century it was taken by the
+Suevi; but about 485 it passed into the hands of the Visigothic
+conquerors of Spain, whose renunciation of the Arian and Priscillianist
+heresies, at two synods held here in the 6th century, marks the origin
+of its ecclesiastical greatness. The archbishops of Braga retain the
+title of primate of Portugal, and long claimed supremacy over the
+Spanish church also; but their authority was never accepted throughout
+Spain. From the Moors, who captured Braga early in the 8th century, the
+city was retaken in 1040 by Ferdinand I., king of Castile and Leon; and
+from 1093 to 1147 it was the residence of the Portuguese court.
+
+The administrative district of Braga coincides with the central part of
+the province of Entre Minho e Douro (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 357,159. Area,
+1040 sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+BRAGANZA (_Bragança_), the capital of an administrative district
+formerly included in the province of Traz-os-Montes, Portugal; situated
+in the north-eastern extremity of the kingdom, on a branch of the river
+Sabor, 8 m. S. of the Spanish frontier. Pop. (1900) 5535. Braganza is an
+episcopal city. It consists of a walled upper town, containing the
+cathedral college and hospital, and of a lower or modern town. Large
+tracts of the surrounding country are uncultivated, partly because
+railway communication is lacking and the roads are bad. Except farming,
+the chief local industry is silkworm-rearing and the manufacture of
+silk. The administrative district of Braganza coincides with the eastern
+part of Traz-os-Montes (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 185,162; area, 2513 sq. m.
+
+The city gave its name to the family of Braganza, members of which were
+rulers of Portugal from 1640 to 1853, and emperors of Brazil from 1822
+to 1889. This family is descended from Alphonso (d. 1461), a natural son
+of John I., king of Portugal (d. 1433), who was a natural son of King
+Peter I., and consequently belonged to the Portuguese branch of the
+Capetian family. Alphonso was made duke of Braganza in 1442, and in 1483
+his grandson, Duke Ferdinand II., lost his life through heading an
+insurrection against King John II. In spite of this Ferdinand's
+descendants acquired great wealth, and several of them held high office
+under the kings of Portugal. Duke John I. (d. 1583) married into the
+royal family, and when King Henry II. died without direct heirs in 1580,
+he claimed the crown of Portugal in opposition to Philip II. of Spain.
+John, however, was unsuccessful, but, when the Portuguese threw off the
+Spanish dominion in 1640, his grandson, John II., duke of Braganza,
+became king as John IV. In 1807, when Napoleon declared the throne of
+Portugal vacant, King John VI. fled to Brazil; but he regained his
+inheritance after the fall of Napoleon in 1814, although he did not
+return to Europe until 1821, when he left his elder son Peter to govern
+Brazil. In 1822 a revolution established the independence of Brazil with
+Peter as emperor. In 1826 Peter became king of Portugal on the death of
+his father; but he at once resigned the crown to his young daughter
+Maria, and appointed his brother Miguel to act as regent. Miguel soon
+declared himself king, but after a stubborn struggle was driven from the
+country in 1833, after which Maria became queen. Maria married for her
+second husband Ferdinand (d. 1851), son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg;
+and when she died in 1853 the main Portuguese branch of the family
+became extinct. Maria was succeeded by her son Louis I., father of
+Charles I., who ascended the throne of Portugal in 1889. The empire of
+Brazil descended on the death of Peter I. to his son Peter II., who was
+expelled from the country in 1889. When Peter died in 1891 this branch
+of the family also became extinct in the male line. His only child,
+Isabella, married Louis Gaston of Orleans, count of Eu. The exiled king,
+Miguel, founded a branch of the family of Braganza which settled in
+Bavaria, and various noble families in Portugal are descended from
+cadets of this house. The title of duke of Braganza is now borne by the
+eldest son of the king of Portugal.
+
+
+
+
+BRAGG, BRAXTON (1817-1876), American soldier, was born in Warren county,
+North Carolina, on the 22nd of March 1817. He graduated at the United
+States military academy in 1837, and as an artillery officer served in
+the Seminole wars of 1837 and 1841, and under General Taylor in Mexico.
+For gallant conduct at Fort Brown, Monterey and Buena Vista, he received
+the brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel. He resigned from
+the regular army on the 3rd of January 1856, and retired to his
+plantation in Louisiana. From 1859 to 1861 he was commissioner of the
+board of public works of the state. When in 1861 the Civil War began,
+Bragg was made a brigadier-general in the Confederate service, and
+assigned to command at Pensacola. In February 1862, having meanwhile
+become major-general, he took up a command in the Army of the
+Mississippi, and he was present at the battle of Shiloh (April). The
+vacancy created by the death of Sidney Johnston at that battle was
+filled by the promotion of Bragg to full general's rank, and he
+succeeded General Beauregard when that officer retired from the Western
+command. In the autumn of 1862 he led a bold advance from Eastern
+Tennessee across Kentucky to Louisville, but after temporary successes
+he was forced to retire before Buell, and after the battle of Perryville
+(8th October) retired into Tennessee. Though the material results of his
+campaign were considerable, he was bitterly censured, and his removal
+from his command was urged. But the personal favour of Jefferson Davis
+kept him, as it had placed him, at the head of the central army, and on
+the 31st of December 1862 and 2nd of January 1863 he fought the
+indecisive battle of Murfreesboro (or Stone river) against Rosecrans,
+Buell's successor. In the campaign of 1863 Rosecrans constantly
+outmanoeuvred the Confederates, and forced them back to the border of
+Georgia. Bragg, however, inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponent at
+Chickamauga (September 19-20) and for a time besieged the Union forces
+in Chattanooga. But enormous forces under Grant were concentrated upon
+the threatened spot, and the great battle of Chattanooga (November
+23-25) ended in the rout of the Confederates. Bragg was now deprived of
+his command, but President Davis made him his military adviser, and in
+that capacity he served during 1864. In the autumn of that year he led
+an inferior force from North Carolina to Georgia to oppose Sherman's
+march. In February 1865 he joined Johnston, and he was thus included in
+the surrender of that officer to Sherman. After the war he became chief
+engineer to the state of Alabama, and supervised improvements in Mobile
+harbour. He died suddenly at Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of September
+1876. General Bragg, in spite of his want of success, was unquestionably
+a brave and skilful officer. But he was a severe martinet, and rarely in
+full accord with the senior officers under his orders, the consequent
+friction often acting unfavourably on the conduct of the operations.
+
+His brother, THOMAS BRAGG (1810-1872), was governor of North Carolina
+1855-1859, U.S. senator 1859-1861, and attorney-general in the
+Confederate cabinet from Nov. 1861 to March 1862.
+
+
+
+
+BRAGI, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of Odin, and god of wisdom,
+poetry and eloquence. At the Scandinavian sacrificial feasts a horn
+consecrated to Bragi was used as a drinking-cup by the guests, who then
+vowed to do some great deed which would be worthy of being immortalized
+in verse.
+
+
+
+
+BRAHAM, JOHN (c. 1774-1856), English vocalist, was born in London about
+1774, of Jewish parentage, his real name being Abraham. His father and
+mother died when he was quite young. Having received lessons in singing
+from an Italian artist named Leoni, he made his first appearance in
+public at Covent Garden theatre on the 21st of April 1787, when he sang
+"The soldier tired of war's alarms" and "_Ma chère arrive_." On the
+breaking of his voice, he had to support himself by teaching the
+pianoforte. In a few years, however, he recovered his voice, which
+proved to be a tenor of exceptionally pure and rich quality. His second
+début was made in 1794 at the Bath concerts, to the conductor of which,
+Rauzzini, he was indebted for careful training extending over a period
+of more than two years. In 1796 he reappeared in London at Drury Lane in
+Storace's opera of _Mahmoud_. Such was his success that he obtained an
+engagement the next year to appear in the Italian opera house in
+Grétry's _Azor et Zémire_. He also sang in oratorios and was engaged for
+the Three Choir festival at Gloucester. With the view of perfecting
+himself in his art he set out for Italy in the autumn of 1797. On the
+way he gave some concerts at Paris, which proved so successful that he
+was induced to remain there for eight months. His career in Italy was
+one of continuous triumph; he appeared in all the principal
+opera-houses, singing in Milan, Genoa, Leghorn and Venice. His compass
+embraced about nineteen notes, his management of the falsetto being
+perfect. In 1801 he returned to his native country, and appeared once
+more at Covent Garden in the opera _Chains of the Heart_, by Mazzinghi
+and Reeve. So great was his popularity that an engagement he had made
+when abroad to return after a year to Vienna was renounced, and he
+remained henceforward in England. In 1824 he sang the part of Max in the
+English version of Weber's _Der Freischütz_, and he was the original Sir
+Huon in that composer's _Oberon_ in 1826. Braham made two unfortunate
+speculations on a large scale, one being the purchase of the Colosseum
+in the Regent's Park in 1831 for £40,000, and the other the erection of
+the St James's theatre at a cost of £26,000 in 1836. In 1838 he sang the
+part of William Tell at Drury Lane, and in 1839 the part of Don
+Giovanni. His last public appearance was at a concert in March 1852. He
+died on the 17th of February 1856. There is, perhaps, no other case upon
+record in which a singer of the first rank enjoyed the use of his voice
+so long; between Braham's first and last public appearances considerably
+more than sixty years intervened, during forty of which he held the
+undisputed supremacy alike in opera, oratorio and the concert-room.
+Braham was the composer of a number of vocal pieces, which being sung by
+himself had great temporary popularity, though they had little intrinsic
+merit, and are now deservedly forgotten. A partial exception must be
+made in favour of "The Death of Nelson," originally written in 1811 as a
+portion of the opera _The American_; this still keeps its place as a
+standard popular English song.
+
+
+
+
+BRAHE, PER, COUNT (1602-1680), Swedish soldier and statesman, was born
+on the island of Rydboholm, near Stockholm, on the 18th of February
+1602. He was the grandson of Per Brahe (1520-1590), one of Gustavus I.'s
+senators, created count of Visingsborg by Eric XIV., known also as the
+continuator of Peder Svart's chronicle of Gustavus I., and author of
+_Oeconomia_ (1585), a manual for young noblemen. Per Brahe the younger,
+after completing his education by several years' travel abroad, became
+in 1626 chamberlain to Gustavus Adolphus, whose lasting friendship he
+gained. He fought with distinction in Prussia during the last three
+years of the Polish War (1626-1629) and also, as colonel of a regiment
+of horse, in 1630 in Germany. After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in
+1632 his military yielded to his political activity. He had been elected
+president (_Landsmarskalk_) of the diet of 1629, and in the following
+year was created a senator (_Riksråd_). In 1635 he conducted the
+negotiations for an armistice with Poland. In 1637-1640 and again in
+1648-1654 he was governor-general in Finland, to which country he
+rendered inestimable services by his wise and provident rule. He
+reformed the whole administration, introduced a postal system, built ten
+new towns, improved and developed commerce and agriculture, and very
+greatly promoted education. In 1640 he opened the university of Åbo, of
+which he was the founder, and first chancellor. After the death of
+Charles X. in 1660, Brahe, as _rikskansler_ or chancellor of Sweden,
+became one of the regents of Sweden for the second time (he had held a
+similar office during the minority of Christina, 1632-1644), and during
+the difficult year 1660 he had entire control of both foreign and
+domestic affairs. He died on the 2nd of September 1680, at his castle
+at Visingsborg, where during his lifetime he had held more than regal
+pomp.
+
+His brother, NILS BRAHE (1604-1632), also served with distinction under
+Gustavus Adolphus. He took part in the siege and capture of Riga in
+1621, served with distinction in Poland (1626-1627) and assisted in the
+defence of Stralsund in 1628. In 1630 he accompanied Gustavus into
+Germany, and in 1631 was appointed colonel of "the yellow regiment," the
+king's world-renowned life-guards, at the head of which he captured the
+castle of Würzburg on the 8th of October 1631. He took part in the long
+duel between Gustavus and Wallenstein round Nuremberg as general of
+infantry, and commanded the left wing at Lützen (November 6, 1632),
+where he was the only Swedish general officer present. At the very
+beginning of the fight he was mortally wounded. The king regarded Brahe
+as the best general in the Swedish army after Lennart Torstensen.
+
+A direct descendant of Nils, MAGNUS BRAHE (1790-1844), fought in the
+campaign of 1813-14, under the crown prince Bernadotte, with whom, after
+his accession to the throne as Charles XIV., he was in high favour. He
+became marshal of the kingdom, and, especially from 1828 onwards,
+exercised a preponderant influence in public affairs.
+
+  See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhetstid_, vol. iv. (Stockholm,
+  1881); _Letters to Axel Oxenstjerna_ (Swed.) 1832-1851 (Stockholm,
+  1890); Petrus Nordmann, _Per Brahe_ (Helsingfors, 1904).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHE, TYCHO (1546-1601), Danish astronomer, was born on the 14th of
+December 1546 at the family seat of Knudstrup in Scania, then a Danish
+province. Of noble family, he was early adopted by his uncle, Jörgen
+Brahe, who sent him, in April 1559, to study philosophy and rhetoric at
+Copenhagen. The punctual occurrence at the predicted time, August 21st,
+1560, of a total solar eclipse led him to regard astronomy as "something
+divine"; he purchased the _Ephemerides_ of Johann Stadius (3rd ed.,
+1570), and the works of Ptolemy in Latin, and gained some insight into
+the theory of the planets. Entered as a law-student at the university of
+Leipzig in 1562, he nevertheless secretly prosecuted celestial studies,
+and began continuous observations with a globe, a pair of compasses and
+a "cross-staff." He quitted Leipzig on the 17th of May 1565, but his
+uncle dying a month later, he repaired to Wittenberg, and thence to
+Rostock, where, in 1566, he lost his nose in a duel, and substituted an
+artificial one made of a copper alloy. In 1569 he matriculated at
+Augsburg, and devoted himself to chemistry for two years (1570-1572). On
+his return to Denmark, in 1571, he was permitted by his maternal uncle,
+Steno Belle, to instal a laboratory at his castle of Herritzvad, near
+Knudstrup; and there, on the 11th of November 1572, he caught sight of
+the famous "new star" in Cassiopeia. He diligently measured its
+position, and printed an account of his observations in a tract entitled
+_De Novâ Stellâ_ (Copenhagen, 1573), a facsimile of which was produced
+in 1901, as a tercentenary tribute to the author's memory.
+
+Tycho's marriage with a peasant-girl in 1573 somewhat strained his
+family relations. He delivered lectures in Copenhagen by royal command
+in 1574; and in 1575 travelled through Germany to Venice. The execution
+of his design to settle at Basel was, however, anticipated by the
+munificence of Frederick II., king of Denmark, who bestowed upon him for
+life the island of Hveen in the Sound, together with a pension of 500
+thalers, a canonry in the cathedral of Roskilde, and the income of an
+estate in Norway. The first stone of the magnificent observatory of
+Uraniborg was laid on the 8th of August 1576; it received the finest
+procurable instrumental outfit; and was the scene, during twenty-one
+years, of Tycho's labours in systematically collecting materials--the
+first made available since the Alexandrian epoch--for the correction of
+astronomical theories. James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. of
+England, visited him at Uraniborg on the 20th of March 1590. But by that
+time his fortunes were on the wane; for Frederick II. died in 1588, and
+his successor, Christian IV., was less tolerant of Tycho's arrogant and
+insubordinate behaviour. His pension and fief having been withdrawn, he
+sailed for Rostock in June 1597, and re-commenced observing before the
+close of the year, in the castle of Wandsbeck near Hamburg. He spent
+the following winter at Wittenberg, and reached Prague in June 1599,
+well assured of favour and protection from the emperor Rudolph II. That
+monarch, accordingly, assigned him the castle of Benatky for his
+residence, with a pension of 3000 florins; his great instruments were
+moved thither from Hveen, and Johannes Kepler joined him there in
+January 1600. But this phase of renewed prosperity was brief. After
+eleven days' illness, Tycho Brahe died on the 24th of October 1601, at
+Benatky, and was buried in the Teynkirche, Prague.
+
+Tycho's principal work, entitled _Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnasmata_
+(2 vols., Prague, 1602-1603) was edited by Kepler. The first volume
+treated of the motions of the sun and moon, and gave the places of 777
+fixed stars (this number was increased to 1005 by Kepler in 1627 in the
+"Rudolphine Tables"). The second, which had been privately printed at
+Uraniborg in 1588 with the heading _De Mundi Aetherei recentioribus
+Phaenomenis_, was mainly concerned with the comet of 1577, demonstrated
+by Tycho from its insensible parallax to be no terrestrial exhalation,
+as commonly supposed, but a body traversing planetary space. It
+included, besides, an account of the Tychonic plan of the cosmos, in
+which a _via media_ was sought between the Ptolemaic and Copernican
+systems. The earth retained its immobility; but the five planets were
+made to revolve round the sun, which, with its entire cortège, annually
+circuited the earth, the sphere of the fixed stars performing meanwhile,
+as of old, its all-inclusive diurnal rotation (see ASTRONOMY:
+_History_). Under the heading _Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica_, Tycho
+published at Wandsbeck, in 1598, a description of his instruments,
+together with an autobiographical account of his career and discoveries,
+including the memorable one of the moon's "variation" (see MOON). The
+book was reprinted at Nuremberg in 1602 (cf. Hasselberg,
+_Vierteljahrsschrift Astr. Ges._ xxxix. iii. 180). His _Epistolae
+Astronomicae_, printed at Uraniborg in 1596 with a portrait engraved by
+Geyn of Amsterdam in 1586, were embodied in a complete edition of his
+works issued at Frankfort in 1648. Tycho vastly improved the art of
+astronomical observation. He constructed a table of refractions, allowed
+for instrumental inaccuracies, and eliminated by averaging accidental
+errors. He, moreover, corrected the received value of nearly every
+astronomical quantity; but the theoretical purpose towards which his
+practical reform was directed, was foiled by his premature death.
+
+  See J.L.E. Dreyer's _Tycho Brahe_ (Edinburgh, 1890), which gives full
+  and authentic information regarding his life and work. Also Gassendi's
+  _Vita_ (Paris, 1654); _Lebensbeschreibung_, collected from various
+  Danish sources, and translated into German by Philander von der
+  Weistritz (Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1756); _Tyge Brahe_, by F.R. Friis
+  (Copenhagen, 1871); _Prager Tychoniana_, collected by Dr F.I.
+  Studnicka (Prague, 1901), a description of the scanty Tychonian relics
+  which survived the Thirty Years' War and are still preserved at
+  Prague.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMAN, a Sanskrit noun-stem which, differently accented, yields in the
+two nominatives _Brahma_ (neut.) and _Brahma_ (masc.), the names of two
+deities which occupy prominent places in the orthodox system of Hindu
+belief. Brahma (n.) is the designation generally applied to the Supreme
+Soul (_paramatman_), or impersonal, all-embracing divine essence, the
+original source and ultimate goal of all that exists; Brahma (m.), on
+the other hand, is only one of the three hypostases of that divinity
+whose creative activity he represents, as distinguished from its
+preservative and destructive aspects, ever apparent in life and nature,
+and represented by the gods Vishnu and Siva respectively. The history of
+the two cognate names reflects in some measure the development of Indian
+religious speculation generally.
+
+The neuter term _brahma_ is used in the _Rigveda_ both in the abstract
+sense of "devotion, worship," and in the concrete sense of "devotional
+rite, prayer, hymn." The spirit of Vedic worship is pervaded by a devout
+belief in the efficacy of invocation and sacrificial offering. The
+earnest and well-expressed prayer or hymn of praise cannot fail to draw
+the divine power to the worshipper and make it yield to his
+supplication; whilst offerings, so far from being mere acts of devotion
+calculated to give pleasure to the god, constitute the very food and
+drink which render him vigorous and capable of battling with the enemies
+of his mortal friend. It is this intrinsic power of fervent invocation
+and worship which found an early expression in the term _brahma_; and
+its independent existence as an active moral principle in shaping the
+destinies of man became recognized in the Vedic pantheon in the
+conception of a god _Brihaspati_ or _Brahmanaspati_, "lord of prayer or
+devotion," the divine priest and the guardian of the pious worshipper.
+By a natural extension of the original meaning, the term _brahma_, in
+the sense of sacred utterance, was subsequently likewise applied to the
+whole body of sacred writ, the _tri-vidya_ or "triple lore" of the Veda;
+whilst it also came to be commonly used as the abstract designation of
+the priestly function and the Brahmanical order generally, in the same
+way as the term _kshatra_, "sway, rule," came to denote the aggregate of
+functions and individuals of the Kshatriyas or Rajanyas, the nobility or
+military class.
+
+The universal belief in the efficacy of invocation as an indispensable
+adjunct to sacrifices and religious rites generally, could not fail to
+engender and maintain in the minds of the people feelings of profound
+esteem and reverence towards those who possessed the divine gift of
+inspired utterance, as well as for those who had acquired an intimate
+knowledge of the approved forms of ritual worship. A common designation
+of the priest is brahman (nom. _brahma_), originally denoting, it would
+seem, "one who prays, a worshipper," perhaps also "the composer of a
+hymn" (_brahman_, n.); and the same term came subsequently to be used
+not only for one of the sacerdotal order generally, but also, and more
+commonly, as the designation of a special class of priests who
+officiated as superintendents during sacrificial performances, the
+complicated nature of which required the co-operation of a whole staff
+of priests, and who accordingly were expected to possess a competent
+knowledge of the entire course of ritual procedure, including the
+correct form and mystic import of the sacred texts to be repeated or
+chanted by the several priests. The Brahman priest (_brahma_) being thus
+the recognized head of the sacerdotal order (_brahma_), which itself is
+the visible embodiment of sacred writ and the devotional spirit
+pervading it (_brahma_), the complete realization of theocratic
+aspirations required but a single step, which was indeed taken in the
+theosophic speculations of the later Vedic poets and the authors of the
+Brahmanas (q.v.), viz. the recognition of this abstract notion of the
+Brahma as the highest cosmic principle and its identification with the
+pantheistic conception of an all-pervading, self-existent spiritual
+substance, the primary source of the universe; and subsequently coupled
+therewith the personification of its creative energy in the form of
+Brahma, the divine representative of the earthly priest, who was made to
+take the place of the earlier conception of _Prajapati_, "the lord of
+creatures" (see BRAHMANISM). By this means the very name of this god
+expressed the essential oneness of his nature with that of the divine
+spirit as whose manifestation he was to be considered. In the later
+Vedic writings, especially the Brahmanas, however, Prajapati still
+maintains throughout his position as the paramount personal deity; and
+Brahma, in his divine capacity, is rather identified with Brihaspati,
+the priest of the gods. Moreover, the exact relationship between
+Prajapati and the Brahma (n.) is hardly as yet defined with sufficient
+precision; it is rather one of simple identification: in the beginning
+the Brahma was the All, and Prajapati is the Brahma. It is only in the
+institutes of Manu, where we find the system of castes propounded in its
+complete development, that Brahma has his definite place assigned to him
+in the cosmogony. According to this work, the universe, before
+undiscerned, was made discernible in the beginning by the sole,
+self-existent lord Brahma (n.). He, desirous of producing different
+beings from his own self, created the waters by his own thought, and
+placed in them a seed which developed into a golden egg; therein was
+born Brahma (m.), the parent of all the worlds; and thus "that which is
+the undiscrete Cause, eternal, which is and is not, from it issued that
+male who is called in the world Brahma." Having dwelt in that egg for a
+year, that lord spontaneously by his own thought split that egg in two;
+and from the two halves he fashioned the heaven and the earth, and in
+the middle, the sky, and the eight regions (the points of the compass),
+and the perpetual place of the waters. This theory of Brahma being born
+from a golden egg is, however, a mere adaptation of the Vedic conception
+of _Hiranya-garbha_ ("golden embryo"), who is represented as the supreme
+god in a hymn of the tenth (and last) book of the _Rigveda_. Another
+still later myth, which occurs in the epic poems, makes Brahma be born
+from a lotus which grew out of the navel of the god Vishnu whilst
+floating on the primordial waters. In artistic representations, Brahma
+usually appears as a bearded man of red colour with four heads crowned
+with a pointed, tiara-like head-dress, and four hands holding his
+sceptre, or a sacrificial spoon, a bundle of leaves representing the
+Veda, a bottle of water of the Ganges, and a string of beads or his bow
+Parivita. His vehicle (_vahana_) is a goose or swan (_hamsa_), whence he
+is also called _Hamsavhana_; and his consort is Sarasvati, the goddess
+of learning.
+
+One could hardly expect that a colourless deity of this description, so
+completely the product of priestly speculation, could ever have found a
+place in the hearts of the people generally, And indeed, whilst in
+theoretic theology Brahma has retained his traditional place and
+function down to our own days, his practical cult has at all times
+remained extremely limited, the only temple dedicated to the worship of
+this god being found at Pushkar (Pokhar) near Ajmir in Rajputana. On the
+other hand, his divine substratum, the impersonal Brahma, the
+world-spirit, the one and only reality, remains to this day the ultimate
+element of the religious belief of intelligent India of whatever sect.
+Being devoid of all attributes, it can be the object only of meditation,
+not of practical devotional rites; and philosophy can only attempt to
+characterize it in general and vague terms, as in the favourite formula
+which makes it to be _sachchidananda_, i.e. being (_sat_), thinking
+(_chit_), and bliss (_ananda_).     (J. E.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMANA, the Sanskrit term applied to a body of prose writings appended
+to the collections (_samhita_) of Vedic texts, the meaning and ritual
+application of which they are intended to elucidate, and like them
+regarded as divinely revealed. From a linguistic point of view, these
+treatises with their appendages, the more mystic and recondite Aranyakas
+and the speculative Upanishads, have to be considered as forming the
+connecting link between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit. The exact
+derivation and meaning of the name is somewhat uncertain. Whilst the
+masculine term _brahmana_ (nom. _brahmanas_), the ordinary Sanskrit
+designation of a man of the Brahmanical caste, is clearly a derivative
+of _brahman_ (nom. _brahma_), a common Vedic term for a priest (see
+BRAHMAN), thus meaning the son or descendant of a Brahman, the neuter
+word _brahman_ (nom. _brahmanam_) on the other hand, with which we are
+here concerned, admits of two derivations: either it is derived from the
+same word _brahman_, and would then seem to mean a _dictum_ or
+observation ascribed to, or intended for the use of, a Brahman, or
+superintendent priest; or it has rather to be referred to the neuter
+noun _brahman_ (nom. _brahma_), in the sense of "sacred utterance or
+rite," in which case it might mean a comment on a sacred text, or
+explanation of a devotional rite, calculated to bring out its spiritual
+or mystic significance and its bearing on the Brahma, the world-spirit
+embodied in the sacred writ and ritual. This latter definition seems on
+the whole the more probable one, and it certainly would fit exactly the
+character of the writings to which the term relates. It will thus be
+seen that the term _brahmanam_ applies not only to complete treatises of
+an exegetic nature, but also to single comments on particular texts or
+rites of which such a work would be made up.
+
+The gradual elaboration of the sacrificial ceremonial, as the
+all-sufficient expression of religious devotion, and a constantly
+growing tendency towards theosophic and mystic speculation on the
+significance of every detail of the ritual, could not fail to create a
+demand for explanatory treatises of this kind, which, to enhance their
+practical utility, would naturally deal with the special texts and rites
+assigned in the ceremonial to the several classes of officiating
+priests. At a subsequent period the demand for instruction in the
+sacrificial science called into existence a still more practical set of
+manuals, the so-called _Kalpa-sutras_, or ceremonial rules, detailing,
+in succinct aphorisms, the approved course of sacrificial procedure,
+without reference to the supposed origin or import of the several rites.
+These manuals are also called _Srauta-sutras_, treating as they do, like
+the Brahmanas, of the Srauta rites--i.e. the rites based on the _sruti_
+or revelation--requiring at least three sacrificial fires and a number
+of priests, as distinguished from the _grihya_ (domestic) or _smarta_
+(traditional) rites, supposed to be based on the _smriti_ or tradition,
+which are performed on the house-fire and dealt with in the
+_Grihya-sutras_.
+
+The ritual recognizes four principal priests (_ritvij_), each of whom is
+assisted by three subordinates: viz. the _Brahman_ or superintending
+priest; the _Hotri_ or reciter of hymns and verses; the _Udgatri_ or
+chanter; and the _Adhvaryu_ or offerer, who looks after the details of
+the ceremonial, including the preparation of the offering-ground, the
+construction of fire-places and altars, the making of oblations and
+muttering of the prescribed formulae. Whilst the two last priests have
+assigned to them special liturgical collections of the texts to be used
+by them, the _Samaveda-samhita_ and _Yajurveda-samhita_ respectively,
+the Hotri has to deal entirely with hymns and verses taken from the
+_Rigveda-samhita_, of which they would, however, form only a
+comparatively small portion. As regards the Brahman, he would doubtless
+be chosen from one of those other three classes, but would be expected
+to have made himself thoroughly conversant with the texts and ritual
+details appertaining to all the officiating priests. It is, then, to one
+or other of those three collections of sacred texts and the respective
+class of priests, that the existing Brahmanas attach themselves. At a
+later period, when the Atharvan gained admission to the Vedic canon, a
+special connexion with the Brahman priest was sometimes claimed, though
+with scant success, for this fourth collection of hymns and spells, and
+the comparatively late and unimportant Gopatha-brahmana attached to it.
+
+The Udgatri's duties being mainly confined to the chanting of hymns made
+up of detached groups of verses of the _Rigveda_, as collected in the
+Samaveda-samhita, the more important Brahmanas of this sacerdotal class
+deal chiefly with the various modes of chanting, and the modifications
+which the verses have to undergo in their musical setting. Moreover, the
+performance of chants being almost entirely confined to the
+Soma-sacrifice, it is only a portion, though no doubt the most important
+portion, of the sacrificial ceremonial that enters into the subject
+matter of the Samaveda Brahmamas.
+
+As regards the Brahmanas of the _Rigveda_, two of such works have
+been handed down, the _Aitareya_ and the _Kaushitaki_ (or
+_Sankhayana)-Brahmanas_, which have a large amount of their material in
+common. But while the former work (transl. into English by M. Haug) is
+mainly taken up with the Soma-sacrifice, the latter has in addition
+thereto chapters on the other forms of sacrifice. Being intended for the
+Hotri's use, both these works treat exclusively of the hymns and verses
+recited by that priest and his assistants, either in the form of
+connected litanies or in detached verses invoking the deities to whom
+oblations are made, or uttered in response to the solemn hymns chanted
+by the Udgatris.
+
+It is, however, to the Brahmanas and Sutras of the _Yajurveda_, dealing
+with the ritual of the real offering-priest, the Adhvaryu, that we have
+to turn for a connected view of the sacrificial procedure in all its
+material details. Now, in considering the body of writings connected
+with this Veda, we are at once confronted by the fact that there are two
+different schools, an older and a younger one, in which the traditional
+body of ritualistic matter has been treated in a very different way. For
+while the younger school, the _Vajasaneyins_, have made a clear
+severance between the sacred texts or mantras and the exegetic
+discussions thereon--as collected in the _Vajasaneyi-samhita_ and the
+_Satapatha-Brahmana_ (trans. by J. Eggeling, in _Sacred Books of the
+East_) respectively--arranged systematically in accordance with the
+ritual divisions, the older school on the other hand present their
+materials in a hopelessly jumbled form; for not only is each type of
+sacrifice not dealt with continuously and in orderly fashion, but short
+textual sections of mantras are constantly followed immediately by their
+dogmatic exegesis; the term _brahmana_ thus applying in their case only
+to these detached comments and not to the connected series of them. Thus
+the most prominent subdivision of the older school, the _Taittiriyas_,
+in their _Samhita_, have treated the main portion of the ceremonial in
+this promiscuous fashion, and to add to the confusion they have, by way
+of supplement, put forth a so-called _Taittiriya-brahmana_, which, so
+far from being a real Brahmana, merely deals with some additional rites
+in the same confused mixture of sacrificial formulae and dogmatic
+explanations. It is not without reason, therefore, that those two
+schools, the older and the younger, are commonly called the Black
+(_krishna_) and the White (_sukla_) Yajus respectively.
+
+Although the ritualistic discussions of the Brahmanas are for the most
+part of a dry and uninteresting nature to an even greater degree than is
+often the case with exegetic theological treatises, these works are
+nevertheless of considerable importance both as regards the history of
+Indian institutions and as "the oldest body of Indo-European prose, of a
+generally free, vigorous, simple form, affording valuable glimpses
+backwards at the primitive condition of unfettered Indo-European talk"
+(Whitney). Of especial interest in this respect are the numerous myths
+and legends scattered through these works. From the archaic style in
+which these mythological tales are usually composed, as well as from the
+fact that not a few of them are found in Brahmanas of different schools
+and Vedas, though often with considerable variations, it seems pretty
+evident that the groundwork of them must go back to times preceding the
+composition or final redaction of the existing Brahmanas. In the case of
+some of these legends--as those of Sunah-Sepha, and the fetching of Soma
+from heaven--we can even see how they have grown out of germs contained
+in some of the Vedic hymns. If the literary style in which the exegetic
+discussion of the texts and rites is carried on in the Brahmanas is, as
+a rule, of a very bald and uninviting nature, it must be borne in mind
+that these treatises are of a strictly professional and esoteric
+character, and in no way lay claim to being considered as literary
+compositions in any sense of the word. And yet, notwithstanding the
+general emptiness of their ritualistic discussions and mystic
+speculations, "there are passages in the Brahmanas full of genuine
+thought and feeling, and most valuable as pictures of life, and as
+records of early struggles, which have left no trace in the literature
+of other nations" (M. Müller).
+
+The chief interest, however, attaching to the Brahmanas is doubtless
+their detailed description of the sacrificial system as practised in the
+later Vedic ages; and the information afforded by them in this respect
+should be all the more welcome to us, as the history of religious
+institutions knows of no other sacrificial ceremonial with the details
+of which we are acquainted to anything like the same extent. An even
+more complete and minutely detailed view of the sacrificial system is no
+doubt obtained from the ceremonial manuals, the Kalpa-sutras; but it is
+just by the speculative discussions of the Brahmanas--the mystic
+significance and symbolical colouring with which they invest single
+rites--that we gain a real insight into the nature and gradual
+development of this truly stupendous system of ritual worship.
+
+The sacrificial ritual recognizes two kinds of _srauta_ sacrifices, viz.
+_haviryajnas_ (meat-offerings), consisting of oblations (_ishti_) of
+milk, butter, cereals or flesh, and _somayagas_ or oblations of the
+juice of the soma plant. The setting up, by a householder, of a set of
+three sacrificial fires of his own constitutes the first ceremony of the
+former class, the _Agny-adhana_ (or (?) _Agny-adheya_). The first of the
+three fires laid down is the _garhapatya_, or householder's fire, so
+called because, though not taken from his ordinary house-fire, but as a
+rule specially produced by friction, it serves for cooking the
+sacrificial food, and thus, as it were, represents the domestic fire.
+From it the other two fires, the _anavaniya_, or offering fire, and the
+_dakshinagni_, or southern fire, used for certain special purposes, are
+taken. The principal other ceremonies of this class are the new and full
+moon offerings, the oblations made at the commencement of the three
+seasons, the offering of first-fruits, the animal sacrifice, and the
+_Agnihotra_, or daily morning and evening oblation of milk, which,
+however, is also included amongst the _grihya_, or domestic rites, as
+having to be performed daily on the domestic fire by the householder who
+keeps no regular set of sacrificial fires.
+
+Of a far more complicated nature than these offerings are the
+Soma-sacrifices, which, besides the simpler ceremonies of this class,
+such as the _Agnishtoma_ or "Praise of Agni," also include great state
+functions, such as the _Räjasuya_ or consecration of a king, and the
+_Asvamedha_ or horse-sacrifice, which, in addition to the sacrificial
+rites, have a considerable amount of extraneous, often highly
+interesting, ceremonial connected with them, which makes them seem to
+partake largely of the nature of public festivals. Whilst the oblations
+of Soma-juice, made thrice on each offering-day, amidst chants and
+recitations, constitute the central rites of those services, their
+ritual also requires numerous single oblations of the _ishti_ kind,
+including at least three animal offerings, and in some cases the
+immolation of many hecatombs of victims. Moreover, a necessary
+preliminary to every Soma-sacrifice is the construction, in five layers,
+of a special fire-altar of large dimensions, consisting of thousands of
+bricks, formed and baked on the spot, to each, or each group, of which a
+special symbolic meaning is attached. The building of this altar is
+spread over a whole year, during which period the sacrificer has to
+carry about the sacrificial fire in an earthen pan for at least some
+time each day, until it is finally deposited on the completed altar to
+serve as the offering-fire for the Soma oblations. The altar itself is
+constructed in the form of a bird, because Soma was supposed to have
+been brought down from heaven by the metre Gayatri which had assumed the
+form of an eagle. Whilst the Soma-sacrifice has been thus developed by
+the Brahmanas in an extraordinary degree, its essential identity with
+the Avestan Haoma-cult shows that its origin goes back at all events to
+the Indo-Iranian period.
+
+Among the symbolic conceits in which the authors of the Brahmanas so
+freely indulge, there is one overshadowing all others--if indeed they do
+not all more or less enter into it--which may be considered as the sum
+and substance of these speculations, and the esoteric doctrine of the
+sacrifice, involved by the Brahmanical ritualists. This is what may
+conveniently be called the Prajapati theory, by which the "Lord of
+Creatures," the efficient cause of the universe, is identified with both
+the sacrifice (_yajna_) and the sacrificer (_yajamana_). The origin of
+this theory goes back to the later Vedic hymns. In the so-called
+Purusha-sukta (_Rigv._ x. 90) in which the supreme spirit is conceived
+of as _the_ person or man (_purusha_), born in the beginning, and
+consisting of "whatever hath been and whatever shall be," the creation
+of the visible and invisible universe is represented as originating from
+an "all-offered" (holocaust) sacrifice in which the Purusha himself
+forms the offering-material (_havis_), or, as we might say, the victim.
+In this primeval, or rather timeless because ever-proceeding, sacrifice,
+time itself, in the shape of its unit the year, is made to take its
+part, inasmuch as the three seasons--spring, summer and autumn--of which
+it consists, constitute the ghee (clarified butter), the offering-fuel
+and the oblation respectively. These speculations may be said to have
+formed the foundation on which the theory of the sacrifice, as
+propounded in the Brahmanas, has been reared. Prajapati--who (probably
+for practical considerations, as better representing the sacrificer, the
+earthly ruler, or "lord of the creatures") here takes the place of the
+Purusha, the world-man or all-embracing personality--is offered up anew
+in every sacrifice; and inasmuch as the very dismemberment of the lord
+of creatures, which took place at that archtypal sacrifice, was in
+itself the creation of the universe, so every sacrifice is also a
+repetition of that first creative act. Thus the periodical sacrifice is
+nothing else than a microcosmic representation of the ever-proceeding
+destruction and renewal of all cosmic life and matter. The ritualistic
+theologians, however, go an important step further by identifying
+Prajapati with the performer, or patron, of the sacrifice, the
+sacrificer; every sacrifice thus becoming invested--in addition to its
+cosmic significance--with the mystic power of regenerating the
+sacrificer by cleansing him of all guilt and securing for him a seat in
+the eternal abodes.
+
+Whilst forming the central feature of the ritualistic symbolism, this
+triad--Prajapati, sacrifice (oblation, victim), sacrificer--is extended
+in various ways. An important collateral identification is that of
+Prajapati (and the sacrificer) with Agni, the god of fire, embodied not
+only in the offering-fire, but also in the sacred Soma-altar, the
+technical name of which is _agni_. For this reason the altar, as
+representative of the universe, is built in five layers, representing
+earth, air and heaven, and the intermediate regions; and in the centre
+of the altar-site, below the first layer, on a circular gold plate (the
+sun), a small golden man (_purusha_) is laid down with his face looking
+upwards. This is Prajapati, and the sacrificer, who when regenerated
+will pass upwards through the three worlds to the realms of light,
+naturally perforated bricks being for this purpose placed in the middle
+of the three principal altar-layers. One of the fourteen sections of the
+Satapatha-brahmana, the tenth, called _Agni-rahasya_ or "the mystery
+of Agni (the god and altar)," is entirely devoted to this feature of the
+sacrificial symbolism. Similarly the sacrificer, as the human
+representatiye of the Lord of Creatures, is identified with Soma (as the
+supreme oblation), with Time, and finally with Death: by the sacrificer
+thus becoming Death himself, the fell god ceases to have power over him
+and he is assured of everlasting life. And now we get the Supreme Lord
+in his last aspect; nay, his one true and real aspect, in which the
+sacrificer, on shuffling off this mortal coil, will himself come to
+share--that of pure intellectuality, pure spirituality--he is Mind: such
+is the ultimate source of being, the one Self, the Purusha, the Brahman.
+As the sum total of the wisdom propounded in the mystery of Agni, the
+searcher after truth is exhorted to meditate on that Self, made up of
+intelligence, endowed with a body of spirit, a form of light, and of an
+ethereal nature; holding sway over all the regions and pervading this
+All, being itself speechless and devoid of mental states; and by so
+doing he shall gain the assurance that "even as a grain of rice, or the
+smallest granule of millet, so is the golden Purusha in my heart; even
+as a smokeless light, it is greater than the sky, greater than the
+ether, greater than the earth, greater than all existing things;--that
+Self of the Spirit is my Self; on passing away from hence, I shall
+obtain that Self. And, verily, whosoever has this trust, for him there
+is no uncertainty."     (J. E.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMANISM, a term commonly used to denote a system of religious
+institutions originated and elaborated by the _Brahmans_, the sacerdotal
+and, from an early period, the dominant caste of the Hindu community
+(see BRAHMAN). In like manner, as the language of the Aryan Hindus has
+undergone continual processes of modification and dialectic division, so
+their religious belief has passed through various stages of development
+broadly distinguished from one another by certain prominent features.
+The earliest phases of religious thought in India of which a clear idea
+can now be formed are exhibited in a body of writings, looked upon by
+later generations in the light of sacred writ, under the collective name
+of _Veda_ ("knowledge") or _Sruti_ ("revelation"). The Hindu scriptures
+consist of four separate collections, or _Samhitas_, of sacred texts, or
+_mantras_, including hymns, incantations and sacrificial forms of
+prayer, viz. the _Rich_ (nom. sing. _rik_) or _Rigveda_, the _Saman_ or
+_Samaveda_, the _Yajus_ or _Yajurveda_, and the _Atharvan_ or
+_Atharvaveda_. Each of these four text-books has attached to it a body
+of prose writings, called _Brahmanas_ (see BRAHMANA), intended to
+explain the ceremonial application of the texts and the origin and
+import of the sacrificial rites for which these were supposed to have
+been composed. Usually attached to these works, and in some cases to the
+Samhitas, are two kinds of appendages, the Aranyakas and Upanishads, the
+former of which deal generally with the more recondite rites, while the
+latter are taken up chiefly with speculations on the problems of the
+universe and the religious aims of man--subjects often touched upon in
+the earlier writings, but here dealt with in a more mature and
+systematic way. Two of the _Samhitas_, the _Saman_ and the _Yajus_,
+owing their existence to purely ritual purposes, and being, besides, the
+one almost entirely, the other partly, composed of verses taken from the
+_Rigveda_, are only of secondary importance for our present inquiry. The
+hymns of the _Rigveda_ constitute the earliest lyrical effusions of the
+Aryan settlers in India which have been handed down to posterity. They
+are certainly not all equally old; on the contrary they evidently
+represent the literary activity of many generations of bards, though
+their relative age cannot as yet be determined with anything like
+certainty. The tenth (and last) book of the collection, however, at any
+rate has all the characteristics of a later appendage, and in language
+and spirit many of its hymns approach very nearly to the level of the
+contents of the _Atharvan_. Of the latter collection about one-sixth is
+found also in the _Rigveda_, and especially in the tenth book; the
+larger portion peculiar to it, though including no doubt some older
+pieces, appears to owe its origin to an age not long anterior to the
+composition of the _Brahmanas_.
+
+The state of religious thought among the ancient bards, as reflected in
+the hymns of the _Rigveda_, is that of a worship of the grand and
+striking phenomena of nature regarded in the light of personal conscious
+beings, endowed with a power beyond the control of man, though not
+insensible to his praises and actions. It is a nature worship purer than
+that met with in any other polytheistic form of belief we are acquainted
+with--a mythology still comparatively little affected by those
+systematizing tendencies which, in a less simple and primitive state of
+thought, lead to the construction of a well-ordered pantheon and a
+regular organization of divine government. To the mind of the early
+Vedic worshipper the various departments of the surrounding nature are
+not as yet clearly defined, and the functions which he assigns to their
+divine representatives continually flow into one another. Nor has he yet
+learned to care to determine the relative worth and position of the
+objects of his adoration; but the temporary influence of the phenomenon
+to which he addresses his praises bears too strongly upon his mind to
+allow him for the time to consider the claims of rival powers to which
+at other times he is wont to look up with equal feelings of awe and
+reverence. It is this immediateness of impulse under which the human
+mind in its infancy strives to give utterance to its emotions that
+imparts to many of its outpourings the ring of monotheistic fervour.
+
+The generic name given to these impersonations, viz. _deva_ ("the
+shining ones"), points to the conclusion, sufficiently justified by the
+nature of the more prominent objects of Vedic adoration as well as by
+common natural occurrences, that it was the striking phenomena of light
+which first and most powerfully swayed the Aryan mind. In the primitive
+worship of the manifold phenomena of nature it is not, of course, so
+much their physical aspect that impresses the human heart as the moral
+and intellectual forces which are supposed to move and animate them. The
+attributes and relations of some of the Vedic deities, in accordance
+with the nature of the objects they represent, partake in a high degree
+of this spiritual element; but it is not improbable that in an earlier
+phase of Aryan worship the religious conceptions were pervaded by it to
+a still greater and more general extent, and that the Vedic belief,
+though retaining many of the primitive features, has on the whole
+assumed a more sensuous and anthropomorphic character. This latter
+element is especially predominant in the attributes and imagery applied
+by the Vedic poets to _Indra_, the god of the atmospheric region, the
+favourite figure in their pantheon.
+
+While the representatives of the prominent departments of nature appear
+to the Vedic bard as co-existing in a state of independence of one
+another, their relation to the mortal worshipper being the chief subject
+of his anxiety, a simple method of classification was already resorted
+to at an early time, consisting in a triple division of the deities into
+gods residing in the sky, in the air, and on earth. It is not, however,
+until a later stage,--the first clear indication being conveyed in a
+passage of the tenth book of the _Rigveda_--that this attempt at a
+polytheistic system is followed up by the promotion of one particular
+god to the dignity of chief guardian for each of these three regions. On
+the other hand, a tendency is clearly traceable in some of the hymns
+towards identifying gods whose functions present a certain degree of
+similarity of nature; attempts which would seem to show a certain
+advance of religious reflection, the first steps from polytheism towards
+a comprehension of the unity of the divine essence. Another feature of
+the old Vedic worship tended to a similar result. The great problems of
+the origin and existence of man and the universe had early begun to
+engage the Hindu mind; and in celebrating the praises of the gods the
+poet was frequently led by his religious, and not wholly disinterested,
+zeal to attribute to them cosmical functions of the very highest order.
+At a later stage of thought, chiefly exhibited in the tenth book of the
+_Rigveda_ and in the _Atharvaveda_, inquiring sages could not but
+perceive the inconsistency of such concessions of a supremacy among the
+divine rulers, and tried to solve the problem by conceptions of an
+independent power, endowed with all the attributes of a supreme deity,
+the creator of the universe, including the gods of the pantheon. The
+names under which this monotheistic idea is put forth are mostly of an
+attributive character, and indeed some of them, such as _Prajapati_
+("lord of creatures"), _Visvakarman_ ("all-worker"), occur in the
+earlier hymns as mere epithets of particular gods. But to other minds
+this theory of a personal creator left many difficulties unsolved. They
+saw, as the poets of old had seen, that everything around them, that man
+himself, was directed by some inward agent; and it needed but one step
+to perceive the essential sameness of these spiritual units, and to
+recognize their being but so many individual manifestations of one
+universal principle or spiritual essence. Thus a pantheistic conception
+was arrived at, put forth under various names, such as _Purusha_
+("soul"), _Kama_ ("desire"), _Brahman_ (neutr.; nom. sing. _bráhma_)
+("devotion, prayer"). Metaphysical and theosophic speculations were thus
+fast undermining the simple belief in the old gods, until, at the time
+of the composition of the _Brahmanas_ and _Upanishads_, we find them in
+complete possession of the minds of the theologians. Whilst the theories
+crudely suggested in the later hymns are now further matured and
+elaborated, the tendency towards catholicity of formula favours the
+combination of the conflicting monotheistic and pantheistic conceptions;
+this compromise, which makes _Prajapati_, the personal creator of the
+world, the manifestation of the impersonal _Brahma_, the universal
+self-existent soul, leads to the composite pantheistic system which
+forms the characteristic dogma of the Brahmanical period (see BRAHMAN).
+
+In the Vedic hymns two classes of society, the royal (or military) and
+the priestly classes, were evidently recognized as being raised above
+the level of the _Vis_, or bulk of the Aryan community. These social
+grades seem to have been in existence even before the separation of the
+two Asiatic branches of the Indo-Germanic race, the Aryans of Iran and
+India. It is true that, although the _Athrava, Rathaestao_, and
+_Vastrya_ of the _Zend Avesta_ correspond in position and occupation to
+the _Brahman, Rajan_ and _Vis_ of the Veda, there is no similarity of
+names between them; but this fact only shows that the common vocabulary
+had not yet definitely fixed on any specific names for these classes.
+Even in the Veda their nomenclature is by no means limited to a single
+designation for each of them. Moreover, _Atharvan_ occurs not
+infrequently in the hymns as the personification of the priestly
+profession, as the proto-priest who is supposed to have obtained fire
+from heaven and to have instituted the rite of sacrifice; and although
+_ratheshtha_ ("standing on a car") is not actually found in connexion
+with the _Rajan_ or _Kshatriya_, its synonym _rathin_ is in later
+literature a not unusual epithet of men of the military caste. At the
+time of the hymns, and even during the common Indo-Persian period, the
+sacrificial ceremonial had already become sufficiently complicated to
+call for the creation of a certain number of distinct priestly offices
+with special duties attached to them. While this shows clearly that the
+position and occupation of the priest were those of a profession, the
+fact that the terms _brahmana_ and _brahmaputra_, both denoting "the
+son of a brahman," are used in certain hymns as synonyms of _brahman_,
+seems to justify the assumption that the profession had already, to a
+certain degree, become hereditary at the time when these hymns were
+composed. There is, however, with the exception of a solitary passage in
+a hymn of the last book, no trace to be found in the _Rigveda_ of that
+rigid division into four castes separated from one another by
+insurmountable barriers, which in later times constitutes the
+distinctive feature of Hindu society. The idea of caste is expressed by
+the Sanskrit term _varna_, originally denoting "colour," thereby
+implying differences of complexion between the several classes. The word
+occurs in the Veda in the latter sense, but it is used there to mark the
+distinction, not between the three classes of the Aryan community, but
+between them on the one hand and a dark-coloured hostile people on the
+other. The latter, called Dasas or Dasyus, consisted, no doubt, of the
+indigenous tribes, with whom the Aryans had to carry on a continual
+struggle for the possession of the land. The partial subjection of these
+comparatively uncivilized tribes as the rule of the superior race was
+gradually spreading eastward, and their submission to a state of serfdom
+under the name of _Sudras_, added to the Aryan community an element,
+totally separated from it by colour, by habits, by language, and by
+occupation. Moreover, the religious belief of these tribes being
+entirely different from that of the conquering people, the pious Aryas,
+and especially the class habitually engaged in acts of worship, could
+hardly fail to apprehend considerable danger to the purity of their own
+faith from too close and intimate a contact between the two races. What
+more natural, therefore, than that measures should have been early
+devised to limit the intercourse between them within as narrow bounds as
+possible? In course of time the difference of vocation, and the greater
+or less exposure to the scorching influence of the tropical sky, added,
+no doubt, to a certain admixture of Sudra blood, especially in the case
+of the common people, seem to have produced also in the Aryan population
+different shades of complexion, which greatly favoured a tendency to
+rigid class-restrictions originally awakened and continually fed by the
+lot of the servile race. Meanwhile the power of the sacerdotal order
+having been gradually enlarged in proportion to the development of the
+minutiae of sacrificial ceremonial and the increase of sacred lore, they
+began to lay claim to supreme authority in regulating and controlling
+the religious and social life of the people. The author of the so-called
+_Purusha-sukta_, or hymn of Purusha, above referred to, represents the
+four castes--the _Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya_ and _Sudra_--as having
+severally sprung respectively from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and
+the feet of Purusha, a primary being, here assumed to be the source of
+the universe. It is very doubtful, however, whether at the time when
+this hymn was composed the relative position of the two upper castes
+could already have been settled in so decided a way as this theory might
+lead one to suppose. There is, on the contrary, reason to believe that
+some time had yet to elapse, marked by fierce and bloody struggles for
+supremacy, of which only imperfect ideas can be formed from the
+legendary and frequently biased accounts of later generations, before
+the Kshatriyas finally submitted to the full measure of priestly
+authority.
+
+The definitive establishment of the Brahmanical hierarchy marks the
+beginning of the Brahmanical period properly so called. Though the
+origin and gradual rise of some of the leading institutions of this era
+can, as has been shown, be traced in the earlier writings, the chain of
+their development presents a break at this juncture which no
+satisfactory materials as yet enable us to fill up. A considerable
+portion of the literature of this time has apparently been lost; and
+several important works, the original composition of which has probably
+to be assigned to the early days of Brahmanism, such as the institutes
+of Manu and the two great epics, the _Mahabharata_ and _Ramayana_, in
+the form in which they have been handed down to us, show manifest traces
+of a more modern redaction. Yet it is sufficiently clear from internal
+evidence that Manu's Code of Laws, though merely a metrical recast of
+older materials, reproduces on the whole pretty faithfully the state of
+Hindu society depicted in the sources from which it was compiled. The
+final overthrow of the Kshatriya power was followed by a period of
+jealous legislation on the part of the Brahmans. For a time their chief
+aim would doubtless be to improve their newly gained vantage-ground by
+surrounding everything relating to their order with a halo of sanctity
+calculated to impress the lay community with feelings of awe. In the
+Brahmanas and even in the Purusha Hymn, and the Atharvan, divine origin
+had already been ascribed to the Vedic _Samhitas_, especially to the
+three older collections. The same privilege was now successfully claimed
+for the later Vedic literature, so imbued with Brahmanic aspirations and
+pretensions; and the authority implied in the designation of _Sruti_ or
+revelation removed henceforth the whole body of sacred writings from the
+sphere of doubt and criticism. This concession necessarily involved an
+acknowledgment of the new social order as a divine institution. Its
+stability was, however, rendered still more secure by the elaboration of
+a system of conventional precepts, partly forming the basis of Manu's
+Code, which clearly defined the relative position and the duties of the
+several castes, and determined the penalties to be inflicted on any
+transgressions of the limits assigned to each of them. These laws are
+conceived with no sentimental scruples on the part of their authors. On
+the contrary, the offences committed by Brahmans against other castes
+are treated with remarkable clemency, whilst the punishments inflicted
+for trespasses on the rights of higher classes are the more severe and
+inhuman the lower the offender stands in the social scale.
+
+The three first castes, however unequal to each other in privilege and
+social standing, are yet united by a common bond of sacramental rites
+(_samskaras_), traditionally connected from ancient times with certain
+incidents and stages in the life of the Aryan Hindu, as conception,
+birth, name-giving, the first taking out of the child to see the sun,
+the first feeding with boiled rice, the rites of tonsure and
+hair-cutting, the youth's investiture with the sacrificial thread, and
+his return home on completing his studies, marriage, funeral, &c. The
+modes of observing these family rites are laid down in a class of
+writings called _Grihya-sutras_, or domestic rules. The most important
+of these observances is the _upanayana_, or rite of conducting the boy
+to a spiritual teacher. Connected with this act is the investiture with
+the sacred cord, ordinarily worn over the left shoulder and under the
+right arm, and varying in material according to the class of the wearer.
+This ceremony being the preliminary act to the youth's initiation into
+the study of the Veda, the management of the consecrated fire and the
+knowledge of the rites of purification, including the _savitri_, a
+solemn invocation to _Savitri_, the sun (probl. Saturnus),--as a rule
+the verse _Rigv_. iii. 62. 10, also called _gayatri_ from the metre in
+which it is composed--which has to be repeated every morning and evening
+before the rise and after the setting of that luminary, is supposed to
+constitute the second or spiritual birth of the Arya. It is from their
+participation in this rite that the three upper classes are called the
+twice-born. The ceremony is enjoined to take place some time between the
+eighth and sixteenth year of age in the case of a Brahman, between the
+eleventh and twenty-second year of a Kshatriya, and between the twelfth
+and twenty-fourth year of a Vaisya. He who has not been invested with
+the mark of his class within this time is for ever excluded from
+uttering the sacred _savitri_ and becomes an outcast, unless he is
+absolved from his sin by a council of Brahmans, and after due
+performance of a purificatory rite resumes the badge of his caste. With
+one not duly initiated no righteous man is allowed to associate or to
+enter into connexions of affinity. The duty of the Sudra is to serve the
+twice-born classes, and above all the Brahmans. He is excluded from all
+sacred knowledge, and if he performs sacrificial ceremonies he must do
+so without using holy mantras. No Brahman must recite a Vedic text where
+a man of the servile caste might overhear him, nor must he even teach
+him the laws of expiating sin. The occupations of the Vaisya are those
+connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding of
+cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and defending the
+people, administering justice, and the duties of the military profession
+generally. Both share with the Brahman the privilege of reading the
+Veda, but only so far as it is taught and explained to them by their
+spiritual preceptor. To the Brahman belongs the right of teaching and
+expounding the sacred texts, and also that of interpreting and
+determining the law and the rules of caste. Only in exceptional cases,
+when no teacher of the sacerdotal class is within reach, the twice-born
+youth, rather than forego spiritual instruction altogether, may reside
+in the house of a non-Brahmanical preceptor; but it is specially
+enjoined that a pupil, who seeks the path to heaven, should not fail, as
+soon as circumstances permit, to resort to a Brahman well versed in the
+Vedas and their appendages.
+
+Notwithstanding the barriers placed between the four castes, the
+practice of intermarrying appears to have been too prevalent in early
+times to have admitted of measures of so stringent a nature as wholly to
+repress it. To marry a woman of a higher caste, and especially of a
+caste not immediately above one's own, is, however, decidedly
+prohibited, the offspring resulting from such a union being excluded
+from the performance of the _sraddha_ or obsequies to the ancestors, and
+thereby rendered incapable of inheriting any portion of the parents'
+property. On the other hand, a man is at liberty, according to the rules
+of Manu, to marry a girl of any or each of the castes below his own,
+provided he has besides a wife belonging to his own class, for only such
+a one should perform the duties of personal attendance and religious
+observance devolving upon a married woman. As regards the children born
+from unequal marriages of this description, they have the rights and
+duties of the twice-born, if their mother belong to a twice-born caste,
+otherwise they, like the offspring of the former class of
+intermarriages, share the lot of the Sudra, and are excluded from the
+investiture and the _savitri_. For this last reason the marriage of a
+twice-born man with a Sudra woman is altogether discountenanced by some
+of the later law books. At the time of the code of Manu the intermixture
+of the classes had already produced a considerable number of
+intermediate or mixed castes, which were carefully defined, and each of
+which had a specific occupation assigned to it as its hereditary
+profession.
+
+The self-exaltation of the first class was not, it would seem,
+altogether due to priestly arrogance and ambition; but, like a prominent
+feature of the post-Vedic belief, the transmigration of souls, it was,
+if not the necessary, yet at least a natural consequence of the
+pantheistic doctrine. To the Brahmanical speculator who saw in the
+numberless individual existences of animate nature but so many
+manifestations of the one eternal spirit, to union with which they were
+all bound to tend as their final goal of supreme bliss, the greater or
+less imperfection of the material forms in which they were embodied
+naturally presented a continuous scale of spiritual units from the
+lowest degradation up to the absolute purity and perfection of the
+supreme spirit. To prevent one's sinking yet lower, and by degrees to
+raise one's self in this universal gradation, or, if possible, to attain
+the ultimate goal immediately from any state of corporeal existence,
+there was but one way--subjection of the senses, purity of life and
+knowledge of the deity. "He" (thus ends the code of Manu) "who in his
+own soul perceives the supreme soul in all beings and acquires
+equanimity toward them all, attains the highest state of bliss." Was it
+not natural then that the men who, if true to their sacred duties, were
+habitually engaged in what was most conducive to these spiritual
+attainments, that the Brahmanical class early learnt to look upon
+themselves, even as a matter of faith, as being foremost among the human
+species in this universal race for final beatitude? The life marked out
+for them by that stern theory of class duties which they themselves had
+worked out, and which, no doubt, must have been practised in early times
+at least in some degree, was by no means one of ease and amenity. It
+was, on the contrary, singularly calculated to promote that complete
+mortification of the instincts of animal nature which they considered as
+indispensable to the final deliverance from _samsara_, the revolution
+of bodily and personal existence.
+
+The pious Brahman, longing to attain the _summum bonum_ on the
+dissolution of his frail body, was enjoined to pass through a succession
+of four orders or stages of life, viz. those of _brahmacharin_, or
+religious student; _grihastha_ (or _grihamedhin_), or householder;
+_vanavasin_ (or _vanaprastha_), or anchorite; and _sannyasin_ (or
+_bhikshu_), or religious mendicant. Theoretically this course of life
+was open and even recommended to every twice-born man, his distinctive
+class-occupations being in that case restricted to the second station,
+or that of married life. Practically, however, those belonging to the
+Kshatriya and Vaisya castes were, no doubt, contented, with few
+exceptions, to go through a term of studentship in order to obtain a
+certain amount of religious instruction before entering into the married
+state, and plying their professional duties. In the case of the
+sacerdotal class, the practice probably was all but universal in early
+times; but gradually a more and more limited proportion even of this
+caste seem to have carried their religious zeal to the length of
+self-mortification involved in the two final stages. On the youth having
+been invested with the badge of his caste, he was to reside for some
+time in the house of some religious teacher, well read in the Veda, to
+be instructed in the knowledge of the scriptures and the scientific or
+theoretic treatises attached to them, in the social duties of his caste,
+and in the complicated system of purificatory and sacrificial rites.
+According to the number of Vedas he intended to study, the duration of
+this period of instruction was to be, probably in the case of
+Brahmanical students chiefly, of from twelve to forty-eight years;
+during which time the virtues of modesty, duty, temperance and
+self-control were to be firmly implanted in the youth's mind by his
+unremitting observance of the most minute rules of conduct. During all
+this time the student had to subsist entirely on food obtained by
+begging from house to house; and his behaviour towards the preceptor and
+his family was to be that prompted by respectful attachment and implicit
+obedience. In the case of girls no investiture takes place, but for them
+the nuptial ceremony is considered as an equivalent to that rite. On
+quitting the teacher's abode, the young man returns to his family and
+takes a wife. To die without leaving legitimate offspring, and
+especially a son, capable of performing the periodical rite of obsequies
+(_sraddha_), consisting of offerings of water and balls of rice, to
+himself and his two immediate ancestors, is considered a great
+misfortune by the orthodox Hindu. There are three sacred "debts" which a
+man has to discharge in life, viz. that which is due to the gods, and of
+which he acquits himself by daily worship and sacrificial rites; that
+due to the _rishis_, or ancient sages and inspired seers of the Vedic
+texts, discharged by the daily study of the scripture; and the "final
+debt" which he owes to his _manes_, and of which he relieves himself by
+leaving a son. To these three some authorities add a fourth, viz. the
+debt owing to humankind, which demands his continually practising
+kindness and hospitality. Hence the necessity of a man's entering into
+the married state. When the bridegroom leads the bride from her father's
+house to his own home, and becomes a _griha-pati_, or householder, the
+fire which has been used for the marriage ceremony accompanies the
+couple to serve them as their _garhapatya_, or domestic fire. It has to
+be kept up perpetually, day and night, either by themselves or their
+children, or, if the man be a teacher, by his pupils. If it should at
+any time become extinguished by neglect or otherwise, the guilt incurred
+thereby must be atoned for by an act of expiation. The domestic fire
+serves the family for preparing their food, for making the five
+necessary daily and other occasional offerings, and for performing the
+sacramental rites above alluded to. No food should ever be eaten that
+has not been duly consecrated by a portion of it being offered to the
+gods, the beings and the _manes_. These three daily offerings are also
+called by the collective name of _vaisvadeva_, or sacrifice "to all the
+deities." The remaining two are the offering to Brahma, i.e. the daily
+lecture of the scriptures, accompanied by certain rites, and that to
+men, consisting in the entertainment of guests. The domestic
+observances--many of them probably ancient Aryan family customs,
+surrounded by the Hindus with a certain amount of adventitious
+ceremonial--were generally performed by the householder himself, with
+the assistance of his wife. There is, however, another class of
+sacrificial ceremonies of a more pretentious and expensive kind, called
+_srauta_ rites, or rites based on _sritu_, or revelation, the
+performance of which, though not indispensable, were yet considered
+obligatory under certain circumstances (see BRAHMANA). They formed a
+very powerful weapon in the hands of the priesthood, and were one of the
+chief sources of their subsistence. However great the religious merit
+accruing from these sacrificial rites, they were obviously a kind of
+luxury which only rich people could afford to indulge in. They
+constituted, as it were, a tax, voluntary perhaps, yet none the less
+compulsory, levied by the priesthood on the wealthy laity.
+
+When the householder is advanced in years, "when he perceives his skin
+become wrinkled and his hair grey, when he sees the son of his son," the
+time is said to have come for him to enter the third stage of life. He
+should now disengage himself from all family ties--except that his wife
+may accompany him, if she chooses--and repair to a lonely wood, taking
+with him his sacred fires and the implements required for the daily and
+periodical offerings. Clad in a deer's skin, in a single piece of cloth,
+or in a bark garment, with his hair and nails uncut, the hermit is to
+subsist exclusively on food growing wild in the forest, such as roots,
+green herbs, and wild rice and grain. He must not accept gifts from any
+one, except of what may be absolutely necessary to maintain him; but
+with his own little hoard he should, on the contrary, honour, to the
+best of his ability, those who visit his hermitage. His time must be
+spent in reading the metaphysical treatises of the Veda, in making
+oblations, and in undergoing various kinds of privation and austerities,
+with a view to mortifying his passions and producing in his mind an
+entire indifference to worldly objects. Having by these means succeeded
+in overcoming all sensual affections and desires, and in acquiring
+perfect equanimity towards everything around him, the hermit has fitted
+himself for the final and most exalted order, that of devotee or
+religious mendicant. As such he has no further need of either
+mortifications or religious observances; but "with the sacrificial fires
+reposited in his mind," he may devote the remainder of his days to
+meditating on the divinity. Taking up his abode at the foot of a tree in
+total solitude, "with no companion but his own soul," clad in a coarse
+garment, he should carefully avoid injuring any creature or giving
+offence to any human being that may happen to come near him. Once a day,
+in the evening, "when the charcoal fire is extinguished and the smoke no
+longer issues from the fire-places, when the pestle is at rest, when the
+people have taken their meals and the dishes are removed," he should go
+near the habitations of men, in order to beg what little food may
+suffice to sustain his feeble frame. Ever pure of mind he should thus
+bide his time, "as a servant expects his wages," wishing neither for
+death nor for life, until at last his soul is freed from its fetters and
+absorbed in the eternal spirit, the impersonal self-existent Brahma.
+
+The tendency towards a comprehension of the unity of the divine essence
+had resulted in some minds, as has been remarked before, in a kind of
+monotheistic notion of the origin of the universe. In the literature of
+the Brahmana period we meet with this conception as a common element of
+speculation; and so far from its being considered incompatible with the
+existence of a universal spirit, _Prajapati_, the personal creator of
+the world, is generally allowed a prominent place in the pantheistic
+theories. Yet the state of theological speculation, reflected in these
+writings, is one of transition. The general drift of thought is
+essentially pantheistic, but it is far from being reduced to a regular
+system, and the ancient form of belief still enters largely into it. The
+attributes of Prajapati, in the same way, have in them elements of a
+purely polytheistic nature, and some of the attempts at reconciling this
+new-fangled deity with the traditional belief are somewhat awkward. An
+ancient classification of the gods represented them as being
+thirty-three in number, eleven in each of the three worlds or regions
+of nature. These regions being associated each with the name of one
+principal deity, this division gave rise at a later time to the notion
+of a kind of triple divine government, consisting of _Agni_ (fire),
+_Indra_ sky) or _Vayu_ (wind), and _Surya_ (sun), as presiding
+respectively over the gods on earth, in the atmosphere, and in the sky.
+Of this Vedic triad mention is frequently made in the Brahmana writings.
+On the other hand the term _prajapati_ (lord of creatures), which in the
+_Rigveda_ occurs as an epithet of the sun, is also once in the
+_Atharvaveda_ applied jointly to Indra and Agni. In the Brahmanas
+Prajapati is several times mentioned as the thirty-fourth god; whilst in
+one passage he is called the fourth god, and made to rule over the three
+worlds. More frequently, however, the writings of this period represent
+him as the maker of the world and the father or creator of the gods. It
+is clear from this discordance of opinion on so important a point of
+doctrine, that at this time no authoritative system of belief had been
+agreed upon by the theologians. Yet there are unmistakable signs of a
+strong tendency towards constructing one, and it is possible that in
+yielding to it the Brahmans may have been partly prompted by political
+considerations. The definite settlement of the caste system and the
+Brahmanical supremacy must probably be assigned to somewhere about the
+close of the Brahmana period. Division in their own ranks was hardly
+favourable to the aspirations of the priests at such a time; and the
+want of a distinct formula of belief adapted to the general drift of
+theological speculation, to which they could all rally, was probably
+felt the more acutely, the more determined a resistance the military
+class was likely to oppose to their claims. Side by side with the
+conception of the Brahma, the universal spiritual principle, with which
+speculative thought had already become deeply imbued, the notion of a
+supreme personal being, the author of the material creation, had come to
+be considered by many as a necessary complement of the pantheistic
+doctrine. But, owing perhaps to his polytheistic associations and the
+attributive nature of his name, the person of Prajapati seems to have
+been thought but insufficiently adapted to represent this abstract idea.
+The expedient resorted to for solving the difficulty was as ingenious as
+it was characteristic of the Brahmanical aspirations. In the same way as
+the abstract denomination of sacerdotalism, the neuter _brahma_, had
+come to express the divine essence, so the old designation of the
+individual priest, the masculine term _brahma_, was raised to denote the
+supreme personal deity which was to take the place and attributes of the
+Prajapati of the Brahmanas and Upanishads (see BRAHMAN).
+
+However the new dogma may have answered the purposes of speculative
+minds, it was not one in which the people generally were likely to have
+been much concerned; an abstract, colourless deity like Brahma could
+awake no sympathies in the hearts of those accustomed to worship gods of
+flesh and blood. Indeed, ever since the primitive symbolical worship of
+nature had undergone a process of disintegration under the influence of
+metaphysical speculation, the real belief of the great body of the
+people had probably become more and more distinct from that of the
+priesthood. In different localities the principal share of their
+affection may have been bestowed on one or another of the old gods who
+was thereby raised to the dignity of chief deity; or new forms and
+objects of belief may have sprung up with the intellectual growth of the
+people. In some cases even the worship of the indigenous population
+could hardly have remained without exercising some influence in
+modifying the belief of the Aryan race. In this way a number of local
+deities would grow up, more or less distinct in name and characteristics
+from the gods of the Vedic pantheon. There is, indeed, sufficient
+evidence to show that, at a time when, after centuries of theological
+speculations, some little insight into the life and thought of the
+people is afforded by the literature handed down to us, such a diversity
+of worship did exist. Under these circumstances the policy which seems
+to have suggested itself to the priesthood, anxious to retain a firm
+hold on the minds of the people, was to recognize and incorporate into
+their system some of the most prominent objects of popular devotion, and
+thereby to establish a kind of catholic creed for the whole community
+subject to the Brahmanical law. At the time of the original composition
+of the great epics two such deities, _Siva_ or _Mahadeva_ ("the great
+god") and _Vishnu_, seem to have been already admitted into the
+Brahmanical system, where they have ever since retained their place; and
+from the manner in which they are represented in those works, it would,
+indeed, appear that both, and especially the former, enjoyed an
+extensive worship. As several synonyms are attributed to each of them,
+it is not improbable that in some of these we have to recognize special
+names under which the people in different localities worshipped these
+gods, or deities of a similar nature which, by the agency of popular
+poetry, or in some other way, came to be combined with them. The places
+assigned to them in the pantheistic system were coordinate with that of
+Brahma; the three deities, _Brahma, Vishnu_ and _Siva_, were to
+represent a triple impersonation of the divinity, as manifesting itself
+respectively in the creation, preservation and destruction of the
+universe. Siva does not occur in the Vedic hymns as the name of a god,
+but only as an adjective in the sense of "kind, auspicious." One of his
+synonyms, however, is the name of a Vedic deity, the attributes and
+nature of which show a good deal of similarity to the post-Vedic god.
+This is _Rudra_, the god of the roaring storm, usually portrayed, in
+accordance with the element he represents, as a fierce, destructive
+deity, "terrible as a wild beast," whose fearful arrows cause death and
+disease to men and cattle. He is also called _kapardin_ ("wearing his
+hair spirally braided like a shell"), a word which in later times became
+one of the synonyms of Siva. The _Atharvaveda_ mentions several other
+names of the same god, some of which appear even placed together, as in
+one passage _Bhava, Sarva, Rudra_ and _Pasupati_. Possibly some of them
+were the names under which one and the same deity was already worshipped
+in different parts of northern India. This was certainly the case in
+later times, since it is expressly stated in one of the later works of
+the Brahmana period, that Sarva was used by the Eastern people and Bhava
+by a Western tribe. It is also worthy of note that in the same work (the
+_Satapatha-brahmana_), composed at a time when the Vedic triad of Agni,
+Indra-Vayu and Surya was still recognized, attempts are made to identify
+this god of many names with Agni; and that in one passage in the
+_Mahabharata_ it is stated that the Brahmans said that Agni was Siva.
+Although such attempts at an identification of the two gods remained
+isolated, they would at least seem to point to the fact that, in
+adapting their speculations to the actual state of popular worship, the
+Brahmans kept the older triad distinctly in view, and by means of it
+endeavoured to bring their new structure into harmony with the ancient
+Vedic belief. It is in his character as destroyer that Siva holds his
+place in the triad, and that he must, no doubt, be identified with the
+Vedic Rudra. Another very important function appears, however, to have
+been early assigned to him, on which much more stress is laid in his
+modern worship--that of destroyer being more especially exhibited in his
+consort--viz. the character of a generative power, symbolized in the
+phallic emblem (_linga_) and in the sacred bull (_Nandi_), the favourite
+attendant of the god. This feature being entirely alien from the nature
+of the Vedic god, it has been conjectured with some plausibility, that
+the _linga_-worship was originally prevalent among the non-Aryan
+population, and was thence introduced into the worship of Siva. On the
+other hand, there can, we think, be little doubt that Siva, in his
+generative faculty, is the representative of another Vedic god whose
+nature and attributes go far to account for this particular feature of
+the modern deity, viz. _Pushan_. This god, originally, no doubt, a solar
+deity, is frequently invoked, as the lord of nourishment, to bestow
+food, wealth and other blessings. He is once, jointly with Soma, called
+the progenitor of heaven and earth, and is connected with the marriage
+ceremony, where he is asked to lead the bride to the bridegroom and make
+her prosperous (_Sivatama_). Moreover, he has the epithet _kapardin_
+(spirally braided), as have Rudra and the later Siva, and is called
+_Pasupa_, or guardian of cattle, whence the latter derives his name
+_Pasupati_. But he is also a strong, powerful, and even fierce and
+destructive god, who, with his goad or golden spear, smites the foes of
+his worshipper, and thus in this respect offers at least some points of
+similarity to Rudra, which may have favoured the fusion of the two gods.
+As regards _Vishnu_, this god occupies already a place in the Vedic
+mythology, though by no means one of such prominence as would entitle
+him to that degree of exaltation implied in his character as one of the
+three hypostases of the divinity. Moreover, although in his general
+nature, as a benevolent, genial being, the Vedic god corresponds on the
+whole to the later Vishnu, the preserver of the world, the latter
+exhibits many important features for which we look in vain in his
+prototype, and which most likely resulted from sectarian worship or from
+an amalgamation with local deities. In one or two of them, such as his
+names Vasudeva and Vaikuntha, an attempt may again be traced to identify
+Vishnu with Indra, who, as we have seen, was one of the Vedic triad of
+gods. The characteristic feature of the elder Vishnu is his measuring
+the world with his three strides, which are explained as denoting either
+the three stations of the sun at the time of rising, culminating and
+setting, or the triple manifestation of the luminous element, as the
+fire on earth, the lightning in the atmosphere and the sun in the
+heavens.
+
+The male nature of the triad was supposed to require to be supplemented
+by each of the three gods being associated with a female energy
+(_Sakti_). Thus _Vach_ or _Sarasvati_, the goddess of speech and
+learning, came to be regarded as the _sakti_, or consort of Brahma;
+_Sri_ or _Lakshmi_, "beauty, fortune," as that of Vishnu; and _Uma_ or
+_Parvati_, the daughter of _Himavat_, the god of the Himalaya mountain,
+as that of Siva. On the other hand, it is not improbable that
+_Parvati_--who has a variety of other names, such as _Kali_ ("the black
+one"), _Durga_ ("the inaccessible, terrible one"), _Maha-devi_ ("the
+great goddess")--enjoyed already a somewhat extensive worship of her
+own, and that there may thus have been good reason for assigning to her
+a prominent place in the Brahmanical system.
+
+A compromise was thus effected between the esoteric doctrine of the
+metaphysician and some of the most prevalent forms of popular worship,
+resulting in what was henceforth to constitute the orthodox system of
+belief of the Brahmanical community. Yet the Vedic pantheon could not be
+altogether discarded, forming part and parcel, as it did, of that sacred
+revelation (_sruti_), which was looked upon as the divine source of all
+religious and social law (_smriti_, "tradition"), and being, moreover,
+the foundation of the sacrificial ceremonial on which the priestly
+authority so largely depended. The existence of the old gods is,
+therefore, likewise recognized, but recognized in a very different way
+from that of the triple divinity. For while the triad represents the
+immediate manifestation of the eternal, infinite soul--while it
+constitutes, in fact, the Brahma itself in its active relation to
+mundane and seemingly material occurrences, the old traditional gods are
+of this world, are individual spirits or portions of the Brahma like men
+and other creatures, only higher in degree. To them an intermediate
+sphere, the heaven of Indra (the _svarloka_ or _svarga_), is assigned to
+which man may raise himself by fulfilling the holy ordinances; but they
+are subject to the same laws of being; they, like men, are liable to be
+born again in some lower state, and, therefore, like them, yearn for
+emancipation from the necessity of future individual existence. It is a
+sacred duty of man to worship these superior beings by invocations and
+sacrificial observances, as it is to honour the _pitris_ ("the
+fathers"), the spirits of the departed ancestors. The spirits of the
+dead, on being judged by _Yama_, the Pluto of Hindu mythology, are
+supposed to be either passing through a term of enjoyment in a region
+midway between the earth and the heaven of the gods, or undergoing their
+measure of punishment in the nether world, situated somewhere in the
+southern region, before they return to the earth to animate new bodies.
+In Vedic mythology Yama was considered to have been the first mortal who
+died, and "espied the way to" the celestial abodes, and in virtue of
+precedence to have become the ruler of the departed; in some passages,
+however, he is already regarded as the god of death. Although the
+pantheistic system allowed only a subordinate rank to the old gods, and
+the actual religious belief of the people was probably but little
+affected by their existence, they continued to occupy an important place
+in the affections of the poet, and were still represented as exercising
+considerable influence on the destinies of man. The most prominent of
+them were regarded as the appointed _Lokapalas_, or guardians of the
+world; and as such they were made to preside over the four cardinal and
+(according to some authorities) the intermediate points of the compass.
+Thus _Indra_, the chief of the gods, was regarded as the regent of the
+east; _Agni_, the fire (_ignis_), was in the same way associated with
+the south-east; _Yama_ with the south; _Surya_, the sun ([Greek:
+Haelios]), with the south-west; _Varuna_, originally the representative
+of the all-embracing heaven ([Greek: Ouranos]) or atmosphere, now the
+god of the ocean, with the west; _Vayu_ (or _Pavana_), the wind, with
+the north-west; _Kubera_, the god of wealth, with the north; and _Soma_
+(or _Chandra_) with the north-east. In the institutes of Manu the
+_Lokapalas_ are represented as standing in close relation to the ruling
+king, who is said to be composed of particles of these his tutelary
+deities. The retinue of Indra consists chiefly of the _Gandharvas_
+(probably etym. connected with [Greek: kentauros]), a class of genii,
+considered in the epics as the celestial musicians; and their wives, the
+_Apsaras_, lovely nymphs, who are frequently employed by the gods to
+make the pious devotee desist from carrying his austere practices to an
+extent that might render him dangerous to their power. _Narada_, an
+ancient sage (probably a personification of the cloud, the
+"water-giver"), is considered as the messenger between the gods and men,
+and as having sprung from the forehead of Brahma. The interesting office
+of the god of love is held by _Kamadeva_, also called _Ananga_, the
+bodyless, because, as the myth relates, having once tried by the power
+of his mischievous arrow to make Siva fall in love with Parvati, whilst
+he was engaged in devotional practices, the urchin was reduced to ashes
+by a glance of the angry god. Two other mythological figures of some
+importance are considered as sons of Siva and Parvati, viz. _Karttikeya_
+or _Skanda_, the leader of the heavenly armies, who was supposed to have
+been fostered by the six _Krittikas_ or Pleiades; and _Ganesa_ ("lord of
+troops"), the elephant-headed god of wisdom, and at the same time the
+leader of the _dii minorum gentium_.
+
+Orthodox Brahmanical scholasticism makes the attainment of final
+emancipation (_mukti_, _moksha_) dependent on perfect knowledge of the
+divine essence. This knowledge can only be obtained by complete
+abstraction of the mind from external objects and intense meditation on
+the divinity, which again presupposes the total extinction of all
+sensual instincts by means of austere practices (_tapas_). The chosen
+few who succeed in gaining complete mastery over their senses and a full
+knowledge of the divine nature become absorbed into the universal soul
+immediately on the dissolution of the body. Those devotees, on the other
+hand, who have still a residuum, however slight, of ignorance and
+worldliness left in them at the time of their death, pass to the world
+of Brahma, where their souls, invested with subtile corporeal frames,
+await their reunion with the Eternal Being.
+
+The pantheistic doctrine which thus forms the foundation of the
+Brahmanical system of belief found its most complete exposition in one
+of the six orthodox _darsanas_, or philosophical systems, the _Vedanta_
+philosophy. These systems are considered as orthodox inasmuch as they
+recognize the Veda as the revealed source of religious belief, and never
+fail to claim the authority of the ancient seers for their own
+teachings, even though--as in the case of Kapila, the founder of the
+materialistic Sankhya system--they involve the denial of so essential a
+dogmatic point as the existence of a personal creator of the world. So
+much, indeed, had freedom of speculative thought become a matter of
+established habit and intellectual necessity, that no attempt seems ever
+to have been made by the leading theological party to put down such
+heretical doctrines, so long as the sacred character of the privileges
+of their caste was not openly called in question. Yet internal
+dissensions on such cardinal points of belief could not but weaken the
+authority of the hierarchical body; and as they spread beyond the
+narrow bounds of the Brahmanical schools, it wanted but a man of moral
+and intellectual powers, and untrammelled by class prejudices, to render
+them fatal to priestly pretensions. Such a man arose in the person of a
+Sakya prince of Kapilavastu, Gotama, the founder of Buddhism (about the
+6th century B.C.). Had it only been for the philosophical tenets of
+Buddha, they need scarcely have caused, and probably did not cause, any
+great uneasiness to the orthodox theologians. He did, indeed, go one
+step beyond Kapila, by altogether denying the existence of the soul as a
+substance, and admitting only certain intellectual faculties as
+attributes of the body, perishable with it. Yet the conception which
+Buddha substituted for the transmigratory soul, viz. that of _karma_
+("work"), as the sum total of the individual's good and bad actions,
+being the determinative element of the form of his future existence,
+might have been treated like any other speculative theory, but for the
+practical conclusions he drew from it. Buddha recognized the institution
+of caste, and accounted for the social inequalities attendant thereon as
+being the effects of _karma_ in former existences. But, on the other
+hand, he altogether denied the revealed character of the Veda and the
+efficacy of the Brahmanical ceremonies deduced from it, and rejected the
+claims of the sacerdotal class to be the repositaries and divinely
+appointed teachers of sacred knowledge. That Buddha never questioned the
+truth of the Brahmanical theory of transmigration shows that this early
+product of speculative thought had become firmly rooted in the Hindu
+mind as a tenet of belief amounting to moral conviction. To the Hindu
+philosopher this doctrine seemed alone to account satisfactorily for the
+apparent essential similarity of the vital element in all animate
+beings, no less than for what elsewhere has led honest and logical
+thinkers to the stern dogma of predestination. The belief in eternal
+bliss or punishment, as the just recompense of man's actions during this
+brief term of human life, which their less reflective forefathers had at
+one time held, appeared to them to involve a moral impossibility. The
+equality of all men, which Buddha preached with regard to the final
+goal, the _nirvana_, or extinction of _karma_ and thereby of all future
+existence and pain, and that goal to be reached, not by the performance
+of penance and sacrificial worship, but by practising virtue, could not
+fail to be acceptable to many people. It would be out of place here to
+dwell on the rapid progress and internal development of the new
+doctrine. Suffice it to say that, owing no doubt greatly to the
+sympathizing patronage of ruling princes, Buddhism appears to have been
+the state religion in most parts of India during the early centuries of
+our era. To what extent it became the actual creed of the body of the
+people it will probably be impossible ever to ascertain. One of the
+chief effects it produced on the worship of the old gods was the rapid
+decline of the authority of the orthodox Brahmanical dogma, and a
+considerable development of sectarianism. (See HINDUISM.)
+
+  See H.H. Wilson, _Essays on the Religion of the Hindus_; J. Muir,
+  _Original Sanskrit Texts_; M. Müller, _History of Ancient Sanskrit
+  Literature_; C. Lassen, _Indische Alterthumskunde_; Elphinstone,
+  _History of India_, ed. by E.B. Cowell.     (J. E.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMAPUTRA, a great river of India, with a total length of 1800 m. Its
+main source is in a great glacier-mass of the northernmost chain of the
+Himalayas, called Kubigangri, about 82° N., and receives various
+tributaries including one formerly regarded as the true source from the
+pass of Mariam La (15,500 ft.), which separates its basin from the
+eastern affluents of the Mansarowar lakes, at least 100 m. south-east of
+those of the Indus. It flows in a south-easterly direction for 170 m.,
+and then adheres closely to a nearly easterly course for 500 m. more,
+being at the end of that distance in 29° 10' N. lat. It then bends
+north-east for 150 m. before finally shaping itself southwards towards
+the plains of Assam. Roughly speaking, the river may be said so far to
+run parallel to the main chain of the Himalaya at a distance of 100 m.
+therefrom. Its early beginnings take their rise amidst a mighty mass of
+glaciers which cover the northern slopes of the watershed, separating
+them from the sources of the Gogra on the south; and there is evidence
+that two of its great southern tributaries, the Shorta Tsanpo (which
+joins about 150 m. from its source), and the Nyang Chu (the river of
+Shigatse and Gyantse), are both also of glacial origin. From the north
+it receives five great tributaries, namely, the Chu Nago, the Chachu
+Tsanpo and the Charta Tsanpo (all within the first 200 m. of its
+course), and the Raka Tsanpo and Kyi-chu (or river of Lhasa) below. The
+Chachu and the Charta are large clear streams, evidently draining from
+the great central lake district. Both of them measure more than 100 yds.
+in width at the point of junction, and they are clearly non-glacial. The
+Raka Tsanpo is a lateral affluent, flowing for 200 m. parallel to the
+main river course and some 20 to 30 m. north of it, draining the
+southern slopes of a high snowy range. It is an important feature as
+affording foothold for the Janglam (the great high road of southern
+Tibet connecting Ladakh with China), which is denied by the actual
+valley of the Brahmaputra. The great river itself is known in Tibet by
+many names, being generally called the Nari Chu, Maghang Tsanpo or Yaro
+Tsanpo, above Lhasa; the word "tsanpo" (tsang-po) meaning (according to
+Waddell) the "pure one," and applying to all great rivers. Fifty miles
+from its source the river and the Janglam route touch each other, and
+from that point past Tadum (the first important place on its banks) for
+another 130 m., the road follows more or less closely the left bank of
+the river. Then it diverges northwards into the lateral valley of the
+Raka, until the Raka joins the Brahmaputra below Janglache. The upper
+reaches are nowhere fordable between Tadum and Lhasa, but there is a
+ferry at Likche (opposite Tadum on the southern bank), where wooden
+boats covered with hide effect the necessary connexion between the two
+banks and ensure the passage of the Nepal trade. From Janglache (13,800
+ft.) to Shigatse the river is navigable, the channel being open and wide
+and the course straight. This is probably the most elevated system of
+navigation in the world. From Shigatse, which stands near the mouth of
+the Nyang Chu, to the Kyi-chu, or Lhasa river, there is no direct route,
+the river being unnavigable below Shigatse. The Janglam takes a
+circuitous course southwards to Gyantse and the Yamdok Cho before
+dropping again over the Khambala pass to the ferry at Khamba barje near
+Chushul. Thence the valley of the Kyi-chu (itself navigable for small
+boats for about 30 m.) leads to Lhasa northwards. At Chushul there is an
+iron chain-and-rope suspension bridge over the deepest part of the
+river, but it does not completely span the river, and it is too insecure
+for use. The remains of a similar bridge exist at Janglache; but there
+are no wooden or twig suspension bridges over the Tsanpo. At Tadum the
+river is about one half as wide again as the Ganges at Hardwar in
+December, i.e. about 250 to 300 yds. At Shigatse it flows in a wide
+extended bed with many channels, but contracts again at Chushul, where
+it is no wider than it is at Janglache, i.e. from 600 to 700 yds. At
+Chushul (below the Kyi-chu) the discharge of the river is computed to be
+about 35,000 cub. ft. per second, or seven times that of the Ganges at
+Hardwar.
+
+For about 250 m. below Kyi-chu to a point about 20 m. below the great
+southerly bend (in 94° E. long.) the course of the Brahmaputra has been
+traced by native surveyors. Then it is lost amidst the jungle-covered
+hills of the wild Mishmi and Abor tribes to the east of Bhutan for
+another 100 m., until it is again found as the Dihong emerging into the
+plains of Assam. About the intervening reaches of the river very little
+is known except that it drops through 7000 ft. of altitude, and that in
+one place, at least, there exist some very remarkable falls. These are
+placed in 29° 40' N. lat., between Kongbu and Pema-Koi. Here the river
+runs in a narrow precipitous defile along which no path is practicable.
+The falls can only be approached from below, where a monastery has been
+erected, the resort of countless pilgrims. Their height is estimated at
+70 ft., and by Tibetan report the hills around are enveloped in
+perpetual mist, and the Sangdong (the "lion's face"), over which the
+waters rush, is demon-haunted and full of mystic import. Up to
+comparatively recent years it was matter for controversy whether the
+Tsanpo formed the upper reaches of the Dihong or of the Irrawaddy. From
+the north-eastern extremity of Assam where, near Sadya, the Lohit, the
+Dibong and the Dihong unite to form the wide placid Brahmaputra of the
+plains--one of the grandest rivers of the world--its south-westerly
+course to the Bay of Bengal is sufficiently well known. It still retains
+the proud distinction of being unbridged, and still the River Flotilla
+Company appoints its steamers at regular intervals to visit all the
+chief ports on its banks as far as Dibrugarh. Here, however, a new
+feature has been introduced in the local railway, which extends for some
+80 m. to Sadya, with a branch to the Buri Dihing river at the foot of
+the Patkoi range. The Patkoi border the plains of Upper Assam to the
+south-east, and across these hills lies the most reasonable probability
+of railway extension to Burma.
+
+The following are the "lowest level" discharges of the principal
+affluents of the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam, estimated in cubic feet per
+second:--
+
+  Lohit river, 9 m. above Sadya             38,800
+  Dibong, 1 m. above junction with Dihong   27,200
+  Dihong        "         "        Dibong   55,400
+  Subansiri                                 16,900
+
+The basins of the Dibong and Subansiri are as yet very imperfectly
+known. That of the Lohit has been fairly well explored. Near Goalpara
+the discharge of the river in January 1828 was computed to be 140,000
+cub. ft., or nearly double that of the Ganges. The length of the river
+is 700 m. to the Dihong junction, and about 1000 in Tibet and eastern
+Bhutan, above the Dihong. The Brahmaputra, therefore, exceeds the Ganges
+in length by about 400 m. The bed of the great river maintains a fairly
+constant position between its extreme banks, but the channels within
+that bed are so constantly shifting as to require close supervision on
+the part of the navigation authorities; so much detritus is carried down
+as to form a perpetually changing series of obstructions to steamer
+traffic.
+
+An enormous development of agricultural resources has taken place within
+the Brahmaputra basin of late years, chiefly in the direction of tea
+cultivation, as well as in the production of jute and silk. Gold is
+found in the sands of all its upper tributaries, and coal and petroleum
+are amongst the chief mineral products which have been brought into
+economic prominence. During the rains the Brahmaputra floods hundreds of
+square miles of country, reaching a height of 30 to 40 ft. above its
+usual level. This supersedes artificial irrigation, and the plains so
+watered yield abundantly in rice, jute and mustard.
+
+  See _Reports_ of the native explorers of the Indian Survey, edited by
+  Montgomery and Harman; _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (1908); Sir T.H.
+  Holdich, _India_ ("Regions of the World" series, 1903); Ryder,
+  _Geographical Journal_, 1905; Rawlings, _The Great Plateau_ (1906).
+       (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMA SAMAJ, a religious association in India which owes its origin to
+(Raja) Ram Mohan Roy, who began teaching and writing in Calcutta soon
+after 1800. The name means literally the "Church of the One God," and
+the word _Samaj_, like the word Church, bears both a local and a
+universal, or an individual and a collective meaning. Impressed with the
+perversions and corruptions of popular Hinduism, Ram Mohan Roy
+investigated the Hindu Shastras, the Koran and the Bible, repudiated the
+polytheistic worship of the Shastras as false, and inculcated the
+reformed principles of monotheism as found in the ancient Upanishads of
+the Vedas. In 1816 he established a society, consisting only of Hindus,
+in which texts from the Vedas were recited and theistic hymns chanted.
+This, however, soon died out through the opposition it received from the
+Hindu community. In 1830 he organized the society known as the Brahma
+Samaj.
+
+The following extract from the trust-deed of the building dedicated to
+it will show the religious belief and the purposes of its founder. The
+building was intended to be "a place of public meeting for all sorts and
+descriptions of people, without distinction, who shall behave and
+conduct themselves in an orderly, sober, religious and devout manner,
+for the worship and adoration of the eternal, unsearchable and immutable
+Being, who is the author and preserver of the universe, but not under
+and by any other name, designation or title, peculiarly used for and
+applied to any particular being or beings by any man or set of men
+whatsoever; and that no graven image, statue or sculpture, carving,
+painting, picture, portrait or the likeness of anything shall be
+admitted within the said messuage, building, land, tenements,
+hereditament and premises; and that no sacrifice, offering or oblation
+of any kind or thing shall ever be permitted therein; and that no animal
+or living creature shall within or on the said messuage, &c., be
+deprived of life either for religious purposes or food, and that no
+eating or drinking (except such as shall be necessary by any accident
+for the preservation of life), feasting or rioting be permitted therein
+or thereon; and that in conducting the said worship or adoration, no
+object, animate or inanimate, that has been or is or shall hereafter
+become or be recognized as an object of worship by any man or set of
+men, shall be reviled or slightingly or contemptuously spoken of or
+alluded to, either in preaching or in the hymns or other mode of worship
+that may be delivered or used in the said messuage or building; and that
+no sermon, preaching, discourse, prayer or hymns be delivered, made or
+used in such worship, but such as have a tendency to the contemplation
+of the Author and Preserver of the universe or to the promotion of
+charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and the strengthening of
+the bonds of union between men of all religious persuasions and creeds."
+
+The new faith at this period held to the Vedas as its basis. Ram Mohan
+Roy soon after left India for England, and took up his residence in
+Bristol, where he died in 1835. The Brahma Samaj maintained a bare
+existence till 1841, when Babu Debendra Nath Tagore, a member of a
+famous and wealthy Calcutta family, devoted himself to it. He gave a
+printing-press to the Samaj, and established a monthly journal called
+the _Tattwabodhini Patrika_, to which the Bengali language now owes much
+for its strength and elegance. About 1850 some of the followers of the
+new religion discovered that the greater part of the Vedas is
+polytheistic, and a schism took place,--the advanced party holding that
+nature and intuition form the basis of faith. Between 1847 and 1858
+branch societies were formed in different parts of India, especially in
+Bengal, and the new society made rapid progress, for which it was
+largely indebted to the spread of English education and the work of
+Christian missionaries. In fact the whole Samaj movement is as distinct
+a product of the contest of Hinduism with Christianity in the 19th
+century, as the _Panth_ movement was of its contest with Islam 300 years
+earlier.
+
+The Brahma creed was definitively formulated as follows:--(1) The book
+of nature and intuition supplies the basis of religious faith. (2)
+Although the Brahmas do not consider any book written by man the basis
+of their religion, yet they do accept with respect and pleasure any
+religious _truth_ contained in any book. (3) The Brahmas believe that
+the religious condition of man is progressive, like the other
+departments of his condition in this world. (4) They believe that the
+fundamental doctrines of their religion are also the basis of every true
+religion. (5) They believe in the existence of one Supreme God--a God
+endowed with a distinct personality, moral attributes worthy of His
+nature and an intelligence befitting the Governor of the universe, and
+they worship Him alone. They do not believe in any of His incarnations.
+(6) They believe in the immortality and progressive state of the soul,
+and declare that there is a state of conscious existence succeeding life
+in this world and supplementary to it as respects the action of the
+universal moral government. (7) They believe that repentance is the only
+way to salvation. They do not recognize any other mode of reconcilement
+to the offended but loving Father. (8) They pray for _spiritual_ welfare
+and believe in the _efficacy_ of such prayers. (9) They believe in the
+providential care of the divine Father. (10) They avow that love towards
+Him and the performances of the works which He loves, constitute His
+worship. (11) They recognize the necessity of public worship, but do not
+believe that communion with the Father depends upon meeting in any fixed
+place at any fixed time. They maintain that they can adore Him at any
+time and at any place, provided that the time and the place are
+calculated to compose and direct the mind towards Him. (12) They do not
+believe in pilgrimages and declare that holiness can only be attained by
+elevating and purifying the mind. (13) They put no faith in rites or
+ceremonies, nor do they believe in penances as instrumental in obtaining
+the grace of God. They declare that moral righteousness, the gaining of
+wisdom, divine contemplation, charity and the cultivation of devotional
+feelings are their rites and ceremonies. They further say, govern and
+regulate your feelings, discharge your duties to God and to man, and you
+will gain everlasting blessedness; purify your heart, cultivate
+devotional feelings and you will see Him who is unseen. (14)
+Theoretically there is no distinction of caste among the Brahmas. They
+declare that we are all the children of God, and therefore must consider
+ourselves as brothers and sisters.
+
+For long the Brahmas did not attempt any social reforms. But about 1865
+the younger section, headed by Babu Keshub Chunder Sen, who joined the
+Samaj in 1857, tried to carry their religious theories into practice by
+demanding the abandonment of the external signs of caste distinction.
+This, however, the older members opposed, declaring such innovations to
+be premature. A schism resulted, Keshub Chunder Sen and his followers
+founding the Progressive Samaj, while the conservative stock remained as
+the Adi (i.e. original) Samaj, their aim being to "fulfil" rather than
+to abrogate the old religion. The vitality of the movement, however, had
+left it, and its inconsistencies, combined with the lack of strong
+leadership, landed it in a position scarcely distinguishable from
+orthodox Hinduism. Debendra Nath Tagore sought refuge from the
+difficulty by becoming an ascetic. The "Brahma Samaj of India," as
+Chunder Sen's party styled itself, made considerable progress
+extensively and intensively until 1878, when a number of the most
+prominent adherents, led by Anand Mohan Bose, took umbrage at Chunder
+Sen's despotic rule and at his disregard of the society's regulations
+concerning child marriage. This led to the formation of the Sadharana
+(Universal) Brahma Samaj, now the most popular and progressive of the
+three sections of the movement and conspicuous for its work in the cause
+of literary culture, social reform and female education in India. But
+even when we add all sections of the Brahma Samaj together, the total
+number of adherents is only about 4000, mostly found in Calcutta and its
+neighbourhood. A small community (about 130) in Bombay, known as the
+Prarthna (Prayer) Samaj, was founded in 1867 through Keshub Chunder's
+influence; they have a similar creed to that of the Brahma Samaj, but
+have broken less decisively with orthodox and ceremonial Hinduism.
+
+  See the articles on ARYA, SAMAJ, KESHUB CHUNDER SEN, RAM MOHAN ROY.
+  Also John Robson, _Hinduism and Christianity_; and the _Theistic
+  Quarterly Review_ (the organ of the Society since 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMS, JOHANNES (1833-1897), German composer, was born in Hamburg on
+the 7th of May 1833. He was the son of a double-bass player in the
+Hamburg city theatre and received his first musical instruction from his
+father. After some lessons from O. Cossel, he went to Cossel's master,
+Eduard Marxsen of Altona, whose experience and artistic taste directed
+the young man's genius into the highest paths. A couple of public
+appearances as a pianist were hardly an interruption to the course of
+his musical studies, and these were continued nearly up to the time when
+Brahms accepted an engagement as accompanist to the Hungarian violinist,
+Remenyi, for a concert tour in 1853. At Göttingen there occurred a
+famous _contretemps_ which had a most important though indirect
+influence on the whole after-life of the young player. A piano on which
+he was to play the "Kreutzer" sonata of Beethoven with Remenyi turned
+out to be a semitone below the required pitch; and Brahms played the
+part by heart, transposing it from A to B flat, in such a way that the
+great violinist, Joachim, who was present and discerned what the feat
+implied, introduced himself to Brahms, and laid the foundation of a
+life-long friendship. Joachim gave him introductions to Liszt at Weimar
+and to Schumann at Düsseldorf; the former hailed him for a time as a
+member of the advanced party in music, on the strength of his E flat
+minor scherzo, but the misapprehension was not of long continuance. The
+introduction to Schumann impelled that master, now drawing near the
+tragic close of his career, to write the famous article "Neue Bahnen,"
+in which the young Brahms was proclaimed to be the great composer of the
+future, "he who was to come." The critical insight in Schumann's article
+is all the more surprising when it is remembered how small was the list
+of Brahms's works at the time. A string quartet, the first pianoforte
+sonata, the scherzo already mentioned, and the earliest group of songs,
+containing the dramatic "Liebestreu," are the works which drew forth the
+warm commendations of Schumann. In December 1853 Brahms gave a concert
+at Leipzig, as a result of which the firms of Breitkopf & Haertel and of
+Senff undertook to publish his compositions. In 1854 he was given the
+post of choir-director and music-master to the prince of Lippe-Detmold,
+but he resigned it after a few years, going first to Hamburg, and then
+to Zürich, where he enjoyed the friendship and artistic counsel of
+Theodor Kirchner. The unfavourable verdict of the Leipzig Gewandhaus
+audience upon his pianoforte concerto in D minor op. 15, and several
+remarkably successful appearances in Vienna, where he was appointed
+director of Ihe Singakademie in 1863, were the most important external
+events of Brahms's life, but again he gave up the conductorship after a
+few months of valuable work, and for about three years had no fixed
+place of abode. Concert tours with Joachim or Stockhausen were
+undertaken, and it was not until 1867 that he returned to Vienna, or
+till 1872 that he chose it definitely as his home, his longest absence
+from the Austrian capital being between 1874 and 1878, when he lived
+near Heidelberg. From 1871 to 1874 he conducted the concerts of the
+"Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde," but after the later date he occupied no
+official position of any kind. With the exception of journeys to Italy
+in the spring, or to Switzerland in the summer, he rarely left Vienna.
+He refused to come to England to take the honorary degree of Mus.D.
+offered by the university of Cambridge; the university of Breslau made
+him Ph.D. in 1881; in 1886 he was created a knight of the Prussian order
+_Pour le mérite_, and in 1889 was presented with the freedom of his
+native city. He died in Vienna on the 3rd of April 1897.
+
+The works of Brahms may be summarized as follows:--Various _sacred
+compositions for chorus_, op. 12, 13, 22, 27, 29, 30, 37, leading up to
+op. 45, the "German Requiem" first performed at Bremen in 1868, and
+subsequently completed by a soprano solo with chorus; the "Triumphlied"
+in commemoration of the German victories of 1870-71; and some choral
+songs and motets, op. 74, 109 and 110. _Secular choral works_, op. 17,
+41, 42, 44, 50 ("Rinaldo" for tenor solo and male choir), 53
+("Rhapsodie," alto solo and male choir), 54 ("Schicksalslied"), 62, 82
+(Schiller's Nänie), 89 ("Gesang der Parzen"), 93, 104, 113. _Concerted
+vocal-works_, op. 20, 28, 31, 52 ("Liebeslieder-Walzer"), 61, 64, 65
+("Neue Liebeslieder"), 75, 92, 103, 112. _Solo songs_, nearly 300.
+_Orchestral works_: four symphonies, op. 68, 73, 90 and 98; two
+serenades, op. 11 and 16; two pianoforte concertos, op. 15 and 83, one
+violin concerto, op. 77; concerto for violin and violoncello, op. 102;
+variations on a theme by Haydn, op. 56; two overtures, "Academische
+Festouvertüre," op. 80, and "Tragic Overture," op. 81. _Chamber music_:
+two sextets, op. 18 and 36; quintet, piano and strings, op. 34, strings,
+op. 88 and 111, clarinet and strings, op. 115; three string quartets,
+op. 51 and 67, three quartets for piano and strings, op. 25, 26 and 60.
+Three trios for piano and strings, op. 8, 87 and 101; trio for piano,
+violin and horn, op. 40; piano, clarinet and violoncello, op. 114. Duet
+sonatas, three for piano and violin, op. 78, 100 and 108; two for piano
+and violoncello, op. 38 and 99; two for piano and clarinet, op. 120.
+_Pianoforte solos_: three sonatas, op. 1, 2 and 5; scherzo, op. 4;
+variations, op. 9, 21, 23, 24, 35; 4 ballads, op. 10; waltzes, op. 39;
+two rhapsodies, op. 79; caprices and intermezzi, op. 76, 116, 117, 118
+and 119. 5 _studies_ and 51 _Uebungen_ without opus-number, and a
+_chorale-prelude and fugue_ for organ, besides four books of _Hungarian
+Dances_ arranged for pianoforte duet.
+
+Brahms has often been called the last of the great classical masters, in
+a sense wider than that of his place in the long line of the great
+composers of Germany. Though only the most superficial observers could
+deny him the possession of qualities which distinguish the masters of
+the romantic school, it is as a classicist that he must be ranked among
+modern musicians. From the beginning of his career until its close, his
+ideas were clothed by preference in the forms which had sufficed for
+Beethoven, and the instances in which he departed from structural
+precedent are so rare that they might be disregarded, were they not of
+such high value that they must be considered as the signs of a logical
+development of musical form, and not as indicating a spirit of rebellion
+against existing modes of structure. His practice, more frequent in
+later than in earlier life, of welding together the "working-out" and
+the "recapitulation" sections of his movements in a closer union than
+any of his predecessors had attempted, is an innovation which cannot
+fail to have important results in the future; and if the skill of
+younger writers is not adequate to such a display of ingenuity as occurs
+in the finale of the fourth symphony, where the "passacaglia" form has
+been used with an effect that is almost bewildering to the ordinary
+listener, that at least stands as a monument of inventiveness finely
+subordinated to the emotional and intellectual purport of the thoughts
+expressed. His themes are always noble, and even from the point of view
+of emotional appeal their deep intensity of expression is of a kind
+which grows upon all who have once been awakened to their beauty, or
+have been at the pains to grasp the composer's characteristics of
+utterance. His vocal music, whether for one voice or many, is remarkable
+for its fidelity to natural inflection and accentuation of the words,
+and for its perfect reflection of the poet's mood. His songs, vocal
+quartets and choral works abound in passages that prove him a master of
+effects of sound; and throughout his chamber music, in his treatment of
+the piano, of the strings, or of the solo wind instruments he employs,
+there are numberless examples which sufficiently show the irrelevance of
+a charge sometimes brought against his music, that it is deficient in a
+sense of what is called "tone-colour." It is perfectly true that the
+mere acoustic effect of a passage was of far less importance to him than
+its inherent beauty, poetic import, or logical fitness in a definite
+scheme of development; and that often in his orchestral music the casual
+hearer receives an impression of complexity rather than of clearness,
+and is apt to imagine that the "thickness" of instrumentation is the
+result of clumsiness or carelessness. Such instances as the introduction
+to the finale of the first symphony, the close of the first movement of
+the second, what may be called the epilogue of the third, or the whole
+of the variations on a theme of Haydn, are not only marvels of delicate
+workmanship in regard to structure, but are instinct with the sense of
+the peculiar beauty and characteristics of each instrument. The
+"Academic Festival" overture proves Brahms a master of musical humour,
+in his treatment of the student songs which serve as its themes; and the
+companion piece, the "Tragic" overture, reaches a height of sublimity
+which is in no way lessened because no particular tragedy has ever been
+named in conjunction with the work.
+
+As with all creative artists of supreme rank, the work of Brahms took a
+considerable time before it was very generally appreciated. The change
+in public opinion is strikingly illustrated in regard to the songs,
+which, once voted ineffective and unvocal, have now taken a place in
+every eminent singer's repertory. The outline in his greater works must
+be grasped with some definiteness before the separate ideas can be
+properly understood in their true relation to each other; and while it
+is his wonderful power of handling the recognized classical forms, so as
+to make them seem absolutely new, which stamps him as the greatest
+musical architect since Beethoven, the necessity for realizing in some
+degree what musical form signifies has undoubtedly been a bar to the
+rapid acceptance of his greater works by the uneducated lovers of music.
+These are of course far more easily moved by effects of colour than by
+the subtler beauties of organic structure, and Brahms's attitude towards
+tone-colour was scarcely such as would endear him to the large number of
+musicians in whose view tone-colour is pre-eminent. His mastery of form,
+again, has been attacked as formalism by superficial critics, blind to
+the real inspiration and distinction of his ideas, and to their
+perfection in regard to style and the appropriateness of every theme to
+the exact emotional state to be expressed. In his larger vocal works
+there are some which treat of emotional conditions far removed from the
+usual stock of subjects taken by the average composer; to compare the
+ideas in the "German Requiem" with those of the "Schicksalslied" or
+"Nänie" is to learn a lesson in artistic style which can never be
+forgotten. In the songs, too, it is scarcely too much to say that the
+whole range of human emotion finds expression in noble lyrics that yield
+to none in actual musical beauty. The four "Ernste Gesänge," Brahms's
+last composition, must be considered as his supreme achievement in
+dignified utterance of noble thoughts in a style that perfectly fits
+them. The choice of words for these as well as for the "Requiem" and
+others of his serious works reveals a strong sense of the vanity and
+emptiness of human life, but at least as strong a confidence in the
+divine consolations.
+
+It has been the misfortune of the musical world in Germany that every
+prominent musician is ranged by critics and amateurs in one of two
+hostile camps, and it was probably due in the main to the
+misrepresentations of the followers of Wagner that the idea was so
+generally held that Brahms was a man of narrow sympathies and hard, not
+to say brutal manners. The latter impression was fostered, no doubt, by
+the master's natural detestation of the methods by which the average
+lionizer seeks to gain his object, and both alike are disproved in the
+_Recollections_ of J.V. Widmann, an intimate friend for many years,
+which throw a new light on the master, revealing him as a man of the
+widest artistic sympathies, neither intolerant of excellence in a line
+opposed to his own, nor weakly enthusiastic over mediocre productions by
+composers whose views were in complete sympathy with him. His admiration
+for Verdi and Wagner is enough to show that the absence of any operatic
+work from his list of compositions was simply due to the difficulty of
+finding a libretto which appealed to him, not to any antagonism to the
+lyric stage in its modern developments. How far he stood from the
+prejudices of the typical pedant may be seen in the passionate love he
+showed throughout his life for national music, especially that of
+Hungary. Not only were his arrangements of Hungarian dances the first
+work by which his name was known outside his native land, but his first
+pianoforte quartet, op. 25 in G minor, incurred the wrath of the critics
+of the time by its introduction of some characteristics of Hungarian
+music into the finale. His arrangement of a number of children's
+traditional songs was published without his name, and dedicated to the
+children of Robert and Clara Schumann in the earliest years of his
+creative life; and among the last of his publications was a collection
+of forty-nine German Volkslieder, arranged with the utmost skill, taste
+and simplicity. He had a great admiration for the waltzes of Strauss,
+and in many passages of his own works the _entrain_ that is
+characteristic of the Viennese dance-writers is present in a striking
+degree.
+
+  See also W.H. Hadow, _Studies in Modern Music_ (2nd series, 1908); and
+  the articles MUSIC, SONG.     (J. A. F. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHUI, a people of Baluchistan, inhabiting the Brahui mountains, which
+extend continuously from near the Bolan Pass to Cape Monze on the
+Arabian Sea. The khan of Kalat, the native ruler of Baluchistan, is
+himself a Brahui, and a lineal descendant of Kumbar, former chief of the
+Kumbarini, a Brahui tribe. The origin of the Brahuis is an ethnological
+mystery. Bishop Robert Caldwell and other authorities declare them
+Dravidians, and regard them as the western borderers of Dravidian India.
+Others believe them to be Scythians,[1] and others again connect them
+with Tatar mountaineers who early settled in southern parts of Asia.
+The origin of the word itself is in doubt. It is variously derived as a
+corruption of the Persian _Ba Rohi_ (literally "of the hills"); as an
+eponym from Braho, otherwise Brahin or Ibrahim, a legendary hero of
+alleged Arab descent who led his people "out of the west," while Dr
+Gustav Oppert believes that the name is in some way related to, if not
+identical with, that of the Baluchis. He recognizes in the name of the
+Paratas and Paradas, who dwelt in north-eastern Baluchistan, the origin
+of the modern Brahui. He gives reasons for regarding the _Bra_ as a
+contraction of Bara and obtains "thus in Barahui a name whose
+resemblance to that of the ancient Barrhai (the modern Bhars), as well
+as to that of the Paratas and Paravar and their kindred the Maratha
+Paravari and Dravidian Parheyas of Palaman, is striking." The Brahuis
+declare themselves to be the aborigines of the country they now occupy,
+their ancestors coming from Aleppo. For this there seems little
+foundation, and their language, which has no affinities with Persian,
+Pushtu or Baluchi, must be, according to the most eminent scholars,
+classed among the Dravidian tongues of southern India. Probably the
+Brahuis are of Dravidian stock, a branch long isolated from their
+kindred and much Arabized, and thus exhibiting a marked hybridism.
+
+Whatever their origin, the Brahuis are found in a position of
+considerable power in Baluchistan from earliest times. Their authentic
+history begins with Mir Ahmad, who was their chief in the 17th century.
+The title of "khan" was assumed by Nasir the Great in the middle of the
+18th century. The Brahuis are a confederacy of tribes possessing common
+lands and uniting from time to time for purposes of offence or defence.
+At their head is the khan, who formerly seems to have been regarded as
+semi-divine, it being customary for the tribesmen on visiting Kalat to
+make offerings at the Ahmadzai gate before entering. The Brahuis are a
+nomadic race, who dwell in tents made of goats' hair, black or striped,
+and live chiefly on the products of their herds. They are Sunnite
+Mahommedans, but are not fanatical. In physique they are very easily
+distinguished from their neighbours, the Baluchis and Pathans, being a
+smaller, sturdier people with rounder faces characterized by the flat,
+blunt and coarse features of the Dravidian races. They are of a dark
+brown colour, their hair and beards being often brown not black. They
+are an active, hardy race, and though as avaricious as the Pathans, are
+more trustworthy and less turbulent. Their ordinary dress is a tunic or
+shirt, trousers gathered in at the ankles and a cloak usually of brown
+felt. A few wear turbans, but generally their headgear is a round
+skullcap with tassel or button. Their women are not strictly veiled.
+Sandals of deer or goat skin are worn by all classes. Their weapons are
+rifles, swords and shields. They do not use the Afghan knife or any
+spears. Some few Brahuis are enlisted in the Bombay Native Infantry.
+
+  See Dr Bellew, _Indus to Euphrates_ (London, 1874); Gustav Oppert,
+  _The Original Inhabitants of India_ (1893); Dr Theodore Duka, _Essay
+  on the Brahui Grammar_ (after the German of Dr Trumpp of Munich
+  University).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Compare Mountstuart Elphinstone's (_History of India_, 9th ed.,
+    1905, p. 249) description of Scythians with physique of Brahuis. A
+    relationship between the Jats (q.v.) and the Brahuis has been
+    suggested, and it is generally held that the former were of Scythic
+    stock. The Mengals, Bizanjos and Zehris, the three largest Brahui
+    tribes, are called Jadgal or Jagdal, i.e. Jats, by some of their
+    neighbours. The Zaghar Mengal, a superior division of the Mengal
+    tribe, believe they themselves came from a district called Zughd,
+    somewhere near Samarkand in central Asia. _Gal_ appears to be a
+    collective suffix in Baluchi, and _Men_ or _Min_ occurs on the lists
+    of the Behistun inscriptions as the name of one of the Scythian
+    tribes deported by Darius, the Achaemenian, for their turbulence (see
+    _Kalat, A Memoir on the County and Family of the Ahmadzai Khans of
+    Kalat_, by G.P. Tate). Sajdi, another Brahui tribal name, is
+    Scythian, the principal clan of which tribe is the Saga, both names
+    being identifiable with the Sagetae and Saki of ancient writers. Thus
+    there seems some reason for believing that the former occupants of at
+    least some portions of the Brahui domain were of Scythian blood.
+
+
+
+
+BRAID (from the O. Eng. _bregdan_, to move quickly to and fro, hence to
+weave), a plait, especially a plait of hair, also a plaited tape woven
+of wool, silk, gold thread, &c., used for trimming or binding. A
+particular use is for the narrow bands, bordered with open work, used in
+making point lace.
+
+
+
+
+BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS (1715-1806), British teacher of the deaf and dumb, was
+born in Scotland in 1715, and educated at Edinburgh University. He
+became a school teacher, and in 1760 opened in Edinburgh, with one
+pupil, the first school in Great Britain for the deaf and dumb,
+following the system of Dr John Wallis, described in _Philosophical
+Transactions_ nearly a hundred years before. This school was the model
+for all of the early English institutions of the kind. Dr Johnson
+visited it in 1773, and describes it as "a subject of philosophical
+curiosity ... which no other city has to show," and Braidwood's dozen
+pupils as able "to hear with the eye." In 1783 Braidwood moved to
+Hackney, where he died on the 24th of October 1806.
+
+
+
+
+BRAILA (in Rumanian _Braila_, formerly IBRAILA), the capital of the
+department of Braila, Rumania; situated amid flat and dreary country on
+the left bank of the river Danube, about 100 m. from its mouth at
+Sulina. Pop. (1900) 58,392, including 10,811 Jews. Southward, the Danube
+encircles a vast fen, tenanted only by waterfowl and herds of half-wild
+swine, while the plain which extends to the north-east and east only
+grows fertile at some distance inland. Braila itself is plainly built on
+a bank rising about 50 ft. above sea-level; but partly on a narrow strip
+of ground which separates this bank from the water's edge. Along the
+crest of the bank a public park is laid out, commanding a view of the
+desolate Dobrudja hills, across the river.
+
+On the landward side, Braila has the shape of a crescent, the curve of
+its outer streets following the line of the old fortifications,
+dismantled in 1829. Few houses, among the older quarters, exceed two
+storeys in height, but the main streets are paved, and there is a
+regular supply of filtered water. A wide avenue, the _Strada
+Bulivardului_, divides the town proper from the suburbs. The principal
+church, among many, is the cathedral of St Michael, a large, ungainly
+building of grey sandstone. Electric tramways intersect the town, and
+are continued for 3 m. to Lacul Sarat (Salt Lake), where there are
+mineral springs and mud-baths, owned by the state. The waters, which
+contain over 45% of salt, iodine and sulphur, are among the strongest of
+their kind in Europe; and are of high repute, being annually visited by
+more than a thousand patients. Braila is the seat of a chamber of
+commerce. It is the chief port of entry for Walachia, and the
+headquarters of the grain trade; for, besides its advantageous position
+on the river, it is connected with the central Walachian railways by a
+line to Buzeu, and with the Russian and Moldavian systems by a line to
+Galatz. Quays, where ships drawing 15 ft. of water can discharge, line
+the river front; and there are large docks, grain elevators and
+warehouses, besides paper mills, roperies, and soap and candle works.
+Over 20 steamers, maintained by the state, ply between Braila and
+Rotterdam. Among the vessels of all nations, the British are first in
+numbers and tonnage, the Greek second. Grain and timber form the chief
+articles of export; textiles, machinery, iron goods and coal being most
+largely imported.
+
+Many events connected with the history of Walachia took place in the
+neighbourhood of Braila. In 1475 Stephen the Great, having dethroned the
+voivode Radu, burned the town. In 1573 another Moldavian prince took the
+city by storm, and massacred the Turkish garrison. In 1659 it was again
+burned by the Walachian prince Mircea, and for the time the Turks were
+expelled, but afterwards returned. In the latter part of the 18th
+century Braila was several times captured by the Russians, and in 1770
+it was burned. By the peace of Bucharest (1812) the Turks retained the
+right of garrisoning Braila. In 1828 it was gallantly defended by
+Soliman Pasha, who, after holding out from the middle of May until the
+end of June, was allowed to march out with the honours of war. At the
+peace of Adrianople (1829) the place was definitely assigned to
+Walachia; but before giving it up, the grand-duke Michael of Russia
+razed the citadel, and in this ruinous condition it was handed over to
+the Walachians. Braila was the spot chosen by the Russian general
+Gorchakov for crossing the Danube with his division in 1854. On the
+banks of the Danube, a little above the city, are some remains of the
+piles of a bridge said by a very doubtful tradition to have been built
+by Darius (c. 500 B.C.).
+
+
+
+
+BRAIN (A.S. _braegen_), that part of the central nervous system which in
+vertebrate animals is contained within the cranium or skull; it is
+divided into the great brain or cerebrum, the hind brain or cerebellum,
+and the medulla oblongata, which is the transitional part between the
+spinal cord and the other two parts already named. Except where stated,
+we deal here primarily with the brain in man.
+
+
+1. ANATOMY
+
+  _Membranes of the Human Brain._
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Dura Mater and Cranial Sinuses.
+
+     1. Falx cerebri.
+     2. Tentorium.
+     3,3. Superior longitudinal sinus.
+     4. Lateral sinus.
+     5. Internal jugular vein.
+     6. Occipital sinus.
+     6'. Torcular Herophili.
+     7. Inferior longitudinal sinus.
+     8. Veins of Galen.
+     9 and 10. Superior and inferior petrosal sinus.
+    11. Cavernous sinus.
+    12. Circular sinus which connects the two cavernous sinuses together.
+    13. Ophthalmic vein, from 15, the eyeball.
+    14. Crista galli of ethmoid bone.]
+
+  Three membranes named the _dura mater, arachnoid_ and _pia mater_
+  cover the brain and lie between it and the cranial cavity. The most
+  external of the three is the _dura mater_, which consists of a cranial
+  and a spinal portion. The cranial part is in contact with the inner
+  table of the skull, and is adherent along the lines of the sutures and
+  to the margins of the foramina, which transmit the nerves, more
+  especially to the foramen magnum. It forms, therefore, for these bones
+  an internal periosteum, and the meningeal arteries which ramify in it
+  are the nutrient arteries of the inner table. As the growth of bone is
+  more active in infancy and youth than in the adult, the adhesion
+  between the dura mater and the cranial bones is greater in early life
+  than at maturity. From the inner surface of the dura mater strong
+  bands pass into the cranial cavity, and form partitions between
+  certain of the subdivisions of the brain. A vertical longitudinal
+  mesial band, named, from its sickle shape, _falx cerebri_, dips
+  between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. A smaller sickle-shaped
+  vertical mesial band, the _falx cerebelli_, attached to the internal
+  occipital crest, passes between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum.
+  A large band arches forward in the horizontal plane of the cavity,
+  from the transverse groove in the occipital bone to the clinoid
+  processes of the sphenoid, and is attached laterally to the upper
+  border of the petrous part of each temporal bone. It separates the
+  cerebrum from the cerebellum, and, as it forms a tent-like covering
+  for the latter, is named _tentorium cerebelli_. Along certain lines
+  the cranial dura mater splits into two layers to form tubular passages
+  for the transmission of venous blood. These passages are named the
+  _venous blood sinuses_ of the dura mater, and they are lodged in the
+  grooves on the inner surface of the skull referred to in the
+  description of the cranial bones. Opening into these sinuses are
+  numerous veins which convey from the brain the blood that has been
+  circulating through it; and two of these sinuses, called _cavernous_,
+  which lie at the sides of the body of the sphenoid bone, receive the
+  ophthalmic veins from the eyeballs situated in the orbital cavities.
+  These blood sinuses pass usually from before backwards: a _superior
+  longitudinal_ along the upper border of the falx cerebri as far as the
+  internal occipital protuberance; an _inferior longitudinal_ along its
+  lower border as far as the tentorium, where it joins the _straight
+  sinus_, which passes back as far as the same protuberance. One or two
+  small _occipital sinuses_, which lie in the falx cerebelli, also pass
+  to join the straight and longitudinal sinuses opposite this
+  protuberance; several currents of blood meet, therefore, at this spot,
+  and as Herophilus supposed that a sort of whirlpool was formed in the
+  blood, the name _torcular Herophili_ has been used to express the
+  meeting of these sinuses. From the torcular the blood is drained away
+  by two large sinuses, named _lateral_, which curve forward and
+  downward to the jugular foramina to terminate in the internal jugular
+  veins. In its course each lateral sinus receives two _petrosal_
+  sinuses, which pass from the cavernous sinus backwards along the upper
+  and lower borders of the petrous part of the temporal bone. The dura
+  mater consists of a tough, fibrous membrane, somewhat flocculent
+  externally, but smooth, glistening, and free on its inner surface. The
+  inner surface has the appearance of a serous membrane, and when
+  examined microscopically is seen to consist of a layer of squamous
+  endothelial cells. Hence the dura mater is sometimes called a
+  fibro-serous membrane. The dura mater is well provided with lymph
+  vessels, which in all probability open by stomata on the free inner
+  surface. Between the dura mater and the subjacent arachnoid membrane
+  is a fine space containing a minute quantity of limpid serum, which
+  moistens the smooth inner surface of the dura and the corresponding
+  smooth outer surface of the arachnoid. It is regarded as equivalent to
+  the cavity of a serous membrane, and is named the _sub-dural space_.
+
+  _Arachnoid Mater._--The arachnoid is a membrane of great delicacy and
+  transparency, which loosely envelops both the brain and spinal cord.
+  It is separated from these organs by the pia mater; but between it and
+  the latter membrane is a distinct space, called _sub-arachnoid_. The
+  sub-arachnoid space is more distinctly marked beneath the spinal than
+  beneath the cerebral parts of the membrane, which forms a looser
+  investment for the cord than for the brain. At the base of the brain,
+  and opposite the fissures between the convolutions of the cerebrum,
+  the interval between the arachnoid and the pia mater can, however,
+  always be seen, for the arachnoid does not, like the pia mater, clothe
+  the sides of the fissures, but passes directly across between the
+  summits of adjacent convolutions. The sub-arachnoid space is
+  subdivided into numerous freely-communicating loculi by bundles of
+  delicate areolar tissue, which bundles are invested, as Key and
+  Retzius have shown, by a layer of squamous endothelium. The space
+  contains a limpid cerebro-spinal fluid, which varies in quantity from
+  2 drachms to 2 oz., and is most plentiful in the dilatations at the
+  base of the brain known as _cisternae_. It should be clearly
+  understood that there is no communication between the subdural and
+  sub-arachnoid spaces, but that the latter communicates with the
+  ventricles through openings in the roof of the fourth, and in the
+  descending cornua of the lateral ventricles.
+
+  When the skull cap is removed, clusters of granular bodies are usually
+  to be seen imbedded in the dura mater on each side of the superior
+  longitudinal sinus; these are named the _Pacchionian bodies_. When
+  traced through the dura mater they are found to spring from the
+  arachnoid. The observations of Luschka and Cleland have proved that
+  villous processes invariably grow from the free surface of that
+  membrane, and that when these villi greatly increase in size they form
+  the bodies in question. Sometimes the Pacchionian bodies greatly
+  hypertrophy, occasioning absorption of the bones of the cranial vault
+  and depressions on the upper surface of the brain.
+
+  [Illustration: After D.J. Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Front View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of a
+  full-time Human Foetus.]
+
+  _Pia Mater._--This membrane closely invests the whole outer surface of
+  the brain. It dips into the fissures between the convolutions, and a
+  wide prolongation, named _velum interpositum_, lies in the interior of
+  the cerebrum. With a little care it can be stripped off the brain
+  without causing injury to its substance. At the base of the brain the
+  pia mater is prolonged on to the roots of the cranial nerves. This
+  membrane consists of a delicate connective tissue, in which the
+  arteries of the brain and spinal cord ramify and subdivide into small
+  branches before they penetrate the nervous substance, and in which the
+  veins conveying the blood from the nerve centres lie before they open
+  into the blood sinuses of the cranial dura mater and the extradural
+  venus plexus of the spinal canal.
+
+
+  _Medulla Oblongata._
+
+  The _Medulla Oblongata_ rests upon the basi-occipital. It is somewhat
+  pyramidal in form, about 1¼ in. long, and 1 in. broad in its widest
+  part. It is a bilateral organ, and is divided into a right and a left
+  half by shallow anterior and posterior median fissures, continuous
+  with the corresponding fissures in the spinal cord; the posterior
+  fissure ends above in the fourth ventricle. Each half is subdivided
+  into elongated tracts of nervous matter. Next to, and parallel with
+  the anterior fissure is the _anterior pyramid_ (see fig. 2). This
+  pyramid is continuous below with the cord, and the place of continuity
+  is marked by the passage across the fissure of three or four bundles
+  of nerve fibres, from each half of the cord to the opposite anterior
+  pyramid; this crossing is called the _decussation of the pyramids_. To
+  the side of the pyramid, and separated from it by a faint fissure, is
+  the _olivary fasciculus_, which at its upper end is elevated into the
+  projecting oval-shaped _olivary body_. Behind the olivary body in the
+  lower half of the medulla are three tracts named from before backward
+  the _funiculus of Rolando_, the _funiculus cuneatus_ and the
+  _funiculus gracilis_ (see fig. 3). The two _funiculi graciles_ of
+  opposite sides are in contact in the mid dorsal line and have between
+  them the _postero median_ fissure. When the fourth ventricle is
+  reached they diverge to form the lower limit of that diamond-shaped
+  space and are slightly swollen to form the _clavae_. All these three
+  bundles appear to be continued up into the cerebellum as the restiform
+  bodies or inferior cerebellar peduncles, but really the continuity is
+  very slight, as the restiform bodies are formed from the direct
+  cerebellar tracts of the spinal cord joining with the superficial
+  arcuate fibres which curve back just below the olivary bodies. The
+  upper part of the fourth ventricle is bounded by the superior
+  cerebellar peduncles which meet just before the inferior quadrigeminal
+  bodies are reached. Stretching across between them is the superior
+  medullary velum or valve of Vieussens, forming the upper part of the
+  roof, while the inferior velum forms the lower part, and has an
+  opening called the _foramen_ of Majendie, through which the
+  sub-arachnoid space communicates with the ventricle. The floor (see
+  fig. 3) has two triangular depressions on each side of a median
+  furrow; these are the superior and inferior _fovea_, the significance
+  of which will be noticed in the development of the rhombencephalon.
+  Running horizontally across the middle of the floor are the _striae
+  acusticae_ which are continued into the auditory nerve. The floor of
+  the fourth ventricle is of special interest because a little way from
+  the surface are the deep origins of all the cranial nerves from the
+  fifth to the twelfth. (See NERVE, _cranial_). If a section is made
+  transversely through the medulla about the apex of the fourth
+  ventricle three important bundles of fibres are cut close to the mid
+  line on each side (see fig. 4). The most anterior is the pyramid or
+  motor tract, the decussation of which has been seen. Behind this is
+  the mesial fillet or sensory tract, which has also decussated a little
+  below the point of section, while farther back still is the posterior
+  longitudinal bundle which is coming up from the anterior basis bundle
+  of the cord. External to and behind the pyramid is the crenated
+  section of the olivary nucleus, the surface bulging of which forms the
+  olivary body.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._
+
+  FIG. 3.--Back View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of a
+  full-time Human Foetus.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._
+
+  FIG. 4.--Transverse Section through the Human Medulla in the Lower
+  Olivary Region.]
+
+  The grey matter of the medulla oblongata, which contains numerous
+  multipolar nerve cells, is in part continuous with the grey matter of
+  the spinal cord, and in part consists of independent masses. As the
+  grey matter of the cord enters the medulla it loses its crescentic
+  arrangement. The posterior cornua are thrown outwards towards the
+  surface, lose their pointed form, and dilate into rounded masses named
+  the grey tubercles of Rolando. The grey matter of the anterior cornua
+  is cut off from the rest by the decussating pyramids and finally
+  disappears. The _formatio reticularis_ which is feebly developed in
+  the cord becomes well developed in the medulla. In the lower part of
+  the medulla a central canal continuous with that of the cord exists,
+  but when the clavae on the opposite sides of the medulla diverge from
+  each other, the central canal loses its posterior boundary, and
+  dilates into the cavity of the fourth ventricle. The grey matter in
+  the interior of the medulla appears, therefore, on the floor of the
+  ventricle and is continuous with the grey matter near the central
+  canal of the cord. This grey matter forms collections of nerve cells,
+  which are the centres of origin of several cranial nerves. Crossing
+  the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata, immediately below the
+  pons, in the majority of mammals is a transverse arrangement of fibres
+  forming the _trapezium_, which contains a grey nucleus, named by van
+  der Kolk the _superior olive_. In the human brain the trapezium is
+  concealed by the lower transverse fibres of the pons, but when
+  sections are made through it, as L. Clarke pointed out, the grey
+  matter of the superior olive can be seen. These fibres of the
+  _trapezium_ come from the cochlear nucleus of the auditory nerve, and
+  run up as the lateral fillet.
+
+  The _Pons Varolii_ or BRIDGE is cuboidal in form (see fig. 2): its
+  anterior surface rests upon the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid, and is
+  marked by a median longitudinal groove; its inferior surface receives
+  the pyramidal and olivary tracts of the medulla oblongata; at its
+  superior surface are the two crura cerebri; each lateral surface is in
+  relation to a hemisphere of the cerebellum, and a peduncle passes from
+  the pons into the interior of each hemisphere; the posterior surface
+  forms in part the upper portion of the floor of the fourth ventricle,
+  and in part is in contact with the corpora quadrigemina.
+
+  The pons consists of white and grey matter: the nerve fibres of the
+  white matter pass through the substance of the pons, in either a
+  transverse or a longitudinal direction. The transverse fibres go from
+  one hemisphere of the cerebellum to that of the opposite side; some
+  are situated on the anterior surface of the pons, and form its
+  superficial transverse fibres, whilst others pass through its
+  substance and form the deep transverse fibres. The longitudinal fibres
+  ascend from the medulla oblongata and leave the pons by emerging from
+  its upper surface as fibres of the two crura cerebri. The pons
+  possesses a median raphe continuous with that of the medulla
+  oblongata, and formed like it by a decussation of fibres in the mesial
+  plane. In a horizontal section through the pons and upper part of the
+  fourth ventricle the superficial transverse fibres are seen most
+  anteriorly; then come the anterior pyramidal fibres, then the deep
+  transverse pontine fibres, then the fillet, while most posteriorly and
+  close to the floor of the fourth ventricle the posterior longitudinal
+  bundle is seen (see fig. 5).
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 5.--Section through the Lower Part of the Human Pons Varolli
+  immediately above the Medulla.]
+
+  The grey matter of the pons is scattered irregularly through its
+  substance, and appears on its posterior surface; but not on the
+  anterior surface, composed exclusively of the superficial transverse
+  fibres.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._
+
+  FIG. 6.--Mesial section through the Corpus Callosum, the
+  Mesencephalon, the Pons, Medulla and Cerebellum. Showing the third and
+  fourth ventricles joined by the aqueduct of Sylvius.]
+
+
+  _The Cerebellum._
+
+  The _Cerebellum_, LITTLE BRAIN, or AFTER BRAIN occupies the inferior
+  pair of occipital fossae, and lies below the plane of the tentorium
+  cerebelli. It consists of two hemispheres or lateral lobes, and of a
+  median or central lobe, which in human anatomy is called the vermis.
+  It is connected below with the medulla oblongata by the two restiform
+  bodies which form its _inferior peduncles_, and above with the corpora
+  quadrigemina of the cerebrum by two bands, which form its _superior
+  peduncles_; whilst the two hemispheres are connected together by the
+  transverse fibres of the pons, which form the _middle peduncles_ of
+  the cerebellum. On the superior or tentorial surface of the cerebellum
+  the median or vermiform lobe is a mere elevation, but on its inferior
+  or occipital surface this lobe forms a well-defined process, which
+  lies at the bottom of a deep fossa or _vallecula_; this fossa is
+  prolonged to the posterior border of the cerebellum, and forms there a
+  deep notch which separates the two hemispheres from each other; in
+  this notch the falx cerebelli is lodged. Extending horizontally
+  backwards from the middle cerebellar peduncle, along the outer border
+  of each hemisphere is the _great horizontal fissure_, which divides
+  the hemisphere into its tentorial and occipital surfaces. Each of
+  these surfaces is again subdivided by fissures into smaller lobes, of
+  which the most important are the _amygdala_ or _tonsil_, which forms
+  the lateral boundary of the anterior part of the vallecula, and the
+  _flocculus_, which is situated immediately behind the middle peduncle
+  of the cerebellum. The inferior vermiform process is subdivided into a
+  posterior part or _pyramid_; an elevation or _uvula_, situated between
+  the two tonsils; and an anterior pointed process or _nodule_.
+  Stretching between the two flocculi, and attached midway to the sides
+  of the nodule, is a thin, white, semilunar-shaped plate of nervous
+  matter, called the inferior _medullary velum_.
+
+  The whole outer surface of the cerebellum possesses a characteristic
+  foliated or laminated appearance, due to its subdivision into
+  multitudes of thin plates or lamellae by numerous fissures. The
+  cerebellum consists of both grey and white matter. The grey matter
+  forms the exterior or cortex of the lamellae, and passes from one to
+  the other across the bottoms of the several fissures. The white matter
+  lies in the interior of the organ, and extends into the core of each
+  lamella. When a vertical section is made through the organ, the
+  prolongations of white matter branching off into the interior of the
+  several lamellae give to the section an arborescent appearance, known
+  by the fanciful name of _arbor vitae_ (see fig. 6). Independent masses
+  of grey matter are, however, found in the interior of the cerebellum.
+  If the hemisphere be cut through a little to the outer side of the
+  median lobe, a zigzag arrangement of grey matter, similar in
+  appearance and structure to the nucleus of the olivary body in the
+  medulla oblongata, and known as the _corpus dentatum_ of the
+  cerebellum, is seen; it lies in the midst of the white core of the
+  hemisphere, and encloses white fibres, which leave the interior of the
+  corpus at its inner and lower side. On the mesial side of this _corpus
+  dentatum_ lie three smaller nuclei. The white matter is more abundant
+  in the hemispheres than in the median lobe, and is for the most part
+  directly continuous with the fibres of the peduncles of the
+  cerebellum. Thus the restiform or inferior peduncles pass from below
+  upward through the white core, to end in the grey matter of the
+  tentorial surface of the cerebellum, more especially in that of the
+  central lobe; on their way they are connected with the grey matter of
+  the corpus dentatum. The superior peduncles, which descend from the
+  corpora quadrigemina of the cerebrum, form connexions mainly with the
+  corpus dentatum. The middle peduncles form a large proportion of the
+  white core, and their fibres terminate in the grey matter of the
+  foliated cortex of the hemispheres. It has been noticed that those
+  fibres which are lowest in the pons go to the upper surface of the
+  cerebellum and vice versa.
+
+  _Histology of the Cerebellum._--The white centre of the cerebellum is
+  composed of numbers of medullated nerve fibres coursing to and from
+  the grey matter of the cortex. These fibres are supported in a
+  groundwork of neuroglial tissue, their nutrition being supplied by a
+  small number of blood vessels.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Transverse Section through a Cerebellar Folium (after
+  Kölliker). Treated by the Golgi method.
+
+    P. Axon of cell of Purkinje.
+    F. Moss fibres.
+    K and K^1. Fibres from white core of folium ending in molecular
+      layer in connexion with the dendrites of the cells of Purkinje.
+    M. Small cell of the molecular layer
+    GR. Granule cell.
+    GR^1. Axons of granule cells in molecular layer cut transversely.
+    M^1. Basket-cells.
+    ZK. Basket-work around the cells of Purkinje.
+    GL. Neuroglial cell.
+    N. Axon of an association cell.]
+
+  The cortex (see fig. 7) consists of a thin layer of grey material
+  forming an outer coat of somewhat varying thickness over the whole
+  external surface of the laminae of the organ. When examined
+  microscopically it is found to be made up of two layers, an outer
+  "molecular" and an inner "granular" layer. Forming a layer lying at
+  the junction of these two are a number of cells, the _cells of
+  Purkinje_, which constitute the most characteristic feature of the
+  cerebellum. The bodies of these cells are pear-shaped. Their inner
+  ends taper and finally end in a nerve fibre which may be traced into
+  the white centre. In their course through the granule layer they give
+  off a number of branching collaterals, some turning back and passing
+  between the cells of Purkinje into the molecular layer. Their inner
+  ends terminate in one or sometimes two stout processes which
+  repeatedly branch dichotomously, thus forming a very elaborate dendron
+  in the molecular layer. The branchings of this dendron are also highly
+  characteristic in that they are approximately restricted to a single
+  plane like an espalier fruit tree, and those for neighbouring cells
+  are all parallel to one another and at right angles to the general
+  direction of the folium to which they belong. In the molecular layer
+  are found two types of cells. The most abundant are the so-called
+  _basket cells_ which are distributed through the whole thickness of
+  the layer. They have a rounded body giving off many branching dendrons
+  to their immediate neighbourhood and one long neuraxon which runs
+  parallel to the surface and to the long axis of the lamina. In its
+  course, this gives off numerous collaterals which run downward to the
+  bodies of Purkinje's cells. Their terminal branchings together with
+  similar terminals of other collaterals form the basket-work around the
+  bodies of these cells.
+
+  The granular layer is sometimes termed the rust-coloured layer from
+  its appearance to the naked eye. It contains two types of nerve cells,
+  the small granule cells and the large granule cells. The former are
+  the more numerous. They give off a number of short dendrites with
+  claw-like endings, and a fine non-medullated neuraxon process. This
+  runs upward to the cortex, where it divides into two branches in the
+  form of a T. The branches run for some distance parallel to the axis
+  of the folium and terminate in unbranched ends. The large granule
+  cells are multipolar cells, many of the branchings penetrating well
+  into the molecular layer. The neuraxon process turns into the opposite
+  direction and forms a richly branching system through the entire
+  thickness of the granular layer. There is also an abundant plexus of
+  fine medullated fibres within the granule layer.
+
+  The fibres of the white central matter are partly centrifugal, the
+  neuraxons of the cells of Purkinje, and partly centripetal. The
+  position of the cells of these latter fibres is not known. The fibres
+  give rise to an abundant plexus of fibrils in the granular layer, and
+  many reaching into the molecular layer ramify there, especially in the
+  immediate neighbourhood of the dendrites of Purkinje's cells. From the
+  appearance of their plexus of fibrils these are sometimes called _moss
+  fibres_.
+
+  The _Fourth Ventricle_ is the dilated upper end of the central canal
+  of the medulla oblongata. Its shape is like an heraldic lozenge. Its
+  floor is formed by the grey matter of the posterior surfaces of the
+  medulla oblongata and pons, already described (see figs. 3 and 6); its
+  roof partly by the inferior vermis of the cerebellum, the _nodule_ of
+  which projects into its cavity, and partly by a thin layer, called
+  _valve of Vieussens_, or superior _medullary velum_; its lower lateral
+  boundaries by the divergent clavae and restiform bodies; its upper
+  lateral boundaries by the superior peduncles of the cerebellum. The
+  _inferior medullary velum_, a reflection of the pia mater and
+  epithelium from the back of the medulla to the inferior vermis, closes
+  it in below. Above, it communicates with the _aqueduct of Sylvius_,
+  which is tunnelled below the substance of the corpora quadrigemina.
+  Along the centre of the floor is the median furrow, which terminates
+  below in a pen-shaped form, the so-called _calamus scriptorius._
+  Situated on its floor are the fasciculi teretes, striae acusticae, and
+  deposits of grey matter described in connexion with the medulla
+  oblongata. Its epithelial lining is continuous with that of the
+  central canal.
+
+
+  _The Cerebrum._
+
+  The _Cerebrum_ or GREAT BRAIN lies above the plane of the tentorium,
+  and forms much the largest division of the encephalon. It is customary
+  in human anatomy to include under the name of cerebrum, not only the
+  convolutions, the corpora striata, and the optic thalami, developed in
+  the anterior cerebral vesicle, but also the corpora quadrigemina and
+  crura cerebri developed in the mesencephalon or middle cerebral
+  vesicle. The cerebrum is ovoid in shape, and presents superiorly,
+  anteriorly and posteriorly a deep _median longitudinal fissure_, which
+  subdivides it into two hemispheres. Inferiorly there is a continuity
+  of structure between the two hemispheres across the mesial plane, and
+  if the two hemispheres be drawn asunder by opening out the
+  longitudinal fissure, a broad white band, the _corpus callosum_, may
+  be seen at the bottom of the fissure passing across the mesial plane
+  from one hemisphere to the other. The outer surface of each hemisphere
+  is convex, and adapted in shape to the concavity of the inner table of
+  the cranial bones; its inner surface, which bounds the longitudinal
+  fissure, is flat and is separated from the opposite hemisphere by the
+  falx cerebri; its under surface, where it rests on the tentorium, is
+  concave, and is separated by that membrane from the cerebellum and
+  pons. From the front of the pons two strong white bands, the _crura
+  cerebri_ or _cerebral peduncles_, pass forward and upward (see fig.
+  2). Winding round the outer side of each crus is a flat white band,
+  the _optic tract_. These tracts converge in front, and join to form
+  the _optic commissure_, from which the two _optic nerves_ arise. The
+  crura cerebri, optic tracts, and optic commissure enclose a
+  lozenge-shaped space, which includes--(a) a grey layer, which, from
+  being perforated by several small arteries, is called _locus
+  perforatus posticus_; (b) two white mammillae, the _corpora
+  albicantia_; (c) a grey nodule, the _tuber cinereum_, from which (d)
+  the _infundibulum_ projects to join the _pituitary body_. Immediately
+  in front of the optic commissure is a grey layer, the _lamina cinerea_
+  of the third ventricle; and between the optic commissure and the inner
+  end of each Sylvian fissure is a grey spot perforated by small
+  arteries, the _locus perforatus anticus_.
+
+  If a transverse section is made at right angles to the surface of the
+  crura cerebri it will pass right through the mesencephalon and come
+  out on the dorsal side through the corpora quadrigemina (see fig. 8).
+  The ventral part of each crus forms the crusta, which is the
+  continuation forward of the anterior pyramidal fibres of the medulla
+  and pons, and is the great motor path from the brain to the cord.
+  Dorsal to this is a layer of pigmented grey matter, called the
+  _substantia nigra_, and dorsal to this again is the tegmentum, which
+  is a continuation upward of the formatio reticularis of the medulla,
+  and passing through it are seen three important nerve bundles. The
+  superior cerebellar peduncle is the most internal of these and
+  decussates with its fellow of the opposite side so that the two
+  tegmenta are continuous across the middle line. More externally the
+  mesial fillet is seen, while dorsal to the cerebellar peduncle is the
+  posterior longitudinal bundle. If the section happens to pass through
+  the superior corpus quadrigeminum a characteristic circular area
+  appears between the cerebellar peduncle and the fillet, which, from
+  its tint, is called the red nucleus. More dorsally still the section
+  will pass through the Sylvian aqueduct or passage from the third to
+  the fourth ventricle, and this is surrounded by a mass of grey matter
+  in the ventral part of which are the nuclei of the third and fourth
+  nerves. The third nerve is seen at the level of the superior corpus
+  quadrigeminum running from its nucleus of origin, through the red
+  nucleus, to a groove on the inner side of the crus called the
+  _oculo-motor_ groove, which marks the separation between the crusta
+  and tegmentum. Dorsal to the Sylvian aqueduct is a layer called the
+  _lamina quadrigemina_ and on this the corpora quadrigemina rest. The
+  superior pair of these bodies is overlapped by the pineal body and
+  forms part of the lower visual centres. Connexions can be traced to
+  the optic tract, the higher visual centre on the mesial surface of the
+  occipital lobe, the deep origin of the third or oculo-motor nerve as
+  well as to the mesial and lateral fillet. The inferior pair of
+  quadrigeminal bodies are more closely in touch with the organs of
+  hearing, and are connected by the lateral fillet with the cochlear
+  nucleus of the auditory nerve.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 8.--Transverse Section through the Human Mesencephalon at the
+  level of the superior Quadrigeminal Body.]
+
+
+  _Surface of the Brain._
+
+  The peripheral part of each hemisphere, which consists of grey matter,
+  exhibits a characteristic folded appearance, known as gyri (or
+  convolutions) of the cerebrum. These gyri are separated from each
+  other by _fissures_ and _sulci_, some of which are considered to
+  subdivide the hemisphere into lobes, whilst others separate the gyri
+  in each lobe from each other. In each hemisphere of the human brain
+  five lobes are recognized: the temporo-sphenoidal, frontal, parietal,
+  occipital, and the central lobe or Island of Reil; it should, however,
+  be realized that these lobes do not exactly correspond to the outlines
+  of the bones after which they are named. Passing obliquely on the
+  outer face of the hemisphere from before, upward and backward, is the
+  well marked _Sylvian fissure_ (fig. 9, s), which is the first to
+  appear in the development of the hemisphere. Below it lies the
+  temporo-sphenoidal lobe, and above and in front of it, the parietal
+  and frontal lobes. As soon as it appears on the external surface of
+  the brain the fissure divides into three limbs, anterior horizontal
+  (s^1), ascending (s^2), and posterior horizontal (s^3), the latter
+  being by far the longest. The place whence these diverge is the
+  Sylvian point and corresponds to the pterion on the surface of the
+  skull (see ANATOMY: _Superficial and Artistic_). Between these three
+  limbs and the vallecula or main stem of the fissure are four
+  triangular tongues or opercula; these are named, according to their
+  position, orbital (fig. 9, C), frontal (pars triangularis) (B),
+  fronto-parietal (pars basilaris) (A) and temporal. The frontal lobe is
+  separated from the parietal by the _fissure of Rolando_ (fig. 9, r)
+  which extends on the outer face of the hemisphere from the
+  longitudinal fissure obliquely downward and forward towards the
+  Sylvian fissure. About 2 in. from the hinder end of the hemisphere is
+  the _parieto-occipital fissure_, which, commencing at the longitudinal
+  fissure, passes down the inner surface of the hemisphere, and
+  transversely outwards for a short distance on the outer surface of the
+  hemisphere; it separates the parietal and occipital lobes from each
+  other.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 9.--Gyri and Sulci, on the outer surface of the Cerebral
+  Hemisphere.
+
+    f^1, Sulcus frontalis superior.
+    f^2, Sulcus frontalis inferior.
+    f.m, Sulcus frontalis medius.
+    p.m, Sulcus paramedialis.
+    A, Pars basilaris.
+    B, Pars triangularis.
+    C, Pars orbitalis.
+    S, Sylvian fissure.
+    s^1, Anterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure).
+    s^2, Ascending limb (Sylvian fissure).
+    s^3. Posterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure).
+    s.asc, Ascending terminal part of the posterior horizontal limb of
+       the Sylvianfissure.
+    p.c.i, Inferior praecentral sulcus.
+    p.c.s, Superior praecentral sulcus.
+    r, Fissure of Rolando.
+    g.s, Superior genu.
+    g.i, Inferior genu.
+    d, Sulcus diagonalis.
+    t^1, Superior temporal sulcus (parallel sulcus).
+    t^2, Inferior temporal sulcus.
+    p^1, Inferior postcentral sulcus.
+    p^2, Superior postcentral sulcus.
+    p^3, Ramus horizontalis.
+    p^4, Ramus occipitalis.
+    s.o.t, Sulcus occipitalis transversus.
+    occ. lat, Sulcus occipitalis lateralis (the sulcus lunatus of Elliot
+       Smith).
+    c.m, Calloso-marginal sulcus.
+    c.t.r, Inferior transverse furrow.]
+
+  The _Temporo-Sphenoidal Lobe_ presents on the outer surface of the
+  hemisphere three convolutions, arranged in parallel _tiers_ from above
+  downward, and named _superior, middle and inferior temporal_ gyri. The
+  fissure which separates the superior and middle of these convolutions
+  is called the _parallel fissure_ (fig. 9, t^1). The _Occipital Lobe_
+  also consists from above downwards of three parallel gyri, named
+  _superior, middle and inferior occipital_. The _Frontal Lobe_ is more
+  complex; immediately in front of the fissure of Rolando, and forming
+  indeed its anterior boundary, is a convolution named _ascending
+  frontal_ or pre-central, which ascends obliquely backward and upward
+  from the Sylvian to the longitudinal fissure. Springing from the front
+  of this gyrus, and passing forward to the anterior end of the
+  cerebrum, are three gyri, arranged in parallel _tiers_ from above
+  downwards, and named _superior, middle and inferior frontal_ gyri,
+  which are also prolonged on to the orbital face of the frontal lobe.
+  The _Parietal Lobe_ is also complex; its most anterior gyrus, named
+  _ascending parietal_ or post-central, ascends parallel to and
+  immediately behind the fissure of Rolando. Springing from the upper
+  end of the back of this gyrus is the supra-parietal lobule, which,
+  forming the boundary of the longitudinal fissure, extends as far back
+  as the parieto-occipital fissure; springing from the lower end of the
+  back of this gyrus is the _supra-marginal_, which forms the upper
+  boundary of the hinder part of the Sylvian fissure; as this gyrus
+  occupies the hollow in the parietal bone, which corresponds to the
+  eminence, it may appropriately be named the _gyrus_ of the _parietal
+  eminence_. Above and behind the gyrus of the parietal eminence is the
+  _angular gyrus_, which bends round the posterior extremity of the
+  parallel fissure, while arching over the hinder end of the inferior
+  temporo-sphenoidal sulcus is the post-parietal gyrus. Lying in the
+  parietal lobe is the _intra-parietal_ fissure (fig. 9, p^3 and p^4),
+  which separates the gyrus of the parietal eminence from the
+  supra-parietal lobule.
+
+  The _Central Lobe_ of the hemisphere, more usually called the _insula_
+  or _island of Reil_, does not come to the surface of the hemisphere,
+  but lies deeply within the Sylvian fissure, the opercula forming the
+  margin of which, conceal it. It consists of four or five short gyri,
+  which radiate from the _locus perforatus anticus_, situated at the
+  inner end of the fissure. This lobe is almost entirely surrounded by a
+  deep sulcus called the limiting sulcus of Reil, which insulates it
+  from the adjacent gyri. It lies opposite the upper part of the
+  ali-sphenoid, where it articulates with the parietal and
+  squamous-temporal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Orbital surface of the left frontal lobe and
+  the island of Reil; the tip of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe has been
+  removed to display the latter.
+
+    17. Convolution of the margin of the longitudinal fissure.
+    O. Olfactory fissure, over which the olfactory peduncle and lobe are
+       situated.
+    TR. Orbital sulcus.
+    1" 1"'. Convolutions on the orbital suface.
+    1,1,1,1. Under surface of infero-frontal convolution.
+    4. Under surface of ascending frontal; and 5, of ascending parietal
+       convolutions.
+    C. Central lobe or insula.]
+
+  In front of the central lobe, on the base of the brain, are the
+  _orbital gyri_, which are separated from one another by the _orbital
+  sulcus_. This is usually H-shaped, and the gyri are therefore
+  anterior, posterior, external and internal. Bisecting the internal
+  orbital gyrus is an antero-posteripr sulcus (_s. rectus_), beneath
+  which lies the olfactory lobe, bulbous in front, for the olfactory
+  nerves to arise from.
+
+  On the mesial surface of the hemisphere, as seen when the brain is
+  longitudinally bisected and the cerebellum and medulla removed by
+  cutting through the crus cerebri (see fig. 11), the divided corpus
+  callosum is the most central object, while below it are seen the
+  fornix, septum lucidum and third ventricle, the description of which
+  will follow. The cerebral surface, above and in front of the corpus
+  callosum, is divided into two by a sulcus, the contour of which
+  closely resembles that of the upper margin of the corpus callosum.
+  This is the _calloso-marginal sulcus_, so called because it separates
+  the callosal gyrus, which lies between it and the corpus callosum,
+  from the marginal gyri nearer the margin of the brain. When the sulcus
+  reaches a point vertically above the hind end of the corpus callosum
+  it turns sharply upward and so forms the hinder limit of the marginal
+  gyri, the posterior inch or two of which is more or less distinctly
+  marked off to form the _paracentral lobule_, where the upper part of
+  the central fissure of Rolando turns over the margin of the brain. The
+  callosal gyrus, which is also called the gyrus fornicatus from its
+  arched appearance, is continued backward round the posterior end of
+  the corpus callosum, and so to the mesial surface of the temporal
+  lobe. Behind the upturned end of the calloso-marginal sulcus there is
+  a square area which is called the _precuneus_ or _quadrate lobe_; it
+  is bounded behind by the deeply cut internal parieto-occipital fissure
+  and this runs from the margin of the brain downward and forward to
+  join another fissure, the calcarine, at an acute angle, thus enclosing
+  a wedge-shaped piece of brain called the _cuneus_ between them. The
+  _calcarine_ fissure is fairly horizontal, and is joined about its
+  middle by the internal parieto-occipital, so that the part in front
+  of the junction is called the _pre-calcarine_, and that behind the
+  _post-calcarine_ fissure. The internal parieto-occipital and calcarine
+  are real fissures, because they cause an elevation in the interior of
+  the brain, known as the hippocampus minor. Just in front of the
+  anterior end of the calcarine fissure the callosal gyrus is
+  constricted to form the isthmus which connects it with the hippocampal
+  or uncinate gyrus. Below the calcarine fissure is a gyrus called the
+  _gyrus lingualis_, and this is bounded below by another true fissure,
+  the _collateral_, which runs parallel to the calcarine, but is
+  continued much farther forward into the temporal lobe and so forms the
+  lower boundary of the hippocampal gyrus. It will thus be seen that the
+  hippocampal gyrus is continuous posteriorly with the callosal gyrus
+  above by means of the isthmus, and with the gyrus lingualis below. The
+  hippocampal gyrus is bounded above by the dentate or hippocampal
+  fissure which causes the hippocampus major in the descending cornu and
+  so is a complete fissure. If its lips are separated the fascia dentata
+  or gyrus dentatus and the fimbria continued from the posterior pillar
+  of the fornix are seen. Anteriorly the fissure is arrested by the
+  recurved process of the upper part of the hippocampal gyrus, called
+  the _uncus_, and in front of this a slight sulcus, the _incisura
+  temporalis_, marks off the temporal pole or tip of the temporal lobe
+  from the region of the uncus. It will be seen that the callosal gyrus,
+  isthmus, and hippocampal gyrus form nearly a complete ring, and to
+  this the name of _limbic lobe_ is given.
+
+
+  _Interior of the Cerebrum._
+
+  If a horizontal slice be removed from the upper part of each
+  hemisphere (see fig. 12), the peripheral grey matter of the gyri will
+  be seen to follow their various windings, whilst the core of each
+  gyrus consists of white matter continuous with a mass of white matter
+  in the interior of the hemisphere. If a deeper slice be now made down
+  to the plane of the corpus callosum, the white matter of that
+  structure will be seen to be continuous with the white centre of each
+  hemisphere known as the centrum ovale. The _corpus callosum_ does not
+  equal the hemispheres in length, but approaches nearer to their
+  anterior than their posterior ends. It terminates behind in a free
+  rounded end, named the splenium (see fig. 11), whilst in front it
+  forms a knee-shaped bend, and passes downwards and backwards as far as
+  the lamina cinerea. If the dissection be performed on a brain which
+  has been hardened in spirit, the corpus callosum is seen to consist
+  almost entirely of bundles of nerve fibres, passing transversely
+  across the mesial plane between the two hemispheres; these fibres may
+  be traced into the white cores and grey matter of the gyri, and
+  connect the gyri, though by no means always corresponding ones, in the
+  opposite hemispheres. Hence the corpus callosum is a connecting or
+  commissural structure, which brings the gyri of the two hemispheres
+  into anatomical and physiological relation with each other. On the
+  surface of the corpus callosum a few fibres, the _striae
+  longitudinales_, run in the antero-posterior or longitudinal direction
+  (see fig. 12, b). Their morphological interest is referred to in the
+  section below on _Comparative Anatomy_. In the sulcus between the
+  corpus callosum and the limbic lobe a narrow band of fibres called the
+  _cingulum_ is seen, most of its fibres only run a short distance in it
+  and link together adjacent parts of the brain. If the corpus callosum
+  be now cut through on each side of its mesial line, the large cavity
+  or _lateral ventricle_ in each hemisphere will be opened into.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-The book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 11.--The Gyri and Sulci on the Mesial Aspect of the Cerebral
+  Hemisphere, r, Fissure of Rolando. r, o, Rostral sulcus. i, t,
+  Incisura temporalis.]
+
+  The lateral ventricle is subdivided into a _central space_ or body,
+  and three bent prolongations or _cornua_; the _anterior cornu_ extends
+  forward, outward and downward into the frontal lobe; the _posterior
+  cornu_ curves backward, outward and inward into the occipital lobe;
+  the _descending cornu_ curves backward, outward, downward, forward
+  and inward, behind and below the optic thalamus into the
+  temporo-sphenoidal lobe. On the floor of the central space may be seen
+  from before backward the grey upper surface of the pear-shaped caudate
+  nucleus of the _corpus striatum_ (figs. 12 and 13, f), and to its
+  inner and posterior part a small portion of the _optic thalamus_,
+  whilst between the two is the curved flat band, the _taenia
+  semicircularis_ (figs. 12 and 13, g). Resting on the upper surface of
+  the thalamus is the vascular fringe of the velum interpositum, named
+  _choroid plexus_, and immediately internal to this fringe is the free
+  edge of the white _posterior pillar of the fornix_. The anterior cornu
+  has the anterior end of the corpus striatum projecting into it. The
+  posterior cornu has an elevation on its floor, the _hippocampus minor_
+  (fig. 12, n), and between this cornu and the descending cornu is the
+  elevation called _eminentia collateralis_, formed by the collateral
+  fissure (fig. 12, o).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--To show the Right Ventricle and the left half
+  of the Corpus Callosum.
+
+    a, Transverse fibres, and
+    b, Longitudinal fibres of corpus callosum.
+    c, Anterior, and
+    d, Posterior cornua of lateral ventricle.
+    e, Septum lucidum.
+    f, Corpus striatum.
+    g, Taenia semicircularis.
+    h, Optic thalamus.
+    k, Choroid plexus.
+    l, Taenia hippocampi.
+    m, Hippocampus major.
+    n, Hippocampus minor.
+    o, Eminentia collateralis.]
+
+  Extending down the descending cornu and following its curvature is the
+  _hippocampus major_, which terminates below in a nodular end, the _pes
+  hippocampi_; on its inner border is the white _taenia hippocampi_,
+  continuous above with the posterior pillar of the fornix. If the
+  taenia be drawn to one side the hippocampal fissure is exposed, at the
+  bottom of which the grey matter of the gyrus hippocampi may be seen to
+  form a well-defined dentated border (the so-called _fascia dentala_).
+  The choroid plexus of the pia mater turns round the gyrus hippocampi,
+  and enters the descending cornu through the lateral part of the great
+  transverse fissure between the taenia hippocampi and optic thalamus.
+  The lateral ventricle is lined by a ciliated epithelium called the
+  _ependyma._ This lining is continuous through the foramen of Monro
+  with that of the third ventricle, which again is continuous with the
+  lining of the fourth ventricle through the aqueduct of Sylvius. A
+  little fluid is contained in the cerebral ventricles, which, under
+  some pathological conditions, may increase greatly in quantity, so as
+  to occasion considerable dilatation of the ventricular cavities.
+
+  If the corpus callosum be now divided about its middle by a transverse
+  incision, and the posterior half of this structure be turned back (see
+  fig. 13), the body of the fornix on which the corpus callosum rests is
+  exposed. If the anterior half of the corpus callosum be now turned
+  forward, the grey partition, or _septum lucidum_, between the two
+  lateral ventricles is exposed. This septum fits into the interval
+  between the under surface of the corpus callosum and the upper surface
+  of the anterior part of the fornix. It consists of two layers of grey
+  matter, between which is a narrow vertical mesial space, the _fifth
+  ventricle_ (fig. 13, e), and this space does not communicate with the
+  other ventricles nor is it lined with ependyma. If the septum be now
+  removed, the anterior part of the fornix is brought into view.
+
+  The _fornix_ is an arch-shaped band of nerve fibres extending in the
+  antero-posterior direction. Its anterior end forms the _anterior_
+  pillars of the arch, its posterior end the _posterior pillars_, whilst
+  the intermediate _body_ of the fornix forms the crown of the arch. It
+  consists of two lateral halves, one belonging to each hemisphere. At
+  the summit of the arch the two lateral halves are joined to form the
+  _body_; but in front the two halves separate from each other, and form
+  two anterior pillars, which descend in front of the third ventricle to
+  the base of the cerebrum, where they form the _corpora albicantia_,
+  and from these some white fibres called the bundle of Vicq d'Azyr
+  ascend to the optic thalamus (see fig. 11). Behind the body the two
+  halves diverge much more from each other, and form the posterior
+  pillars, in the triangular interval between which is a thin lamina of
+  commissural fibres called the _lyra_ (fig. 13, a). Each posterior
+  pillar curves downward and outward into the descending cornu of the
+  ventricle, and, under the name of _taenia hippocampi_, forms the
+  mesial free border of the hippocampus major (fig. 13, l). Eventually
+  it ends in the substance of the hippocampus and in the uncus of the
+  temporal lobe. If the body of the fornix be now divided by a
+  transverse incision, its anterior part thrown forward, and its
+  posterior part backward, the great transverse fissure of the cerebrum
+  is opened into, and the velum interpositum lying in that fissure is
+  exposed.
+
+  The _velum interpositum_ is an expanded fold of pia mater, which
+  passes into the anterior of the hemispheres through the great
+  transverse fissure. It is triangular in shape; its base is a line with
+  the posterior end of the corpus callosum, where it is continuous with
+  the external pia mater; its lateral margins are fringed by the choroid
+  plexuses, which are seen in the bodies and descending cornua of the
+  lateral ventricles, where they are invested by the endothelial lining
+  of those cavities. Its apex, where the two choroid plexuses blend with
+  each other, lies just behind the anterior pillars of the fornix. The
+  interval between the apex and these pillars is the aperture of
+  communication between the two lateral ventricles and the third,
+  already referred to as the foramen of Monro. The choroid plexuses
+  contain the small _choroidal arteries_; and the blood from these is
+  returned by small veins, which join to form the _veins of Galen._
+  These veins pass along the centre of the velum, and, as is shown in
+  fig. 1, open into the straight sinus. If the velum interpositum be now
+  carefully raised from before backward, the optic thalami, third
+  ventricle, pineal body and corpora quadrigemina are exposed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--A deeper dissection of the Lateral Ventricle,
+  and of the Velum Interpositum.
+
+    a, Lyra, turned back.
+    b, b, Posterior pillars of the fornix, turned back.
+    c, c, Anterior pillars of the fornix.
+    d, Velum interpositum and veins of Galen.
+    e, Fifth ventricle.
+    f, f, Corpus striatum.
+    g, g, Taenia semicircularis.
+    h, h, Optic thalamus.
+    k, Choroid plexus.
+    l, Taenia hippocampi.
+    m, Hippocampus major in descending cornu.
+    n, Hippocampus minor.
+    o, Eminentia collateralis.]
+
+  The _optic thalamus_ is a large, somewhat ovoid body situated behind
+  the corpus striatum, and above the crus cerebri. Its upper surface is
+  partly seen in the floor of the body of the lateral ventricle, but is
+  for the most part covered by the fornix and velum interpositum. Its
+  postero-inferior surface forms the roof of the descending cornu of
+  the ventricle, whilst its inner surface forms the side wall of the
+  third ventricle. At its outer and posterior part are two slight
+  elevations, in close relation to the optic tract, and named
+  respectively corpus geniculatum internum and externum.
+
+  The posterior knob-like extremity of the thalamus is called the
+  _pulvinar_; this, as well as the two corpora geniculata and the
+  superior corpus quadrigeminum, is connected with the optic tract.
+
+  The _third ventricle_ (see fig. 6) is a cavity situated in the mesial
+  plane between the two optic thalami. Its roof is formed by the velum
+  interpositum and body of the fornix; its floor by the posterior
+  perforated space, corpora albicantia, tuber cinereum, infundibulum,
+  and optic commissure; its anterior boundary by the anterior pillars of
+  the fornix, anterior commissure and lamina cinerea; its posterior
+  boundary by the corpora quadrigemina and posterior commissure. The
+  cavity of this ventricle is of small size in the living head, for the
+  inner surfaces of the two thalami are connected together by
+  intermediate grey matter, named the _middle_ or _soft commissure_.
+  Immediately in front of the corpora quadrigemina, the white fibres of
+  the _posterior commissure_ pass across between the two optic thalami.
+  If the anterior pillars of the fornix be separated from each other,
+  the white fibres of the _anterior commissure_ may be seen lying in
+  front of them.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 14.--Horizontal Section through the Right Cerebral Hemisphere at
+  the Level of the Widest Part of the Lenticular Nucleus.]
+
+  The _pineal body_ is a reddish cone-shaped body situated upon the
+  anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina (see figs. 3 and 6). From
+  its broad anterior end two white bands, the _peduncles_ of the _pineal
+  body_, pass forward, one on the inner side of each optic thalamus.
+  Each peduncle joins, along with the taenia semicircularis, the
+  anterior pillar of the fornix of its own side. In its structure this
+  body consists of tubular gland tissue containing gritty calcareous
+  particles, constituting the _brain sand_. Its morphology will be
+  referred to later.
+
+  A general idea of the internal structure of the brain is best obtained
+  by studying a horizontal section made just below the level of the
+  Sylvian point and just above the great transverse fissure (see fig.
+  14). Such a section will cut the corpus callosum anteriorly at the
+  genu and posteriorly at the splenium, but the body is above the plane
+  of section. Behind the genu the fifth ventricle is cut, and behind
+  that the two pillars of the fornix which here form the anterior
+  boundary of the third ventricle. At the posterior end of this is the
+  pineal body, which the section has just escaped. To the outer side of
+  the fornix is seen the foramen of Munro, leading into the front of the
+  body and anterior horn of the lateral ventricle. It will be seen that
+  the lateral boundary of this horn is the cut caudate nucleus of the
+  corpus striatum, while the lateral boundary of the third ventricle is
+  the cut optic thalamus, both of which bodies have been already
+  described, but external to these is a third triangular grey mass, with
+  its apex directed inward, which cannot be seen except in a section.
+  This is the lenticular nucleus of the corpus striatum, the inner or
+  apical half of which is of a light colour and is called the _globus
+  pallidus_, while the basal half is reader and is known as the
+  _putamen._ External to the putamen is a long narrow strip of grey
+  matter called the _claustrum_, which is sometimes regarded as a third
+  nucleus of the corpus striatum. These masses of grey matter, taken
+  together, are the basal nuclei of the brain. Internal to the
+  lenticular nucleus, and between it and the caudate nucleus in front
+  and the thalamus behind, is the _internal capsule_, through which run
+  most of the fibres connecting the cerebral cortex with the crus
+  cerebri. The capsule adapts itself to the contour of the lenticular
+  nucleus and has an anterior limb, a bend or genu, and a posterior
+  limb. Just behind the genu of the internal capsule is a very important
+  region, for here the great motor tract from the Rolandic region of the
+  cortex passes on its way to the crusta and spinal cord. Besides this
+  there are fibres passing from the cortex to the deep origins of the
+  facial and hypo-glossal nerves. Behind the motor tracts are the
+  sensory, including the fillet, the superior cerebellar peduncle and
+  the inferior quadrigeminal tract, while quite at the back of the
+  capsule are found the auditory and optic radiations linking up the
+  higher (cortical) and lower auditory and visual centres. Between the
+  putamen and the claustrum is the _external capsule_, which is smaller
+  and of less importance than the internal, while on the lateral side of
+  the claustrum is the white and then the grey matter of the central
+  lobe. As the fibres of the internal capsule run up toward the cortex
+  they decussate with the transverse fibres of the corpus callosum and
+  spread out to form the _corona radiata._ It has only been possible to
+  deal with a few of the more important bundles of fibres here, but it
+  should be mentioned that much of the white matter of the brain is
+  formed of association fibres which link up different cortical areas,
+  and which become medullated and functional after birth.
+
+
+  _Weight of the Brain._
+
+  This has been the subject of a great deal of research, but the results
+  are not altogether conclusive; it seems, however, that, although the
+  male brain is 4 to 5 oz. heavier than that of the female, its relative
+  weight to that of the body is about the same in the two sexes. An
+  average male brain weighs about 48 oz. and a female 43½ oz. The
+  greatest absolute weight is found between twenty-five and thirty-five
+  years of age in the male and a little later in the female. At birth
+  the brain weighs comparatively much more than it does later on, its
+  proportion to the body weight being about 1 to 6. At the tenth year it
+  is about 1 to 14, at the twentieth 1 to 30, and after that about 1 to
+  36.5. In old age there is a further slight decrease in proportion. In
+  many men of great intellectual eminence the brain weight has been
+  large--Cuvier's brain weighed 64½ oz., Goodsir's 57½, for
+  instance--but the exceptions are numerous. Brains over 60 oz. in
+  weight are frequently found in quite undistinguished people, and even
+  in idiots 60 oz. has been recorded. On the other hand, microcephalic
+  idiots may have a brain as low as 10 or even 8½ oz., but it is
+  doubtful whether normal intelligence is possible with a brain weighing
+  less than 32 oz. The taller the individual the greater is his brain
+  weight, but short people have proportionally heavier brains than tall.
+  The weight of the cerebellum is usually one-eighth of that of the
+  entire brain. Attempts have been made to estimate the surface area of
+  the grey matter by dissecting it off and measuring it, and also by
+  covering it with gold leaf and measuring that. The results, however,
+  have not been conclusive.
+
+  Further details of the brain, abundantly illustrated, will be found in
+  the later editions of any of the standard text-books on anatomy,
+  references to which will be found in the article on ANATOMY: _Modern
+  Human. Das Menschenhirn_, by G. Retzius (Stockholm, 1896), and
+  numerous recent memoirs by G. Elliot Smith and D.J. Cunningham in the
+  _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ and _Anatomisch Anzeig._, may be consulted.
+
+
+  _Histology of Cerebral Cortex._
+
+  The cerebral cortex (see fig. 15) consists of a continuous sheet of
+  grey matter completely enveloping the white matter of the hemispheres.
+  It varies in thickness in different parts, and becomes thinner in old
+  age, but all parts show a somewhat similar microscopic structure.
+  Thus, in vertical section, the following layers may be made out:--
+
+  1. _The Molecular Layer (Stratum zonale)._--This is made up of a large
+  number of fine nerve branchings both medullated and non-medullated.
+  The whole forms a close network, the fibres of which run chiefly a
+  tangential course. The cells of this layer are the so-called _cells of
+  Cajal_. They possess an irregular body, giving off 4 or 5 dendrites,
+  which terminate within the molecular layer and a long nerve fibre
+  process or neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface of the
+  convolution.
+
+  2. _The Layer of small Pyramidal Cells._--The typical cells of this
+  layer are pyramid-shaped, the apices of the pyramids being directed
+  towards the surface. The apex terminates in a dendron which reaches
+  into the molecular layer, giving off several collateral horizontal
+  branches in its course. The final branches in the molecular layer take
+  a direction parallel to the surface. Smaller dendrites arise from the
+  lateral and basal surfaces of these cells, but do not extend far from
+  the body of the cell. The neuraxon always arises from the base of the
+  cell and passes towards the central white matter, thus forming one of
+  the nerve-fibres of that substance. In its path it gives off a number
+  of collaterals at right angles, which are distributed to the adjacent
+  grey matter.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  Fig. 15.--Diagram to illustrate Minute Structure of the Cerebral
+  Cortex.
+
+    A. Neuroglia cells.
+    B.    "        "
+    C. Cell with short axon (N) which breaks up in a free arborization.
+    D. Spindle-shaped cell in stratum zonale.
+    E. Small pyramidal cell.
+    F. Large pyramidal cell.
+    G. Cell of Martinotti.
+    H. Polymorphic cell.
+    K. Corticipetal fibres.]
+
+  3. _The Layer of large Pyramidal Cells._--This is characterized by the
+  presence of numbers of cells of the same type as those of the
+  preceding layer, but of larger size. The nerve-fibre process becomes a
+  medullated fibre of the white matter.
+
+  4. _The Layer of Polymorphous Cells._--The cells of this layer are
+  irregular in outline, and give off several dendrites branching into
+  the surrounding grey matter. The neuraxon gives off a number of
+  collaterals, and then becomes a nerve-fibre of the central white
+  matter.
+
+  Scattered through these three layers there are also a number of cells
+  (_cells of Golgi_) whose neuraxon divides at once, the divisions
+  terminating within the immediate vicinity of the cell-body. Some cells
+  are also found in which the neuraxon, instead of running into the
+  white matter of the brain, passes toward the surface; these are called
+  _cells of Martinotti_.
+
+  The medullated nerve-fibres of the white matter when traced into the
+  cortex are seen to enter in bundles set vertically to the surface.
+  These bundles taper and are resolved into isolated fibres in the upper
+  parts of the pyramidal layers. The fibres constituting the bundles
+  form two sets. (a) The centrifugal fibres consist as above described
+  of the fibre processes of the pyramidal and polymorphous cells. (b)
+  The centripetal fibres ascend through the cortex to terminate within
+  the molecular layer by horizontally running branches. As they pass
+  through they give off a number of collaterals. The position of the
+  cells from which these fibres arise is not known. In addition to the
+  radially arranged bundles of fibres, networks are formed by the
+  interlacement with them of large numbers of fine medullated fibres
+  running tangentially to the surface. These are derived chiefly from
+  the collaterals of the pyramidal cells and of the centripetal fibres.
+  They form two specially marked bundles, one within the layer of the
+  polymorphous cells known as the _inner band of Baillarger_, and
+  another in the layer of large pyramidal cells called the _outer band
+  of Baillarger_. This latter is very thick in the calcarine region, and
+  forms the _white stria of Gennin_, while the inner band is best seen
+  in the precentral gyrus. As both these strands cross the already
+  mentioned radial bundles at right angles, they are regarded as
+  specialized parts of an _interradial reticulum_ of fibres, but, nearer
+  the surface than the radial bundles penetrate, tangential fibres are
+  found, and here they are called the _supraradial reticulum_. In
+  certain parts of the brain the fibres of this reticulum are more
+  closely set, and form the _band of Bechterew_ in the superficial part
+  of the small pyramidal cell zone.
+
+  [Illustration: From _The Museum Catalogue of the Royal College of
+  Surgeons of England_.
+
+  Fig. 16.--Brain of _Petromyzon marinus_ (dorsal view). A, Brain; B,
+  choroid plexus removed.]
+
+  For further information on the structure of the cerebral cortex, see
+  A.W. Campbell, _Proc. R. Soc._ vols. lxxii. and lxxiv.
+
+
+  _Comparative Anatomy._
+
+  A useful introduction to the study of the vertebrate brain is that of
+  the Amphioxus, one of the lowest of the Chordata or animals having a
+  notochord. Here the brain is a very slightly modified part of the
+  dorsal tubular nerve-cord, and, on the surface, shows no distinction
+  from the rest of that cord. When a section is made the central canal
+  is seen to be enlarged into a cavity, the neurocoele, which, in the
+  young animal, communicates by an opening, the neuropore, with the
+  bottom of the olfactory pit, and so with the exterior. More ventrally
+  another slight diverticulum probably represents the infundibulum. The
+  only trace of an eye is a patch of pigment at the anterior end of the
+  brain, and there are no signs of any auditory apparatus. There are
+  only two pairs of cerebral nerves, both of which are sensory (Willey,
+  _Amphioxus_, 1894). In the Cyclostomata, of which the lamprey
+  (Petromyzon) is an example, the minute brain is much more complex,
+  though it is still only a very slight enlargement of the anterior end
+  of the cord. The single cavity seen in Amphioxus is here subdivided
+  into three: an anterior or prosencephalon, a middle or mesencephalon,
+  and a hinder or rhombencephalon. The rhombencephalon has a very slight
+  transverse thickening in the fore-part of its roof, this is the
+  rudimentary cerebellum (_Cer._); the rest of this part of the brain is
+  taken up by the large medulla, the cavity of which is the _fossa
+  rhomboidalis_ or fourth ventricle. This fossa is roofed over by the
+  epithelium lining the cavity of the ventricle, by pia mater and
+  blood-vessels constituting a choroid plexus (fig. 16, B). The fourth
+  ventricle communicates with the parts in front by means of a passage
+  known as the aqueduct of Sylvius.
+
+  The mesencephalon or mid-brain, when looked at from the dorsal
+  surface, shows a pair of large hollow swellings, the optic lobes or
+  _corpora bigemina_. Their cavities open out from the aqueduct of
+  Sylvius, and from the nervous tissue in their walls the optic nerves
+  derive their fibres. From the front of the prosencephalon or anterior
+  vesicle the olfactory nerves come off, and at the base of each of
+  these are two hollow swellings; the larger and more anterior is the
+  olfactory bulb, the smaller and more posterior the cerebral
+  hemisphere. Both these swellings must be regarded as lateral
+  outgrowths from the blind front end of the original single vesicle of
+  the brain as seen in Amphioxus, and from the anterior subdivision or
+  prosencephalon in the lamprey. The anterior vesicle, however, is now
+  again subdivided, and that part from which the cerebral hemispheres
+  bud out, and the hemispheres themselves, is called the telencephalon,
+  while the posterior part of the original prosencephalon is known as
+  the thalamencephalon, or more rarely the diencephalon. On the dorsal
+  surface of the thalamencephalon are two nervous masses called the
+  ganglia habenulae; the right is much larger than the left, and from it
+  a stalk runs forward and upward to end in the vestigial pineal body
+  (or epiphysis), which contains rudiments of a pigmented retina and of
+  a lens, and which is usually regarded as the remains of one of a pair
+  of median eyes, though it has been suggested that it may be an organ
+  for the appreciation of temperature. From the small left ganglion
+  habenulae a still more rudimentary pineal stalk projects, and there
+  are signs of a third outgrowth (paraphysis) in front of these. On the
+  floor of the thalamencephalon the blind pouch-like infundibulum is in
+  contact with the pituitary body, an outgrowth from the combined
+  pituitary and olfactory pouch, which in the adult opens on to the top
+  of the head just in front of the pineal area. The anterior closed end
+  of the nerve-tube, in front of the foramina of Munro or openings from
+  which the hemispheres have grown out, is known as the _lamina
+  terminalis_, and in this is seen a little white commissure, connecting
+  the hemispheres of opposite sides and belonging entirely to the
+  telencephalon, known as the anterior commissure. The roof of the
+  telencephalon is mainly epithelial, and contains no traces of cortical
+  structure. In the posterior part of the roof of the thalamencephalon
+  is the small posterior commissure (Ahlborn, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ Bd.
+  xxxix., 1883, p. 191). In the Elasmobranch Fish, such as the sharks
+  and rays, the cerebellum (_Cer._ fig. 17) is very large and contains
+  the layers found in all the higher vertebrates. In the mesencephalon
+  fibres corresponding with those of the fillet of higher vertebrates
+  can be seen, and there is a nucleus in the hinder part of the _corpora
+  bigemina_ foreshadowing the separation into corpora quadrigemina.
+  There is only one pineal stalk in the roof of the thalamencephalon,
+  and the ganglia habenulae--very constant structures in the vertebrate
+  brain--are not so marked as in Petromyzon, but are, as usual,
+  connected with the olfactory parts of the cerebrum, with the surface
+  of the optic lobes (_tectum opticum_), and with the _corpus
+  interpedunculare_ (Meynert's bundle). They are united across the
+  middle line by a small _superior_ or _habenular commissure_. In the
+  floor of the thalamencephalon are two masses of ganglionic tissue, the
+  optic thalami. The infundibulum dilates into two rounded bodies, the
+  _lobi inferiores_, while the pituitary body or _hypophysis cerebri_
+  has two lateral diverticula known as _sacci vasculosi_. Ganglia
+  geniculata are found for the first time in connexion with the optic
+  tracts in the lower part of the thalamus. The olfactory lobes (fig.
+  17, _Olf. Bulb_) are very large and often separated by long stalks
+  from the cerebral hemispheres, which are comparatively much larger
+  than those of the Cyclostomata; their roof or pallium is nervous, but
+  devoid of cortical structure, while in the floor in some species large
+  anterior basal ganglia or _corpora striata_ are found
+  (Miklucho-Maclay, _Beiträge z. vergl. Neurol._, 1870; Edinger, _Arch.
+  mikr. Anat._ Bd. lviii., 1901, p. 661, "Cerebellum"). The Teleostean
+  Fish are chiefly remarkable for the great development of the optic
+  lobes and suppression of the olfactory apparatus. The pallium is
+  non-nervous, and the optic tracts merely cross one another instead of
+  forming a commissure. A process of the cerebellum called _valvula
+  cerebelli_ projects into the cavity of each optic lobe (Rabl.
+  Ruckhard, _Arch. Anat. u. Phys_., 1898, p. 345 [Pallium]; Haller,
+  _Morph. Jahrb._ Bd. xxvi., 1898, p. 632 [Histology and Bibliography]).
+  The brain of the Dipnoi, or mud fish, shows no very important
+  developments, except that the anterior pineal organ or paraphysis is
+  large (Saunders, _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 6, vol. iii., 1889,
+  p. 157; Burkhardt, _Centralnervensystem v. Protopterus_, Berlin,
+  1892).
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 17.--Section of the Brain of Porbeagle Shark (_Lamna_).]
+
+  In the Amphibia the brain is of a low type, the most marked advances
+  on that of the fish being that the anterior commissure is divided into
+  a dorsal and ventral part, of which the ventral is the true anterior
+  commissure of higher vertebrates, while the dorsal is a hippocampal
+  commissure and coincides in its appearance with the presence of a
+  small mass of cells in the outer layer of the median wall of the
+  pallium, which is probably the first indication of a hippocampal
+  cortex or cortex of any kind (Osborn, _Journ. Morph._ vol. ii., 1889,
+  p. 51).
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  Fig. 18.--Section of Brain of Turtle (_Chelone_).]
+
+  In the Reptilia the medulla has a marked flexure with a ventral
+  convexity, and an undoubted cerebral cortex for the first time makes
+  its appearance. The mesial wall of the cerebral hemisphere is divided
+  into a large dorsal hippocampal area (fig. 18, _Hip._) and a smaller
+  ventral olfactory tubercle. Between these two a narrow area of
+  ganglionic matter runs forward from the side of the _lamina
+  terminalis_ and is known as the paraterminal or precommissural area
+  (Elliot Smith, _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxxii. p. 411). To the
+  upper lateral part of the hemisphere Elliot Smith has given the name
+  of _neopallium_, while the lower lateral part, imperfectly separated
+  from it, is called the _pyriform lobe_. In the Lacertilia the pineal
+  eye, if it be an eye, is better developed than in any existing
+  vertebrate, though even in them there is no evidence of its being used
+  for sight. Behind the so-called pineal eye and its stalk is the
+  _epiphysis_ or pineal body, and sometimes there is a dorsal sac
+  between them (see fig. 18).[1] The middle or soft commissure appears
+  in certain reptiles (_Crocodilia_ and _Chelonia_), as does also the
+  _corpus mammillare_ (Edinger, Senckenberg, _Naturf. Gesell._ Bd. xix.,
+  1896, and Bd. xxii., 1899; Haller, _Morph. Jahrb._ Bd. xxviii., 1900,
+  p. 252). Among the birds there is great unity of type, the cerebellum
+  is large and, by its forward projection, presses the optic lobes down
+  toward the ventro-lateral part of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres
+  are also large, owing chiefly to the great size of the _corpora
+  striata_, which already show a differentiation into caudate nucleus,
+  putamen and globus pallidus. The pallium is reptilian in character,
+  though its cortical area is more extensive. The geniculate bodies are
+  very large (Bumm, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ Bd. xxxviii., 1883, p. 430;
+  Brandis, _Arch. mikr. Anat._ Bd. xli., 1893, p. 623, and xliii., 1894,
+  p. 96, and xliv., 1895, p. 534; Boyce and Warrington, _Phil. Trans._
+  vol. cxci., 1899, p. 293).
+
+  Among the Mammalia the Monotremata have a cerebellum which shows, in
+  addition to the central lobe of the lower vertebrates, a flocculus on
+  each side, and the two halves of the cerebellum are united by a
+  ventral commissure, the _pons varolii_. The pallium is reptilian in
+  its arrangement, but that part of it which Elliot Smith has named the
+  neopallium is very large, both in the Ornithorynchus and Echidna, a
+  fact very difficult to account for. In the latter animal the cortical
+  area is so extensive as to be thrown into many and deep sulci, and yet
+  the Echidna is one of the lowliest of mammals in other respects. A
+  well-marked rhinal fissure separates the pyriform lobe from the
+  neopallium, while, on the mesial surface, the hippocampal fissure
+  separates the neopallium from the hippocampal area. Just below the
+  hippocampal fissure a specially coloured tract indicates the first
+  appearance of the fascia dentata (see fig. 20). The anterior
+  commissure is divided, as in reptiles, into dorsal and ventral parts,
+  of which the latter is the larger (fig. 20, _Comm. V. and D_.), while
+  just behind the dorsal part is the first appearance of the fimbria or
+  fornix. In addition to the two fissures already named, there is, in
+  the Echidna, one which in position and mode of formation corresponds
+  with the Sylvian fissure of higher mammals. Elliot Smith, however,
+  wisely refuses to homologize it absolutely with that fissure, and
+  proposes the name of pseudosylvian for it. The pineal body is
+  rudimentary, and the optic lobes are now, and throughout the Mammalia,
+  subdivided into four _corpora quadrigemina_.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 19.--Ventral and Dorsal Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.]
+
+  Among the Marsupialia the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus) gives a very
+  good idea of a generalized mammalian brain, and shows a large
+  development of the parts concerned in the sense of smell. The most
+  important advance on the monotreme brain is that the calcarine fissure
+  has now appeared on the posterior part of the mesial surface and
+  causes a bulging into the ventricle, called the _calcar avis_ or
+  hippocampus minor, just as the hippocampal fissure causes the
+  _hippocampus major_ (Gervais, _Nuov. Arch. Mus_. tom. v., 1869;
+  Ziehen, _Jenaische Denkschr_. Bd. vi., 1897).
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 20.--Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.]
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 2l.--Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of the Tasmanian Devil
+  (_Sarcophilus_).]
+
+  In the Eutheria or mammals above the marsupials, the cerebellum
+  gradually becomes more complex, owing to the appearance of lateral
+  lobes between the flocculus and the vermis, as well as the
+  paraflocculus on the outer side of the flocculus. The corpus callosum
+  now first appears as a bridge between the neopallia, and its
+  development leads to the stretching of the hippocampal formation, so
+  that in the higher mammals the hippocampus is only found in the lower
+  and back part of the ventricle, while the rudiments of the dorsal part
+  remain as the _striae longitudinals_ on the corpus callosum. The
+  dorsal part of the original anterior commissure becomes the fornix,
+  and the paraterminal area is modified to form the septum lucidum. The
+  first appearance of the fissure of Rolando is probably in some of the
+  Carnivora, in which, as the _sulcus crucialis_, it forms the posterior
+  boundary of the "ursine lozenge" described by Mivart (_Journ. Linn.
+  Soc_. vol. xix., 1886) (see fig. 22, _Sulc. Cru_.). In the higher apes
+  or Anthropoidea the human fissures and sulci are largely recognizable,
+  so that a gibbon's brain, apart from all question of comparative
+  anatomy, forms a useful means of demonstrating to a junior class the
+  main gyri and sulci of Man in a simple and diagrammatic way. The main
+  points of difference, apart from greater simplicity, are that the
+  central lobe or island of Reil is exposed on the surface of the brain,
+  as it is in the human foetus, and that the anterior part of the
+  occipital lobe has a well-marked vertical sulcus, called the simian
+  sulcus or _Affenspalte_; this often has a semilunar shape with its
+  convexity forward, and is then called the _sulcus lunatus_. It is
+  usually concealed in European brains by the overgrowth of the
+  surrounding gyri, but it occasionally remains, though less frequently
+  than in the brains of Egyptian fellaheen. Its relation to the _white
+  stria of Gennari_ is especially interesting, and is recorded by Elliot
+  Smith in the _Anatomischer Anzeiger_, Bd. xxiv., 1904, p. 436. The
+  rhinal fissure, which is so characteristic a feature of the lower
+  mammals, almost disappears in Man, and is only represented by the
+  _incisura temporalis_ (see fig. 11, _i.t_). The hippocampal fissure
+  persists with little modification all through the mammalian class. The
+  calcarine fissure remains with many modifications from the marsupials
+  to man, and in view of the famous controversy of 1864, in which Owen,
+  Huxley and the then bishop of Oxford took part, it is interesting to
+  note that its hippocampus minor can now be clearly demonstrated, even
+  in the Marsupialia. Another very ancient and stable sulcus is the
+  _orbital_, which is a simple antero-posterior line until Man is
+  reached (see fig. 23, _Sulc. Orb._). The great point of importance,
+  however, in the evolution of the mammalian brain is the gradual
+  suppression of the olfactory region, and the development of the
+  neopallium, a development which takes a sudden stride between the
+  Anthropoid apes and Man. (For further particulars of this and other
+  points in the comparative anatomy of the brain, see _Catalogue of the
+  Physiological Series_ of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
+  of England, vol. ii. 2nd ed., by R.H. Burne and G. Elliot Smith,
+  London, 1902.)
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 22.--Dorsal and Lateral Views of the Brain of a Ratel (_Mellivora
+  indica_).]
+
+
+  _Embryology._
+
+  The brain, like the rest of the nervous system, is developed from the
+  ectoderm or outer layer of the embryo by the formation of a groove in
+  the mid-dorsal line. The lips of this _medullary groove_ unite to form
+  a canal beginning at the place where the neck of the embryo is to be.
+  The part of the neural canal in front of the earliest union forms the
+  brain and very early becomes constricted into three vesicles, to which
+  the names of _prosencephalon_, _mesencephalon_ and _rhombencephalon_
+  are now usually given. The simple tubular brain we have seen as a
+  permanent arrangement in Amphioxus, but the stage of the three
+  vesicles is a transitory one, and is not found in the adult of any
+  existing animal. From the sides of the prosencephalon, the optic
+  vesicles grow out before the neural tube is completely closed, and
+  eventually form the optic nerves and retinae, while, soon after this,
+  the cerebral hemispheres bulge from the antero-dorsal part of the
+  first primary vesicle, their points of evagination being the _foramina
+  of Munro_. From the ventral parts of these cerebral hemispheres the
+  olfactory lobes are constricted off, while just behind the openings
+  of the foramina of Munro a constriction occurs which divides the
+  prosencephalon into two secondary vesicles, the anterior of which,
+  containing the foramina of Munro, is called the _telencephalon_, while
+  the posterior is the _thalamencephalon_ or _diencephalon_. A
+  constriction also occurs in the hind vesicle or _rhombencephalon_,
+  dividing it into an anterior part, the _metencephalon_, from which the
+  cerebellum is developed, and a posterior or _myelencephalon_, the
+  primitive _medulla oblongata_. At this stage the general resemblance
+  of the brain to that of the lamprey is striking.
+
+  Before the secondary constrictions occur three vertical flexures begin
+  to form. The first is known as the _cephalic_, and is caused by the
+  prosencephalon bending sharply downward, below and in front of the
+  mesencephalon. The second is the _cervical_, and marks the place where
+  the brain ends and the spinal cord begins; the concavity of this
+  flexure is ventral. The third to appear has a ventral convexity and is
+  known as the _pontine_, since it marks the site of the future _pons
+  Varolii_; it resembles the permanent flexure in the reptilian brain.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 23.--Lateral view of cerebral hemisphere of Gorilla
+  (_Anthropopithecus gorilla_).]
+
+  It will now be seen that the original neural canal, which is lined by
+  ciliated epithelium, forms the ventricles of the brain, while
+  superficial to this epithelium (_ependyma_) the grey and white matter
+  is subsequently formed. It has been shown by His that the whole neural
+  tube may be divided into _dorsal_ or _alar_, and _ventral_ or _basal_
+  laminae, and, as the cerebral hemispheres bud out from the dorsal part
+  of the anterior primary vesicle, they consist entirely of alar
+  laminae. The most characteristic feature of the human and anthropoid
+  brain is the rapid and great expansion of these hemispheres,
+  especially in a backward direction, so that the mesencephalon and
+  metencephalon are hidden by them from above at the seventh month of
+  intra-uterine life. At first the foramina of Munro form a
+  communication not only between the third and lateral ventricles, but
+  between the two lateral ventricles, so that the cavity of each
+  hemisphere is continuous with that of the other; soon, however, a
+  median longitudinal fissure forms, into which the mesoderm grows to
+  form the falx, and so the foramina of Munro are constricted into a
+  V-shaped canal. In the floor of the hemispheres the corpora striata
+  are developed at an early date by a multiplication of nerve cells, and
+  on the external surface a depression, called the _Sylvian fossa_,
+  marks the position of the future central lobe, which is afterwards
+  hidden as the lips of the fossa (_opercula_) gradually close in on it
+  to form the Sylvian fissure. The real fissures are complete infoldings
+  of the whole thickness of the vesicular wall and produce swellings in
+  the cavity. Some of them, like the choroidal on the mesial surface,
+  are developed very early, while the vesicle is little more than
+  epithelial, and contain between their walls an inpushing of mesoderm
+  to form the choroid plexus. Others, like the hippocampal and
+  calcarine, appear in the second and third months and correspond to
+  invaginations of the nervous tissue, the hippocampus major and minor.
+  The sulci appear later than the fissures and do not affect the
+  internal cavity; they are due to the rapid growth of the cortex in
+  certain areas. The corpus callosum and fornix appear about the third
+  month and their development is somewhat doubtful; they are probably
+  modifications of the lamina terminalis, but they may be secondary
+  adhesions between the adjacent surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres
+  where the cortical grey matter has not covered the white. They begin
+  at their antero-ventral part near the genu of the corpus callosum and
+  the anterior pillars of the fornix, and these are the parts which
+  first appear in the lower mammals. The original anterior vesicle from
+  which the hemispheres evaginate is composed, as already shown, of an
+  anterior part or telencephalon and a posterior or thalamencephalon;
+  the whole forming the third ventricle in the adult. Here the alar and
+  basal laminae are both found, but the former is the more important;
+  from it the optic thalami are derived, and more posteriorly the
+  geniculate bodies. The anterior wall, of course, is the lamina
+  terminalis, and from it are formed the _lamina cinerea_, the _corpus
+  callosum_, _fornix_ and _septum lucidum_. The roof largely remains
+  epithelial and is invaginated into the ventricle by the mesoderm to
+  form the _choroid plexuses_ of the third ventricle, but at the
+  posterior part it develops the _ganglia habenulae_ and the pineal
+  body, from a structure just in front of which both a lens and retinal
+  elements are derived in the lower forms. This is one great difference
+  between the development of this organ and that of the true eyes;
+  indeed it has been suggested that the pineal is an organ of thermal
+  sense and not the remains of a median eye at all. The floor of the
+  third ventricle is developed from the basal laminae, which here are
+  not very important and from which the _tuber cinereum_ and, until the
+  fourth month, single _corpus mammillare_ are developed. The
+  _infundibulum_ or stalk of the posterior part of the pituitary body at
+  first grows down in front of the _tuber cinereum_ and, according to
+  Gaskel's theory, represents an ancestral mouth to which the ventricles
+  of the brain and the central canal of the cord acted as the stomach
+  and intestine (_Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci._ 31, p. 379; and _Journ. of
+  Phys._ v. 10, p. 153). The reason why the basal lamina is here small
+  is because it contains the nuclei of no cranial nerves. The anterior
+  and posterior commissures appear before the middle and the middle
+  before the _corpus callosum_, as they do in phylogeny. In connexion
+  with the thalamencephalon, though not really belonging to it, may be
+  mentioned the anterior lobes of the pituitary body; these begin as an
+  upward _diverticulum_ from the posterior wall of the primitive pharynx
+  or _stomatodaeum_ about the fourth week. This _pouch of Rathke_, as it
+  is called, becomes nipped off by the developing base of the skull, and
+  its bifid blind end meets and becomes applied to the posterior part of
+  the body, which comes down from the brain. In the mesencephalon the
+  alar laminae form the _corpora quadrigemina_; these at first are
+  bigeminal and hollow as they are in the lower vertebrates. The basal
+  laminae thicken to form the _crura cerebri_. In the rhombencephalon
+  the division into basal and alar laminae is better marked than in any
+  other part; there is a definite groove inside the fourth ventricle,
+  which remains in the adult as the superior and inferior _fovea_ and
+  which marks the separation between the two laminae. In the basal
+  laminae are found the deep origins of most of the motor cranial
+  nerves, while those of the sensory are situated in the alar laminae.
+  The roof of the fourth ventricle widens out very much and remains
+  largely epithelial as the superior and inferior medullary vela. The
+  cerebellum develops in the anterior part of the roof of the
+  rhombencephalon as two lateral rudiments which unite in the mid line
+  and so form a transverse bar similar to that seen in the adult
+  lamprey; at the end of the second month the flocculus and
+  paraflocculus become marked, and later on a series of transverse
+  fissures occur dividing the various lobes. Of the cerebellar peduncles
+  the inferior develops first (third month), then the middle forming the
+  _pons_ (fourth month), and lastly the _superior_ (fifth month) (Elliot
+  Smith, _Review of Neurology and Psychiatry_, October 1903; W. Kuithan,
+  "Die Entwicklung des Kleinhirns bei Säugetieren," _Munchener Med.
+  Abhandl._, 1895; B. Stroud, "Mammalian cerebellum," _Journ. of Comp.
+  Neurology_, 1895). Much of our knowledge of the tracts of fibres in
+  the brain is due to the fact that they acquire their white sheaths at
+  different stages of development, some long after birth.
+
+  For further details and references see Quain's _Anat._ vol. i. (1908);
+  Minot's _Human Embryology_ (New York); W. His, _Anat. menschlicher
+  Embryonen_ (Leipzig, 1881); Marshall's _Vertebrate Embryology_;
+  Kölliker, _Grundriss der Entwickelungsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1880); A.
+  Keith, _Human Embryology and Morphology_ (London, 1904); O. Hertwig,
+  _Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen Entwickelungslehre
+  der Wirbeltiere_, Bd. 2, part 3 (Jena, 1902-1906); _Development of the
+  Human Body_, J.P. McMurrich (1906).     (F. G. P.)
+
+
+2. PHYSIOLOGY
+
+The nervous system has as its function the co-ordinating of the
+activities of the organs one with another. It puts the organs into such
+mutual relation that the animal reacts as a whole with speed, accuracy
+and self-advantage, in response to the environmental agencies which
+stimulate it. For this office of the nervous system there are two
+fundamental conditions. The system must be thrown into action by
+agencies at work in the environment. Light, gravity, mechanical impacts,
+and so on, which are conditions significant for animal existence, must
+find the system responsive and through it evoke appropriate activity in
+the animal organs. And in fact there have been evolved in the animal a
+number of structures called receptive organs which are selectively
+excitable by different environmental agencies. Connected with these
+receptive organs lies that division of the nervous system which is
+termed _afferent_ because it conducts impulses inwards towards the
+nervous centres. This division consists of elongated nerve-cells, in man
+some two million in number for each half of the body. These are living
+threads of microscopic tenuity, each extending from a receptive organ to
+a central nervous mass. These central nervous masses are in vertebrates
+all fused into one, of which the part which lies in the head is
+especially large and complex, because directly connected with
+particularly important and delicate receptive organs. The part of the
+central nervous organ which lies in the head has, in consequence of its
+connexion with the most important receptive organs, evolved a dominant
+importance in the nervous system, and this is especially true of the
+higher animal forms. This head part of the central nervous organ is
+sufficiently different from the rest, even to anatomical examination, to
+have received a separate name, the _brain_. But the fact of its having
+received a separate name ought not to obscure the singleness and
+solidarity of the whole central nervous organ as one entity. The
+functions of the whole central nervous organ from region to region are
+essentially similar throughout. One of its essential functions is
+reception, via afferent nerves, of nervous impulses generated in the
+receptive organs by environmental agents as stimuli. In other words,
+whatever the nature of the agent, its result on the receptive organs
+enters the central nervous organ as a nervous impulse, and all segments
+of the central nervous organ receive impulses so generated. Further, it
+is not known that nervous impulses present qualitative differences among
+themselves. It is with these impulses that the central nervous organ
+whether spinal cord or brain has to deal.
+
+_Material and Psychical Signs of Cerebral Activity._--In the central
+nervous organ the action resulting from entrant impulses has issue in
+three kinds of ways. The reaction may die out, be suppressed, and so far
+as discoverable lead to nothing; or the impulses may evoke effect in
+either or both of two forms. Just as from the receptive organs, nerves
+lead into the central nervous organ, so conversely from the central
+organ other nerves, termed _efferent_, lead to various organs of the
+body, especially glands and muscles. The reaction of the central nervous
+organ to impulses poured into it commonly leads to a discharge of
+impulses from it into glands and muscles. These centrifugal impulses
+are, so far as is known, qualitatively like the centripetal impulses. On
+reaching the glands and muscles they influence the activity of those
+organs. Since those organs are therefore the mechanisms in which the
+ultimate effect of the nervous reaction takes place, they are often
+termed from this point of view _effector organs_. A change ensuing in
+effector organs is often the only sign an observer has that a nervous
+reaction has occurred, unless the nervous system under observation be
+the observer's own.
+
+If the observer turns to his own nervous system for evidence of
+reaction, he meets at once in numberless instances with _sensation_ as
+an outcome or sign of its reaction. This effect he cannot show to any
+being beside himself. He can only describe it, and in describing it he
+cannot strictly translate it into any term of material existence. The
+unbridged gulf between sensation and the changes produced in effector
+organs necessitates a separate handling of the functions of the nervous
+system according as their office under consideration is sensation or
+material effect. This holds especially in the case of the brain, and for
+the following reasons.
+
+_Psychosis and the Fore-Brain._--Hippocrates wrote, "It is through the
+brain that we become mad, that delirium seizes us, that fears and
+terrors assail us." "We know that pleasure and joy on the one hand and
+pain and grief on the other are referable to the brain. It is in virtue
+of it that we think, understand, see, hear, know ugliness and beauty,
+evil and good, the agreeable and the disagreeable." Similarly and more
+precisely Descartes indicated the brain, and the brain alone, as the
+seat of consciousness. Finally, it was Flourens who perhaps first
+definitely insisted on the restriction of the seat of consciousness in
+higher animals to that part of the brain which is the fore-brain. A
+functional distinction between the fore-brain and the remainder of the
+nervous system seems, in fact, that consciousness and physical reactions
+are adjunct to the fore-brain in a way in which they are not to the rest
+of the system. After transection of the spinal cord, or of the brain
+behind the fore-brain, psychical phenomena do not belong to the
+reactions of the nervous arcs posterior to the transection, whereas they
+do still accompany reactions of the nervous arcs in front and still
+connected with the fore-brain. A man after severance of the spinal cord
+does not possess in the strict sense consciousness of the limbs whose
+afferent nerves lie behind the place of spinal severance. He can see
+them with his eyes, and if the severance lie between the arms and the
+legs, can feel the latter with his hands. He knows them to be a part of
+his body. But they are detached from his consciousness. Sensations
+derived from them through all other channels of sense than their own do
+not suffice to restore them in any adequate measure to his
+consciousness. He must have the sensations so called "resident" in them,
+that is, referred to them, without need of any logical inference. These
+can be yielded only by the receptive organs resident in the part itself,
+its skin, its joints, its muscles, &c., and can only be yielded by those
+receptive organs so long as the nerve impulses from them have access to
+the fore-brain. Consciousness, therefore, does not seem to attach to any
+portion of the nervous system of higher animals from which the
+fore-brain has been cut off. In the dog it has been found that no sign
+of memory, let alone intelligence, has been forthcoming after removal of
+the greater part of the fore-brain.
+
+In lower vertebrates it is not clear that consciousness in primitive
+form requires always the co-operation of the fore-brain. In them the
+fore-brain does not seem a _conditio sine qua non_ for psychosis--so far
+as we may trust the rather hazardous inferences which study of the
+behaviour of fish, &c., allows. And the difference between higher and
+lowlier animal forms in respect of the fore-brain as a condition for
+psychosis becomes more marked when the Arthropoda are examined. The
+behaviour of some Insecta points strongly to their possessing memory,
+rudimentary in kind though it may be. But in them no homologue of the
+fore-brain of vertebrates can be indisputably made out. The head ganglia
+in these Invertebrates may, it is true, be analogous in function in
+certain ways to the brain of vertebrates. Some experiments, not
+plentiful, indicate that destruction of these head ganglia induces
+deterioration of behaviour such as follows loss of psychical functions
+in cases of destruction of the fore-brain in vertebrates. Though,
+therefore, we cannot be clear that the head ganglia of these
+Invertebrates are the same structure morphologically as the brain of
+vertebrates, they seem to hold a similar office, exercising analogous
+functions, including psychosis of a rudimentary kind. We can, therefore,
+speak of the head ganglia of Arthropods as a brain, and in doing so must
+remember that we define by physiological evidence rather than by
+morphological.
+
+_Cerebral Control over Lower Nervous Centres._--There accrues to the
+brain, especially to the fore-brain of higher Vertebrates, another
+function besides that of grafting psychical qualities upon the reactions
+of the nervous system. This function is exhibited as power to control in
+greater or less measure the pure reflexes enacted by the system. These
+pure reflexes have the character of fatality, in the sense that, given a
+particular stimulus, a particular reaction unvaryingly follows; the same
+group of muscles or the same gland is invariably thrown into action in
+the same way. Removal of the fore-brain, i.e. of that portion of the
+central nervous organ to which psychosis is adjunct, renders the nervous
+reactions of the animal more predictable and less variable. The animal,
+for instance, a dog, is given over more completely to simple reflexes.
+Its skin is touched and it scratches the spot, its jaw is stroked and it
+yawns, its rump is rubbed and it shakes itself, like a dog coming out of
+water; and these reactions occur fatally and inopportunely, for
+instance, when food is being offered to it, when the dog normally would
+allow no such insignificant skin stimuli as the above to defer his
+appropriate reaction. Goltz relates the behaviour of a dog from which
+almost the whole fore-brain had been removed. The animal lived healthily
+under the careful treatment accorded it. At feeding time a little
+quinine (bitter) added to its sop of meat and milk led to the morsels,
+after being taken into the mouth, being at once and regularly rejected.
+None was ever swallowed, nor was the slightest hesitation in their
+rejection ever obtained by any coaxing or command, or encouragement of
+the animal by the attendant who constantly had charge of it. On the
+other hand, directly an undoctored piece had entered the mouth it was
+swallowed at once. Goltz threw to his own house-dog a piece of the same
+doctored meat. The creature wagged its tail and took it eagerly, then
+after receiving it into its mouth pulled a wry face and hesitated,
+astonished. But on encouragement to go on eating it the dog did so.
+Perhaps it deemed it unseemly to appear ungrateful to the giver and
+reject the gift. It overcame its reflex of rejection, and by its
+self-control gave proof of the intact cerebrum it possessed.
+
+There seems a connexion between consciousness and the power to modify
+reflex action to meet the exigencies of the occasion. Pure reflexes are
+admirably adapted to certain ends. They are reactions which have long
+proved advantageous to the phylum of which the existent animal is the
+representative embodiment. But the reflexes have a machine-like
+fatality, and conscious aim does not forerun their execution. The
+subject as active agent does not direct them. Yet they lie under the
+control of higher centres. The cough, the eye-closure, the impulse to
+smile, all these can be suppressed. The innate respiratory rhythm can be
+modified to meet the requirements of vocal utterance. In other words,
+the reaction of reflex arcs is controllable by the mechanism to whose
+activity consciousness is adjunct. The reflexes controlled are often
+reactions but slightly affecting consciousness, but consciousness is
+very distinctly operative with the centres which exert the control. It
+may be that the primary aim, object and purpose of consciousness is
+control. "Consciousness in a mere automaton," writes Professor Lloyd
+Morgan, "is a useless and unnecessary epiphenomenon." As to _how_ this
+conscious control is operative on reflexes, how it intrudes its
+influence on the running of the reflex machinery, little is known.
+
+_The Cerebrum an Organ giving Adaptation and Readjustment of Motor
+Acts._--The exercise of this control and the acquirement of skilled
+actions have obviously elements in common. By skilled actions, we
+understand actions not innately given, actions acquired by training in
+individual experience. The controlling centres pick out from an
+ancestral motor action some part, and isolate and enhance that until it
+becomes a skilled act. The motor co-ordination ancestrally provided for
+the ring finger gives an extending of it only in company with extension
+of the fingers on either side of it. The isolated lifting of the ring
+finger can, however, soon be acquired by training. In such cases the
+higher centre with conscious effort is able to dissociate a part from an
+ancestral co-ordination, and in that way to add a skilled adapted act to
+the powers of the individual.
+
+The nervous organs of control form, therefore, a special instrument of
+adaptation and of readjustment of reaction, for better accommodation to
+requirements which may be new. The attainment of more precision and
+speed in the use of a tool, or the handling of a weapon, means a process
+in which nervous organs of control modify activities of reflex centres
+themselves already perfected ancestrally for other though kindred
+actions. This process of learning is accompanied by conscious effort.
+The effort consists not so much in any course of reasoning but rather in
+the acquiring of new sensorimotor experience. To learn swimming or
+skating by simple cogitation or mere visual observation is of course
+impossible. The new ideas requisite cannot be constructed without motor
+experience, and the training must include that motor experience. Hence
+the training for a new skilled motor manoeuvre must be simply _ad hoc_,
+and is of itself no training for another motor co-ordination.
+
+The more complex an organism the more points of contact does it have
+with its environment, and the more does it need readjustment amid an
+environment of shifting relationships. Hence the organs of consciousness
+and control, being organs of adaptation and readjustment of reaction,
+will be more pronounced the farther the animal scale is followed upward
+to its crowning species, man. The cerebrum and especially the cerebral
+cortex may be regarded as the highest expression of the nervous organ
+of individual adaptation of reactions. Its high development in man makes
+him the most successful animal on earth's surface at the present epoch.
+The most important part of all this adjustment in his case, as he stands
+now, consists doubtless in that nervous activity which is intellectual.
+The mentality attached to his cerebrum includes reason in higher measure
+than is possessed by the mentality of other animals. He, therefore, more
+than they, can profitably forecast the future and act suitably to meet
+it from memory of the past. The cerebrum has proved itself by his case
+the most potent weapon existent for extending animal dominance over the
+environment.
+
+_Means and Present Aims of Physiological Study of the Brain._--The
+aspects of cerebral activity are therefore twofold. There is the
+contribution which it makes to the behaviour of the animal as seen in
+the creature's doings. On the other hand there is its product in the
+psychical life of the animal. The former of these is subject matter for
+physiology; the latter is especially the province of psychology.
+Physiology does, however, concern itself with the psychical aspect of
+cerebral functions. Its scope, embracing the study of the bodily organs
+in regard to function, includes the psychic as well as the material,
+because as just shown the former inextricably interlace with the latter.
+But the relation between the psychic phenomena and the working of the
+brain in regard to any data of fundamental or intimate character
+connecting the two remains practically as unknown to us as to the Greek
+philosophers. What physiology has at present to be content with in this
+respect is the mere assigning of certain kinds of psychic events to
+certain local regions of the cerebrum. This primitive quest constitutes
+the greater part of the "neurology" of our day, and some advance has
+been made along its lines. Yet how meagre are really significant facts
+will be clear from the brief survey that follows. Before passing finally
+from these general considerations, we may note that it becomes more and
+more clear that the brain, although an organ than can be treated as a
+whole, is complex in the sense that separable functions belong in some
+measure to its several parts.
+
+The means principally adopted in studying the functions of the
+brain--and it must be remembered that this study in its present phase is
+almost exclusively a mere search for localization--are four. These are
+the physiological, the clinico-pathological, the histological and the
+zoological. The first named proceeds by observing the effects of
+artificial excitation, chiefly electric, of various parts of the brain,
+and the defects produced by destruction or removal of circumscribed
+portions. The clinico-pathological proceeds by observing the
+disturbances of body and mind occurring in disease or injury, and
+ascertaining the extent of the disease or injury, for the most part
+_post mortem_. The histological method examines the microscopic
+structure of the various regions of the brain and the characters and
+arrangement of the nerve-cells composing it. The zoological follows and
+compares the general features of the brain, as represented in the
+various types of animal creation.
+
+It is on the functions of the fore-brain that interest now mainly
+focuses, for the reasons mentioned above. And the interest in the
+fore-brain itself chiefly attaches to the functions of its cortex. This
+is due to several causes. In man and the animals nearest him the cortex
+forms by far the larger part of the whole cerebral hemisphere. More than
+any other part it constitutes the distinctively human feature. It lies
+accessible to various experimental observations, as also to traumatic
+lesions and to the surgeon's art. It is composed of a great unbroken
+sheet of grey matter; for that reason it is a structure wherein
+processes of peculiar interest for the investigation in view are likely
+to occur. To make this last inference more clear a reference to the
+histology of nervous tissue must be made. The whole physiological
+function of the nervous system may be summed up in the one word
+"conduction." This "conduction" may be defined as the transmission of
+states of excitement (nerve-impulses) along the neural arcs composing
+the system. The whole nervous system is built up of chains of
+nerve-cells (neurones) which are nervous conductors, the chains often
+being termed arcs. Each neurone is an elongated cell which transmits
+nerve-impulses from its one end to its other, without so far as is known
+modifying the impulses in transit, unless in that part of the nerve-cell
+where the nucleus lies. That part of the neurone or nerve-cell is called
+the perikaryon or cell-body, and from that part usually many branches of
+the cell (each branch being a nerve-fibre) ramify. There is no evidence
+that impulses are modified in transit along a branch of a nerve-cell,
+but there is clear evidence of manifold modification of nerve-impulses
+in transit along the nerve-arcs of the nervous system. These nerve-arcs
+are neurone-chains. In them one neurone continues the line of conduction
+where the immediately foregoing neurone left it. That is, the neurones
+are laid in conductive series, the far end of one apposed to the near
+end of its precursor. The place of juxtaposition of the end of one
+neurone against the beginning of another is called the _synapse_. At it
+the conduction which has so far been wholly intra-neuronic is replaced
+by an inter-neuronic process, in which the nerve impulse passes from one
+neurone to the next. The process there, it is natural to think, must be
+physiologically different from that conductive process that serves for
+transmission merely within the neurone itself. It may be that to this
+inter-neuronic conduction are due the differences between conduction in
+nerve-_arcs_ and nerve-_trunks_ (nerve-fibres) respectively. Significant
+of the former are changes in rhythm, intensity, excitability and
+modifications by summation and inhibition; in fact a number of the main
+features of nervous reaction. These characters impressed upon conduction
+in nerve arcs (neurone-chains) would therefore be traceable to the
+intercalation of perikarya and synapses, for both these structures are
+absent from nerve-trunks. It is therefore probably to perikarya and
+synapses that the greater part of the co-ordination, elaboration and
+differentiation of nervous reactions is due. Now, perikarya and synapses
+are not present in the _white_ matter of the central nervous organ, any
+more than they are in nerve-trunks. They are confined exclusively to
+those portions of the central organ which consist of _grey_ matter (so
+called from its naked-eye appearance). Hence it is to the great sheet of
+grey matter which enfolds the cerebrum that the physiologist turns, as
+to a field where he would expect to find evidences of the processes of
+cerebral co-ordination at work. It is therefore to items regarding the
+functions of the great sheet of cerebral cortex that we may now pass.
+
+_The Cerebral Cortex and its Functions._--The main question which vexed
+the study of the physiology of the cerebral hemispheres in the 19th
+century was whether differences of function are detectible in the
+different regions of the hemisphere and especially in those of its
+cortex. One camp of experimenters and observers held that the cortex was
+identical in function throughout its extent. These authorities taught
+that the various faculties and senses suffer damage in proportion to the
+amount of cortex removed or injured, and that it is a matter of
+indifference what may be the particular region wherein the destruction
+takes place. Against this an opposed set of observers held that
+different regions perform different functions, and this latter
+"differential" view was raised in two wholly dissimilar forms in the
+first and last quarters of the 19th century respectively. In the first
+quarter of the century, a school, with which the name of Gall is
+prominently associated, held that each faculty of a set of particular
+so-called "faculties," which it assumed constituted intelligence, has in
+the brain a spatially separate organ proper to itself. Gall's doctrine
+had two fundamental propositions. The first was that intelligence
+resides exclusively in the brain: the second, that intelligence consists
+of twenty-seven "faculties," each with a separate local seat in the
+brain. The first proposition was not new. It is met with in Hippocrates,
+and it had been elaborated by Descartes and others. But Bichat in his
+_Anatomie generale_ had partly wandered from the gradually established
+truth and referred the emotions to the visceral organs, returning to a
+naive view popularly prevalent. Gall's first proposition was probably
+raised especially in reaction against Bichat. But Gall's proposition was
+retrograde from the true position of the science of his time. Flourens
+and others of his contemporaries had already shown not only that
+intelligence was resident exclusively in the brain, but that it was
+resident exclusively in that part of the brain which is the fore-brain.
+Now Gall placed certain of his twenty-seven intellectual faculties in
+the cerebellum, which is part of the hind-brain.
+
+_Phrenology._--As to Gall's second proposition, the set of faculties
+into which he analysed intelligence shows his power of psychological
+analysis to have been so weak that it is matter of surprise his doctrine
+could obtain even the ephemeral vogue it actually did. Among his
+twenty-seven faculties are, for instance, "_l'amour de la progéniture,
+l'instinct carnassier, l'amitié, la ruse, la sagacité comparative,
+l'esprit métaphysique, le talent poétique, la mimique_," &c. Such
+crudity of speculation is remarkable in one who had undoubtedly
+considerable insight into human character. Each of the twenty-seven
+faculties had its seat in a part of the brain, and that part of the
+brain was called its "organ." The mere spatial juxtaposition or
+remoteness of these organs one from another in the brain had, according
+to Gall, an influence on the constitution of the mind. "_Comme l'organe
+des arts est placé loin de l'organe du sens des couleurs, cette
+circonstance explique pourquoi les peintres d'histoire ont été rarement
+coloristes_." All these "faculty-organs" were placed by Gall at the
+surface of the brain. "This explains the correspondence which exists
+between craniology and the doctrine of the functions of the brain
+(cerebral physiology), the single aim of my researches." Gall wrote that
+he found the bump of pride (_la bosse de l'orgueil_) as far down in the
+animal series as the goat. Broussais traced the "organ" of veneration as
+far down as the sheep. Gall found the bump of murder (_bosse du
+meurtre_) in the carnivora. Later it was traced also in herbivora.
+Broussais added apologetically that "the herbivora cause a real
+destruction of plants."
+
+Gall's doctrine enjoyed enormous vogue. He himself had the gifts and the
+demerits of quackery. His doctrine possessed, apart from its falsity,
+certain other mischievous qualities. "_Que ces hommes si glorieux, qui
+font égorger les nations par millions, sachent qu'ils n'agissent point
+de leur propre chef, que c'est la nature qui a placé dans leur coeur la
+rage de la destruction_." One of his scientific opponents rejoined,
+"Nay, it is not that which they should know. What they should know is
+that if providence has allowed to man the possibility of doing evil, it
+has also endowed him with the power to do good." The main cause of the
+success of phrenology (q.v.) has been no doubt the common desire of men
+to read the characters and hidden thoughts of others by external signs.
+Each bump or "bosse" on the cranium was supposed to indicate the
+existence and degree of development of one or other of the twenty-seven
+"faculties." One such "bosse" showed the development of the organ of
+"goodness," and another the development of the organ of "murder." Such
+an easy means to arrive at information so curious delighted many
+persons, and they were not willingly undeceived.
+
+_Modern Localization Doctrines._--The crude localization of the
+phrenologists is therefore too clumsy to possess an interest it might
+otherwise have had as an early expression of belief in cerebral
+localization, a belief which other labours have subsequently justified,
+although on facts and lines quite different from these imagined by Gall
+and his followers. Patient scientific toil by the hands of E. Hitzig and
+D. Ferrier and their followers has slowly succeeded in obtaining certain
+facts about the _cortex cerebri_ which not only show that different
+regions of it are concerned with different functions, but, for some
+regions at least, outline to some extent the kind of function exercised.
+It is true that the greater part of the cortex remains still _terra
+incognita_ unless we are content with mere descriptive features
+concerning its coarse anatomy. For several scattered regions some
+knowledge of their function has been gained by physiological
+investigation. These scattered regions are the _visual_, the _auditory_,
+the _olfactory_ and the _precentral_.
+
+The grey matter of the cerebral cortex is broadly characterized
+histologically by the perikarya (nerve-cells bodies) which lie in it
+possessing a special shape; they are pyramidal. The dendrite fibres of
+these cells--that is, their fibres which conduct _towards_ the
+perikarya--are branches from the apex and corners of the pyramid. From
+the base often near its middle arises one large fibre--the axone fibre,
+which conducts impulses away from the perikaryon. The general appearance
+and arrangement of the neurones in a particle of cortical grey matter
+are shown in fig. 15, above. The apices of the pyramidal perikarya are
+turned towards the free surface of the cortex. The figure as interpreted
+in terms of functional conduction means that the cortex is beset with
+conductors, each of which collects nerve-impulses, from a minute but
+relatively wide field by its branched dendrites, and that these
+nerve-impulses converge through its perikaryon, issue by its axone, and
+are carried whithersoever the axone runs. In some few cells the axone
+breaks up into branches in the immediate neighbourhood of its own
+perikaryon in the cortex. In most cases, however, the axone runs off
+into the subjacent white matter, leaving the cortex altogether. On
+reaching the subjacent white matter it mingles with other fibres and
+takes one of the following courses:--(1) to the grey matter of the
+cortex of the same hemisphere, (2) to the grey matter of the cortex of
+the opposite hemisphere, (3) to the grey matter of the pons, (4) to the
+grey matter of the bulb or spinal cord. It is noteworthy that the
+dendrite fibres of these cortical neurones do not transgress the limits
+of the grey cortex and the immediate neighbourhood of the perikaryon to
+which they belong; whereas the discharging or axone fibre does in the
+vast majority of cases transgress the limits of the grey matter wherein
+its perikaryon lies. The cortical neurone therefore collects impulses in
+the region of cortex just about its perikaryon and discharges them to
+other regions, some not cortical or even cerebral, but spinal, &c. One
+question which naturally arises is, do these cells spontaneously
+generate their impulses or are they stirred to activity by impulses
+which reach them from without? The tendency of physiology is to regard
+the actions of the cortex as reactions to impulses communicated to the
+cortical cells by nerve-channels reaching them from the sense organs.
+The neurone conductors in the cortex are in so far considered to
+resemble those of reflex centres, though their reactions are more
+variable and complex than in the use of the spinal. The chains of
+neurones passing through the cortex are more complex and connected with
+greater numbers of associate complex chains than are those of the spinal
+centres. But just as the reflex centres of the cord are each attached to
+afferent channels arriving from this or that receptive-organ, for
+instance, tactile-organs of the skin, or spindles of muscle-sense, &c.,
+so the regions of cortex whose function is to-day with some certainty
+localized seem to be severally related each to some particular
+sense-organ. The localization, so far as ascertained, is a localization
+which attaches separate areas of cortex to the several species of sense,
+namely the visual, the auditory, the olfactory, and so on. This being
+so, we should expect to find the sensual representation in the cortex
+especially marked for the organs of the great distance-receptors, the
+organs which--considered as _sense_ organs--initiate sensations having
+the quality of projicience into the sensible environment. The organs of
+distance-receptors are the olfactory, the visual and the auditory. The
+environmental agent which acts as stimulus in the case of the first
+named is chemical, in the second is radiant, and in the last is
+mechanical.
+
+_Olfactory Region of Cortex._--There is phylogenetic evidence that the
+development of the _cortex cerebri_ first occurred in connexion with the
+distance-receptors for chemical stimuli--that is, expressed with
+reference to psychosis, in connexion with olfaction. The olfactory
+apparatus even in mammals still exhibits a neural architecture of
+primitive pattern. The cell which conducts impulses to the brain from
+the olfactory membrane in the nose resembles cells in the skin of the
+earthworm, in that its cell-body lies actually amid the epithelium of
+the skin-surface and is not deeply buried near or in the central nervous
+organ. Further, it has at its external end tiny hairlets such as occur
+in specially receptive-cells but not usually in purely nervous cells.
+Hence we must think that one and the same cell by its external end
+receives the environmental stimulus and by its deep end excites the
+central nervous organ. The cell under the stimulation of the
+environmental agent will therefore generate in itself a nervous impulse.
+This is the clearest instance we have of a neurone being actually
+excited under natural circumstances by an agent of the environment
+_directly_, not indirectly. The deep ends of these olfactory neurones
+having entered the central nervous organ come into contact with the
+dendrites of large neurones, called, from their shape, mitral. In the
+dog, an animal with high olfactory sense, the axone of each olfactory
+neurone is connected with five or six mitral cells. In man each
+olfactory neurone is connected with a single mitral cell only. We may
+suppose that the former arrangement conduces to intensification of the
+central reaction by summation. At the same time it is an arrangement
+which could tend to smother sharp differentiation of the central
+reaction in respect to locality of stimulus at the receptive surface.
+Considering the diffuse way in which olfactory stimuli are applied in
+comparison, for instance, with visual, the exact localization of the
+former can obviously yield little information of use for locating the
+exact position of their source. On the other hand, in the case of visual
+stimuli the locus of incidence, owing to the rectilinear propagation of
+light, can serve with extraordinary exactitude for inferences as to the
+position of their source. The adaptation of the neural connexions of the
+two organs in this respect is therefore in accord with expectation.
+
+The earliest cerebral cortex is formed in connexion with the
+neurone-chains coming into the central nervous organ from the patch of
+olfactory cells on the surface of the head. The region of cerebrum thus
+developed is the so-called olfactory lobe and hippocampal formation. The
+greater part of the cerebral hemisphere is often termed the _pallium_,
+because as its development extends it folds cloak-wise over the older
+structures at the base of the brain. The olfactory lobe, from its
+position, is sometimes called the _pallium basale_, and the hippocampal
+formation the _pallium marginale_; and these two parts of the pallium
+form what, on account of their phylogenetic history, Elliott Smith well
+terms the _archipallium_. A fissure, the limbic fissure, marks off more
+or less distinctly this archipallium from the rest of the pallium, a
+remainder which is of later development and therefore designated by
+Elliott Smith the _neopallium_. Of the archipallium, the portion which
+constitutes the olfactory lobe is well formed in the selachian fish. In
+the reptilian cerebrum the hippocampal region, the pallium marginale,
+coexists in addition. These are both of them olfactory in function. Even
+so high up in the animal scale as the lowest mammals they still form one
+half of the entire pallium. But in the higher apes and in man the
+olfactory portion of the pallium is but a small fraction of the pallium
+as a whole. It is indeed so relatively dwarfed and obscured as to be
+invisible when the brain is regarded from the side or above. The
+olfactory part of the pallium exhibits little variation in form as
+traced up through the higher animals. It is of course small in such
+animals as Cetaceans, which are _anosmatic_. In highly osmatic such as
+the dog it is large. The _uncus_, and _subiculum cornu ammonis_ of the
+human brain, belong to it. Disease of these parts has been accompanied
+by disturbance of the sense of smell. When stimulated electrically (in
+the rabbit) the olfactory pallium occasions peculiar torsion of the nose
+and lips (Ferrier), and change, often slowing or arrested, of the
+respiratory rhythm. P.E. Flechsig has shown that the nerve-fibres of
+this part of the pallium attain the final stage of their growth, that is
+to say, acquire their sheaths of myelin, early in the ontogenetic
+development of the brain. In the human brain they are myelinate before
+birth. This is significant from the point of view of function, for
+reasons which have been made clear especially by the researches of
+Flechsig himself.
+
+The completion of the growth of the nerve-fibres entering and leaving
+the cortex occurs at very various periods in the growth of the brain.
+Study of the development of the fibres entering and leaving the various
+regions of the pallium in the human brain, discovers that the regions
+may be conveniently grouped into those whose fibres are perfected before
+birth and those whose fibres are perfected during the first post-natal
+month, and those whose fibres are perfected after the first but before
+the end of the fourth post-natal month. The regions thus marked out by
+completion before birth are five in number, and are each connected, as
+also shown by collateral evidence, with one or other particular species
+of sense-organ. And these regions have another character in common
+recognizable in the nerve-fibres entering and leaving them, namely, they
+possess fibres projected to or from parts of the nervous system
+altogether outside the cortex itself. These fibres are termed
+"projection" fibres. Other regions of the cortex possess fibres coming
+from or going to various regions of the cortex itself, but do not
+possess in addition, as do the five primitive cortical fields, the
+fibres of projection. So that the facts established by Flechsig for the
+regions of pallium, which other evidence already indicated as connected
+with the sense-organ of smell, support that evidence and bring the
+olfactory region of cortex into line with certain other regions of
+cortex similarly primarily connected with organs of sense.
+
+It will be noted that what has been achieved by these various means of
+study in regard to the region of the cortex to which olfactory functions
+are attributed amounts at present to little more than the bare
+ascertainment of the existence there of nervous mechanisms connected
+with olfaction, and to the delimiting roughly of their extent and of
+their ability to influence certain movements, and in man sensations,
+habitually associated with exercise of the olfactory organ. As to what
+part the cortical mechanism has in the elaboration or association of
+mental processes to which olfaction contributes, no evidence worth the
+name seems as yet forthcoming. In this respect our knowledge, or rather
+our want of knowledge, of the functions of the olfactory region of the
+cortex, is fairly typical of that to which we have to confess in regard
+to the other regions of the cortex, even the best known.
+
+_Visual Region of the Cortex._--There is a region of the cortex
+especially connected with vision. The _optic nerve_ and _tract_
+constitute the second link in the chain of neurones joining the retina
+to the brain. They may therefore be regarded as the equivalent of an
+intraspinal tract connecting the deep ends of the afferent neurones from
+the skin with higher nervous centres. In the bony fishes the optic tract
+reaches the grey matter of the optic lobe, a part of the mid-brain, to
+which the so-called anterior colliculus is equivalent in the mammalian
+brain. In the optic lobe the axones of the neurones of the optic tract
+meet neurones whose axones pass in turn to the motor neurones of the
+muscles moving the eyeballs, and also to other motor neurones. But in
+these fish the optic tract has no obvious connexion with the fore-brain
+or with any cerebral pallium. Ascending, however, to the reptilian brain
+is found an additional arrangement: a small portion of the optic tract
+passes to grey matter in front of the optic lobe. This grey matter is
+the lateral geniculate body. From this geniculate body a number of
+neurones extend to the pallial portion of the cerebrum, for in the
+reptilian brain the pallium is present. The portion of pallium connected
+with the lateral geniculate body lies above and behind the olfactory or
+archipallium. It is a part of what was mentioned above as neopallium.
+
+In the mammalian brain the portion of the optic tract which goes to the
+optic lobe (_ant. colliculus_ of the mammal) is dwarfed by great
+development of the part which goes to the geniculate body and an
+adjoining grey mass, the pulvinar (part of the optic thalamus). From
+these latter pass large bands of fibres to the occipital region of the
+neopallium. In mammals this visual region of the cortex is distinguished
+in its microscopic features from the cortex elsewhere by a layer of
+myelinate nerve-fibres, many of which are the axones of neurones of the
+geniculate body and pulvinar. Thus, whereas in the bony fishes all the
+third links of the conductive chain from the retina lead exclusively to
+the final neurones of motor centres for muscles, in the mammal the
+majority of the third links conduct to grey matter of the cortex
+cerebri.
+
+The application of electric stimuli to the surface of the cortex does
+not for the greater part of the extent of the cortex evoke in higher
+mammalian brains any obvious effect; no muscular act is provoked. But
+from certain limited regions of the cortex such stimulation does evoke
+muscular acts, and one of these regions is that to which the neurones
+forming the third link of the conductive chain from the retina pass. The
+muscular acts thus provoked from that region are movements of the
+eyeballs and of the neck turning the head. In the monkey the movement is
+the turning of both eyeballs and the head away from the side stimulated.
+In short, the gaze is directed as to an object on the opposite side. The
+newer conductive chain traceable through the cortex does therefore,
+after all, like the older one through the optic lobe, lead ultimately to
+the motor neurones of the eye muscles and the neck, only it takes a
+longer course thither and is undoubtedly much more complex. What gain is
+effected by this new and as it were alternative and longer route, which
+takes a path up to the cerebral cortex and down again, we can only
+conjecture, but of one point we may rest well assured, namely, that a
+much richer inter-connexion with other arcs of the nervous system is
+obtained by the path that passes via the cortex. The functional
+difference between the old conductive circuit and the new can at present
+hardly indeed be stated even in outline. A natural inference might be
+that the phylogenetically older and less complex path is concerned with
+functions purely reflex-motor, not possessing sensation as an attribute.
+But fish, which possess only the older path, can be trained to seize
+bait of one colour and not of another colour, even against what appeared
+to be an original colour-preference in them. Such discrimination
+individually acquired seems to involve memory, though it may be
+rudimentary in kind. Where motor reaction to visual stimuli appears to
+involve memory--and without memory the training could hardly be
+effective--some germ of consciousness can hardly be denied to the visual
+reactions, although the reactions occurred in complete absence of a
+cortical path and indeed of a visual cortex altogether.
+
+Removal of the visual pallium in the tortoise produces little or no
+obvious defect in vision; but in the bird such a lesion greatly impairs
+the vision of the eye of the side opposite to the lesion. The impairment
+does not, however, amount to absolute blindness. Schrader's hawk, after
+removal of the pallium, reacted to movements of the mice with which it
+was caged. But the reactions were impaired: they lacked the sustained
+purpose of the normal reactions. The bird saw the mice; that was
+certain, for their movements across its field of vision made it turn its
+gaze towards them. But on their ceasing to move, the reaction on the
+part of the bird lapsed. Neither did their continuing to move excite the
+attack upon them which would have been the natural reaction on the part
+of the bird of prey towards its food. The bird apparently did not
+recognize them as prey, but saw them merely as moving objects. It saw
+them perhaps as things to which mental association gave no significance.
+Similarly, a dog after ablation of the occipital lobes of the cortex is
+able to see, for it avoids obstacles in its path; but if food is offered
+to it or the whip held up to it, it does not turn towards the food or
+away from the whip. It sees these things as if it saw them for the first
+time, but without curiosity, and as if it had no experience of their
+meaning. It gives no hint that it any longer understands the meaning of
+even familiar objects so long as these are presented to it through the
+sense of vision. Destruction of the visual cortex of one hemisphere
+alone produces in the dog impairment of vision, not as in the bird
+practically exclusively in the opposite eye, but in one lateral half of
+each eye, and that half the half opposite the hemisphere injured. Thus
+when the cortex destroyed is of the right cerebral hemisphere, the
+resultant visual defect is in the left half of the field of vision of
+both eyes. And this is so in man also.
+
+In man disturbances of sensation can be better studied because it is
+possible to obtain from him his description of his condition. The
+relation of the _cortex cerebri_ to human vision can be summarized
+briefly as follows. The visual cortex is distinguishable in higher
+mammals by a thin white stripe, the stripe of Gennari, seen in its grey
+matter when that is sectioned. This stripe results from a layer of
+nerve-fibres, many of which are axones from the neurones of the lateral
+geniculate body and the pulvinar, the grey masses directly connected
+with the optic nerve-fibres. In the dog, and in such monkeys as the
+Macaque, the region of cortex containing this stripe traceable to optic
+fibres forms practically the whole occipital lobe. But in the man-like
+apes and in man this kind of cortex is confined to one region of the
+occipital lobe, namely, that of the calcarine fissure and the _cuneus_
+behind that. This region of cortex thus delimited in man is one of
+Flechsig's areas of earlier myelinization. It is also one of his areas
+possessing projection fibres; and this last fact agrees with the
+yielding by this area, when under electrical stimulation, of movements
+indicating that impulses have been discharged from it into the motor
+neurones of the muscles of the eyes and neck. Evidence from cases of
+disease show that destruction of the cortex of the upper lip of the
+calcarine fissure, say in the right half of the brain, causes in man
+impairment in the upper right-hand quadrant of both retinae: destruction
+of the lower lip of the fissure causes impairment in the lower
+right-hand quadrants. Destruction of the calcarine region of one
+hemisphere produces therefore "crossed hemianopia," that is, loss of the
+opposite half of the field of vision. But in this hemianopia the region
+of central vision is always spared. That is, the piece of visual field
+which corresponds with the yellow spot of the retina is not affected in
+either eye, unless the calcarine regions of both hemispheres are
+destroyed. This central point of vision is connected therefore not with
+one side of the brain only but with both.
+
+The impairment of sight is more severe in men than in lower animals.
+Where the destruction of the visuo-sensory cortex in one calcarine
+region is complete, a candle-flame offered in the hemianopic field
+cannot even be perceived. It may hardly excite a reflex contraction of
+the pupil. In such cases the visual defect amounts to blindness. But
+this is a greater defect than is found in the dog even after entire
+removal of both occipital lobes. The dog still avoids obstacles as it
+walks. Its defect is rather, as said above, a complete loss of interest
+in the visual images of things. But a dog or monkey after loss of the
+visual cortex hesitates more and avoids obstacles less well in a
+familiar place than it does when entirely blind from loss of the
+peripheral organ of vision. In man extensive destruction of the visual
+cortex has as one of its symptoms loss of memory of localities, thus, of
+the paths of a garden, of the position of furniture, and of accustomed
+objects in the patient's own room. This loss of memory of position does
+not extend to spatial relations ordinarily appreciated by touch, such as
+parts of the patient's own person or clothing. There is nothing like
+this in the symptoms following blindness by loss of the eye itself.
+Those who lose their sight by disease of the retina retain good memorial
+pictures of positions and directions appreciated primarily by vision.
+
+Cases of disease are on record in which loss of visual memory has
+occurred without hemianopia. Visual hallucinations referred to the
+hemianopic side have been observed. This suggests that the function of
+visual memory in regard to certain kinds of percepts must belong to
+localities of cortex different from those pertaining to other visual
+percepts. The area of cortex characterized by the stripe of Gennari
+occupies in man, as mentioned, the calcarine and cuneate region. It is
+surrounded by a cortical field which, though intimately connected with
+it by manifold conducting fibres, &c., is yet on various grounds
+distinct from it. This field of cortex surrounding the visuo-sensory of
+the calcarine-cuneate region is a far newer part of the neopallium than
+the region it surrounds. Both in the individual (Flechsig) and in the
+phylum (Bolton, Campbell, Mott) its development occurs far later than
+that of the visuo-sensory which it surrounds. Flechsig finds that it has
+no "projection" fibres, that is, that it receives none of the optic
+radiations from the lower visual centres and gives no centrifugal fibres
+in the reverse direction. This field encompassing the visuo-sensory
+region differs from the latter in its microscopic structure by absence
+of the lower layer of stellate cells and by the presence in it of a
+third or deep layer of pyramidal cells (Mott). Its fibres are on the
+average smaller than are those of the visuo-sensory (W.A. Campbell).
+This zonal field is small in the lower apes, and hardly discoverable in
+the dog. In the anthropoid apes it is much larger. In man it is
+relatively much larger still. The impairment of visual memory and visual
+understanding in regard to direction and locality is said to be observed
+in man only when the injury of the cortex includes not only the
+calcarine-cuneate region but a wide area of the occipital lobe. From
+this it is argued that the zonal field is concerned with memories and
+recognitions of a kind based on visual perceptions. It has therefore
+been termed the _visuo-psychic_ area. It is one of Flechsig's
+"association-areas" of the cortex.
+
+Adjoining the antero-lateral border of the just-described _visuo-psychic
+area_ lies another region separate from it and yet related to it. This
+area is even later in its course of development than is the
+visuo-psychic. It is one of Flechsig's "terminal fields," and its fibres
+are among the last to ripen in the whole cortex. This terminal field is
+large in man. It runs forward in the parietal lobe above and in the
+temporal lobe below. Its wide extent explains, in the opinion of Mott,
+the displacement of the visuo-sensory field from the outer aspect of the
+hemisphere in the lower monkeys to the median aspect in man. To this
+terminal field all the more interest attaches because it includes the
+angular gyrus, which authorities hold to be concerned with the visual
+memory of words. Study of diseased conditions of speech has shown that
+the power to understand _written_ words may be lost or severely impaired
+although the words may be perfectly distinct to the sight and although
+the power to understand _heard_ words remains good. This condition is
+asserted by many physicians to be referable to destruction of part of
+the angular gyrus. Close beneath the cortex of the angular gyrus runs a
+large tract of long fibres which pass from the visual cortex (see above)
+to the auditory cortex (see below) in the superior temporal gyrus and to
+the lower part of the frontal lobe. This lower part of the frontal lobe
+is believed--and has long been believed--to be concerned intimately with
+the production of the movements of speech. A difficulty besetting the
+investigation of the function of the angular gyrus is the fact that
+lesion of the cortex there is likely to implicate the underlying tract
+of fibres in its damage. It cannot be considered to have been as yet
+clearly ascertained whether the condition of want of recognition of seen
+words--"word-blindness"--is due to cortical injury apart from
+subcortical, to the angular gyrus itself apart from the underlying
+tract. Word-blindness seems, in the right-handed, to resemble the
+aphasia believed to be connected with the lower part of the frontal
+lobe, in that it ensues upon lesions of the left hemisphere, not of the
+right. In left-handed persons, on the contrary, it seems to attach to
+the right hemisphere.
+
+_Auditory Region of the Cortex._--Besides the two great organs of
+distance-receptors, namely, the nose and eye, whose cerebral apparatus
+for sensation has just been mentioned, those of a third great
+distance-receptor have to be considered. The agents of stimulation of
+the two former are respectively chemical (olfactory) and radiant
+(visual); the mode of stimulation of the third is mechanical, and the
+sensations obtained by it are termed auditory. Their cerebral
+localization is very imperfectly ascertained. Electric stimuli applied
+to a part of the uppermost temporal gyrus excites movements of the ears
+and eyes in the dog. Destruction of the same region when executed on
+both hemispheres is argued by several observers to impair the sense of
+hearing. To this region of cortex fibres have been traced from the lower
+centres connected with the nerve-fibres coming from the cochlea of the
+ear. From each cochlear nerve a path has been traced which passes to the
+_insulae_ and the above-mentioned _temporal_ region of cortex of both
+the cerebral hemispheres. The insula is a deeper-seated area of cortex
+adjoining the uppermost temporal convolution. To it Flechsig's
+chronological studies also impute a connexion with the nerves of the
+ear. Early myelinization of fibres, presence of ascending and descending
+"projection" tracts to and from lower centres outside the cortex,
+calibre of fibres, microscopic characters of its cortical cells, all
+those kinds of indirect items of evidence that obtain for the visual
+cortex likewise mark out this insular-temporal area as connected fairly
+directly with a special sense-organ, as in fact a sensory field of the
+cortex; and the suspicion is that it is auditory. Clinical observation
+supports the view in a striking way, but one requiring, in the opinion
+of some, further confirmation. It is widely believed that destruction of
+the upper and middle part of the uppermost temporal convolution produces
+"word-deafness," that is, an inability to recognize familiar words when
+heard, although the words are recognized when seen.
+
+More precise information regarding this auditory region of the cortex
+has recently been obtained by the experiments of Kalischer. These show
+that after removal of this region from both sides of the brain in the
+dog the animal shows great defect in answering to the call of its
+master. Whereas prior to the operation the animal will prick its ears
+and attend at once to the lightest call, it requires after the removal
+of the auditory regions great loudness and insistence of calling to make
+it attend and react as it did. This is the more striking in view of
+other experimental results obtained. Kalischer trained a number of his
+dogs not to take meat offered them except at the sound of a particular
+note given by an organ pipe or a harmonium. The dogs rapidly learned not
+to take the food on the sounding of notes of other pitch than the one
+taught them as the permissive signal. This reaction on the part of the
+animal was not impaired by the removal of the so-called auditory regions
+of the cortex. Kalischer suggests that this reaction taught by training
+is not destroyed by the operation which so greatly impairs the common
+reaction to the master's call, because the former is a simpler process
+more allied to reflex action. In it the attention of the dog is already
+fastened upon the object, namely the food, and the stimulus given by the
+note excites a reaction which simply allows the act of seizing the food
+to take place, or on the other hand stops it. In the case of answering
+the call of the master the stimulus has to excite attention, to produce
+perception of the locality whence it comes, and to invoke a complicated
+series of movements of response. He finds that destruction of the
+posterior colliculi of the mid-brain, which have long been known to be
+in some way connected with hearing, likewise destroys the response to
+the call of the master, but did not destroy the trick taught to his dogs
+of taking meat offered at the sound of a note of one particular pitch
+but not at notes of other pitch given by the same instrument.
+
+_Other Senses and Localization in the Cortex Cerebri._--Turning now to
+the connexion between the function of the cortex and the senses other
+than those of the great distance-receptors just dealt with, even less is
+known. Disturbance and impairment of skin sensations are observable both
+in experiments on the cerebrum of animals and in cases of cerebral
+disease in man. But the localization in the cortex of regions specially
+or mainly concerned with cutaneous sensation has not been made
+sufficiently clear to warrant statement here. Still less is there
+satisfactory knowledge regarding the existence of cortical areas
+concerned with sensations originated in the alimentary canal. The least
+equivocal of such evidence regards the sense of taste. There is some
+slight evidence of a connexion between this sense and a region of the
+hippocampal gyrus near to but behind that related to smell.
+
+As to the sensations excited by the numerous receptors which lie not in
+any of the surface membranes of the body but embedded in the masses of
+the organs and between them, the _proprioceptors_, buried in muscles,
+tendons and joints, there is little doubt that these sensations may be
+disturbed or impaired by injury of the _cortex cerebri_. They may
+probably also be excited by cortical stimulation. But evidence of
+localization of their seat in, and their details of connexion with, the
+cortex, is at present uncertain. Many authorities consider it probable
+that sensations of touch and the sensations initiated by the
+proprioceptors of muscles and joints (the organs of the so-called
+muscular sense) are specially related to the post-central gyrus and
+perhaps to the pre-central gyrus also. The clearest items on this point
+are perhaps the following.
+
+Besides the regions instanced above, in the limbic (olfactory),
+occipital (visual), and temporal (auditory) lobes, as exhibiting
+precocity of development, there is a region showing similar precocity in
+the fronto-parietal portion of the hemisphere. This is the region which
+in the Primates includes the large _central fissure_ (sometimes called
+the fissure of Rolando). To it fibres are traced which seem to continue
+a path of conduction that began with afferent tracts belonging to the
+spinal cord, and tracts which there is reason to think conduct impulses
+from the receptor-organs of skin and muscles. The part of the cortex
+immediately behind the _central fissure_ seems to be the main cortical
+goal for these upward-conducting paths. That _post-central_ strip of
+cortex would in this view bear to these paths a relation similar to that
+which the occipital and temporal regions bear to afferent tracts from
+the retina and the cochlea. There are observations which associate
+impaired tactual sense and impaired perception of posture and movement
+of a limb with injury of the _central region_ of the cortex. But there
+are a number also which show that the motor defect which is a
+well-ascertained result of injury of the _pre-central_ gyrus is
+sometimes unaccompanied by any obvious defect either of touch or of
+muscular sense. It seems then that the motor centres of this region are
+closely connected with the centres for cutaneous and muscular sense, yet
+are not so closely interwoven with them that mechanical damage inflicted
+on the one of necessity heavily damages the other as well. There is
+evidence that the sensory cortex in this region lies posterior to that
+which has been conveniently termed the "motor." These latter in the
+monkey and the man-like apes and man lie in front of the central
+fissure: the sensory lie probably behind it. A.W. Campbell has found
+changes in the cortex of the post-central convolution ensuing in the
+essentially sensory disease, _tabes dorsalis_, a disease in which
+degeneration of sensory nerve-fibres of the muscular sense and of the
+skin senses is prominent. He considers that in man and the man-like apes
+the part of the post-central gyrus which lies next to and enters into
+the _central fissure_ is concerned with simpler sensual recognitions,
+while the adjoining part of that convolution farther back is a "psychic
+region" concerned with more complex psychosis connected with the senses
+of skin and muscle. His subdivision of the post-central gyrus is based
+on histological differences which he discovers between its anterior and
+its posterior parts and on the above-described analogous differentiation
+of a "sensory" from a "psychic" part in the visual region of cortex.
+
+It will be noted that although certain regions of the cortex are found
+connected closely with certain of the main sense organs, there are
+important receptive organs which do not appear to have any special
+region of cortex assigned to their sensual products. Thus, there is the
+"vestibular labyrinth" of the ear. This great receptive organ, so
+closely connected in function with the movements and adjustment of the
+postures of the head and eyes, and indeed of the whole body, is
+prominent in the co-ordination necessary for the equilibrium of the
+body, an essential part of the fundamental acts of progression,
+standing, &c. Yet neither structural nor functional connexion with any
+special region of the cortex has been traced as yet for the labyrinthine
+receptors. Perceptions of the position of the head and of the body are
+of course part of our habitual and everyday experience. It may perhaps
+be that these perceptions are almost entirely obtained through sense
+organs which are not labyrinthine, but visual, muscular, tactual, and so
+on. The labyrinth may, though it controls and adjusts the muscular
+activities which maintain the balance of the body, operate reflexly
+without in its operation exciting of itself sensations. The results of
+the unconscious reflexes it initiated and guided would be perceptible
+through other organs of sense. But against this purely unconscious
+functioning of the labyrinth and its nervous apparatus stands the fact
+that galvanic stimulation of the labyrinth is accompanied by well-known
+distinctive sensations--including giddiness, &c. Moreover, the prominent
+factor in sea-sickness, a disorder richly suffused with sensations, is
+probably the labyrinth. Yet there is marked absence of evidence of any
+special and direct connexion between the _cortex cerebri_ and the
+labyrinth organs.
+
+Also there is curiously little evidence of connexion of the cortex with
+the nervous paths of conduction concerned with pain. As far as the
+present writer can find from reference to books and from the clinical
+experience of others, "pain" is unknown as an _aura_ in cortical
+epilepsy, or at most is of equivocal occurrence.
+
+The preceding brief exposition of some of the main features of the
+localization of function in the _cortex cerebri_, gradually deciphered
+by patient inquiry, shows that the scheme of partition of function so
+far perceptible does not follow the quaint lines of analysis of the
+phrenologists with their supposed mental entities, so-called
+"faculties." On the contrary it is based, as some of those who early
+favoured a differential arrangement of function in the cerebrum had
+surmised, on the _separateness of the incoming channels from peripheral
+organs of sense_. These organs fall into groups separate one from
+another not only by reason of their spatial differentiation at the
+surface and in the thickness of the body, but also because each group
+generates sensations which introspection tells us are of a species
+unbridgeably separate from those generated by the other groups. Between
+sensations of hearing and sensations of sight there is a dissimilarity
+across which no intermediate series of sensual phenomena extend. The two
+species of sensations are wholly disparate. Similarly there is a total
+and impassable gap between sensations of touch and sensations of sight
+and sound. In other words the sensations fall into groups which are
+wholly disparate and are hence termed species. But within each species
+there exist multifold varieties of the specific sensation, e.g.
+sensations of red, of yellow, &c. We should expect, therefore, that the
+conducting paths from the receptive organs which in their function as
+sense-organs yield wholly disparate sensations would in so far as
+subserving sensation diverge and pass to separate neural mechanisms.
+That these sense-organs should in fact be found to possess in the cortex
+of the cerebrum separate fields for their sensual nervous apparatus is,
+therefore, in harmony with what would be the _a priori_ supposition.
+
+But, as emphasized at the beginning of this article, the receptive
+organs belonging to the surfaces and the depths of the body and forming
+the starting-points for the whole system of the afferent nerves, have
+two functions more or less separate. One of these functions is to excite
+sensations and the other is to excite movements, by reflex action,
+especially in glands and muscles. In this latter function, namely the
+reflexifacient, all that the receptive organs effect is effected by
+means of the efferent nerves. They all have to use the efferent,
+especially the motor, nerves of the body. So rich is the connexion of
+the receptive organs with the efferent nerves that it is not improbable
+that, through the central nervous organ, each receptive organ is
+connected with every motor nerve of the whole nervous system,--the facts
+of strychnine poisoning show that if this is not literally true it is at
+least approximately so. Hence one of the goals to which each afferent
+fibre from a receptive organ leads is a number of motor nerves. Their
+conducting paths must, therefore, converge in passing to the
+starting-points of the motor nerves; because these latter are
+instruments common to the use of a number of different receptive organs
+in so far as they excite reflex actions. On the other hand those of
+their conducting paths which are concerned in the genesis of sensation,
+instead of converging, diverge, at least as far as the _cortex cerebri_,
+or if not divergent, remain separate. These considerations would make it
+appear likely that the conducting path from each receptive organ divides
+in the central nervous system into two main lines, one of which goes off
+to its own particular region of the _cortex cerebri_ whither run
+conductors only of similar sensual species to itself, while the other
+main line passes with many others to a great motor station where, as at
+a telephone exchange, coordinate use of the outgoing lines is assured to
+them all. Now there is in fact a portion of the cortex in mammals the
+functions of which are so pre-eminently motor, as judged by our present
+methods, that it is commonly designated the _motor cortex_ (see fig.
+24). This region of the cortex occupies in the Primates, including Man,
+the pre-central gyrus. Among the items of evidence which reveal its
+motor capabilities are the following.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of
+Foci in the Motor Field of Chimpanzee.]
+
+_The Precentral or Motor Region of the Cortex._--The application to it
+of electric currents excites movements in the skeletal muscles. The
+movements occur in the half of the body of the side crossed from that of
+the hemisphere excited. The "motor representation," as it is termed, is
+in the cortex better described as a representation of definite actions
+than of particular muscles. The actions "represented" in the top part of
+the gyrus, namely next the great longitudinal fissure, move the leg;
+those in the lowest part of the gyrus belong to the tongue and mouth.
+The topical distribution along the length of the gyrus may be described
+in a general way as following a sequence resembling that of the motor
+representation in the spinal cord, the top of the gyrus being taken as
+corresponding with the caudal end of the spinal cord. The sequence as
+the gyrus is followed downwards runs: perineum, foot, knee, hip,
+abdomen, chest, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand, eyelids and ear, nose,
+mouth and tongue. The nature of the movement is very fairly constant for
+separate points of this motor cortex as observed both in the same and in
+similar experiments. Thus flexion of the arm will be excitable from one
+set of points, and extension of the arm from another set of points;
+opening of the jaw from one set and closure from another, and so on.
+These various movements if excited strongly tend to have characters like
+those of the movements seen in an epileptic convulsion. Strong
+stimulation excites in fact a convulsion like that of epilepsy,
+beginning with the movement usual for the point stimulated and spreading
+so as to assume the proportions of a convulsion affecting the entire
+skeletal musculature of one half or even of the whole body. The
+resemblance to an epileptic seizure is the closer because the movement
+before it subsides becomes clonic (rhythmic) as in epilepsy. The
+determination of the exact spots of cortex in which are represented the
+various movements of the body has served a useful practical purpose in
+indicating the particular places in the cortex which are the seat of
+disease. These the physician can localize more exactly by reason of this
+knowledge. Hence the surgeon, if the nature of the disease is such as
+can be dealt with by surgical means, can without unnecessarily damaging
+the skull and brain, proceed directly to the point which is the seat of
+the mischief.
+
+The motor representation of certain parts of the body is much more
+liberal than is that of others. There is little correspondence between
+the mere mass of musculature involved and the area of the cortex devoted
+to its representation. Variety of movement rather than force or energy
+of movement seems to demand extent of cortex. The cortical area for the
+thumb is larger than those for the whole abdomen and chest combined. The
+cortical area for the tongue is larger than that for the neck. Different
+movements of one and the same part are very unequally represented in the
+cortex. Thus, flexion of the leg is more extensively represented than is
+extension, opening of the jaw has a much larger cortical area than has
+closure of the jaws. It is interesting that certain agents, for instance
+strychnine, and the poison of the bacilli which cause the disease known
+as tetanus or lock-jaw, upset this normal topography, and replace in the
+cortex flexion of the limb by extension of the limb, and opening of the
+jaw by closure of the jaw. There is, however, no evidence that they do
+this by changing in any way the cortical mechanisms themselves. It is
+more likely that their action is confined to the lower centres, bulbar
+and spinal, upon which the discharge excited from the cortex plays. The
+change thus induced in the movement excited by the cortex does, however,
+show that the point of cortex which causes for instance opening of the
+mouth is connected with the motor nerves to the closing muscles as well
+as with those of the opening muscles. This is an item of evidence that
+the "centres" of the cortex are connected with the motor nerves of
+antagonistic muscles in such a way that when the "centre" excites one
+set of the muscles to contract, it simultaneously under normal
+circumstances causes inhibition of the motor neurones of the opposed set
+of muscles (reciprocal innervation). In the great majority of movements
+excited from the motor cortex of a single hemisphere of the cerebrum,
+the movement evoked is confined to one side of the body, namely to that
+opposite to the hemisphere stimulated. There are, however, important
+exceptions to this. Thus, adduction of both vocal cords is excited from
+the cortex of either hemisphere. The movement of closure of the eyelids
+is usually bilateral, unless the stimulation be very weak; then the
+movement is of the eyelids of the opposite side only. The same holds
+true for the movements of the jaw. It, therefore, seems clear that with
+many movements which are usually bilaterally performed in ordinary life,
+such as opening of the jaw, blinking, &c., the symmetrical areas of the
+motor regions of both hemispheres are simultaneously in action.
+
+In regard to all these movements elicitable by artificial stimuli from
+the motor cortex it is obvious that were there clearer evidence that the
+pallial region from which they are elicitable is fairly directly
+connected with corticopetal paths subserving cutaneous sensation or
+"muscular sense," the movements might be regarded as falling into the
+category of higher reflexes connected with the organs of touch, muscular
+sense, &c., just as the movements of the eyeball excitable from the
+visual cortex may be regarded as higher reflexes connected with vision.
+The evidence of the connexion of the reactions of the motor cortex with
+cutaneous and muscular senses appears, however, scarcely sufficient to
+countenance at present this otherwise plausible view, which has on
+general grounds much to commend it.
+
+It is remarkable that movements of the eyeball itself, i.e. apart from
+movement of the lids, are not in the category of movements elicitable
+from the precentral gyrus, the "motor" cortex. They are found
+represented in a region farther forward, namely in front of the
+precentral gyrus altogether, and occupying a scattered set of points in
+the direction frontal from the areas for movements of arm and face. This
+frontal area yields on excitation conjugate movements of both eyeballs
+extremely like if not exactly similar to those yielded by excitation of
+the occipital (visual) region of the cortex. It is supposed by some that
+this frontal area yielding eye-movements has its function in this
+respect based upon afferent conductors from other parts of the eyeball
+than the retina, for instance upon kinaesthetic (Bastian) impressions or
+upon sensual impressions derived from the cornea and the coats of the
+eyeball including the ciliary and iris muscles. The ocular muscles are
+certainly a source of centripetal impulses, but their connexion with the
+cortex is not clear as to either their nature or their seat. The
+question seems for the present to allow no clearer answer. It is
+certain, however, that the frontal area of eye movements has
+corticofugal paths descending from it to the lower motor centres of the
+eyeballs quite independent of those descending from the occipital
+(visual) area of eye-movements. Further, it seems clear that in many
+animals there is another cortical region, a third region, the region
+which we saw above might be considered auditory, where movements of the
+eyeball similar to those elicitable in the occipital and frontal cortex
+can be provoked. A. Tschermak is inclined to give the eyeball movements
+of the frontal region the significance of reflex movements which carry
+the visual field in various directions in answer to demands made by
+sensory data derived from touch, &c., as for instance from the hand. The
+movements of the eyeballs elicitable from the occipital region of the
+cortex he regards as probably concerned with directing the gaze toward
+something seen, for instance, in the peripheral field of vision. The
+occipital movement would, therefore, be excited through the retina, and
+would result in bringing the yellow spot region of the retinae of both
+eyes to bear upon the object. This view has much to justify it. The
+movements of the eyeballs excited from the cortex of the auditory region
+would in a similar way be explicable as bringing the gaze to bear upon a
+direction in which a sound had been located, auditory initiation
+replacing the visual and tactual of the occipital and the frontal
+regions respectively.
+
+Turning from these still speculative matters to others less suggestive
+but of actual ascertainment, we find that the motor nature of the
+precentral cortex as ascertained by electric stimuli is further
+certified by the occurrence of disturbance and impairment of motor power
+and adjustment following destruction of that region of the cortex. The
+movements which such a part as a limb executes are of course manifold in
+purpose. The hind limb of a dog is used for standing, for stepping, for
+scratching, for squatting, and, where a dog, for instance, has been
+trained to stand or walk on its hind legs alone, for skilled acts
+requiring a special training for their acquisition. It is found that
+when the motor area of the brain has been destroyed, the limb is at
+first paralysed for all these movements, but after a time the limb
+recovers the ability to execute some of them, though not all. The
+scratching movement suffers little, and rapid improvement after cerebral
+injury soon effaces the impairment, at first somewhat pronounced, in the
+use of the limb for walking, running, &c., and ordinary movements of
+progression. Even when both hemispheres have been destroyed the dog can
+still stand and walk and run. Destruction of the motor region of the
+cortex renders the fore limbs of the dog unable to execute such skilled
+movements as the steadying of a bone for gnawing or the trained act of
+offering the paw in answer to the command of the master. Skilled acts of
+the limb, apart from conjoined movements in which it, together with all
+the other limbs, takes part, assume of course a larger share of the
+office of the limb in the Primates than in the dog; and this is
+especially true for the fore limb. It is when the fore-foot becomes a
+hand that opportunity is given for its more skilled individual use and
+for its training in movements as a tool, or for the handling of tools
+and weapons. It is these movements which suffer most heavily and for the
+longest period after injury of the motor region of the cortex. Hence the
+disablement ensuing upon injury to the cortex would be expected to be
+most apparent in the Primates; and it is so, and most of all in Man.
+Further, in Man there ensues a condition called "contracture," which is
+not so apparent or frequent a result in other animals,--indeed, does not
+occur at all in other animals except the monkey. In contracture the
+muscles of the paretic limb are not flaccid, as they are usually in
+paralysis, but they are tense and the limb is more or less rigidly fixed
+by them in a certain position, usually one of flexion at elbow and
+wrist. This condition does not occur at first, but gradually supervenes
+in the course of a number of weeks. In Man the destruction of the motor
+area of the cortex cripples the limb even for the part it should play in
+the combined limb movements of walking, &c., and cripples it to an
+extent markedly contrasting with the slight disturbances seen in the
+lower mammals, e.g. the dog.
+
+As regards the recovery of motor power after lesions of the motor
+cortex, two processes seem at work which are termed respectively
+_restitution_ and _compensation_. By the former is understood the
+recovery obtained when a part of a "centre" is destroyed, and the rest
+of the centre, although thrown out of function at first, recovers and
+supplements the deficiency later. An example of restitution would be the
+recovery from temporary hemianopia caused by a small injury in one
+occipital lobe. By compensation is understood the improvement of an
+impaired nervous function, traceable to other centres different from
+those destroyed supplying means to compass the reaction originally
+dependent on the centres subsequently destroyed. Instances of such
+compensation are the recovery of taxis for equilibrium subsequent to
+destruction of the labyrinth of the ear, where the recovery is traceable
+to assistance obtained through the eye. It will be noted that these
+instances of recovery by restitution and by compensation respectively
+are taken, from cases of injury inflicted on receptive rather than on
+motor centres. It is doubtful how far they really apply to the undoubted
+improvement that does within certain limits progress and succeed in
+partially effacing the paresis immediately consequent on lesions of the
+motor area. It has to be remembered that in all cases of traumatic
+injury to the nervous system, especially where the trauma implicates the
+central nervous organ, the first effects and impairment of function
+resulting are due to a mixed cause, namely on the one hand the
+mechanical rupture of conducting paths actually broken by solution of
+their continuity, and on the other hand the temporary interruption of
+conducting paths by "shock." Shock effects are not permanent: they pass
+off. They are supposed to be due to a change at the synapses connecting
+neurone with neurone in the grey matter. They amount in effect to a
+long-lasting and gradually subsiding inhibition.
+
+  For diseases of the brain see NEUROPATHOLOGY, INSANITY, SKULL
+  (_Surgery_), &c.     (C. S. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The literature of the pineal region is enormous. Studnicka (in
+    _Oppels Vergleichende mikrosk. Anat._ Teile 4-5, 1904, 1905) gives
+    285 references. The present conception of the generalized arrangement
+    is: ([alpha]) A single glandular median organ from the fore-brain
+    called the paraphysis. ([beta]) A pouch of the ependymal roof of the
+    ventricle called the dorsal sac. ([gamma]) A right and left
+    epiphysis, one of which may be wholly or partially suppressed. These
+    may change their position to anterior and posterior in some animals.
+
+
+
+
+BRAINERD, DAVID (1718-1747), American missionary among the Indians, was
+born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the 20th of April 1718. He was orphaned
+at fourteen, and studied for nearly three years (1739-1742) at Yale. He
+then prepared for the ministry, being licensed to preach in 1742, and
+early in 1743 decided to devote himself to missionary work among the
+Indians. Supported by the Scottish "Society for Promoting Christian
+Knowledge," he worked first at Kaunaumeek, an Indian settlement about 20
+m. from Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and subsequently, until his death,
+among the Delaware Indians in Pennsylvania (near Easton) and New Jersey
+(near Cranbury). His heroic and self-denying labours, both for the
+spiritual and for the temporal welfare of the Indians, wore out a
+naturally feeble constitution, and on the 19th of October 1747 he died
+at the house of his friend, Jonathan Edwards, in Northampton,
+Massachusetts.
+
+  His _Journal_ was published in two parts in 1746 by the Scottish
+  Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; and in 1749, at Boston,
+  Jonathan Edwards published _An Account of the Life of the Late Rev.
+  David Brainerd, chiefly taken from his own Diary and other Private
+  Writings_, which has become a missionary classic. A new edition, with
+  the _Journal_ and Brainerd's letters embodied, was published by Sereno
+  E. Dwight at New Haven in 1822; and in 1884 was published what is
+  substantially another edition, _The Memoirs of David Brainerd_, edited
+  by James M. Sherwood.
+
+
+
+
+BRAINERD, a city and the county-seat of Crow Wing county, Minnesota,
+U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 127 m. N.W. of
+Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 5703; (1900) 7524, of whom 2193 were
+foreign-born; (1905) 8133; (1910) 8526. It is served by the Minnesota &
+International and the Northern Pacific railways. The latter maintains
+here large car and repair shops, and a sanatorium for its employees.
+There are also the Sisters of St Joseph hospital, a county court house,
+a public library and a Y.M.C.A. building. A dam across the Mississippi
+provides water power (about 60,000 H.P.) which is utilized extensively
+for manufacturing purposes. Lumbering is an important industry, and
+there are saw mills and planing mills, and an extensive creosote plant
+for treating railway ties and timber. There are also flour mills, paper
+and pulp mills, cigar factories, a brewery, a large foundry and a grain
+elevator. In 1906 large quantities of iron ore were discovered in the
+vicinity, the new range, the Cuyuna, running through the city from
+north-east to south-west. Brainerd, named in honour of David Brainerd,
+was settled in 1870, and chartered as a city in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BRAINTREE, a market town in the Maldon parliamentary division of Essex,
+England; 45 m. N.E. of London by a branch line from Witham of the Great
+Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district, 5330. The parish church of St
+Michael is a fine edifice of Early English work with later additions. A
+corn exchange, mechanics' institute and public hall may also be
+mentioned. The bishops of London had formerly a palace in the town, but
+there are no remains of the building. The manufactures of silk and crape
+have superseded that of woollen cloth, which was introduced by the
+Flemings who fled to England to escape the persecution of the duke of
+Alva. Matting and brushes are also made. On the north lies the large
+village of BOCKING, with the Perpendicular parish church of St Mary,
+similar industries, and a population of 3347.
+
+
+
+
+BRAINTREE, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the
+Monatiquot river about 10 m. S. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 4848; (1900)
+598l, including 1250 foreign-born; (1905, state census) 6879; (1910)
+8066. The New York, New Haven & Hartford railway crosses the town and
+has stations at its villages of Braintree, South Braintree and East
+Braintree, which are also served by suburban electric railways. In South
+Braintree are the Thayer Academy (co-educational; opened 1877) and the
+Thayer public library, both founded by and named in honour of General
+Sylvanus Thayer (1785-1872), a well-known military engineer born in
+Braintree, who was superintendent of the United States Military Academy
+in 1817-1833 and has been called the "father of West Point." There are
+large shoe factories and other manufactories. Bog iron was early found
+in Braintree, and iron-works, among the first in America, were
+established here in 1644. Braintree was first incorporated in 1640 from
+land belonging to Boston and called Mount Wollaston, and was named from
+the town in England. At Merry Mount, in that part of Braintree which is
+now Quincy, a settlement was established by Thomas Morton in 1625, but
+the gay life of the settlers and their selling rum and firearms to the
+Indians greatly offended the Pilgrims of Plymouth, who in 1627 arrested
+Morton; soon afterward Governor John Endecott of Massachusetts Bay
+visited Merry Mount, rebuked the inhabitants and cut down their Maypole.
+Later the place was abandoned, and in 1634 a Puritan settlement was made
+here. In 1708 the town was divided into the North Precinct and the South
+Precinct, and it was in the former, now Quincy, that John Adams, John
+Hancock and John Quincy Adams were born. Quincy was separated from
+Braintree in 1792 (there were further additions to Quincy from Braintree
+in 1856), and Randolph in 1793.
+
+  See D.M. Wilson, _Quincy, Old Braintree and Merry Mount_ (Boston,
+  1906); C.F. Adams, Jr., _Three Episodes of Massachusetts History_
+  (Boston, 1892 and 1896); W.S. Pattee, _History of Old Braintree and
+  Quincy_ (Quincy, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+BRAKE, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Oldenburg, on the left
+bank of the Weser, about halfway between Bremen and the mouth of the
+river. Pop. 5000. It was for centuries the port of Bremen; and though,
+since the founding of Bremerhaven, it no longer possesses a monopoly of
+the river traffic as before, it still continues to flourish. Large docks
+have been constructed, and the place has a considerable import trade in
+English coal. Shipbuilding and weaving are carried on to some extent.
+
+Brake in Oldenburg must be distinguished from the village of the same
+name in the principality of Lippe, known as Brake bei Limgo, which gave
+its name to the cadet line of the counts of Lippe-Brake (1621-1709).
+
+
+
+
+BRAKE. (1) A term for rough-tangled undergrowth, connected, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, with "break," to separate. The
+"brake-fern" (_Pteris aquilina_) is the common "bracken," and is a
+shortened form of that northern Eng. word, derived from a Scand. word
+for "fern" (cf. Swed. _bräken_), though often confused with "brake,"
+undergrowth. (2) A term applied to many implements and mechanical and
+other appliances, often spelled "break." Here there are probably several
+words, difficult to separate in origin, connected either with "break,"
+to separate, and its derived meanings, or with the Fr. _braquer_
+(appearing in such expressions as _braquer un canon_, to turn or point a
+gun), from O. Fr. _brac_, modern _bras_, an arm, Lat. _bracchium_. The
+word is thus used of a toothed instrument for separating the fibre of
+flax and hemp; of the "break-rolls" employed in flour manufacture; of a
+heavy wheeled vehicle used for "breaking in" horses, and hence of a
+large carriage of the wagonette type; of an arm or lever, and so of the
+winch of a crossbow and of a pump handle, cf. "brake-pump"; of a curb or
+bridle for a horse; and of a mechanical appliance for checking the speed
+of moving vehicles, &c. It is noteworthy that the two last meanings are
+also possessed by the Fr. _frein_ and the Ger. _Bremse_.
+
+Brakes, in engineering, are instruments by means of which mechanical
+energy may be expended in overcoming friction. They are used for two
+main classes of purpose: (1) to limit or decrease the velocity of a
+moving body, or to bring it completely to rest; and (2) to measure
+directly the amount of frictional resistance between two bodies, or
+indirectly the amount of energy given out by a body or bodies in motion.
+Machines in which brakes are employed for purposes of the second class
+are commonly known as dynamometers (q.v.). The other class is
+exemplified in the brakes used on wheeled vehicles and on cranes, lifts,
+&c. Here a body, or system of bodies, originally at rest, has been set
+in motion and has received acceleration up to a certain velocity, the
+work which has been done in that acceleration being stored up as "actual
+energy" in the body itself. Before the body can be brought to rest it
+must part with this energy, expending it in overcoming some external
+resistance. If the energy be great in proportion to the usual resistance
+tending to stop the body, the motion will continue for a long time, or
+through a long distance, before the energy has been completely expended
+and the body brought to rest. But in certain cases considerations of
+safety or convenience require that this time or distance be greatly
+shortened, and this is done by artificially increasing the external
+resistance for the time being, by means of a brake.
+
+A simple method of obtaining this increased resistance is by pressing a
+block or shoe of metal or wood against the rim of a moving wheel, or by
+tightening a flexible strap or band on a rotating pulley or drum. In
+wheeled road vehicles, a wheel may be prevented from rotating by a chain
+passed through its spokes and attached to the body of the vehicle, when
+the resistance is increased by the substitution of a rubbing for a
+rolling action; or the same effect may be produced by fixing a slipper
+or skid under the wheel. Other forms of brake depend, not on the
+friction between two solid bodies, but on the frictional resistance of a
+fluid, as in "fan" and "pump" brakes. Thus the motion of revolving
+blades may be opposed by the resistance of the air or of a liquid in
+which they are made to work, or the motion of a plunger fitting tightly
+in a cylinder filled with a fluid may be checked by the fluid being
+prevented from escape except through a narrow orifice. The fly used to
+regulate the speed of the striking train in a clock is an example of a
+fan brake, while a pump brake is utilized for controlling the recoil of
+guns and in the hydraulic buffers sometimes fitted at terminal railway
+stations to stop trains that enter at excessive speed. On electric
+tramcars a braking effect is sometimes obtained by arranging the
+connexions of the motors so that they act as generators driven by the
+moving car. In this way a counter-torque is exerted on the axles. The
+current produced is expended by some means, as by being made to operate
+some frictional braking device, or to magnetize iron shoes carried on
+the car just over, but clear of, the running rails, to which they are
+then magnetically attracted (see TRACTION).
+
+The simplest way of applying a brake is by muscular force, exerted
+through a hand or foot lever or through a screw, by which the brake
+block is pressed against the rim of the wheel or the band brake
+tightened on its drum. This method is sufficient in the case of most
+road vehicles, and is largely used on railway vehicles. But the power
+thus available is limited, and becomes inadequate for heavy vehicles
+moving at high speeds. Moreover, on a train consisting of a number of
+vehicles, the hand brakes on each of which are independent of all
+others, either a brakesman must be carried on each, or a number of the
+brakes must be left unused, with consequent loss of stopping power;
+while even if there is a brakesman on every vehicle it is impossible to
+secure that all the brakes throughout the train are applied with the
+promptness that is necessary in case of emergency.
+
+Considerations of this sort led to the development of power brakes for
+railway trains. Of these there are five main classes:--
+
+
+  Railway power brakes.
+
+(1) Mechanical brakes, worked by springs, friction wheels on the axle,
+chains wound on drums, or other mechanical devices, or by the force
+produced when, by reason of a sudden checking of the speed of the
+locomotive, the momentum of the cars causes pressure on the draw-bars or
+buffing devices. (2) Hydraulic brakes, worked by means of water forced
+through pipes into proper mechanism for transmitting its force to the
+brake-shoes. (3) Electric brakes. (4) Air and vacuum brakes, worked by
+compressed air or by air at atmospheric pressure operating on a vacuum.
+(5) Brakes worked by steam or water from the boiler of the engine,
+operating by means of a cylinder; the use of these is generally limited
+to the locomotive. Of this kind is the counter-pressure or water brake
+of L. le Chatelier. If the valve gear of a locomotive in motion be
+reversed and the steam regulator be left open, the cylinders act as
+compressors, pumping air from the exhaust pipe into the boiler against
+the steam pressure. A retarding effect is thus exercised, but at the
+cost of certain inconveniences due to the passage of hot air and cinders
+from the smoke box through the cylinders. To remedy these, le Chatelier
+arranged that a jet of hot water from the boiler should be delivered
+into the exhaust pipe, so that steam and not the hot flue gases should
+be pumped back.
+
+Power brakes may be either continuous or independent--continuous if
+connected throughout the train and with the locomotive by pipes, wires,
+&c., as the compressed air, vacuum and electric brakes; independent if
+not so connected, as the buffer-brakes and hand-brakes. Continuous
+brakes may be divided into two other great classes--automatic and
+non-automatic. The former are so arranged that they are applied
+automatically on all the coaches of the train if any important part of
+the apparatus is broken, or the couplings between cars are ruptured; in
+an emergency they can be put on by the guard, or (in some cases) by a
+passenger. Non-automatic brakes can be applied only by the person
+(usually the engine-driver) to whom the management of them is given;
+they may become inoperative on all the coaches, and always on those
+which have become detached, if a coupling or other important and
+generally essential part is broken. Many mechanical and several
+hydraulic and electrical continuous brakes have been invented and tried;
+but experience has shown them so inadequate in practice that they have
+all practically disappeared, leaving the field to the air and the vacuum
+brakes. At first these were non-automatic, but in 1872 the automatic
+air-brake was invented by George Westinghouse, and the automatic
+vacuum-brake was developed a few years later.
+
+Those respects in which non-automatic brakes are inadequate will be
+understood from the following summary of the requirements most important
+in a train-braking apparatus: (1) It must be capable of application to
+every wheel throughout the train. (2) It must be so prompt in action
+that the shortest possible time shall elapse between its first
+application and the moment when the full power can be exerted throughout
+the train. (3) It must be capable of being applied by the engine-driver
+or by any of the officials in charge of the train, either in concert or
+independently. (4) The motion of the train must be arrested in the
+shortest possible distance. (5) The failure of a vital part must declare
+itself by causing the brake to be applied and to remain applied until
+the cause of failure is removed. (6) The breaking of the train in two or
+more parts must cause immediate automatic application of the brakes on
+all the coaches. (7) When used in ordinary service stops it must be
+capable of gradual and uniform application (followed, if necessary, by a
+full emergency application at any part of the service application) and
+of prompt release under all conditions of application. (8) It must be
+simple in operation and construction, not liable to derangement, and
+inexpensive in maintenance.
+
+
+    Simple air-brake.
+
+  The Westinghouse non-automatic or "straight" air-brake, patented in
+  1869, consists in its simplest form of a direct-acting, steam-driven
+  air-pump, carried on the locomotive, which forces compressed air into
+  a reservoir, usually placed under the foot-plate of the locomotive.
+  From this reservoir a pipe is led through the engine cab, where it is
+  fitted with a three-way cock, to the rear of the locomotive tender,
+  where it terminates in a flexible hose, on the end of which is a
+  coupling. The coaches are furnished with a similar pipe, having hose
+  and coupling at each end, which communicates with one end of a
+  cylinder containing a piston, to the rod of which the brake-rods and
+  levers are connected. The application of the brakes is effected by the
+  engine-driver turning the three-way cock, so that compressed air flows
+  through the pipe and, acting against one side of the brake-cylinder
+  piston, applies the brake-shoes to the wheels by the movement of this
+  piston and the rods and levers connected to it. To release the brakes
+  the three-way cock is turned to cut off communication between the main
+  reservoir and the train-pipe, and to open a port permitting the escape
+  of the compressed air in the train-pipe and brake-cylinders. This
+  brake was soon found defective and inadequate in many ways. An
+  appreciable time was required for the air to flow through the pipes
+  from the locomotive to the car-cylinders, and this time increased
+  quickly with the length of the trains. Still more objectionable,
+  however, was the fact that on detached coaches the air-brakes could
+  not be applied, the result being sometimes serious collisions between
+  the front and rear portions of the train.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Westinghouse Air-Brake.
+
+  Section through Triple-Valve and Brake-Cylinder.]
+
+
+    Automatic air-brake.
+
+  In the Westinghouse "ordinary" automatic air-brake a main air
+  reservoir on the engine is kept charged with compressed air at 80 lb.
+  per sq. in. by means of the steam-pump, which may be controlled by an
+  automatic governor. On electric railways a pump, driven by an electric
+  motor, is generally employed; but occasionally, on trains which run
+  short distances, no pump is carried, the main reservoir being charged
+  at the terminal points with sufficient compressed air for the journey.
+  Conveniently placed to the driver's hand is the driver's valve, by
+  means of which he controls the flow of air from the main reservoir to
+  the train-pipe, or from the train-pipe to the atmosphere. A
+  reducing-valve is attached to the driver's valve, and in the normal or
+  running position of the latter reduces the pressure of the air flowing
+  from the main reservoir to the train-pipe by 10 or 15 lb. per sq. in.
+  From the engine a train-pipe runs the whole length of the train, being
+  rendered continuous between each vehicle and between the engine and
+  the rest of the train by flexible hose couplings. Each vehicle is
+  provided with a brake-cylinder H (fig. 1), containing a piston, the
+  movement of which applies the brake blocks to the wheels, an
+  "auxiliary air-reservoir" G, and an automatic "triple-valve" F. The
+  auxiliary reservoir receives compressed air from the train-pipe and
+  stores it for use in the brake-cylinder of its own vehicle, and both
+  the auxiliary reservoir and the triple-valve are connected directly or
+  indirectly with the train-pipe through the pipe E. The automatic
+  action of the brake is due to the construction of the triple-valve,
+  the principal parts of which are a piston and slide-valve, so arranged
+  that the air in the auxiliary reservoir acts at all times on the side
+  of the piston to which the slide-valve is attached, while the air in
+  the train-pipe exerts its pressure on the opposite side. So long as
+  the brakes are not in operation, the pressures in the train-pipe,
+  triple-valve and auxiliary reservoir are all equal, and there is no
+  compressed air in the brake-cylinder. But when, in order to apply the
+  brake, the driver discharges air from the train-pipe, this
+  equilibrium is destroyed, and the greater pressure in the auxiliary
+  reservoir forces the triple-valve to a position which allows air from
+  the auxiliary reservoir to pass directly into the brake-cylinder. This
+  air forces out the piston of the brake-cylinder and applies the
+  brakes, connexion being made with the brake-rigging at R. The purpose
+  of the small groove n which establishes communication between the two
+  sides of the piston when the brakes are off, is to prevent their
+  unintended application through slight leakage from the train-pipe. To
+  release the brakes, the driver, by moving the handle of his valve to
+  the release position, admits air from the main reservoir to the
+  train-pipe, the pressure in which thus becomes greater than that in
+  the auxiliary reservoir; the piston and slide-valve of the
+  triple-valve are thereby forced back to their normal position, the
+  compressed air in the brake-cylinder is discharged, and the piston is
+  brought back by the coiled spring, thus releasing the brakes. At the
+  same time the auxiliary reservoir is recharged.
+
+
+    Quick-acting air-brake.
+
+  With this "ordinary" brake, since an appreciable time is required for
+  the reduction of pressure to travel along the train-pipe from the
+  engine, the brakes are applied sensibly sooner at the front than at
+  the end of the train, and with long trains this difference in the time
+  of application becomes a matter of importance. The "quick-acting"
+  brake was introduced to remedy this defect. For it the triple valve is
+  provided with a supplementary mechanism, which, when the air pressure
+  in the train-pipe is suddenly or violently reduced, opens a passage
+  whereby air from the train-pipe is permitted to enter the
+  brake-cylinder directly. The result is twofold: not only is the
+  pressure from the auxiliary reservoir acting in the brake-cylinder
+  reinforced by the pressure in the train-pipe, but the pressure in the
+  train-pipe is reduced locally in every vehicle in extremely rapid
+  succession instead of at the engine only, and in consequence all the
+  brakes are applied almost simultaneously throughout the train. The
+  same effect is produced should the train break in two, or a hose or
+  any part of the train-pipe burst; but during ordinary or "service"
+  stops the triple-valve acts exactly as in the ordinary brake, the
+  quick-acting portion, that is, the vertical piston and valve seen in
+  fig. 1, not coming into operation. When the handle Z is turned to the
+  position X the quick-acting mechanism is rendered inoperative, and
+  when it is at Y the brake on the vehicle concerned is wholly cut out
+  of action.
+
+  A further improvement introduced in the Westinghouse brake in 1906 was
+  designed to give quick action for service as well as emergency stops.
+  In this the triple-valve is substantially the same as in the ordinary
+  brake. The additional mechanism of the quick-acting portion is
+  dispensed with, but instead, a small chamber, normally containing air
+  at atmospheric pressure, is provided on each vehicle, and is so
+  arranged that it is put into communication with the train-pipe by the
+  first movement of the triple-valve. As soon, therefore, as the driver,
+  by lowering the pressure in the train-pipe, causes the triple-valve in
+  the foremost vehicle of the train to operate, a certain quantity of
+  air rushes out of the train-pipe into the small chamber; a further
+  local reduction in the pressure of the train-pipe in that vehicle is
+  thereby effected, and this almost instantaneously actuates the
+  triple-valve of the succeeding vehicle, and so on throughout the
+  train. In this way, on a train 1800 ft. long, consisting of sixty
+  30-ft. vehicles, the brake-blocks may be applied, with equal force, on
+  the last vehicle about 2½ seconds later than on the first.
+
+
+    High-speed air-brake.
+
+  Brake-blocks can be applied, without skidding the wheels, with greater
+  pressure at high speeds than at low. Advantage is taken of this fact
+  in the design of the Westinghouse "high-speed" brake, invented in
+  1894, which consists of attachments enabling the pressure in the
+  train-pipe and reservoirs to be increased at the will of the driver.
+  The increased pressure acting in the brake-cylinder increases in the
+  same proportion the pressure of the brake-shoes against the wheels.
+  Attached to the brake cylinder is a valve for automatically reducing
+  the pressure therein proportionately to the reduction in speed, until
+  the maximum pressure under which the brakes are operated in making
+  ordinary stops is reached, when this valve closes and the maximum safe
+  pressure for operating the brakes at ordinary speeds is retained until
+  a stop is made.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2--Automatic Vacuum-Brake, showing its general
+  arrangement.]
+
+
+    Automatic Vacuum-Brake.
+
+  In the automatic vacuum-brake, the exhausting apparatus generally
+  consists of a combined large and small ejector (a form of jet-pump)
+  worked by steam and under the control of the driver, though sometimes
+  a mechanical air-pump, driven from the crosshead of the locomotive, is
+  substituted for the small ejector. These ejectors, of which the small
+  one is at work continuously while the large one is only employed when
+  it is necessary to create vacuum quickly, e.g. to take off the brakes
+  after a short stop, produce in the train-pipe a vacuum equal to about
+  20 in. of mercury, or in other words reduce the pressure within it to
+  about one-third of an atmosphere. The train-pipe extends the whole
+  length of the train and communicates under each vehicle with a
+  cylinder, to the piston of which, by suitable rods and levers, the
+  brake-shoes are connected. The communication between the train-pipe
+  and the cylinder is controlled by a ball-valve, one form of which is
+  shown in fig. 2. The release-valve is for the purpose of withdrawing
+  the ball from its seat when it is necessary to take off the brakes by
+  hand; it is made air-tight by a small diaphragm, the pressure of
+  which, when there is vacuum in the pipe, pulls in the spindle and
+  allows the ball to fall freely into its seat. When air is exhausted
+  through the train-pipe it travels out from below the piston direct,
+  and from above it past the ball, which is thus forced off its seat, to
+  roll back again when the exhaustion is complete. In this state of
+  affairs the piston is held in equilibrium and the brake-blocks are
+  free of the wheels. To apply them, air is admitted to the train-pipe,
+  either purposely by the guard or driver, or accidentally by the
+  rupture of the train-pipe or coupling-hose between the vehicles. The
+  air passes to the lower side of the piston, but is prevented from
+  gaining access to the upper side by the ball-valve which blocks the
+  passage; hence the pressure becomes different on the two sides of the
+  piston, which in consequence is forced upwards and thus applies the
+  brakes. They are released by the re-establishment of equilibrium (by
+  the use of the large ejector if necessary); when this is done the
+  piston falls and the brakes drop off. The general arrangement of the
+  apparatus is shown in fig. 2. To render the application of the brakes
+  nearly simultaneous throughout a long train, the valve in the guard's
+  van is arranged to open automatically when the driver suddenly lets in
+  air to the train-pipe. This valve has a small hole through its stem,
+  and is secured at the top by a diaphragm to a small dome-like chamber,
+  which is exhausted when a vacuum is created in the train-pipe. A
+  gradual application destroys the vacuum in the chamber as quickly as
+  in the pipe and the diaphragm remains unmoved; but with a sudden one
+  the vacuum below the valve is destroyed more quickly, and with the
+  difference of pressure the diaphragm lifts the valve and admits air. A
+  rapid-acting valve (fig. 3) is sometimes interposed between the
+  train-pipe and the cylinder on each vehicle. In the normal or running
+  position, a vacuum is maintained below the valve A and above the
+  diaphragm B, while the chamber below B and above A is at atmospheric
+  pressure. For an emergency application of the brake, air is suddenly
+  admitted to the train-pipe and thus to the lower side of A, and the
+  pressure acting on the under side of B is sufficient to cause it to
+  lift the valve A, and to admit air from the atmosphere, both to the
+  brake-cylinder and the train-pipe, through the clappet-valve D, which
+  also rises because of the difference of pressure on its two sides. In
+  a graduated application, neither D nor A rises from its seat, but air
+  from the train-pipe finds access to the brake-cylinder by passing
+  around the peg C, which is so proportioned as to allow the necessary
+  amount of air to enter the brake-cylinder, and so obtain simultaneous
+  action of the brake throughout the train. When the handle E is turned
+  so as to prevent the clappet D from rising, the rapid action is cut
+  out and the brake acts as an ordinary vacuum automatic brake. A
+  modification of the device for obtaining accelerated action, described
+  above in connexion with the Westinghouse brake, is also applicable.
+  Accelerating chambers, again containing air at atmospheric pressure,
+  are provided on each vehicle and are connected with the train-pipe by
+  valves which open as the vacuum in the latter begins to decrease with
+  the operation of the driver's valve. The air thus admitted into the
+  train-pipe effects a still further local reduction of the vacuum,
+  which is sufficient to actuate the accelerating valve of each next
+  succeeding vehicle and is thus rapidly propagated throughout the
+  train.
+
+
+    Brake trials.
+
+  Famous tests of railway brakes were those made by Sir Douglas Galton
+  and Mr George Westinghouse on the London, Brighton and South Coast
+  railway, in England, in 1878, and by a committee of the Master Car
+  Builders' Association, near Burlington, Iowa, in 1886 and 1887. The
+  object of the former series (for accounts of which see _Proc. Inst.
+  Mech. Eng._, 1878, 1879) was to determine the co-efficient of friction
+  between the brake-shoe and the wheel, and between the wheel and rail
+  at different velocities when the wheels were revolving and when
+  skidded, i.e. stopped in their rotation and caused to slide. These
+  experiments were the first of their kind ever undertaken, and for many
+  years their results furnished most of the trustworthy data obtainable
+  on the friction of motion. It was found that the co-efficient of
+  friction between cast-iron shoes and steel-tired wheels increased as
+  the speed of the train decreased, varying from 0.111 at 55 m. an hour
+  to 0.33 when the train was just moving. It also decreased with the
+  time during which the brakes were applied; thus at 20 m. an hour the
+  co-efficient was at the beginning 0.182, after ten seconds 0.133,
+  after twenty seconds 0.099. Generally speaking, especially at moderate
+  speeds, the decrease in the co-efficient of friction due to time is
+  less than the increase due to decrease of speed, although when the
+  time is long the reverse may be true. When the wheels are skidded the
+  retardation of the train is always reduced; therefore, for the
+  greatest braking effect, the pressures on the brake-shoes should never
+  be sufficient to cause the wheels to slide on the rails. The
+  Burlington brake tests were undertaken to determine the practicability
+  of using power brakes on long and heavy freight trains. In the 1886
+  tests there were five competitors--three buffer-brakes, one
+  compressed-air brake, and one vacuum-brake. The tests comprised stops
+  with trains of twenty-five and fifty vehicles, at 20 and 40 m. an
+  hour, on the level and on gradients of 1 in 100. They demonstrated
+  that the buffer-brakes were inadequate for long trains, and that
+  considerable improvements in the continuous brakes, both
+  compressed-air and vacuum, would be needed to make them act quickly
+  enough to avoid excessive shocks in the rear vehicles. In 1887 the
+  trials of the year before were repeated by the same committee, and at
+  the same place. Trains of fifty vehicles, about 2000 ft. long and
+  fitted with each brake, were again provided, and there were again five
+  competitors, but they all entered continuous brakes--three
+  compressed-air brakes, one vacuum and one electric. The results of the
+  first day's test of the train equipped with Westinghouse brakes are
+  shown in Table I., the distances in which are the feet run by the
+  train after the brakes were set, and the times the seconds that
+  elapsed from the application of the brakes to full stop.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3--Rapid-acting Vacuum-Brake Valve.]
+
+
+  TABLE I.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1887--Automatic
+  Air-Brakes._
+
+    +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+
+    | Speed in  | Distance | Time in  | Equivalent Distance |
+    | Miles per | in Feet. | Seconds. |  at 20 m. and 40 m. |
+    |   Hour.   |          |          |                     |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |    19½    |   186    |     9¾   |   196    |    ··    |
+    |    19¼    |   215    |    11    |   233    |    ··    |
+    |    36½    |   588    |    17    |   ··     |    693   |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  The remarkable shortness of these stops is the more evident when they
+  are compared with the best results obtained in 1886, as shown in Table
+  II.
+
+
+  TABLE II.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1886--Automatic
+  Air-Brakes._
+
+    +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+
+    | Speed in  | Distance | Time in  | Equivalent Distance |
+    |   Miles.  | in Feet. | Seconds. |  at 20 m. and 40 m. |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |   23.5    |   424    |    17½   |   307    |    ··    |
+    |   20.3    |   354    |    16    |   340    |    ··    |
+    |   40      |   922    |    22½   |   ··     |    922   |
+    |   40      |   927    |    22¾   |   ··     |    927   |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  The time that elapsed between the application of the brakes on the
+  engine and on the fiftieth vehicle was almost twice as great in 1886
+  as in 1887, being in the latter tests only five to six seconds, and in
+  1887 the stops were made in less than two-thirds the distance required
+  in 1886. Still, violent shocks were caused by the rear vehicles
+  running against those in front, before the brakes on the former were
+  applied with sufficient force to hold them, and these shocks were so
+  severe as to make the use of the brakes in practice impossible on long
+  trains. When the triple-valves were actuated electrically, however,
+  the stops were still further improved, as shown in Table III.
+
+
+  Table III.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars--Electric
+  Application of Air-Brakes._
+
+    +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+
+    | Speed in  | Distance | Time in  | Equivalent Distance |
+    |   Miles.  | in Feet. | Seconds. |  at 20 m. and 40 m. |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |    21½    |   160    |     7    |   139    |    ··    |
+    |    23     |   183    |     8    |   138    |    ··    |
+    |    38     |   475    |    14½   |   ··     |    519   |
+    |    36½    |   460    |    14    |   ··     |    545   |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  Although the same levers, shoes, rods and other connexions were used,
+  there were no shocks in the fiftieth car of the train on any stop,
+  whether on the level or on a gradient. The committee in charge
+  reported that the best type of brake for long freight trains was one
+  operated by air, in which the valves were actuated by electricity, but
+  they expressed doubt of the practicability of using electricity on
+  freight trains. The Westinghouse Company then proceeded to quicken the
+  action of the triple-valve, operated by air only, so that stops with
+  fifty-car trains could be made without shock, and without electrically
+  operated valves; and they were so successful in this respect that,
+  towards the end of the same year, 1887, with a train of fifty
+  vehicles, stops were made without shock, fully equalling in quickness
+  and shortness of distance run any that had been made at the trials by
+  the electrically operated brakes.
+
+  In 1889 some further tests were made by Sir Douglas Galton with the
+  automatic vacuum-brake, on a practically level portion of the
+  Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (now the Great Central).
+  The train was composed of an engine, tender and forty carriages, the
+  total length over buffers being 1464 ft., and the total weight 574
+  tons, of which 423 tons were braked. At a speed of about 32 m. an hour
+  this train was brought to a standstill in twelve seconds after the
+  application of the brakes, in a distance of 342 ft.
+
+
+
+
+BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE (fl. 1200), English monk, and author of a
+chronicle narrating the fortunes of the monastery of Bury St Edmunds
+between 1173 and 1202. He is only known to us through his own work. He
+was a native of Bury St Edmunds; he served his novitiate under Samson of
+Tottington, who was at that time master of the novices, but afterwards
+sub-sacrist, and, from 1182, abbot of the house. Jocelyn took the habit
+of religion in 1173, during the time of Abbot Hugo (1157-1180), through
+whose improvidence and laxity the abbey had become impoverished and the
+inmates dead to all respect for discipline. The fortunes of the abbey
+changed for the better with the election of Samson as Hugo's successor.
+Jocelyn, who became abbot's chaplain within four months of the election,
+describes the administration of Samson at considerable length. He tells
+us that he was with Samson night and day for six years; the picture
+which he gives of his master, although coloured by enthusiastic
+admiration, is singularly frank and intimate. It is all the more
+convincing since Jocelyn is no stylist. His Latin is familiar and easy,
+but the reverse of classical. He thinks and writes as one whose
+interests are wrapped up in his house; and the unique interest of his
+work lies in the minuteness with which it describes the policy of a
+monastic administrator who was in his own day considered as a model.
+
+Jocelyn has also been credited with an extant but unprinted tract on the
+election of Abbot Hugo (Harleian MS. 1005, fo. 165); from internal
+evidence this appears to be an error. He mentions a (non-extant) work
+which he wrote, before the _Cronica_, on the miracles of St Robert, a
+boy whom the Jews of Bury St Edmunds were alleged to have murdered
+(1181).
+
+  See the editions of the _Cronica Jocelini de Brakelonda_ by T. Arnold
+  (in _Memorials of St Edmund's Abbey_, vol. i. Rolls series, 1890), and
+  by J.G. Rokewood (Camden Society, 1840); also Carlyle's _Past and
+  Present_, book ii. A translation and notes are given in T.E. Tomlin's
+  _Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century in the Chronicle of
+  Jocelyn de Brakelond_ (1844). There is also a translation of Jocelyn
+  by Sir E. Clarke (1907).
+
+
+
+
+BRAMAH, JOSEPH (1748-1814), English engineer and inventor, was the son
+of a farmer, and was born at Stainborough, Yorkshire, on the 13th of
+April 1748. Incapacitated for agricultural labour by an accident to his
+ankle, on the expiry of his indentures he worked as a cabinet-maker in
+London, where he subsequently started business on his own account. His
+first patent for some improvements in the mechanism of water-closets was
+taken out in 1778. In 1784 he patented the lock known by his name, and
+in 1795 he invented the hydraulic press. For an important part of this,
+the collar which secured water-tightness between the plunger and the
+cylinder in which it worked, he was indebted to Henry Maudslay, one of
+his workmen, who also helped him in designing machines for the
+manufacture of his locks. In 1806 he devised for the Bank of England a
+numerical printing machine, specially adapted for bank-notes. Other
+inventions of his included the beer-engine for drawing beer, machinery
+for making aerated waters, planing machines, and improvements in
+steam-engines and boilers and in paper-making machinery. In 1785 he
+suggested the possibility of screw propulsion for ships, and in 1802 the
+hydraulic transmission of power; and he constructed waterworks at
+Norwich in 1790 and 1793. He died in London on the 9th of December 1814.
+
+
+
+
+BRAMANTE, or BRAMANTE LAZZARI (c. 1444-1514), Italian architect and
+painter, whose real name was Donate d'Augnolo, was born at
+Monte-Asdrualdo in Urbino, in July 1444. He showed a great taste for
+drawing, and was at an early age placed under Fra Bartolommeo, called
+Fra Carnavale. But though he afterwards gained some fame as a painter,
+his attention was soon absorbed by architecture. He appears to have
+studied under Scirro Scirri, an architect in his native place, and
+perhaps under other masters. He then set out from Urbino, and proceeded
+through several of the towns of Lombardy, executing works of various
+magnitudes, and examining patiently all remains of ancient art. At last,
+attracted by the fame of the great Duomo, he reached Milan, where he
+remained from 1476 to 1499. He seems to have left Milan for Rome about
+1500. He painted some frescoes at Rome, and devoted himself to the study
+of the ancient buildings, both in the city and as far south as Naples.
+About this time the Cardinal Caraffa commissioned him to rebuild the
+cloister of the Convent della Pace. Owing to the celerity and skill with
+which Bramante did this, the cardinal introduced him to Pope Alexander
+VI. He began to be consulted on nearly all the great architectural
+operations in Rome, and executed for the pope the palace of the
+Cancelleria or chancery. Under Julius II., Alexander's successor,
+Bramante's talents began to obtain adequate sphere of exercise. His
+first large work was to unite the straggling buildings of the palace and
+the Belvedere. This he accomplished by means of two long galleries or
+corridors enclosing a court. The design was only in part completed
+before the death of Julius and of the architect. So impatient was the
+pope and so eager was Bramante, that the foundations were not
+sufficiently well attended to; great part of it had, therefore, soon to
+be rebuilt, and the whole is now so much altered that it is hardly
+possible to decipher the original design.
+
+Besides executing numerous smaller works at Rome and Bologna, among
+which is specially mentioned by older writers a round temple in the
+cloister of San Pietro-a-Montorio, Bramante was called upon by Pope
+Julius to take the first part in one of the greatest architectural
+enterprises ever attempted--the rebuilding of St Peter's. Bramante's
+designs were complete, and he pushed on the work so fast that before his
+death he had erected the four great piers and their arches, and
+completed the cornice and the vaulting in of this portion. He also
+vaulted in the principal chapel. After his death on the 11th of March
+1514, his design was much altered, in particular by Michelangelo.
+
+  See Pungileoni, _Memoire intorno alla vita ed alle opere di Bramante_
+  (Rome, 1836); H. Semper, _Donato Bramante_ (Leipzig, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS, BARON (1817-1907), English judge, was born at
+Hitchin, on the 14th of September 1817. He received his education at
+Bedford school. The son of a solicitor, he was early familiarized with
+legal principles. Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1843, he at
+once joined the old home circuit, and after enjoying a lucrative
+practice as a junior, took silk in 1859. His name is identified with
+many of the famous trials of the reign of Queen Victoria. He was engaged
+in the Simon Bernard case (of the Orsini plot celebrity), in that of
+_Roupell_ v. _Waite_, and in the Overend-Gurney prosecutions. The two
+_causes célèbres_, however, in which Hawkins attained his highest legal
+distinction were the Tichborne trials and the great will case of
+_Sugden_ v. _Lord St Leonards_. In both of these he was victorious. In
+the first his masterly cross-examination of the witness Baigent was one
+of the great features of the trial. He did a lucrative business in
+references and arbitrations, and acted for the royal commissioners in
+the purchase of the site for the new law courts. Election petitions also
+formed another branch of his extensive practice. Hawkins was raised to
+the bench in 1876, and was assigned to the then exchequer division of
+the High Court, not as baron (an appellation which was being abolished
+by the Judicature Act), but with the title of Sir Henry Hawkins. He was
+a great advocate rather than a great lawyer. His searching voice, his
+manner, and the variety of his facial expression, gave him an enormous
+influence with juries, and as a cross-examiner he was seldom, if ever,
+surpassed. He was an excellent judge in chambers, where he displayed a
+clear and vigorous grasp of details and questions of fact. His knowledge
+of the criminal law was extensive and intimate, the reputation he gained
+as a "hanging" judge making him a terror to evil-doers; and the court
+for crown cases reserved was never considered complete without his
+assistance. In 1898 he retired from the bench, and was raised to the
+peerage under the title of Baron Brampton. He frequently took part in
+determining House of Lords appeals, and his judgments were distinguished
+by their lucidity and grasp. He held for many years the office of
+counsel to the Jockey Club, and as an active member of that body found
+relaxation from his legal and judicial duties at the leading race
+meetings, and was considered a capable judge of horses. In 1898 he was
+received into the Roman Catholic Church, and in 1903 he presented, in
+conjunction with Lady Brampton (his second wife), the chapel of SS.
+Augustine and Gregory to the Roman Catholic cathedral of Westminster,
+which was consecrated in that year. In 1904 he published his
+_Reminiscences_. He died in London on the 6th of October 1907, and Lady
+Brampton in the following year.
+
+
+
+
+BRAMPTON, a market town in the Eskdale parliamentary division of
+Cumberland, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Carlisle, on a branch of the North
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2494. It is picturesquely situated in a
+narrow valley opening upon that of the Irthing. The town has an
+agricultural trade, breweries, and manufactures of cotton and tweeds.
+The neighbourhood is rich in historical associations. Two miles N.E. of
+Brampton is the castle of Naworth, a fine example of a Border fortress.
+It was built in the reign of Edward III., by a member of the family of
+Dacre, who for many generations had had their stronghold here.
+Overlooking a deep wooded ravine, with streams to the east and west, the
+great quadrangular castle was naturally defended except on the south,
+where it was rendered secure by a double moat and drawbridge. By
+marriage in 1577 with Lady Elizabeth Dacre it passed into the hands of
+William Howard, afterwards lord warden of the Marches, the "Belted Will"
+of Sir Walter Scott and the Border ballads, who acquired great fame by
+his victories over the Scottish moss-troopers. The castle, the walls of
+which have many secret passages and hiding-places, is inhabited, and in
+its hall are numerous fine pictures, including a portrait of Charles I.
+by Van Dyck. Not far distant is Lanercost Priory, where in 1169 an
+Augustinian monastery was established. In 1311 Robert Bruce and his army
+were quartered here, and the priory was pillaged in 1346 by David, king
+of Scotland. From this time its prosperity declined, and at its
+dissolution under Henry VIII. it consisted only of a prior and seven
+canons. The Early English church has a restored nave, but retains much
+fine carving. The chancel is ruined, but the interesting crypt is
+preserved.
+
+
+
+
+BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL, BARON (1808-1892), English
+judge, was born in London on the 12th of June 1808, being the eldest son
+of George Bramwell, of the banking firm of Dorrien, Magens, Dorrien &
+Mello. He was educated privately, and at the age of sixteen he entered
+Dorriens' bank. In 1830 he gave up this business for the law, being
+admitted as a student at Lincoln's Inn in 1830, and at the Inner Temple
+in 1836. At first he practised as a special pleader, but was eventually
+called to the bar at both Inns in 1838. He soon worked his way into a
+good practice both in London and the home circuit, his knowledge of law
+and procedure being so well recognized that in 1850 he was appointed a
+member of the Common Law Procedure Commission, which resulted in the
+Common Law Procedure Act of 1852. This act he drafted jointly with his
+friend Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Willes, and thus began the abolition
+of the system of special pleading. In 1851 Lord Cranworth made Bramwell
+a queen's counsel, and the Inner Temple elected him a bencher--he had
+ceased to be a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1841. In 1853 he served on the
+royal commission to inquire into the assimilation of the mercantile laws
+of Scotland and England and the law of partnership, which had as its
+result the Companies Act of 1862. It was he who, during the sitting of
+this commission, suggested the addition of the word "limited" to the
+title of companies that sought to limit their liability, in order to
+prevent the obvious danger to persons trading with them in ignorance of
+their limitation of liability. As a queen's counsel Bramwell enjoyed a
+large and steadily increasing practice, and in 1856 he was raised to the
+bench as a baron of the court of exchequer. In 1867, with Mr Justice
+Blackburn and Sir John Coleridge, he was made a member of the judicature
+commission. In 1871 he was one of the three judges who refused the seat
+on the judicial committee of the privy council to which Sir Robert
+Collier, in evasion of the spirit of the act creating the appointment,
+was appointed; and in 1876 he was raised to the court of appeal, where
+he sat till the autumn of 1881. As a puisne judge he had been
+conspicuous as a sound lawyer, with a strong logical mind unfettered by
+technicalities, but endowed with considerable respect for the common
+law. His rulings were always clear and decisive, while the same quality
+marked his dealings with fact, and, coupled with a straightforward,
+unpretentious manner, gave him great influence with juries. In the court
+of appeal he was perhaps not so entirely in his element as at _nisi
+prius_, but the same combination of sound law, strong common sense and
+clear expression characterized his judgments. His decisions during the
+three stages of his practical career are too numerous to be referred to
+particularly, although _Ryder_ v. _Wombwell_ (L.R. 3 Ex. 95); _R._ v.
+_Bradshaw_ (14 Cox C.C. 84); _Household Fire Insurance Company_ v.
+_Grant_ (4 Ex. Div. 216); _Stonor_ v. _Fowle_ (13 App. Cas. 20), _The
+Bank of England_ v. _Vagliano Brothers_ (App. Cas. 1891) are good
+examples. Upon his retirement, announced in the long vacation of 1881,
+twenty-six judges and a huge gathering of the bar entertained him at a
+banquet in the Inner Temple hall. In December of the same year he was
+raised to the peerage, taking the title Baron Bramwell of Hever, from
+his home in Kent. In private life Bramwell had simple tastes and enjoyed
+simple pleasures. He was musical and fond of sports. He was twice
+married: in 1830 to Jane (d. 1836), daughter of Bruno Silva, by whom he
+had one daughter, and in 1861 to Martha Sinden. He died on the 9th of
+May 1892.
+
+His younger brother, Sir Frederick Bramwell (1818-1903), was a
+well-known consulting engineer and "expert witness."
+
+  At all times Lord Bramwell had been fond of controversy and
+  controversial writing, and he wrote constant letters to _The Times_
+  over the signature B. (he also signed himself at different times
+  Bramwell, G.B. and L.L.). He joined in 1882 the Liberty and Property
+  Defence League, and some of his writings after that date took the form
+  of pamphlets published by that society.
+
+
+
+
+BRAN, in Celtic legend, the name of (1) the hero of the Welsh _Mabinogi
+of Branwen_, who dies in the attempt to avenge his sister's wrongs; he
+is the son of Llyr (= the Irish sea-god Ler), identified with the Irish
+Bran mac Allait, Allait being a synonym of Ler; (2) the son of Febal,
+known only through the 8th-century Irish epic, _The Voyage of Bran_ (to
+the world below); (3) the dog of Ossian's Fingal. Bran also appears as a
+historical name, Latinized as _Brennus_. See Kuno Meyer and D. Nutt,
+_The Voyage of Bran_ (London, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+BRAN, the ground husk of wheat, oats, barley or other cereals, used for
+feeding cattle, packing and other purposes (see FLOUR). The word occurs
+in French _bren_ or _bran_, in the dialects of other Romanic languages,
+and also in Celtic, cf. Breton _brenn_, Gaelic _bran_. The _New English
+Dictionary_ considers these Celtic forms to be borrowed from French or
+English. In modern French _bren_ means filth, refuse, and this points to
+some connexion with Celtic words, e.g. Irish _brean_, manure. If so, the
+original meaning would be refuse. "Bran-new," i.e. quite new, is now
+the common form of "brand-new," that which is fresh from the "brand,"
+the branding-iron used for marking objects, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BRANCH (from the Fr. _branche_, late Lat. _branca_, an animal's paw), a
+limb of a tree; hence any offshoot, e.g. of a river, railway, &c., of a
+deer's antlers, of a family or genealogical tree, and generally a
+subdivision or department, as in "a branch of learning." The phrase, to
+destroy "root and branch," meaning to destroy utterly, taken originally
+from Malachi iv. 1, was made famous in 1641 by the so-called "Root and
+Branch" Bill and Petition for the abolition of episcopal government, in
+which petition occurred the sentence, "That the said government, with
+all its dependencies, roots and branches, be destroyed." Among technical
+senses of the word "branch" are: the certificate of proficiency given to
+pilots by Trinity House; and in siege-craft a length of trench forming
+part of a zigzag approach.
+
+
+
+
+BRANCO, or PARIMA, a river of northern Brazil and tributary of the Rio
+Negro, formed by the confluence of the Takutú, or "Upper Rio Branco,"
+and Uraricoera, about 3° N. lat. and 60° 28' W. long., and flowing south
+by west to a junction with the Negro. It has rapids in its upper course,
+but the greater part of its length of 348 m. is navigable for steamers
+of light draught. The Takutú rises in the Roraima and Coïrrit ranges on
+the Guiana frontier, while the Uraricoera rises in the Serra de Parima,
+on the Venezuelan frontier, and has a length of 360 m. before reaching
+the Branco. These are white water rivers, from which the Branco (white)
+derives its name, and at its junction with the Negro the two
+differently-coloured streams flow side by side for some distance before
+mingling.
+
+
+
+
+BRANCOVAN, or BRANCOVEANU, the name of a family which has played an
+important part in the history of Rumania. It was of Servian origin and
+was connected with the family of Branko or Brankovich. Constantine
+Brancovan, the most eminent member of the family, was born in 1654, and
+became prince of Walachia in 1689. In consequence of his anti-Turkish
+policy of forming an alliance first with Austria and then with Russia,
+he was denounced to the Porte, deposed from his throne, brought under
+arrest to Constantinople and imprisoned (1710) in the fortress of Yedi
+Kuleh (Seven Towers). Here he was tortured by the Turks, who hoped thus
+to discover the fortune of £3,000,000, which Constantine was alleged to
+have amassed. He was beheaded with his four sons on the 26th of August
+1714. His faithful friend Enake Vacarescu shared his fate. Constantine
+Brancovan became, through his tragic death, the hero of Rumanian popular
+ballads. His family founded and endowed the largest hospital in
+Walachia, the so-called Spital Brancovanescu.
+
+  See O.G. Lecca, _Familiile Boeresti Române_ (Bucharest, 1899), p. 90,
+  sqq.     (M. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAND, JOHN (1744-1806), English antiquary, was born on the 19th of
+August 1744 at Washington, Durham, where his father was parish clerk.
+His early years were spent at Newcastle-on-Tyne with his uncle, a
+cordwainer, to whom he was apprentice in his fourteenth year. Showing
+promise, however, at Newcastle grammar school, friends interested
+themselves in him and assisted him to go to Oxford. It was not, however,
+until his twenty-eighth year that he matriculated at Lincoln College,
+but before this he had been ordained, holding in succession the curacies
+of Bolam, Northumberland, of St Andrew's, Newcastle, and of Cramlington,
+8 m. from the county town. He graduated in 1775 and two years later was
+elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Having for a short time
+been under-usher at the Newcastle grammar school, the duke of
+Northumberland, a former patron, gave him in 1784 the rectory of the
+combined parishes of St Mary-at-Hill and St Mary Hubbard, London.
+Appointed secretary to the Society of Antiquaries in the same year, he
+was annually re-elected until his death in 1806. He was buried in the
+chancel of his church. His most important work is _Observations on
+Popular Antiquities: including the whole of Mr Bourne's "Antiquitates
+Vulgares," with addenda to every chapter of that work_. This was
+published in London in 1777, and after Brand's death, a new edition
+embodying the MSS. left by him, was published by Sir Henry Ellis in
+1813. Brand also published a poem entitled: _On Illicit Love, written
+among the ruins of Godstow Nunnery, near Oxford_ (1775, Newcastle); _The
+History and Antiquities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne_ (2 vols., London, 1789),
+and many papers in the _Archaeologia_.
+
+
+
+
+BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY (1823-1888), president of the Orange Free State,
+was the son of Sir Christoffel Brand, speaker of the House of Assembly
+of the Cape Colony. He was born at Cape Town on the 6th of December
+1823, and was educated at the South African College in that city.
+Continuing his studies at Leiden, he took the degree of D.C.L. in 1845.
+He was called to the English bar from the Inner Temple in 1849, and
+practised as an advocate in the supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope
+from that year until 1863. In 1858 he was appointed professor of law in
+the South African College. He was elected president of the Orange Free
+State in 1863, and subsequently re-elected for five years in 1869, 1874,
+1879 and 1884. In 1864 he resisted the pressure of the Basuto on the
+Free State boundary, and after vainly endeavouring to induce Moshesh,
+the Basuto chief, to keep his people within bounds, he took up arms
+against them in 1865. This first war ended in the treaty of Thaba
+Bosigo, signed on the 3rd of April 1866; and a second war, caused by the
+treachery of the Basuto, ended in the treaty of Aliwal North, concluded
+on the 12th of February 1869. In 1871 Brand was solicited by a large
+party to become president of the Transvaal, and thus unite the two Dutch
+republics of South Africa; but as the project was hostile to Great
+Britain he declined to do so, and maintained his constant policy of
+friendship towards England, where his merits were recognized in 1882 by
+the honour of the G.C.M.G. He died on the 14th of July 1888. (See ORANGE
+FREE STATE: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS (1788-1866), English chemist, was born in London
+on the 11th of January 1788. After leaving Westminster school, he was
+apprenticed, in 1802, to his brother, an apothecary, with the view of
+adopting the profession of medicine, but his bent was towards chemistry,
+a sound knowledge of which he acquired in his spare time. In 1812 he was
+appointed professor of chemistry to the Apothecaries' Society, and
+delivered a course of lectures before the Board of Agriculture in place
+of Sir Humphry Davy, whom in the following year he succeeded in the
+chair of chemistry at the Royal Institution, London. His _Manual of
+Chemistry_, first published in 1819, enjoyed wide popularity, and among
+other works he brought out a _Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art_
+in 1842, on a new edition of which he was engaged when he died at
+Tunbridge Wells on the 11th of February 1866.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDENBURG, the name of a margraviate and electorate which played an
+important part in German history, and afterwards grew into the kingdom
+of Prussia. During the early years of the Christian era, the district
+was inhabited by the Semnones, and afterwards by various Slavonic
+tribes, who were partially subdued by Charlemagne, but soon regained
+their independence. The history of Brandenburg begins when the German
+king, Henry the Fowler, defeated the Havelli, or Hevelli, and took their
+capital, Brennibor, from which the name Brandenburg is derived. It soon
+came under the rule of Gero, margrave of the Saxon east mark, who
+pressed the campaign against the Slavs with vigour, while Otto the Great
+founded bishoprics at Havelberg and Brandenburg. When Gero died in 965,
+his mark was divided into two parts, the northern portion, lying along
+both banks of the middle Elbe, being called the north or old mark, and
+forming the nucleus of the later margraviate of Brandenburg. After Otto
+the Great died, the Slavs regained much of their territory, Brandenburg
+fell again into their hands, and a succession of feeble margraves ruled
+only the district west of the Elbe, together with a small district east
+of that river.
+
+
+  Albert the Bear.
+
+A new era began in 1106 when Lothair, count of Supplinburg, became duke
+of Saxony. Aided by Albert the Bear, count of Ballenstädt, he renewed
+the attack on the Slavs, and in 1134 appointed Albert margrave of the
+north mark. The new margrave continued the work of Lothair, and about
+1140 made a treaty with Pribislaus, the childless duke of Brandenburg,
+by which he was recognized as the duke's heir. He took at once the
+title margrave of Brandenburg, but when Pribislaus died in 1150, a
+stubborn contest followed with Jazko, a relation of the late duke, which
+was terminated in 1157 in Albert's favour. Albert was the real founder
+of Brandenburg. Under his rule Christianity and civilization were
+extended, bishoprics were restored and monasteries founded. The country
+was colonized with settlers from the lower Rhineland, land was brought
+under cultivation, forts were built, German laws and customs introduced,
+and gradually the woods and marshes were converted into lands of
+comparative fertility.
+
+
+  Otto III.
+
+When Albert died in 1170, Brandenburg fell to his eldest son, Otto I.
+(c. 1130-1184), who compelled the duke of Pomerania to own his
+supremacy, and slightly increased by conquest the area of the mark.
+Otto's son, Otto II., was the succeeding margrave, and having quarrelled
+with his powerful neighbour, Ludolf, archbishop of Magdeburg, was forced
+to own the archbishop's supremacy over his allodial lands. He died in
+1205, and was followed by his step-brother, Albert II. (c. 1174-1220),
+who assisted the emperor Otto IV. in various campaigns, but later
+transferred his allegiance to Otto's rival, Frederick of Hohenstaufen,
+afterwards the emperor Frederick II. His sons, John I. and Otto III.,
+ruled Brandenburg in common until the death of John in 1266, and their
+reign was a period of growth and prosperity. Districts were conquered or
+purchased from the surrounding dukes; the marriage of Otto with
+Beatrice, daughter of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, in 1253, added upper
+Lusatia to Brandenburg; and the authority of the margraves was extended
+beyond the Oder. Many monasteries and towns were founded, among them
+Berlin; the work of Albert the Bear was continued, and the prosperity of
+Brandenburg formed a marked contrast to the disorder which prevailed
+elsewhere in Germany. Brandenburg appears about this time to have fallen
+into three divisions--the old mark lying west of the Elbe, the middle
+mark between the Elbe and the Oder, and the new mark, as the newly
+conquered lands beyond the Oder began to be called. When Otto died in
+1267, the area of the mark had been almost doubled, and the margraves
+had attained to an influential position in the Empire. The
+_Sachsenspiegel_, written before 1235, mentions the margrave as one of
+the electors, by virtue of the office of chamberlain, which had probably
+been conferred on Albert the Bear by the German king Conrad III.
+
+
+  Otto IV.
+
+In 1258 John and Otto had agreed upon a division of their lands, but the
+arrangement only took effect on Otto's death in 1267, when John's son,
+John II., received the electoral dignity, together with the southern
+part of the margraviate, which centred around Stendal, and Otto's son,
+John III., the northern or Saltzwedel portion. John II.'s brother, Otto
+IV., who became elector in 1281, had passed his early years in struggles
+with the archbishop of Magdeburg, whose lands stretched like a wedge
+into the heart of Brandenburg. In 1280 he was wounded in the head with a
+dart, and as he retained there a part of the weapon for a year, he was
+called "Otto with the dart." He secured the appointment of his brother
+Eric as archbishop of Magdeburg in 1283, and was afterwards engaged in
+various feuds. Songs attributed to him are found in F.H. von der Hagen's
+_Minnesinger_. Otto was succeeded in 1309 by his nephew, Valdemar, who,
+assisted by other members of his family, conquered Pomerellen, which he
+shared with the Teutonic order in 1310, and held his own in a struggle
+with the kings of Poland, Sweden and Denmark and others, over the
+possession of Stralsund.
+
+In order to pay for these wars, and to meet the expenses of a splendid
+court, the later margraves had sold various rights to the towns and
+provinces of Brandenburg, and so aided the development of local
+government. John III. of Saltzwedel had shared his possessions with his
+brothers, but in 1303 they were reunited by his nephew Hermann, who
+purchased lower Lusatia in the same year. Hermann's daughter Agnes
+married the elector Valdemar, and on the death of her only brother, John
+VI., in 1317, the possessions of the Saltzwedel branch of the family
+passed to Valdemar, together with Landsberg and the Saxon Palatinate,
+which had been purchased from Albert the Degenerate, landgrave of
+Thuringia. Valdemar thus gathered the whole of the mark under his rule,
+together with upper and lower Lusatia, and various outlying districts.
+He died childless in 1319, and was succeeded by his nephew Henry II.,
+who died in 1320, when the Ascanian family, as the descendants of Albert
+the Bear were called, from the Latinized form of the name of their
+ancestral castle of Aschersleben, became extinct.
+
+
+  Wittelsbach dynasty.
+
+Brandenburg now fell into a deplorable condition, portions were seized
+by neighbouring princes, and the mark itself was disputed for by various
+claimants. In 1323 King Louis IV. took advantage of this condition to
+bestow the mark upon his young son, Louis, and thus Brandenburg was
+added to the possessions of the Wittelsbach family, although Louis did
+not receive the extensive lands of the Ascanian margraves. Upper and
+lower Lusatia, Landsberg, and the Saxon Palatinate had been inherited by
+female members of the family, and passed into the hands of other
+princes, the old mark was retained by Agnes, the widow of Valdemar, who
+was married again to Otto II., duke of Brunswick, and the king was
+forced to acknowledge these claims, and to cede districts to Mecklenburg
+and Bohemia. During the early years of the reign of Louis, who was
+called the margrave Louis IV. or V., Brandenburg was administered by
+Bertold, count of Henneberg, who established the authority of the
+Wittelsbachs in the middle mark, which, centring round Berlin, was the
+most important part of the margraviate. The quarrel between King Louis
+and Pope John XXII. was inimical to the interests of Brandenburg, which
+was ravaged by the Poles, torn by the strife of contending clerical
+factions, and alternately neglected and oppressed by the margrave. Trade
+and commerce were at a standstill, agriculture was neglected, the
+privileges and estates of the margrave passed into private hands, the
+nobles were virtually independent, and the towns sought to defend
+themselves by means of alliances. During the struggle between the
+families of Wittelsbach and Luxemburg, which began in 1342, there
+appeared in Brandenburg an old man who claimed to be the margrave
+Valdemar. He was gladly received by the king of Poland, and other
+neighbouring princes, welcomed by a large number of the people, and in
+1348 invested with the margraviate by King Charles IV., who eagerly
+seized this opportunity to deal a blow at his enemy. This step compelled
+Louis to make peace with Charles, who abandoned the false Valdemar,
+invested Louis and his step-brothers with Brandenburg, and in return was
+recognized as king. Louis recovered the old mark in 1348, drove his
+opponent from the land, and in 1350 made a treaty with his
+step-brothers, Louis the younger and Otto, at Frankfort-on-Oder, by
+which Brandenburg was handed over to Louis the younger and Otto. Louis,
+who then undertook the government, made peace with his neighbours,
+finally defeated the false Valdemar, and was recognized by the Golden
+Bull of 1356 as one of the seven electors. The emperor Charles IV. took
+advantage of a family quarrel over the possessions of Louis the elder,
+who died in 1361, to obtain a promise from Louis the younger and Otto,
+that the margraviate should come to his own son, Wenceslaus, in case the
+electors died childless. Louis the younger died in 1365, and when his
+brother Otto, who had married a daughter of Charles IV., wished to leave
+Brandenburg to his own family Charles began hostilities; but in 1373 an
+arrangement was made, and Otto, by the treaty of Fürstenwalde, abandoned
+the margraviate for a sum of 500,000 gold gulden.
+
+
+  Imperial control.
+
+Under the Wittelsbach rule, the estates of the various provinces of
+Brandenburg had obtained the right to coin money, to build fortresses,
+to execute justice, and to form alliances with foreign states. Charles
+invested Wenceslaus with the margraviate in 1373, but undertook its
+administration himself, and passed much of his time at a castle which he
+built at Tangermünde. He diminished the burden of taxation, suppressed
+the violence of the nobles, improved navigation on the Elbe and Oder,
+and encouraged commerce by alliances with the Hanse towns, and in other
+ways. He caused a _Landbook_ to be drawn up in 1375, in which are
+recorded all the castles, towns and villages of the land with their
+estates and incomes. When Charles died in 1378, and Wenceslaus became
+German and Bohemian king, Brandenburg passed to the new king's
+half-brother Sigismund, then a minor, and a period of disorder ensued.
+Soon after Sigismund came of age, he pledged a part of Brandenburg to
+his cousin Jobst, margrave of Moravia, to whom in 1388 he handed over
+the remainder of the electorate in return for a large sum of money, and
+as the money was not repaid, Jobst obtained the investiture in 1397 from
+King Wenceslaus. Sigismund had also obtained the new mark on the death
+of his brother John in 1396, but sold this in 1402 to the Teutonic
+order. Jobst paid very little attention to Brandenburg, and the period
+was used by many of the noble families to enrich themselves at the
+expense of the poorer and weaker towns, to plunder traders, and to carry
+on feuds with neighbouring princes. When in 1410 Sigismund and Jobst
+were rivals for the German throne, Sigismund, anxious to obtain another
+vote in the electoral college, declared the bargain with Jobst void, and
+empowered Frederick VI. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, to
+exercise the Brandenburg vote at the election. (See FREDERICK I.,
+ELECTOR OF BRANDENBURG.) In 1411 Jobst died and Brandenburg reverted to
+Sigismund, who appointed Frederick as his representative to govern the
+margraviate, and a further step was taken when, on the 30th of April
+1415, the king invested Frederick of Hohenzollern and his heirs with
+Brandenburg, together with the electoral privilege and the office of
+chamberlain, in return for a payment of 400,000 gold gulden, but the
+formal ceremony of investiture was delayed until the 18th of April 1417,
+when it took place at Constance.
+
+
+  Condition before the Hohenzollern rule.
+
+During the century which preceded the advent of the Hohenzollerns in
+Brandenburg its internal condition had become gradually worse and worse,
+and had been accompanied by a considerable loss of territory. The
+central power had become weakened and the central organization relaxed,
+while the electorate had lost most of the advantages which formerly
+distinguished it from other German fiefs. Under the rule of the earliest
+margraves, it was the official side of their position that was
+prominent, and it was not forgotten that they were technically only the
+representatives of the emperor. But in the 13th century this feeling
+began to disappear, and Brandenburg enjoyed an independence and carried
+out an independent policy in a way that was not paralleled by any other
+German state. The emperor was still suzerain indeed, but his relations
+with the mark were so insignificant that they exercised practically no
+influence on its development; and so the power of the Ascanian margraves
+was virtually unlimited. This independence was enhanced by the fact that
+few great nobles had followed Albert the Bear in his work of conquest,
+and that consequently there were few large lordships with their crowd of
+dependents. The towns, the village communities and the knights held
+their lands and derived their rights directly from the margraves. The
+towns and villages had generally been laid out by contractors or
+_locatores_, men not necessarily of noble birth, who were installed as
+hereditary chief magistrates of the communities, and received numerous
+encouragements to reclaim waste lands. This mode of colonization was
+especially favourable to the peasantry, who seem in Brandenburg to have
+retained the disposal of their persons and property at a time when
+villenage or serfdom was the ordinary _status_ of their class elsewhere.
+The dues paid by these contractors in return for the concessions formed
+the main source of the revenue of the margraves. Gradually, however, the
+expenses of warfare, liberal donations to the clergy, and the
+maintenance of numerous and expensive households, compelled them to
+pledge these dues for sums of ready money. This proceeding gave the
+barons and knights an opportunity to buy out the village magistrates and
+to replace them with nominees of their own. Thus the condition of the
+peasants grew worse, and their freedom was practically destroyed when
+the emperor Louis IV. recognized the jurisdiction of the nobles over
+their estates. Henceforth the power of the nobles steadily increased at
+the expense of the peasants, who soon sank into servitude. Instead of
+communicating directly with the margrave through his burgraves and
+bailiffs, or _vogts_, the village communities came to be represented by
+the nobles who had obtained possession of their lands. Many of the towns
+were forced into the same position. Others were able to maintain their
+independence, and to make use of the pecuniary needs of the margraves to
+become practically municipal republics. Their strength, however, was
+perhaps more usefully shown in their ability to resist the nobles, a
+proceeding which saved industry and commerce from extinction at a time
+of unbridled lawlessness. In the pecuniary embarrassments of the
+margraves also originated the power of the _Stände_, or estates,
+consisting of the nobles, the clergy and the towns. The first recorded
+instance of the _Stände_ co-operating with the rulers occurred in 1170;
+but it was not till 1280 that the margrave solemnly bound himself not to
+raise a _bede_ or special voluntary contribution without the consent of
+the estates. In 1355 the _Stände_ secured the appointment of a permanent
+councillor, without whose concurrence the decrees of the margraves were
+invalid. In the century which followed the extinction of the Ascanian
+house, liberty degenerated into licence, and the country was given over
+to anarchy. Only the most powerful towns were able to maintain their
+independence; others, together with the clergy, regularly paid blackmail
+to the neighbouring nobles. Under these conditions it is no wonder that
+the electorate not only completely lost its political importance, but
+also suffered a considerable diminution of territory. Upper and lower
+Lusatia, the new mark of Brandenburg, and other outlying districts had
+been shorn away, and the electorate now consisted of the old mark, the
+middle mark with Priegnitz, Uckermark and Sternberg, a total area of not
+more than 10,000 sq.m.
+
+
+  Frederick of Hohenzollern, 1412.
+
+Such was the condition and extent of Brandenburg in 1411 when Frederick
+of Hohenzollern became the representative of King Sigismund therein.
+Entering the electorate with a strong force in June 1412, his authority
+was quickly recognized in the middle mark, but the nobles of the old
+mark and of Priegnitz refused to follow this example. The two succeeding
+years were skilfully used by Frederick to make peace with the
+neighbouring princes, and having thus isolated his domestic enemies, he
+turned his arms against them early in 1414. Their strongholds were
+stormed, and in a few weeks their leaders were either prisoners or
+fugitives. A general peace was then declared at Tangermünde which
+enabled Frederick to leave the mark to the rule of his wife, Elizabeth,
+and to turn his attention elsewhere. Returning to Brandenburg as elector
+in 1416, the last flickers of the insurrection were extinguished; and
+when Frederick was invested at Constance in April 1417 his authority
+over the mark was undisputed. His next difficulty was with Pomerania,
+which had been nominally under the suzerainty of Brandenburg since 1181.
+The revival of this claim by the elector provoked an invasion of the
+mark by an army of Pomeranians with their allies in 1420, when Frederick
+inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Angermünde; but in 1424 a
+temporary coolness between the elector and the emperor Sigismund led to
+a renewal of the attack which Frederick was unable to repulse. This
+reverse, together with the pressure of other business, induced him to
+leave Brandenburg in January 1426, after handing over its government to
+his eldest son, John. John, called the "Alchemist," who was born in
+1403, had been disappointed in his hope of obtaining the vacant
+electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg in 1423. Lacking the diplomatic and
+military qualities of his father, his difficulties were augmented by the
+poverty of the country, and the evils which Frederick had suppressed
+quickly returned. The feeling of security vanished, the towns banded
+themselves together for defensive purposes, the rights of the margrave
+were again pledged to provide money, and in 1432 the land was ravaged by
+the Hussites. John never attained to the electoral dignity; for, in
+1437, his father in arranging a division of his territories decided that
+Brandenburg should pass to his second and fourth sons, both of whom were
+named Frederick. The elder of the two took up the government at once,
+whereupon John left the mark for South Germany, where he remained until
+his death in 1464.
+
+
+  Frederick II.
+
+Frederick II., who became elector on his father's death in September
+1440, was born on the 19th of November 1413, and earned the surname of
+"Iron" through his sternness to his country's enemies. He had little
+difficulty in repressing the turbulence of the nobles which had been
+quickened into life during the regency of his brother, but found it less
+easy to deal with the towns. Three strong leagues had been formed among
+them about 1431, and the spirit of municipal independence was most
+prominently represented by the neighbouring and allied towns of Berlin
+and Cöln. In his conflict with the towns over his refusal to ratify all
+their privileges the elector's task was lightened by a quarrel between
+the magistrates and the burghers of Berlin, which he was called in to
+decide in 1442. He deposed the governing oligarchy, changed the
+constitution of the town, forbade all alliances and laid the foundations
+of a castle. The inhabitants soon chafed under these restrictions. A
+revolt broke out in 1447, but the power of the elector overawed the
+people, who submitted their case to the estates, with the result that
+the arrangement of 1442 was re-established. In 1447 Frederick was
+compelled to cede the old mark and Priegnitz to his younger brother,
+Frederick, under whose feeble rule they quickly fell into disorder. In
+1463, however, when the younger Frederick died childless, the elector
+united them again with his own possessions and took measures to suppress
+the prevailing anarchy. In his dealings with neighbouring rulers
+Frederick pursued a peaceful and conciliatory policy. In 1442 he
+obtained some small additions to his territory, and the right of
+succession to the duchy of Mecklenburg in case the ducal family should
+die out. In 1445 an old feud with the archbishop of Magdeburg was
+settled, and in 1457 a treaty of mutual succession was made with the
+houses of Saxony and Hesse. Cottbus and Peitz in Lusatia were acquired,
+and retained after a quarrel with George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and
+the new mark of Brandenburg was purchased from the Teutonic order in
+1454. An attempt, however, to secure the duchy of Pomerania-Stettin
+failed, and the concluding years of this reign were troubled by warfare
+with the Pomeranians.
+
+The general success of Frederick's rule was secured by the sedulous care
+with which he confined himself to the work of government. He is said to
+have refused the thrones of Poland and Bohemia; and although he made
+pilgrimages to the Holy Land and to Rome, his interest in ecclesiastical
+questions was mainly directed towards quickening the religious life of
+his people. He obtained important concessions from Pope Nicholas V. with
+regard to the appointment of bishops and other ecclesiastical matters in
+1447, and in general maintained cordial relations with the papacy. About
+1467 his only son, John, died, and increasing infirmity led him to
+contemplate abdication. An arrangement was made with his brother, Albert
+Achilles, to whom early in 1470 the mark was handed over, and Frederick
+retired to Plassenburg where he died on the 10th of February 1471.
+
+
+  Albert Achilles.
+
+Albert appeared in Brandenburg early in the same year, and after
+receiving the homage of his people took up the struggle with the
+Pomeranians, which he soon brought to a satisfactory conclusion; for in
+May 1472 he not only obtained the cession of several districts, but was
+recognized as the suzerain of Pomerania and as its future ruler. The
+expenses of this war led to a quarrel with the estates. A subsidy was
+granted which the elector did not regard as adequate, and by a dexterous
+use of his power he established his right to take an excise on beer.
+Albert's most important contribution to the history of Brandenburg was
+the issue on the 24th of February 1473 of the _Dispositio Achillea_. By
+this instrument the elector decreed that the electoral mark should pass
+in its entirety to his eldest son, an establishment of primogeniture
+which had considerable influence on the future development of the
+country. He then entrusted the government to his eldest son, John, and
+left Brandenburg. Handicapped by poverty, John had to face attacks from
+two quarters. The Pomeranians, inspired by the declaration of the
+emperor Frederick III. that their land was a direct fief of the Empire,
+and aided by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, took up arms; and a
+quarrel broke out with John, duke of Sagan, over the possessions of
+John's brother-in-law, Henry XI., duke of Glogau. To deal with these
+difficulties Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, and during his stay
+drove back the Pomeranians, and added Crossen and other parts of duke
+Henry's possessions to the electorate. Again left in charge of the
+country, John beat back a fresh attack made by John of Sagan in 1482;
+and he became elector on his father's death in March 1486. He added the
+county of Zossen to his possessions in 1490, and in 1493 made a fresh
+treaty with the duke of Pomerania. Although he brought a certain degree
+of order into the finances, his poverty and the constant inroads of
+external enemies prevented him from seriously improving the condition of
+the country. John, who was called "Cicero," either on account of his
+eloquence, or of his knowledge of Latin, was interested in learning,
+welcomed Italian scholars to the electorate, and strove to improve the
+education of his people. He died at Arneburg on the 9th of January 1499,
+and was succeeded by his son Joachim I.
+
+
+  Joachim.
+
+When Joachim undertook the government of Brandenburg he had to deal with
+an amount of disorder almost as great as that which had taxed the
+energies of Frederick I. a century before. Highway robbery was general,
+the lives and property of traders were in continual jeopardy, and the
+machinery for the enforcement of the laws was almost at a standstill.
+About 1504 an attack of unusual ferocity on some Frankfort traders
+aroused the elector's wrath, and during the next few years the execution
+of many lawbreakers and other stern measures restored some degree of
+order. In this and in other ways Joachim proved himself a sincere friend
+to the towns and a protector of industry. Following the economic
+tendencies of the time he issued sumptuary laws and encouraged
+manufactures; while to suppress the rivalry among the towns he
+established an order of precedence for them. Equally important was his
+work in improving the administration of justice, and in this direction
+he was aided by scholars from the university which he had founded at
+Frankfort-on-Oder in 1506. He gave a new organization to the highest
+court of justice, the _Kammergericht_, secured for himself an important
+voice in the choice of its members, and ordered that the local law
+should be supplemented by the law of Rome. He did not largely increase
+the area of Brandenburg, but in 1524 he acquired the county of Ruppin,
+and in 1529 he made a treaty at Grimnitz with George and Barnim XI.,
+dukes of Pomerania, by which he surrendered the vexatious claim to
+suzerainty in return for a fresh promise of the succession in case the
+ducal family should become extinct. Joachim's attitude towards the
+teaching of Martin Luther which had already won many adherents in the
+electorate, was one of unrelenting hostility. The Jews also felt the
+weight of his displeasure, and were banished in 1510.
+
+
+  Joachim II.
+
+Ignoring the _Dispositio Achillea_, the elector bequeathed Brandenburg
+to his two sons. When he died in July 1535 the elder, Joachim II.,
+became elector, and obtained the old and middle marks, while the
+younger, John, received the new mark. John went definitely over to the
+side of the Lutherans in 1538, while Joachim allowed the reformed
+doctrines free entrance into his dominions in 1539. The elector,
+however, unlike his brother, did not break with the forms of the Church
+of Rome, but established an ecclesiastical organization independent of
+the pope, and took up a position similar to that of King Henry VIII. in
+England. Many of the monasteries were suppressed, a consistory was set
+up to take over the functions of the bishops and to act as the highest
+ecclesiastical court of the country. In 1541 the new ecclesiastical
+system was confirmed by the emperor Charles V. With regard to this
+policy the elector was probably influenced by considerations of greed.
+The bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus were secularized;
+their administration was entrusted to members of the elector's family;
+and their revenues formed a welcome addition to his impoverished
+exchequer. Nor did Joachim neglect other opportunities for adding to his
+wealth and possessions. In 1537 he had concluded a treaty with Frederick
+III., duke of Liegnitz, which guaranteed to the Hohenzollerns the
+succession to the Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau in the
+event of the ducal family becoming extinct; this arrangement is
+important as the basis of the claim made by Frederick the Great on
+Silesia in 1740. The treaty was declared invalid by the German king,
+Ferdinand I.; but the elector insisted on its legality, and in 1545
+strengthened his position by arranging a double marriage between members
+of his own family and that of Duke Frederick. Of more immediate
+consequence was an arrangement made in 1569 with the representatives of
+Joachim's kinsman, Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, after which the
+elector obtained the joint investiture of the duchy of Prussia from
+Sigismund II., king of Poland, and was assured of the succession if the
+duke's family became extinct. Joachim's luxurious habits, his partiality
+for adventurers, and his delight in building, led him to incur such a
+heavy expenditure that after pledging many of his lands and rights he
+was compelled in 1540 to appeal for help to the estates. Taking
+advantage of his difficulties, the estates voted him a sum of money as
+the price of valuable concessions, the most important of which was that
+the elector should make no alliance without their consent. Fresh
+liabilities were soon incurred, and in spite of frequent contributions
+from the estates Joachim left at his death in January 1571 a heavy
+burden of debt to his son and successor, John George.
+
+
+  John George.
+
+The elector's death was followed ten days later by that of his brother,
+John, and as John left no sons the whole of Brandenburg, together with
+the districts of Beeskow and Storkow which had been added by purchase to
+the new mark, were united under the rule of his nephew, John George.
+Born on the 11th of September 1525 this prince had served in the field
+under Charles V., and, disliking his father's policy and associates, had
+absented himself from Berlin, and mainly confined his attention to
+administering the secularized bishopric of Brandenburg which he had
+obtained in 1560. When he became elector he hastened to put his ideas
+into practice. His father's favourites were exiled; foreigners were
+ousted from public positions and their places taken by natives; and
+important economies were effected, which earned for John George the
+surname of _Oekonom_, or steward. To lighten the heavy burden of debt
+left by Joachim the elector proposed a tax on wheat and other cereals.
+Some opposition was shown, but eventually the estates of both divisions
+of the mark assented; only, however at the price of concessions to the
+nobles, predominant in the diet, which thrust the peasantry into
+servitude. Thus the rule of John George was popular with the nobles, and
+to some extent with the towns. Protestant refugees from France and the
+Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Brandenburg, and a period of
+peace was beneficial to a land, the condition of which was still much
+inferior to that of other parts of Germany. In religion the elector was
+a follower of Luther, whose doctrines were prevalent among his people.
+He had accepted the _Formula Concordiae_, a Lutheran document
+promulgated in June 1580, and sought to prevent any departure from its
+tenets. His dislike of Calvinism, or his antipathy to external
+complications, however, prevented him from taking any serious steps to
+defend Protestantism from the attacks of the counter-reformation. He did
+indeed join the league of Torgau, which voted assistance to Henry IV. of
+France in 1591; but he refused to aid the United Provinces, or even to
+give assistance to his eldest son, Joachim Frederick, administrator of
+the archbishopric of Magdeburg, whose claim to sit and vote in the
+imperial diet was contested, or to his grandson, John George, whose
+election to the bishopric of Strassburg was opposed by a Roman Catholic
+minority in the chapter. This indifference to the welfare of the
+Protestants added to the estrangement between the elector and his eldest
+son, which was further accentuated when John George, ignoring the
+_Dispositio Achillea_, bequeathed the new mark to one of his younger
+sons. He died on the 8th of January 1598.
+
+
+  Joachim Frederick.
+
+Joachim Frederick, who now became elector, was born on the 27th of
+January 1546. Since 1553 he had held the bishopric of Havelberg, since
+1555 that of Lebus; he had been administrator of Magdeburg since 1566,
+and of Brandenburg since 1571. Resigning these dignities in 1598, he
+contested his father's will, and was successful in preventing a
+division of the electorate. An agreement with George Frederick, the
+childless margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth, paved the way for an
+arrangement with the elector's younger brothers, who after the
+margrave's death in April 1603, shared his lands in Franconia, and were
+compensated in other ways for surrendering all claims on Brandenburg.
+This agreement, known as the Gera Bond, ratified the _Dispositio
+Achillea_. By George Frederick's death, Joachim became administrator of
+the duchy of Prussia, ruled nominally by the weak-minded Albert
+Frederick, but he had some difficulty in asserting his position. In
+Brandenburg he made concessions to the nobles at the expense of the
+peasantry, and admitted the right of the estates to control taxation. In
+religious matters he was convinced of the necessity of a union between
+Lutherans and Calvinists, and took steps to bring this about. Public
+opinion, however, in Brandenburg was too strong for him, and he was
+compelled to fall back upon the Lutheran _Formula_ and the religious
+policy of his father. Joachim seems to have been a wise ruler, who
+improved in various ways the condition of the mark. He married
+Catherine, daughter of John, margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin, and when
+he died, on the 18th of July 1608, was succeeded by his eldest son John
+Sigismund.
+
+
+  John Sigismund.
+
+The new elector, born on the 8th of November 1572, had married in 1594
+Anna, daughter of Albert Frederick of Prussia, a union which not only
+strengthened the pretensions of the electors of Brandenburg to the
+succession in that duchy, but gave to John Sigismund a claim on the
+duchies of Cleves, Jülich and Berg, and other Rhenish lands should the
+ruling family become extinct. In March 1609 the death of Duke John
+William left these duchies without a ruler, and by arrangement they were
+occupied jointly by the elector and by his principal rival, Wolfgang,
+son of Philip Louis, count palatine of Neuburg. This proceeding aroused
+some opposition, and, complicated by religious considerations and by the
+excited state of European politics, almost precipitated a general war.
+However, in November 1614 the dispute was temporarily settled by the
+treaty of Xanten. Brandenburg obtained the duchy of Cleves with the
+counties of Mark and Ravensberg, but as the Dutch and Spanish garrisons
+were not withdrawn, these lands were only nominally under the elector's
+rule. In 1609, John Sigismund had joined the Evangelical Union, probably
+to win support in the Rhineland, and the same consideration was
+doubtless one reason why, in 1613, he forsook the Lutheran doctrines of
+his family, and became an adherent of the reformed, or Calvinist, faith.
+This step aroused grave discontent in the electorate, and, quickly
+abandoning his attempts to proselytize, the elector practically conceded
+religious liberty to his subjects. Over the Cleves-Jülich succession,
+John Sigismund had incurred heavy expenses, and the public debt had
+again mounted up. He was thus obliged to seek aid from the estates, and
+in return for grants to make concessions to the nobles. The elector
+spent much of his time in Prussia striving to assert his authority in
+that duchy, and in August 1618, according to the arrangement of 1569,
+became duke by the death of Albert Frederick. He only enjoyed this
+dignity for a short time, as he died on the 23rd of December 1619. He
+was succeeded by his eldest son, George William.
+
+
+  George William.
+
+The new elector, born on the 3rd of November 1597, proved a weak and
+incapable ruler. He had married Elizabeth, daughter of Frederick IV.,
+elector palatine of the Rhine, and sister of the elector Frederick V.,
+afterwards king of Bohemia, and before his accession had acted as his
+father's representative in Cleves. Although a Protestant he was under
+the influence of Adam, count of Schwarzenberg, who was a Roman Catholic
+of imperialist sympathies. As a result the elector remained neutral
+during the early years of the Thirty Years' War in spite of his
+relationship with Frederick of the Palatinate, and the obvious danger to
+his Rhenish lands. This attitude was not successful. Brandenburg was
+ravaged impartially by both parties, and in 1627 George William attacked
+his brother-in-law, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who was using Prussia
+as a base of operations for his war against Poland. This campaign was
+short and inglorious for Brandenburg, and the elector was soon compelled
+to make peace. Although alarmed by the edict of restitution of 1629,
+George William took no steps to help the Protestants. In 1631, however,
+Gustavus Adolphus marched on Berlin, compelled the elector to cede the
+fortress of Spandau, and to aid him with men and money. The Brandenburg
+troops then assisted the Swedes until after the death of Gustavus in
+1632, and the Swedish defeat at Nördlingen in 1634, when the elector
+assented to the treaty of Prague, which was made in May 1635 between the
+emperor Ferdinand II. and John George I., elector of Saxony. The
+imperialists did nothing, however, to drive the Swedes from Brandenburg,
+and the unfortunate land was entirely at the mercy of the enemy. This
+was the principal reason why the elector was unable to annex Pomerania
+when its last duke, Bogislaus XIV., died in 1637. In 1638 George William
+transferred his residence to Königsberg, leaving Schwarzenberg to
+administer the electorate. Although his harsh measures aroused some
+irritation, the count did something to rid the land of the Swedes and to
+mitigate its many evils; but its condition was still very deplorable
+when George William died at Königsberg on the 1st of December 1640,
+leaving an only son, Frederick William. The most important facts in the
+internal history of Brandenburg during the 16th century were the
+increase in the power of the estates, owing chiefly to the continuous
+pecuniary needs of the electors; the gradual decline in the political
+importance of the towns, due mainly to intestine feuds; and the lapse of
+the peasantry into servitude. These events gave a preponderance of power
+to the nobles, but concurrently a number of circumstances were silently
+preparing the way for a great increase of authority on the part of the
+ruler. The substitution of the elector for the pope as head of the
+church; the introduction of Roman law with its emphasis on a central
+authority and a central administration; the determined and successful
+efforts to avoid any partition of the electorate; and the increasing
+tendency of the separate sections of the diet to act independently; all
+tended in this direction. This new order was heralded in 1604 by the
+establishment of a council of state, devoted to the interests of the
+elector, which strengthened his authority, and paved the way for a
+bureaucratic government.
+
+
+  Frederick William, the "Great Elector."
+
+When Frederick William, the "Great Elector," became ruler of Brandenburg
+in 1640 he found the country in a very deplorable condition. Trade and
+agriculture were almost destroyed, and the inhabitants, compelled to
+support the Swedish army of occupation, suffered also from the
+disorderly conduct of the native soldiers. Although the young elector
+spent the two first years of his reign mainly in Prussia, he was by no
+means forgetful of Brandenburg, and began resolutely to root out the
+many evils which had sprung up during the feeble rule of his father. The
+powers of Schwarzenberg were curtailed; the state council was restored;
+and the licence of the soldiers was restrained, while their numbers were
+reduced. Then turning his attention to the Swedes a truce was arranged,
+and soon afterwards, in return for an indemnity, they agreed to evacuate
+the electorate. Having returned to Brandenburg in 1643, Frederick
+William remained neutral during the concluding years of the Thirty
+Years' War, and set to work to organize an army and to effect financial
+reforms. About the same time diplomatic methods freed Cleves, Mark and
+Ravensberg from foreign troops, but the estates of these lands gained a
+temporary victory when the elector attacked their privileges. However,
+in 1647 his title was formally admitted by Wolfgang, count palatine of
+Neuburg.
+
+The terms of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 are the best commentary on
+the general success of the elector's policy. Although he was obliged to
+give up his claim to the western part of Pomerania in favour of Sweden,
+he secured the eastern part of that duchy, together with the secularized
+bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden and Kammin, and other lands, the whole
+forming a welcome addition to the area of Brandenburg. He was also
+promised the archbishopric of Magdeburg when its administrator,
+Augustus, duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, should die. This event happened in
+1680 when he secured the lands of the archbishopric. The elector did
+not, however, take possession of the newly-acquired territories at once.
+Fresh difficulties arose with Sweden, and it was not until 1653 that
+eastern Pomerania was freed from her soldiers. Meanwhile a new quarrel
+had broken out with Wolfgang of Neuburg. In 1650 Frederick William
+attacked his rival, but a variety of circumstances, among others a
+change of government in the Netherlands, and the resistance of the
+estates of Cleves, thwarted his plans, and he was compelled to listen to
+the mediating powers, and to acquiesce in the _status quo_.
+
+Profiting by these reverses the elector then undertook a series of
+internal reforms, tending to strengthen the central authority, and to
+mitigate the constant lack of money, which was perhaps his chief
+obstacle to success; a work in which he was aided by George, count of
+Waldeck (1620-1692), who became his chief adviser about this time. In
+1651 the powers of the state council were extended to include all the
+lands under the elector's rule; and a special committee was appointed to
+effect financial economies, and so to augment the electoral resources.
+In imperial politics Frederick William supported the election of
+Ferdinand, son of the emperor Ferdinand III., as king of the Romans in
+1653; but when the emperor failed to fulfil his promises, influenced by
+Waldeck, he acted in opposition to the imperial interests, and even
+formed a plan for a great alliance against the Habsburgs. These projects
+were disturbed by the war which broke out in 1655 between Sweden and
+Poland. In this struggle the elector fought first on one side and then
+on the other; but the important consequences of his conduct belong
+rather to the history of the duchy of Prussia (q.v.). The transfer of
+the elector's support from Sweden to Poland in 1656 was followed by the
+fall from power of Waldeck, who was succeeded by Otto von Schwerin
+(1616-1679), under whose influence the elector's relations with the
+emperor became more cordial.
+
+The increase in the prestige of Brandenburg was due chiefly to his army,
+which was gradually brought to a high state of efficiency. A proper
+organization was established to superintend the pay and maintenance of
+the soldiers, and they were commanded by experienced officers, among
+others by Georg Derfflingen (1606-1695), and Otto von Sparr (1605-1668).
+The general poverty, however, made the estates reluctant to support a
+standing army, and after the peace of Oliva in 1660, it was reduced to
+about 3500 men. The continual difficulties with the estates of his
+different dominions had harassed and hampered the elector, and the
+general peace which followed the treaty of Oliva offered a favourable
+opportunity to curtail their powers. Undaunted by two previous rebuffs
+he attacked the estates of Cleves, and by a display of force gained a
+substantial victory. Some important privileges were annulled, and he
+obtained a considerable sum of money. The _Landtag_ of Brandenburg was
+not cowed so easily into submission, but an increase of revenue was
+obtained, and the stubborn struggle which ensued in Prussia ended in a
+victory for the ruler. This increased income enabled the elector to take
+a more considerable part in European politics. In 1663 he assisted the
+imperialists in their struggle with the Turks; in 1666 the dispute over
+Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg was finally settled, and Brandenburg were
+confirmed in the possession of these lands; and in the same year a
+reconciliation was effected with Sweden. Several disputes which
+threatened to disturb the peace of the Empire were settled through his
+mediation, and he compelled the citizens of Magdeburg to do homage to
+him. In religious matters he interceded with the emperor and the diet
+for the Protestants, and sought, but without success, to bring about a
+reconciliation between Lutherans and Calvinists in Brandenburg.
+
+The elector's relations with Louis XIV. of France are full of interest.
+After the conclusion of the war of devolution in 1667, he allied himself
+with Louis, and together they agreed to support the candidature of
+Wolfgang of Neuburg for the vacant Polish throne. In 1668, moreover, he
+refused to join the triple alliance against France, but soon afterwards
+became aware of the danger to his country from the aggressive policy of
+Louis. The United Provinces were bound to him by religious interests,
+political considerations, and family ties alike, and he could not be
+indifferent when their position was threatened by France. In spite of
+tempting offers from Louis, he was the first to join the Dutch when they
+were attacked by Louis in 1672, and conducted an ineffectual campaign on
+the Rhine until June 1673, when he was forced to make peace. In July
+1674, however, he joined the Empire, the United Provinces and Spain, and
+in return for a subsidy, fought against France in Alsace. Meanwhile
+Louis had instigated the Swedes to invade Brandenburg, which had been
+left to the care of John George II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau. Hastening
+from Franconia to defend the electorate, Frederick William gained a
+complete victory over a superior number of the enemy at Fehrbellin on
+the 28th of June 1675, a great and glorious day for the arms of
+Brandenburg. Aided by the imperialists and the Danes, he followed up
+this success, and cleared Brandenburg and Pomerania of the Swedes,
+capturing Stettin in 1677 and Stralsund in 1678, while an attack made by
+Sweden on Prussia was successfully repelled. The general peace of
+Nijmwegen was followed by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye in June 1679
+between Sweden and Brandenburg. Owing, however, to the insistence of
+Louis XIV. and the indifference, or weakness, of the emperor Leopold I.,
+the elector was forced to restore western Pomerania to Sweden, in return
+for the payment of 300,000 crowns by France. This feebleness on the part
+of his ally induced Frederick William to listen more readily to the
+overtures of Louis, and in 1679, and again in 1681, he bound himself to
+support the interests of France. He had, moreover, a further grievance
+against the emperor as Leopold refused to recognize his right to the
+Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, which had been left
+without a ruler in 1675. About 1684, however, the foreign policy of
+Brandenburg underwent another change. Disliking the harshness shown by
+Louis to the Protestants, the elector concluded an alliance with
+William, prince of Orange, in August 1685; and entered into more
+friendly relations with the emperor. Further incensed against France by
+the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, he made an alliance with
+Leopold in January 1686, agreeing in return for a subsidy to send troops
+against the Turks. Soon afterwards he received Schwiebus to compensate
+him for abandoning his claim on the Silesian duchies, and in a secret
+treaty made promises of support to Leopold. The great elector died in
+May 1688, leaving his territories to his eldest son, Frederick.
+
+The remarkable services of Frederick William to his country can best be
+judged by comparing its condition in 1640 with that in 1688. At his
+accession the greater part of his territory was occupied by strangers
+and devastated by war, and in European politics Brandenburg was merely
+an appendage of the empire. Its army was useless; its soil was poor; its
+revenue was insignificant. At his death the state of Brandenburg-Prussia
+was a power to be reckoned with in all European combinations. Inferior
+to Austria alone among the states of the Empire, it was regarded as the
+head of the German Protestantism; while the fact that one-third of its
+territory lay outside the Empire added to its importance. Its area had
+been increased to over 40,000 sq. m.; its revenue had multiplied
+sevenfold; and its small army was unsurpassed for efficiency. The
+elector had overthrown Sweden and inherited her position on the Baltic,
+and had offered a steady and not ineffectual resistance to the ambition
+of France.
+
+While thus winning for himself a position in the councils of Europe,
+Frederick William was not less active in strengthening the central
+authority within his own dominions. He found Brandenburg a
+constitutional state, in which the legislative power was shared between
+the elector and the diet; he left it to his successor substantially an
+absolute monarchy. Many circumstances assisted to bring about this
+change, among the chief of which were the want of harmonious action on
+the part of the estates, and the decline in the political power of the
+towns. The substitution of a permanent excise for the subsidies granted
+from time to time by the estates also tended to increase his
+independence, and the officials or _Steuerräthe_, appointed by him to
+collect this tax in the towns, gradually absorbed many of the
+administrative functions of the local authorities. The nobles and
+prelates generally preferred to raise their share of the revenue by the
+old method of a _bede_, or contribution, thus weakening the remaining
+bond between them and the burghers.
+
+In matters of general administration Frederick William showed himself a
+prudent and careful ruler, and laid the foundation of the future
+greatness of Prussia in almost every department. The wounds inflicted by
+the Thirty Years' War were in a great measure healed, and the finances
+and credit of the state were established on a firm basis. Agriculture
+and commerce were improved and encouraged by a variety of useful
+measures, and in this connexion the settlement of a large number of
+Flemings, and the welcome extended to French Protestants, both before
+and after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, were of incalculable
+service. A small but efficient navy was founded, and strict economy,
+together with increasing resources, enabled a disciplined army to be
+maintained. Education was not neglected, a trading company was
+established, and colonies were founded on the west coast of Africa. In
+religious matters Calvinists and Lutherans were placed upon an equality,
+but the elector was unable to impress his own spirit of tolerance upon
+the clergy, who were occupied with ecclesiastical squabbles while the
+state of education and of public morals left much to be desired. The
+condition of the peasantry, however, during this reign reached its
+lowest point, and the "recess," or charter, of 1653 practically
+recognizes the existence of villenage. While the nobles had been losing
+power with regard to the ruler they had been increasing it at the
+expense of the peasants. The Thirty Years' War afforded them frequent
+opportunities of replacing the village _Schulzen_, or magistrates, with
+officials of their own; and the fact that their share of taxation was
+wholly wrung from the peasants made the burden of the latter much
+heavier than that of the townsmen.
+
+
+  Frederick III.
+
+The new elector, Frederick III., followed in general the policy of his
+father. Having persuaded his step-brothers to surrender the
+principalities bequeathed to them by the great elector, he assisted
+William of Orange to make his descent on England; then in 1688 allied
+himself with other German princes against Louis XIV., and afterwards
+fought for the Empire against both France and Turkey. Before he became
+elector Frederick had promised the emperor that he would restore
+Schwiebus, and he was now called upon to fulfil this engagement, which
+after some murmuring he did in 1695. This fact, however, together with
+some slights put upon him at the peace of 1697, led him to look with
+less favour upon imperial interests. Frederick's chief adviser about
+this time was Eberhard Danckelmann (1643-1722), whose services in
+continuing the reforming work of the great elector were very valuable;
+but having made many enemies, the electress Sophia among them, he fell
+from power in 1697, and was imprisoned for several years. The most
+important work of the elector was to crown the labours of his father by
+securing the kingly title for himself and his descendants. Broached in
+1692 this matter was brought up again in 1698 when the emperor and his
+ministers, faced with the prospect of a fight over the Spanish
+succession, were anxious to conciliate Brandenburg. It was at length
+decided that the title should be taken from Prussia rather than from
+Brandenburg as the former country lay outside the Empire, and in return
+Frederick promised to assist Leopold with 8000 men. The coronation
+ceremony took place at Königsberg on the 18th of January 1701. The
+territorial additions to Brandenburg during this reign were few and
+unimportant, but the comparative wealth and prosperity enabled the
+elector to do a good deal for education, and to spend some money on
+buildings. In 1694 the university of Halle was founded; academies for
+arts and sciences were established, and Berlin was greatly improved. The
+subsequent history of Brandenburg is merged in that of Prussia (q.v.).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. Brosien, _Geschichte der Mark Brandenburg in
+  Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1887); G.G. Küster, _Bibliotheca historica
+  Brandenburgensis_ (Breslau, 1743); and _Accessiones_ (Breslau, 1768),
+  and _Collectio opusculorum historiam marchicam illustrantium_
+  (Breslau, 1731-1733); A. Voss and G. Stimming, _Vorgeschichtliche
+  Alterthümer aus der Mark Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1886-1890); F. Voigt,
+  _Geschichte des brandenburgisch-preussischen Staats_ (Berlin, 1878);
+  E. Berner, _Geschichte des preussischen Staats_ (Berlin, 1890-1891);
+  A.F. Riedel, _Codex diplomaticus Brandenburgensis_ (Berlin,
+  1838-1865); J. Heidemann, _Die Reformation in der Mark Brandenburg_
+  (Berlin, 1889); _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen und preussischen
+  Geschichte_, edited by R. Koser (Leipzig, 1888 fol.); T. Carlyle,
+  _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. i. (London, 1858); J.G.
+  Droysen, _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_ (Berlin, 1855-1886); E.
+  Lavisse, _Étude sur une des origines de la monarchie prussienne_
+  (Paris, 1875); B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_, Band
+  ii. (Leipzig, 1901).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+BRANDENBURG, the central and one of the largest provinces of Prussia,
+consisting of a part of the former electorate of Brandenburg from which
+it derives its name. With the other territories of the elector of
+Brandenburg, it was merged in 1701 in the kingdom of Prussia, and when
+the administration of Prussia was reformed in 1815, Brandenburg became
+one of the provinces of Prussia. The boundaries of the new province,
+however, differed considerably from those of the old district. The old
+mark, the district on the left bank of the Elbe, was added to the
+province of Saxony, and in return a district to the south, taken from
+the kingdom of Saxony, was added to the province of Brandenburg. It has
+an area of 15,382 sq. m., and is divided into the two governments of
+Potsdam and Frankfort-on-Oder; the capital, Berlin, forming a separate
+jurisdiction. The province is a sandy plain interspersed with numerous
+fertile districts and considerable stretches of woodland, mostly pine
+and fir. Its barrenness was formerly much exaggerated, when it was
+popularly described as the "sandbox of the Holy Roman Empire." It is
+generally well watered by tributaries of its two principal rivers, the
+Elbe and the Oder, and is besides remarkable for the number of its
+lakes, of which it contains between 600 and 700. The mineral products
+comprise lignite, limestone, gypsum, alum and potter's earth; barley and
+rye are the usual cereals; fruits and vegetables are abundant; and
+considerable quantities of hemp, flax, hops and tobacco are raised. The
+breeding of sheep receives much attention, and the province exports wool
+in considerable quantity. Bees are largely kept, and there is an
+abundance of game. The rivers and lakes also furnish fish, particularly
+carp, of excellent quality. The climate is cold and raw in winter,
+excessively hot in summer, and there are frequently violent storms of
+wind. The manufacturing industry of the province is both varied and
+extensive, but is for the most part concentrated in the principal towns.
+The most important branches are the spinning and weaving of wool and
+cotton, the manufacturing of paper, and the distillation of brandy. Pop.
+(1895) 2,821,695; (1905) 3,529,839.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the district and province of
+same name, on the river Havel, 36 m. S.W. from Berlin, on the main line
+to Magdeburg and the west. Pop. (1905) 51,251, including 3643 military.
+The town is enclosed by walls, and is divided into three parts by the
+river--the old town on the right and the new town on the left bank,
+while on an island between them is the "cathedral town,"--and is also
+called, from its position, "Venice." Many of the houses are built on
+piles in the river. There are five old churches (Protestant), all more
+or less noteworthy. These are the Katharinenkirche (nave 1381-1401,
+choir c. 1410, western tower 1583-1585), a Gothic brick church with a
+fine carved wooden altar and several interesting medieval tombs; the
+Petrikirche (14th century Gothic); the cathedral (Domkirche), originally
+a Romanesque basilica (1170), but rebuilt in the Gothic style in the
+14th century, with a good altar-piece (1465), &c., and noted for its
+remarkable collection of medieval vestments; the Gothardskirche, partly
+Romanesque (1160), partly Gothic (1348); the Nikolaikirche (12th and
+13th centuries), now no longer used. There is also a Roman Catholic
+church. Of other buildings may be mentioned the former town hall of the
+"old town" (Altstadt Rathaus), built in the 13th and 14th centuries, now
+used as government offices; the new Real-gymnasium; and the town hall in
+the Neustadt, before which, in the market-place, stands a Rolandssäule,
+a colossal figure 18 ft. in height, hewn out of a single block of stone.
+A little north of the town is the Marienberg, or Harlungerberg, on which
+the heathen temple of Triglaff and afterwards the church and convent of
+St Mary were built. On the top stands a lofty monument to the soldiers
+from the Mark who fell in the wars of 1864, 1866 and 1870-71. The town
+has a considerable trade, with manufactures of woollens, silks, linens,
+hosiery and paper, as well as breweries, tanneries, boat-building and
+bicycle factories.
+
+Brandenburg, originally _Brennaburg_ (_Brennabor_) or _Brendanburg_, was
+originally a town of the Slavic tribe of the Hevelli, from whom it was
+captured (927-928) by the German king Henry I. In 948 Otto I. founded a
+bishopric here, which was subordinated first to the archdiocese of
+Mainz, but from 968 onwards to the newly created archbishopric of
+Magdeburg. It was, however, destroyed by the heathen Wends in 983, and
+was only restored when Albert the Bear recaptured the town from them in
+1153. In 1539 the bishop of Brandenburg, Matthias von Jagow, embraced
+the Lutheran faith, and five years later the Protestant worship was
+established in the cathedral. The see was administered by the elector of
+Brandenburg until 1598 and then abolished, its territories being for the
+most part incorporated in the electoral domains. The cathedral chapter,
+however, survived, and though suppressed in 1810, it was restored in
+1824. It consists of twelve canons, of whom three only are spiritual,
+the other nine prebends being held by noblemen; all are in the gift of
+the king of Prussia.
+
+The "old" and "new" towns of Brandenburg were for centuries separate
+towns, having been united under a single municipality so late as 1717.
+
+  See Schillmann, _Geschichte der Stadt Brandenburg_ (Brandenburg,
+  1874-1882).
+
+
+
+
+BRANDER, GUSTAVUS (1720-1787), English naturalist, who came of a Swedish
+family, was born in London in 1720, and was brought up as a merchant, in
+which capacity he achieved success and became a director of the Bank of
+England. His leisure time was occupied in scientific pursuits, and at
+his country residence at Christchurch in Hampshire he became interested
+in the fossils so abundant in the clays of Hordwell and Barton. A set of
+these was presented by him to the British Museum, and they were
+described by D.C. Solander in the beautifully illustrated work entitled
+_Fossilia Hantoniensia collecta, et in Musaeo Britannico deposita a
+Gustavo Brander_ (London, 1766). Brander was elected F.R.S. in 1754, and
+he was also a trustee of the British Museum. He died on the 21st of
+January 1787.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN (1842- ), Danish critic and literary
+historian, was born in Copenhagen on the 4th of February 1842. He became
+a student in the university in 1859, and first studied jurisprudence.
+From this, however, his maturer taste soon turned to philosophy and
+aesthetics. In 1862 he won the gold medal of the university for an essay
+on _The Nemesis Idea among the Ancients_. Before this, indeed since
+1858, he had shown a remarkable gift for verse-writing, the results of
+which, however, were not abundant enough to justify separate
+publication. Brandes, indeed, did not collect his poems till so late as
+1898. At the university, which he left in 1864, Brandes was much under
+the influence of the writings of Heiberg in criticism and Sören
+Kierkegaard in philosophy, influences which have continued to leave
+traces on his work. In 1866 he took part in the controversy raised by
+the works of Rasmus Nielsen in a treatise on "Dualism in our Recent
+Philosophy." From 1865 to 1871 he travelled much in Europe, acquainting
+himself with the condition of literature in the principal centres of
+learning. His first important contribution to letters was his _Aesthetic
+Studies_ (1868), in which, in several brief monographs on Danish poets,
+his maturer method is already foreshadowed. In 1870 he published several
+important volumes, _The French Aesthetics of Our Days_, dealing chiefly
+with Taine, _Criticisms and Portraits_, and a translation of _The
+Subjection of Women_ of John Stuart Mill, whom he had met that year
+during a visit to England. Brandes now took his place as the leading
+critic of the north of Europe, applying to local conditions and habits
+of thought the methods of Taine. He became _docent_ or reader in _Belles
+Lettres_ at the university of Copenhagen, where his lectures were the
+sensation of the hour. On the professorship of Aesthetics becoming
+vacant in 1872, it was taken as a matter of course that Brandes would be
+appointed. But the young critic had offended many susceptibilities by
+his ardent advocacy of modern ideas; he was known to be a Jew, he was
+convicted of being a Radical, he was suspected of being an atheist. The
+authorities refused to elect him, but his fitness for the post was so
+obvious that the chair of Aesthetics in the university of Copenhagen
+remained vacant, no one else daring to place himself in comparison with
+Brandes. In the midst of these polemics the critic began to issue the
+most ambitious of his works, _Main Streams in the Literature of the
+Nineteenth Century_, of which four volumes appeared between 1872 and
+1875 (English translation, 1901-1905). The brilliant novelty of this
+criticism of the literature of the chief countries of Europe at the
+beginning of the 19th century, and his description of the general revolt
+against the pseudo-classicism of the 18th century, at once attracted
+attention outside Denmark. The tumult which gathered round the person of
+the critic increased the success of the work, and the reputation of
+Brandes grew apace, especially in Germany and Russia. Among his later
+writings must be mentioned the monographs on _Sören Kierkegaard_ (1877),
+on _Esaias Tegnér_ (1878), on _Benjamin Disraeli_ (1878), _Ferdinand
+Lassalle_ (in German, 1877), _Ludvig Holberg_ (1884), on _Henrik Ibsen_
+(1899) and on _Anatole France_ (1905). Brandes has written with great
+fulness on the main contemporary poets and novelists of his own country
+and of Norway, and he and his disciples have long been the arbiters of
+literary fame in the north. His _Danish Poets_ (1877), containing
+studies of Carsten Hauch, Ludwig Bödtcher, Christian Winther, and
+Paludan-Müller, his _Men of the Modern Transition_ (1883), and his
+_Essays_ (1889), are volumes essential to the proper study of modern
+Scandinavian literature. He wrote an excellent book on _Poland_ (1888;
+English translation, 1903), and was one of the editors of the German
+version of _Ibsen_. In 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen and settled in
+Berlin, taking a considerable part in the aesthetic life of that city.
+His political views, however, made Prussia uncomfortable for him, and he
+returned in 1883 to Copenhagen, where he found a whole new school of
+writers and thinkers eager to receive him as their leader. The most
+important of his recent works has been his study of Shakespeare
+(1897-1898), which was translated into English by William Archer, and at
+once took a high position. It was, perhaps, the most authoritative work
+on Shakespeare, not principally intended for an English-speaking
+audience, which had been published in any country. He was afterwards
+engaged on a history of modern Scandinavian literature. In his critical
+work, which extends over a wider field than that of any other living
+writer, Brandes has been aided by a singularly charming style, lucid and
+reasonable, enthusiastic without extravagance, brilliant and coloured
+without affectation. His influence on the Scandinavian writers of the
+'eighties was very great, but a reaction, headed by Holger Drachmann,
+against his "realistic" doctrines, began in 1885 (see DENMARK:
+_Literature_). In 1900 he collected his works for the first time in a
+complete and popular edition, and began to superintend a German complete
+edition in 1902.
+
+His brother Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), also a well-known critic, was the
+author of a number of plays, and of two psychological novels: _A
+Politician_ (1889), and _Young Blood_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+BRANDING (from Teutonic _brinnan_, to burn), in criminal law a mode of
+punishment; also a method of marking goods or animals; in either case by
+stamping with a hot iron. The Greeks branded their slaves with a Delta,
+[Delta], for [Greek: doulos]. Robbers and runaway slaves were marked by
+the Romans with the letter F (_fur_, _fugitivus_); and the toilers in
+the mines, and convicts condemned to figure in gladiatorial shows, were
+branded on the forehead for identification. Under Constantine the face
+was not permitted to be so disfigured, the branding being on the hand,
+arm or calf. The canon law sanctioned the punishment, and in France
+galley-slaves could be branded "TF" (_travaux forcés_) until 1832. In
+Germany, however, branding was illegal. The punishment was adopted by
+the Anglo-Saxons, and the ancient law of England authorized the penalty.
+By the Statute of Vagabonds (1547) under Edward VI. vagabonds, gipsies
+and brawlers were ordered to be branded, the first two with a large V on
+the breast, the last with F for "fraymaker." Slaves, too, who ran away
+were branded with S on cheek or forehead. This law was repealed in 1636.
+From the time of Henry VII. branding was inflicted for all offences
+which received benefit of clergy (q.v.), but it was abolished for such
+in 1822. In 1698 it was enacted that those convicted of petty theft or
+larceny, who were entitled to benefit of clergy, should be "burnt in the
+most visible part of the left cheek, nearest the nose." This special
+ordinance was repealed in 1707. James Nayler, the mad Quaker, who in the
+year 1655 claimed to be the Messiah, had his tongue bored through and
+his forehead branded B for blasphemer.
+
+In the Lancaster criminal court a branding-iron is still preserved in
+the dock. It is a long bolt with a wooden handle at one end and an M
+(malefactor) at the other. Close by are two iron loops for firmly
+securing the hands during the operation. The brander, after examination,
+would turn to the judge and exclaim, "A fair mark, my lord." Criminals
+were formerly ordered to hold up their hands before sentence to show if
+they had been previously convicted.
+
+Cold branding or branding with cold irons became in the 18th century the
+mode of nominally inflicting the punishment on prisoners of higher rank.
+"When Charles Moritz, a young German, visited England in 1782 he was
+much surprised at this custom, and in his diary mentioned the case of a
+clergyman who had fought a duel and killed his man in Hyde Park. Found
+guilty of manslaughter he was _burnt_ in the hand, if that could be
+called burning which was done with a cold iron" (Markham's _Ancient
+Punishments of Northants_, 1886). Such cases led to branding becoming
+obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except in the case of deserters
+from the army. These were marked with the letter D, not with hot irons
+but by tattooing with ink or gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were
+also branded with BC (bad character). By the British Mutiny Act of 1858
+it was enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other penalty,
+may order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 in. below the
+armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than 1 in. long.
+In 1879 this was abolished.
+
+  See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle,
+  _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1790-1867), German philologist and historian
+of philosophy, was born at Hildesheim and educated at Kiel University.
+In 1812 he graduated at Copenhagen, with a thesis _Commentationes
+Eleaticae_ (a collection of fragments from Xenophanes, Parmenides and
+Melissus). For a time he studied at Göttingen, and in 1815 presented as
+his inaugural dissertation at Berlin his essay _Von dem Begriff der
+Geschichte der Philosophie_. In 1816 he refused an extraordinary
+professorship at Heidelberg in order to accompany B.G. Niebuhr to Italy
+as secretary to the Prussian embassy. Subsequently he assisted I. Bekker
+in the preparation of his edition of Aristotle. In 1821 he became
+professor of philosophy in the newly founded university of Bonn, and in
+1823 published his _Aristotelius et Theophrasti Metaphysica_. With
+Boeckh and Niebuhr he edited the _Rheinisches Museum_, to which he
+contributed important articles on Socrates (1827, 1829). In 1836-1839 he
+was tutor to the young king Otho of Greece. His great work, the
+_Handbuch der Geschichte der griechisch-röm. Philos_. (1835-1866;
+republished in a smaller and more systematic form, _Gesch. d.
+Entwickelungen d. griech. Philos_., 1862-1866), is characterized by
+sound criticism. Brandis died on the 21st of July 1867.
+
+  See Trendelenburg, _Zur Erinnerung an C. A. B_. (Berlin, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+BRANDON, a city and port of entry of Manitoba, Canada, on the
+Assiniboine river, and the Canadian Pacific and Canadian Northern
+railways, situated 132 m. W. of Winnipeg, 1184 ft. above the sea. Pop.
+(1891) 3778; (1907) 12,519. It is in one of the finest agricultural
+sections and contains a government experimental farm, grain elevators,
+saw and grist mills. It was first settled in 1881, and incorporated as a
+city in 1882.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDON, a market town in the Stowmarket parliamentary division of
+Suffolk, England, on the Little Ouse or Brandon river, 86½ m. N.N.E.
+from London by the Ely-Norwich line of the Great Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1901) 2327. The church of St Peter is Early English with earlier
+portions; there is a free grammar school founded in 1646; and the town
+has some carrying trade by the Little Ouse in corn, coal and timber.
+Rabbit skins of fine texture are dressed and exported. Extensive
+deposits of flint are worked in the neighbourhood, and the work of the
+"flint-knappers" has had its counterpart here from the earliest eras of
+man. Close to Brandon, but in Norfolk across the river, at the village
+of Weeting, are the so-called Grimes' Graves, which, long supposed to
+show the foundations of a British village, and probably so occupied,
+were proved by excavation to have been actually neolithic flint
+workings. The pits, though almost completely filled up (probably as they
+became exhausted), were sunk through the overlying chalk to the depth of
+20 to 60 ft., and numbered 254 in all. Passages branched out from them,
+and among other remains picks of deer-horn were discovered, one actually
+bearing in the chalk which coated it the print of the workman's hand.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDY, an alcoholic, potable spirit, obtained by the distillation of
+grape wine. The frequently occurring statement that the word "brandy" is
+derived from the High German _Branntwein_ is incorrect, inasmuch as the
+English word (as Fairley has pointed out) is quite as old as any of its
+continental equivalents. It is simply an abbreviation of the Old English
+_brandewine_, _brand-wine_ or _brandy wine_, the word "brand" being
+common to all the Teutonic languages of northern Europe, meaning a thing
+burning or that has been burnt. John Fletcher's _Beggar's Bush_ (1622)
+contains the passage, "Buy brand wine"; and from the Roxburgh _Ballads_
+(1650) we have "It is more fine than brandewine." The word "brandy" came
+into familiar use about the middle of the 17th century, but the
+expression "brandywine" was retained in legal documents until 1702
+(Fairley). Thus in 1697 (_View Penal Laws_, 173) there occurs the
+sentence, "No aqua vitae or brandywine shall be imported into England."
+The _British Pharmacopoeia_ formerly defined French brandy, which was
+the only variety mentioned (officially _spiritus vini gallici_), as
+"Spirit distilled from French wine; it has a characteristic flavour, and
+a light sherry colour derived from the cask in which it has been kept."
+In the latest edition the Latin title _spiritus vini gallici_ is
+retained, but the word _French_ is dropped from the text, which now
+reads as follows: "A spirituous liquid distilled from wine and matured
+by age, and containing not less than 36½% by weight or 43½% by volume of
+ethyl hydroxide." The _United States Pharmacopoeia_ (1905), retains the
+Latin expression _spiritus vini gallici_ (English title _Brandy_),
+defined as "an alcoholic liquid obtained by the distillation of the
+fermented, unmodified juice of fresh grapes."
+
+Very little of the brandy of commerce corresponds exactly to the former
+definition of the _British Pharmacopoeia_ as regards colouring matter,
+inasmuch as trade requirements necessitate the addition of a small
+quantity of caramel (burnt sugar) colouring to the spirit in the
+majority of cases. The object of this is, as a rule, not that of
+deceiving the consumer as to the apparent age of the brandy, but that of
+keeping a standard article of commerce at a standard level of colour. It
+is practically impossible to do this without having recourse to caramel
+colouring, as, practically speaking, the contents of any cask will
+always differ slightly, and often very appreciably, in colour intensity
+from the contents of another cask, even though the age and quality of
+the spirits are identical.
+
+The finest brandies are produced in a district covering an area of
+rather less than three million acres, situated in the departments of
+Charente and Charente Inférieure, of which the centre is the town of
+Cognac. It is generally held that only brandies produced within this
+district have a right to the name "cognac." The Cognac district is
+separated into district zones of production, according to the quality of
+the spirit which each yields. In the centre of the district, on the left
+bank of the Charente, is the _Grande Champagne_, and radiating beyond it
+are (in order of merit of the spirit produced) the _Petite Champagne_,
+the _Borderies_ (or _Premiers Bois_), the _Fins Bois_, the _Bons Bois_,
+the _Bois Ordinaires_, and finally the _Bois communs dits à terroir_.
+Many hold that the brandy produced in the two latter districts is not
+entitled to the name of "cognac," but this is a matter of controversy,
+as is also the question as to whether another district called the
+_Grande Fine Champagne_, namely, that in the immediate neighbourhood of
+the little village of Juillac-le-Coq, should be added to the list. The
+pre-eminent quality of the Cognac brandies is largely due to the
+character of the soil, the climate, and the scientific and systematic
+cultivation of the vines. For a period--from the middle 'seventies to
+the 'nineties of the 19th century--the cognac industry was, owing to the
+inroads of the phylloxera, threatened with almost total extinction, but
+after a lengthy series of experiments, a system of replanting and
+hybridizing, based on the characteristics of the soils of the various
+districts, was evolved, which effectually put a stop to the further
+progress of the disease. In 1907 the area actually planted with the vine
+in the Cognac district proper was about 200,000 acres, and the
+production of cognac brandy, which, however, varies widely in different
+years, may be put down at about five million gallons per annum. The
+latter figure is based on the amount of wine produced in the two
+Charentes (about forty-five million gallons in 1905).
+
+
+GENUINE COGNAC BRANDIES.
+
+(Excepting the alcohol, results are expressed in grammes per 100 litres
+of absolute alcohol.)
+
+  +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+
+  |                                     | Alcohol |Total|  Non-  |       | "Higher  |         |         |
+  |               Age, &c.              |% by vol.|Acid.|volatile|Esters.|Alcohols."|Aldehyde.|Furfural.|
+  |                                     |         |     |  Acid. |       |          |         |         |
+  +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+
+  | 1. _New_ 1904                       |  61.7   |  45 |    5   |   82  |   125    |    8    |   2.3   |
+  | 2. _New_, still heated by steam coil|  56.3   |  22 |    4   |   61  |   100    |    3    |   1.2   |
+  | 3. _New_                            |  67.7   |  51 |   ··   |  158  |   152    |    6    |   1.3   |
+  | 4. _Five years old_, 1900 vintage   |  57.7   |  92 |   37   |  125  |   ··     |   ··    |   ··    |
+  | 5. _1875 vintage_, pale             |  46.7   | 144 |   37   |  177  |   261    |   55    |   1.0   |
+  | 6. _1848 vintage_, brown            |  38.5   | 254 |  109   |  190  |   488    |   32    |   2.1   |
+  +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+
+
+  _Note._--In the above table the acid is expressed in terms of acetic
+  acid, the esters are expressed as ethyl acetate, and the aldehyde as
+  acetaldehyde. The "Higher Alcohol" figures do not actually represent
+  these substances, but indicate the relative coloration obtained with
+  sulphuric acid when compared with an iso-butyl standard under certain
+  conditions.
+
+Brandy is also manufactured in numerous other districts in France, and
+in general order of commercial merit may be mentioned the brandies of
+Armagnac, Marmande, Nantes and Anjou. The brandies commanding the lowest
+prices are broadly known as the _Trois-Six de Monlpellier_. In a class
+by themselves are the _Eaux-de-vie de Marc_, made from the wine
+pressings or from the solid residues of the stills. Some of these,
+particularly those made in Burgundy, have characteristic qualities, and
+are considered by many to be very fine. The consumption is chiefly
+local. Brandy of fair quality is also made in other wine-producing
+countries, particularly in Spain, and of late years colonial (Australian
+and Cape) brandies have attracted some attention. The comsumption of
+brandy in the United Kingdom amounts to about two million gallons.
+
+Brandy, in common with other potable spirits, owes its flavour and aroma
+to the presence of small quantities of substances termed secondary or
+by-products (sometimes "impurities"). These are dissolved in the ethyl
+alcohol and water which form over 99% of the spirit. The nature and
+quantity of all of these by-products have not yet been fully
+ascertained, but the knowledge in this direction is rapidly progressing.
+Ch. Ordonneau fractionally distilled 100 litres of 25-year-old cognac
+brandy, and obtained the following substances and quantities thereof:--
+
+                                        Grammes in
+                                        100 Litres.
+
+  Normal propyl alcohol                     40.0
+  Normal butyl alcohol                     218.6
+  Amyl alcohol                              83.8
+  Hexyl alcohol                              0.6
+  Heptyl alcohol                             1.5
+  Ethyl acetate                             35.0
+  Ethyl propionate, butyrate and caproate    3.0
+  Oenanthic ether (about)                    4.0
+  Aldehyde                                   3.0
+  Acetal                                   traces
+  Amines                                   traces
+
+Most of the above substances, in fact probably all of them, excepting
+the oenanthic ether, are contained in other spirits, such as whisky and
+rum. The oenanthic ether (ethyl pelargonate) is one of the main
+characteristics which enable us chemically to differentiate between
+brandy and other distilled liquors. Brandy also contains a certain
+quantity of free acid, which increases with age, furfural, which
+decreases, and small quantities of other matters of which we have as yet
+little knowledge.
+
+The table gives analyses, by the present author (excepting No. 3, which
+is by F. Lusson), of undoubtedly genuine commercial cognac brandies of
+various ages.
+
+_Storage and Maturation._--Brandy is stored in specially selected oak
+casks, from which it extracts a certain quantity of colouring matter and
+tannin, &c. Commercial cognac brandies are generally blends of different
+growths and vintages, the blending being accomplished in large vats some
+little time prior to bottling. The necessary colouring and sweetening
+matter is added in the vat. In the case of pale brandies very little
+colouring and sweetening are added, the usual quantity being in the
+neighbourhood of ½ to 1%. Old "brown brandies," which are nowadays not
+in great demand, require more caramel and sugar than do the pale
+varieties. The preparation of the "liqueur," as the mixed caramel and
+sugar syrup is termed, is an operation requiring much experience, and
+the methods employed are kept strictly secret. Fine "liqueur" is
+prepared with high-class brandy, and is stored a number of years prior
+to use. Brandy, as is well known, improves very much with age (for
+chemical aspects of maturation see SPIRITS), but this only holds good
+when the spirit is in _wood_, for there is no material appreciation in
+quality after bottling. It is a mistake to believe, however, that brandy
+improves indefinitely, even when kept in wood, for, as a matter of fact,
+after a certain time--which varies considerably according to the type of
+brandy, the vintage, &c.--there is so much evaporation of alcohol that a
+number of undesirable changes come about. The brandy begins to "go
+back," and becomes, as it is called, "worn" or "tired." It is necessary,
+therefore, that the bottling should not be deferred too long. Sometimes,
+for trade reasons, it is necessary to keep brandy in cask for a long
+period, and under these conditions the practice is to keep a series of
+casks, which are treated as follows:--The last cask is kept filled by
+occasionally adding some spirit from the cask next in order, the latter
+is filled up by spirit taken from the third cask from the end, and so
+on, until the first cask in the row is reached. The latter is filled up
+or "topped" with some relatively fresh spirit.
+
+Brandy is much employed medicinally as a food capable of supplying
+energy in a particularly labile form to the body, as a stimulant,
+carminative, and as a hypnotic.
+
+_Adulteration._--A good deal has been written about the preparation of
+artificial brandy by means of the addition of essential oils to potato
+or beetroot spirit, but it is more than doubtful whether this practice
+was really carried on on a large scale formerly. What undoubtedly did
+occur was that much beet, potato or grain spirit was used for blending
+with genuine grape spirit. Prosecutions under the Food and Drugs Act, by
+certain English local authorities in the year 1904, resulted in the
+practical fixation of certain chemical standards which, in the opinion
+of the present writer, have, owing to their arbitrary and unscientific
+nature, resulted in much adulteration of a type previously non-existent.
+There is no doubt that at the present time artificial esters and higher
+alcohols, &c., are being used on an extensive scale for the preparation
+of cheap brandies, and the position, in this respect, therefore, has not
+been inproved. Where formerly fraud was practically confined to the
+blending of genuine brandy with spirit other than that derived from the
+grape, it is now enhanced by the addition of artificial essences to the
+blend of the two spirits.     (P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BRANDYWINE, the name of a stream in Pennsylvania and Delaware, U.S.A.,
+which runs into the Delaware river a few miles east of Wilmington,
+Delaware. It is famous as the scene of the battle of Brandywine in the
+American War of Independence, fought on the 11th of September 1777 about
+10 m. north-west of Wilmington, and a few miles inside the Pennsylvania
+border. Sir William Howe, the British commander-in-chief, while opposed
+to Washington's army in New Jersey, had formed the plan of capturing
+Philadelphia from the south side by a movement by sea to the head of
+Delaware Bay. But contrary winds and accidents delayed the British
+transports so long that Washington, who was at first puzzled, was able
+to divine his opponents' intentions in time; and rapidly moving to the
+threatened point he occupied a strong entrenched position at the fords
+over the Brandywine, 25 m. south-west of Philadelphia. Here on the 11th
+of September the British attacked him. Howe's plan, which was carefully
+worked out and exactly executed, was to deliver an energetic feint
+attack against the American front, to take a strong column 12 m. up the
+stream, and crossing beyond Washington's right to attack his
+entrenchments in rear. Washington was successfully held in play during
+the movement, and General Sullivan, the commander of the American right
+wing, misled by the conflicting intelligence which reached him from
+up-stream, was surprised about noon by definite information as to the
+approach of Cornwallis on his right rear. Changing front "right back" in
+the dense country, he yet managed to oppose a stubborn resistance to the
+flanking attack, and with other troops that were hurried to the scene
+his division held its ground for a time near Birmingham meeting-house.
+But Howe pressed his attack sharply and drove back the Americans for 2
+m.; the holding attack of the British right was converted into a real
+one, and by nightfall Washington was in full retreat northward toward
+Chester, protected by General Greene and a steady rear-guard, which held
+off Howe's column for the necessary time. The British were too exhausted
+to pursue, and part of Howe's force was inextricably mixed up with the
+advancing troops of the frontal attack. The American loss in killed,
+wounded and prisoners was about 1000; that of the British less than 600.
+Howe followed up his victory, and on the 27th of September entered
+Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+BRANFORD, a township, including a borough of the same name, in New Haven
+county, Connecticut, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Branford river and at
+the head of a short arm of Long Island Sound, about 7 m. E.S.E. of New
+Haven. Pop. of the township (1890) 4460; (1900) 5706 (1968
+foreign-born);(1910) 6047; of the borough (1910) 2560. The borough is
+served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by an electric
+line connecting with New Haven. A range of rocky hills commands fine
+views of the Sound, the shore is deeply indented, the harbour and bays
+are dotted with islands, and the harbour is deep enough for small craft,
+and these natural features attract many visitors during the summer
+season. In Branford is the James Blackstone Memorial library (1896),
+designed by Solon Spencer Beman (b. 1853) in the Ionic style (the
+details being taken from the Erechtheum at Athens). On the interior of
+the dome which covers the rotunda are a series of paintings by Oliver
+Dennett Grover (b. 1861) illustrating the evolution of book-making, and
+between the arches are medallion portraits, by the same artist, of New
+England authors--Longfellow, Emerson, Hawthorne, Lowell, Bryant,
+Whittier, Holmes and Mrs Stowe. The library was erected by Timothy B.
+Blackstone (1829-1900), a native of Branford, and president of the
+Chicago & Alton railway from 1864 to 1899--as a memorial to his father,
+a descendant of William Blackstone (d. 1675), the New England pioneer.
+The principal industries of Branford are the manufacture of malleable
+iron fittings, locks and general hardware, the quarrying of granite, and
+oyster culture.
+
+The territory of Totoket (now the township of Branford) was purchased
+from the Indians by the New Haven Plantation, in December 1638, for
+eleven coats of trucking cloth and one coat of English cloth, but with
+the reservation for a few Indians of what is still known as Indian Neck.
+In 1640 the general court of New Haven granted it to the Rev. Samuel
+Eaton (1596?-1665), a brother of Theophilus Eaton, on condition that he
+brought friends from England to settle it. As Eaton went to England and
+did not return, Totoket was granted in 1644 to settlers mostly from
+Wethersfield, Conn., on condition that they should organize a church
+state after the New Haven model and join the New Haven Jurisdiction. The
+settlement was made in the same year, and about two years later several
+new families came from Southampton, Long Island, under the leadership of
+the Rev. Abraham Pierson (c. 1608-1678), an ardent advocate of the
+church state, who was chosen pastor at Totoket. The present name of the
+township, derived from Brentford, England, was adopted about 1645. After
+the members of the New Haven Jurisdiction had submitted to Connecticut,
+Pierson, in 1666-1667, led the most prominent citizens of Branford to
+New Jersey, where they were leaders in founding Newark. The borough of
+Branford was incorporated in 1893.
+
+  See E.C. Baldwin, _Branford Annals_, in Papers of New Haven Colony
+  Historical Society (New Haven, 1882 and 1888).
+
+
+
+
+BRANGWYN, FRANK (1867-), English painter, was born at Bruges, and
+received his first instruction from his father, the owner of an
+establishment for church embroideries and kindred objects, who took a
+leading part in the Gothic revival under Pugin. When the family moved to
+England, Brangwyn attracted the attention of William Morris by a drawing
+on which he was engaged at South Kensington museum. He worked for some
+time in Morris's studio, and then travelled more than once to the East,
+whereby his sense of colour and the whole further development of his art
+became deeply influenced. Indeed, the impressions he then received, and
+his love of Oriental decorative art--tiles and carpets--exercised a
+greater influence on him than any early training or the works of any
+European master. His whole tendency is essentially decorative: a
+colour-sense of sumptuous richness is wedded to an equally strong sense
+of well-balanced, harmonious design. These qualities, together with a
+summary suppression of the details which tie a subject to time and
+place, give his compositions a nobly impressive and universal character,
+such as may be seen in his decorative panel "Modern Commerce" in the
+ambulatory of the Royal Exchange, London. Among other decorative schemes
+executed by him are those for "L'Art nouveau" in the rue de Provence,
+Paris; for the hall of the Skinners' Company, London; and for the
+British room at the Venice International Exhibition, 1905. The
+Luxembourg museum has his "Trade on the Beach"; the Venice municipal
+museum, the "St Simon Stylites"; the Stuttgart gallery, the "St John the
+Baptist"; the Munich Pinakothek, the "Assisi"; the Carnegie Institute in
+Pittsburg, his "Sweetmeat Seller"; the Prague gallery, his "Turkish
+Boatmen"; and the National Gallery of New South Wales, "The Scoffers."
+Brangwyn embarked successfully in many fields of applied art, and made
+admirable designs for book decoration, stained glass, furniture,
+tapestry, metal-work and pottery. He devoted himself extensively to
+etching, and executed many plates of astonishing vigour and dramatic
+intensity. He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BRANKS, (probably akin to Irish _brancas_, a halter; Ger. _Pranger_,
+fetter, pillory), or SCOLDING-BRIDLE, a contrivance formerly in use
+throughout England and Scotland for the punishment of scolding women. It
+is said to have originated in the latter country. It seems to have never
+been a legalized form of punishment; but corporations and lords of
+manors in England, town councils, kirk-sessions and barony courts in
+Scotland assumed a right to inflict it. While specially known as the
+"Gossip's or Scold's Bridle" the branks was also used for women
+convicted of petty offences, breaches of the peace, street-brawling and
+abusive language. It was the equivalent of the male punishments of the
+stocks and pillory. In its earliest form it consisted of a hoop
+head-piece of iron, opening by hinges at the side so as to enclose the
+head, with a flat piece of iron projecting inwards so as to fit into
+the mouth and press the tongue down. Later it was made, by a
+multiplication of hoops, more like a cage, the front forming a mask of
+iron with holes for mouth, nose and eyes. Sometimes the mouth-plate was
+armed with a short spike. With this on her head the offending woman was
+marched through the streets by the beadle or chained to the market-cross
+to be gibed at by passers. The date of origin is doubtful. It was used
+at Edinburgh in 1567, at Glasgow in 1574, but not before the 17th
+century in any English town. A brank in the church of Walton-on-Thames,
+Surrey, bears date 1633; while another in a private collection has the
+crowned cipher of William III. The Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, the
+Scottish National Museum of Antiquities at Edinburgh, the towns of
+Lichfield, Shrewsbury, Leicester and Chester have examples of the brank.
+As late as 1856 it was in use at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
+
+  See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle,
+  _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (Chicago, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BRANT, JOSEPH (1742-1807), American Indian chief of the Mohawk tribe,
+known also by his Indian name, THAYENDANEGEA, was born on the banks of
+the Ohio river in 1742. In early youth he attracted the attention of Sir
+William Johnson, who sent him to be educated by Dr Eleazar Wheelock at
+Lebanon, Conn., in Moor's Indian charity school, in which Dartmouth
+College had its origin. He took part, on the side of the English, in the
+French and Indian War, and in 1763 fought with the Iroquois against
+Pontiac. Subsequently he settled at Canajoharie, or Upper Mohawk Castle
+(in what is now Montgomery county, New York), where, being a devout
+churchman, he devoted himself to missionary work, and translated the
+Prayer Book and St Mark's Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (1787). When Guy
+Johnson (1740-1788) succeeded his uncle, Sir William, as superintendent
+of Indian affairs in 1774, Brant became his secretary. At the outbreak
+of the War of Independence, he remained loyal, was commissioned colonel,
+and organized and led the Mohawks and other Indians allied to the
+British against the settlements on the New York frontier. He took part
+in the Cherry Valley Massacre, in the attack on Minisink and the
+expedition of General St Leger which resulted in the battle of Oriskany
+on the 6th of August 1777. After the war he discouraged the continuance
+of Indian warfare on the frontier, and aided the commissioners of the
+United States in securing treaties of peace with the Miamis and other
+western tribes. Settling in Upper Canada, he again devoted himself to
+missionary work and in 1786 visited England, where he raised funds with
+which was erected the first Episcopal church in Upper Canada. His
+character was a peculiar compound of the traits of an Indian
+warrior--with few rivals for daring leadership--and of a civilized
+politician and diplomat of the more conservative type. He died on an
+estate granted him by the British government on the banks of Lake
+Ontario on the 24th of November 1807. A monument was erected to his
+memory at Brantford, Ontario, Canada (named in his honour) in 1886.
+
+  See W.L. Stone, _Life of Joseph Brant_ (2 vols., New York, 1838; new
+  ed., Albany, 1865); Edward Eggleston and Elizabeth E. Seelye, _Brant
+  and Red Jacket_ in "Famous American Indians" (New York, 1879); and a
+  _Memoir_ (Brantford, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+BRANT, SEBASTIAN (1457-1521), German humanist and satirist, was born at
+Strassburg about the year 1457. He studied at Basel, took the degree of
+doctor of laws in 1489, and for some time held a professorship of
+jurisprudence there. Returning to Strassburg, he was made syndic of the
+town, and died on the 10th of May 1521. He first attracted attention in
+humanistic circles by his Latin poetry, and edited many ecclesiastical
+and legal works; but he is now only known by his famous satire, _Das
+Narrenschiff_(1494), a work the popularity and influence of which were
+not limited to Germany. Under the form of an allegory--a ship laden with
+fools and steered by fools to the fools' paradise of Narragenia--Brant
+here lashes with unsparing vigour the weaknesses and vices of his time.
+Although, like most of the German humanists, essentially conservative in
+his religious views, Brant's eyes were open to the abuses in the church,
+and the _Narrenschiff_ was a most effective preparation for the
+Protestant Reformalion. Alexander Barclay's _Ship of Fools_ (1509) is a
+free imitation of the German poem, and a Latin version by Jacobus
+Locher (1497) was hardly less popular than the German original. There is
+also a large quantity of other "fool literature." Nigel, called Wireker
+(fl. 1190), a monk of Christ Church Priory, Canterbury, wrote a
+satirical _Speculum stultorum_, in which the ambitious and discontented
+monk figured as the ass Brunellus, who wanted a longer tail. Brunellus,
+who has been educated at Paris, decides to found an order of fools,
+which shall combine the good points of all the existing monastic orders.
+_Cock Lovell's Bote_ (printed by Wynkyn de Worde, c. 1510) is another
+imitation of the _Narrenschiff_. Cock Lovell is a fraudulent currier who
+gathers round him a rascally collection of tradesmen. They sail off in a
+riotous fashion up hill and down dale throughout England. Brant's other
+works, of which the chief was a version of Freidank's _Bescheidenheit_
+(1508), are of inferior interest and importance.
+
+  Brant's _Narrenschiff_ has been edited by F. Zarncke (1854); by K.
+  Goedeke (1872); and by F. Bobertag (Kürschner's _Deutsche
+  Nationalliteratur_, vol. xvi., 1889). A modern German translation was
+  published by K. Simrock in 1872. On the influence of Brant in England
+  see especially C.H. Herford, _The Literary Relations of England and
+  Germany in the 16th Century_ (1886).
+
+
+
+
+BRANTFORD, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, on the Grand
+river, and on the Grand Trunk, and Toronto, Hamilton & Buffalo railways.
+The river is navigable to within 2½ m. of the town; for the remaining
+distance a canal has been constructed. Agricultural implements, plough,
+engine, bicycle and stove works, potteries and large railway shops
+constitute the important industrial establishments. It contains an
+institute for the education of the blind, maintained by the provincial
+government, and a women's college. The city is named in honour of the
+Mohawk Indian chief, Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), who settled in the
+neighbourhood after the American War of Independence, in which he had
+led the Six Nations (Iroquois) on the British side. The amalgamated
+tribes of the Six Nations still make it their headquarters, and a
+monument to Brant has been erected in Victoria Square. Brantford is one
+of the most flourishing industrial towns of the province, and its
+population rose from 9616 in 1881 to 20,713 in 1907.
+
+
+
+
+BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE (d. 1394), English lord treasurer and bishop of
+Exeter, came of a Durham family. An older relative, Ralph de
+Brantingham, had served Edward II. and Edward III., and Thomas was made
+a clerk in the treasury. Edward III. obtained preferment for him in the
+church, and from 1361 to 1368 he was employed in France in responsible
+positions. He was closely associated with William of Wykeham, and while
+the latter was in power as chancellor, Brantingham was lord treasurer
+(1369-1371, and 1377-1381), being made bishop of Exeter in 1370. He
+continued to play a prominent part in public affairs under Richard II.,
+and in 1389 was again lord treasurer for a few months. He died in 1394
+and was buried in Exeter cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+BRANTÔME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE, SEIGNEUR AND ABBÉ DE (c. 1540-1614),
+French historian and biographer, was born in Périgord about 1540. He was
+the third son of the baron de Bourdeille. His mother and his maternal
+grandmother were both attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois, and
+at her death in 1549 he went to Paris, and later (1555) to Poitiers, to
+finish his education. He was given several benefices, the most important
+of which was the abbey of Brantôme (see below), but he had no
+inclination for an ecclesiastical career. At an early age he entered the
+profession of arms. He showed himself a brave soldier, and was brought
+into contact with most of the great leaders who were seeking fame or
+fortune in the wars that distracted the continent. He travelled much in
+Italy; in Scotland, where he accompanied Mary Stuart (then the widow of
+Francis I.); in England, where he saw Queen Elizabeth (1561, 1579); in
+Morocco (1564); and in Spain and Portugal. He fought on the galleys of
+the order of Malta, and accompanied his great friend, the French
+commander Philippe Strozzi (grandson of Filippo Strozzi, the Italian
+general, and nephew of Piero), in his expedition against Terceira, in
+which Strozzi was killed (1582). During the wars of religion under
+Charles IX. he fought in the ranks of the Catholics, but he allowed
+himself to be won over temporarily by the ideas of the reformers, and
+though he publicly separated himself from Protestantism it had a marked
+effect on his mind. A fall from his horse compelled him to retire into
+private life about 1589, and he spent his last years in writing his
+_Memoirs_ of the illustrious men and women whom he had known. He died on
+the 15th of July 1614.
+
+Brantôme left distinct orders that his manuscript should be printed; a
+first edition appeared, however, late (1665-1666) and not very complete.
+Of the later editions the most valuable are: one in 15 volumes (1740);
+another by Louis Jean Nicolas Monmerqué (1780-1860) in 8 volumes
+(1821-1824), reproduced in Buchan's _Panthéon littéraire_; that of the
+Bibliothèque elzévirienne, begun (1858) by P. Mérimée and L. Lacour, and
+finished, with vol. xiii., only in 1893; and Lalanne's edition for the
+Société de l'Histoire de France (12 vols., 1864-1896). Brantôme can
+hardly be regarded as a historian proper, and his _Memoirs_ cannot be
+accepted as a very trustworthy source of information. But he writes in a
+quaint conversational way, pouring forth his thoughts, observations or
+facts without order or system, and with the greatest frankness and
+naïveté. His works certainly gave an admirable picture of the general
+court-life of the time, with its unblushing and undisguised profligacy.
+There is not a _homme illustre_ or a _dame galante_ in all his gallery
+of portraits who is not stained with vice; and yet the whole is narrated
+with the most complete unconsciousness that there is anything
+objectionable in their conduct.
+
+  The edition of L. Lalanne has great merit, being the first to indicate
+  the Spanish, Italian and French sources on which Brantôme drew, but it
+  did not utilize all the existing MSS. It was only after Lalanne's
+  death that the earliest were obtained for the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+  At Paris and at Chantilly (Musée Condé) all Brantôme's original MSS.,
+  as revised by him several times, are now collected (see the
+  _Bibliothèque de l'école des Chartes_, 1904), and a new and definitive
+  edition has therefore become possible. Brantôme's poems (which amount
+  to more than 2200 verses) were first published in 1881; see Lalanne's
+  edition.
+
+
+
+
+BRANTÔME, a town of south-western France, in the department of Dordogne,
+20 m. N. by W. of Périgueux by steam-tramway. Pop. (1906) 1230. The town
+is built, in great part, on an island in the river Dronne. It is well
+known for the remains of an abbey founded by Charlemagne about 770 and
+afterwards destroyed by the Normans. The oldest existing portion is a
+square tower dating from the 11th century, built upon a rock beside the
+church which it overlooks. It communicates by a staircase with the
+church, a rectangular building partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, to the
+west of which are the remains of a cloister. The abbey buildings date
+from the 18th century, and now serve as hôtel-de-ville, magistrature and
+schools. Caves in the neighbouring rocks were inhabited by the monks
+before the building of the abbey; one of them, used as an oratory,
+contains curious carvings, representing the Last Judgment and the
+Crucifixion. In the middle of the 16th century Pierre de Bourdeille came
+into possession of the abbey, from which he took the name of Brantôme.
+
+Brantôme has some old houses and a church of the 15th century, which was
+once fortified and is now used as a market. Truffles are the chief
+article of commerce; and there are quarries of freestone in the
+neighbourhood. The dolmen which is known as Pierre-Levée, to the east of
+the town, is the most remarkable in Périgord.
+
+
+
+
+BRANXHOLM, or BRANKSOME, a feudal castle, now modernized, and an ancient
+seat of the Buccleuchs, on the Teviot, 3 m. S.W. of Hawick, Roxburgh,
+Scotland. It was at Branksome Hall that Sir Walter Scott laid the scene
+of _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_.
+
+
+
+
+BRANXTON, or BRANKSTON, a village of Northumberland, England, 10½ m. E.
+by N. of Kelso, and 2 m. E.S.E. of Coldstream, and 10 m. N.W. of Wooler.
+It was on Branxton Hill, immediately south of the village, that the
+battle of Flodden (q.v.) was fought between the English and the Scots on
+the 9th of September 1513. During the fight the Scots centre pushed as
+far as Branxton church, but "the King's Stone," which lies N.W. of the
+church and is popularly supposed to mark the spot where James IV. fell,
+is some three-quarters of a mile from the scene of the battle; it is
+believed in reality to mark the sepulchre of a chieftain, whose name had
+already perished in the 16th century. Branxton church, dedicated to St
+Paul, was rebuilt in 1849 in Norman style. Of the older building nothing
+remains save the chancel arch.
+
+
+
+
+BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE (d. 1211), lord of Brecknock, Radnor and Limerick,
+spent the early part of his life fighting the Welsh in Radnorshire. He
+was high in King John's favour, received a large number of honours, and
+was even given the custody of Prince Arthur. But John and he quarrelled,
+probably over money (1207). In 1208 John began to suspect the fidelity
+of the whole family, and William had to fly to Ireland. After a number
+of attempted reconciliations, he was outlawed (1210) and died at Corbeil
+(1211). It is said that his wife and son were starved to death by John.
+
+  See _Foedera_, i. 107; _Histoire des ducs_ (ed. Michel), Wendover;
+  Kate Norgate's _John Lackland_.
+
+A descendant, William de Braose (d. 1326), lord of Gower, was a devoted
+follower of Edward I., and in 1299 was summoned to parliament as baron
+de Braose; and his nephew Thomas de Braose (d. 1361) also distinguished
+himself in the wars and was summoned as baron de Braose in 1342. This
+latter barony became extinct in 1399; but a claim to the barony of
+William de Braose, which, as he had no son, fell into abeyance between
+his two daughters and co-heirs, Alina (wife of Lord Mowbray) and Joan
+(wife of John de Bohun), or their descendants, may still be traced by
+careful genealogists in various noble English families.
+
+
+
+
+BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND (1804-1867), French painter, was born at
+Bordeaux, and studied art in Paris, where in 1825 he won a _prix de
+Rome_ with a picture ("Chasse de Méléagre") now in the Bordeaux gallery.
+He went to Italy and painted a number of landscapes which were exhibited
+between 1827 and 1835; but subsequently he devoted himself mainly to
+animal-painting, in which his reputation as an artist was made. His
+"Lutte de taureaux" (1837), in the _musée_ at Nantes, and his "Vache
+attaquée par des loups" (1845), in the Leipzig museum, were perhaps the
+best of his pictures; but he was remarkable for his accuracy of
+observation and correct drawing. He was elected a member of the
+Institute in 1846. He died at Paris on the 28th of February 1867.
+
+
+
+
+BRAS D'OR, a landlocked and tideless gulf or lake of high irregular
+outline, 50 m. long by 20 m. broad, almost separating Cape Breton Island
+(province of Nova Scotia, Canada) into two parts. A ship canal across
+the isthmus (about 1 m. wide) completes the severance of the island. The
+entrance to the gulf is on the N.E. coast of the island, and it is
+connected with the Atlantic by the Great and Little Bras d'Or channels,
+which are divided by Boulardeire Island. One channel is 25 m. long and
+from ¼ m. to 3 m. broad, but is of little depth, the other (used by
+shipping) is 22 m. long, 1 to 1½ m. wide, and has a depth of 60 fathoms.
+The gulf or lake is itself divided into two basins, the inner waters
+being known as the Great Bras d'Or Lake. The waters are generally from
+12 to 60 fathoms deep, but in the outer basin (known as the Little Bras
+d'Or Lake) are soundings said to reach nearly 700 ft. The shores of the
+gulf are very picturesque and well wooded and have attracted many
+tourists. Sea fishing (cod, mackerel, &c.) is the chief industry. The
+name is said to be a corruption of an Indian word, but it assumed its
+present form during the French occupation of Cape Breton Island.
+
+
+
+
+BRASDOR, PIERRE (1721-1799), French surgeon, was born in the province of
+Maine. He took his degree in Paris as master of surgery in 1752, and was
+appointed regius professor of anatomy and director of the Academy of
+Surgery. He was a skilful operator, whose name was long attached to a
+ligature of his invention; and he was an ardent advocate of inoculation.
+He died in Paris on the 28th of September 1799.
+
+
+
+
+BRASIDAS (d. 422 B.C.), a Spartan officer during the first decade of the
+Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Tellis and Argileonis, and won his
+first laurels by the relief of Methone, which was besieged by the
+Athenians (431 B.C.). During the following year he seems to have been
+eponymous ephor (Xen. _Hell_. ii. 3, 10), and in 429 he was sent out as
+one of the three commissioners ([Greek: symbouloi]) to advise the
+admiral Cnemus. As trierarch he distinguished himself in the assault on
+the Athenian position at Pylos, during which he was severely wounded
+(Thuc. iv. n. 12).
+
+In the next year, while Brasidas mustered a force at Corinth for a
+campaign in Thrace, he frustrated an Athenian attack on Megara (Thuc.
+iv. 70-73), and immediately afterwards marched through Thessaly at the
+head of 700 helots and 1000 Peloponnesian mercenaries to join the
+Macedonian king Perdiccas. Refusing to be made a tool for the
+furtherance of Perdiccas's ambitions, Brasidas set about the
+accomplishment of his main object, and, partly by the rapidity and
+boldness of his movements, partly by his personal charm and the
+moderation of his demands, succeeded during the course of the winter in
+winning over the important cities of Acanthus, Stagirus, Amphipolis and
+Torone as well as a number of minor towns. An attack on Eion was foiled
+by the arrival of Thucydides, the historian, at the head of an Athenian
+squadron. In the spring of 423 a truce was concluded between Athens and
+Sparta, but its operation was at once imperilled by Brasidas's refusal
+to give up Scione, which, the Athenian partisans declared, revolted two
+days after the truce began, and by his occupation of Mende shortly
+afterwards. An Athenian fleet under Nicias and Nicostratus recovered
+Mende and blockaded Scione, which fell two years later (421 B.C.).
+Meanwhile Brasidas joined Perdiccas in a campaign against Arrhabaeus,
+king of the Lyncesti, who was severely defeated. On the approach of a
+body of Illyrians, who, though summoned by Perdiccas, unexpectedly
+declared for Arrhabaeus, the Macedonians fled, and Brasidas's force was
+rescued from a critical position only by his coolness and ability. This
+brought to a head the quarrel between Brasidas and Perdiccas, who
+promptly concluded a treaty with Athens, of which some fragments have
+survived (_I.G._ i. 42).
+
+In April 422 the truce with Sparta expired, and in the same summer Cleon
+was despatched to Thrace, where he stormed Torone and Galepsus and
+prepared for an attack on Amphipolis. But a carelessly conducted
+reconnaissance gave Brasidas the opportunity for a vigorous and
+successful sally. The Athenian army was routed with a loss of 600 men
+and Cleon was slain. On the Spartan side only seven men are said to have
+fallen, but amongst them was Brasidas. He was buried at Amphipolis with
+impressive pomp, and for the future was regarded as the founder ([Greek:
+oikistaes]) of the city and honoured with yearly games and sacrifices
+(Thuc. iv. 78-v. 11). At Sparta a cenotaph was erected in his memory
+near the tombs of Pausanias and Leonidas, and yearly speeches were made
+and games celebrated in their honour, in which only Spartiates could
+compete (Paus. in. 14).
+
+Brasidas united in himself the personal courage characteristic of Sparta
+with those virtues in which the typical Spartan was most signally
+lacking. He was quick in forming his plans and carried them out without
+delay or hesitation. With an oratorical power rare amongst the
+Lacedaemonians he combined a conciliatory manner which everywhere won
+friends for himself and for Sparta (Thuc. iv. 81).
+
+  See in particular Thucydides, ii.-v.; what Diodorus xii. adds is
+  mainly oratorical elaboration or pure invention. A fuller account will
+  be found in the histories of Greece (e.g. those of Grote, Beloch,
+  Busolt, Meyer) and in G. Schimmelpfeng, _De Brasidae Spartani rebus
+  gestis atque ingenio_ (Marburg, 1857).
+
+
+
+
+BRASS, a river, town and district of southern Nigeria, British West
+Africa. The Brass river is one of the deltaic branches of the Niger,
+lying east of the Rio Nun or main channel of the river. From the point
+of divergence from the main stream to the sea the Brass has a course of
+about 100 m., its mouth being in 6° 20' E., 4° 35' N. Brass town is a
+flourishing trading settlement at the mouth of the river. It is the
+headquarters of a district commissioner and the seat of a native court.
+Its most conspicuous building is a fine church, the gift of a native
+chief. The capital of the Brass tribes is Nimbé, 30 m. up river.
+
+The Brass river, called by its Portuguese discoverers the Rio Bento, is
+said to have received its English name from the brass rods and other
+brass utensils imported by the early traders in exchange for palm-oil
+and slaves. The Brass natives, of the pure negro type, were noted for
+their savage character. In 1856 their chiefs concluded a treaty with
+Great Britain agreeing to give up the slave-trade in exchange for a duty
+on the palm-oil exported. Finding their profitable business as middlemen
+between the up-river producer and the exporter threatened by the
+appearance of European traders, they made ineffective complaints to the
+British authorities. The establishment of the Royal Niger Company led to
+further loss of trade, and on the 29th of January 1895 the natives
+attacked and sacked the company's station at Akassa on the Rio Nun, over
+forty prisoners being killed and eaten as a sacrifice to the fetish
+gods. In the following month a punitive expedition partially destroyed
+Nimbé, and a heavy fine was paid by the Brass chiefs. Since then the
+country has settled down under British administration. The trade
+regulations of which complaint had been made were removed in 1900 on the
+establishment of the protectorate of Southern Nigeria (see NIGERIA).
+
+  Valuable information concerning the country and people will be found
+  in the _Report by Sir John Kirk on the Disturbances at Brass (Africa_,
+  No. 3, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BRASS (O. Eng. _braes_), an alloy consisting mainly if not exclusively
+of copper and zinc; in its older use the term was applied rather to
+alloys of copper and tin, now known as bronze (q.v.)Thus the brass of
+the Bible was probably bronze, and so also was much of the brass of
+later times, until the distinction between zinc and tin became clearly
+recognized. The Latin word _aes_ signifies either pure copper or bronze,
+not brass, but the Romans comprehended a brass compound of copper and
+zinc under the term _orichalcum_ or _aurichalcum_, into which Pliny
+states that copper was converted by the aid of cadmia (a mineral of
+zinc).
+
+In England there is good evidence of the manufacture of brass with zinc
+at the end of the 16th century, for Queen Elizabeth by patent granted to
+William Humfrey and Christopher Schutz the exclusive right of working
+calamine and making brass. This right subsequently devolved upon a body
+called the "Governors, Assistants and Societies of the City of London of
+and for the Mineral and Battery Works," which continued to exercise its
+functions down to the year 1710.
+
+When a small percentage of zinc is present, the colour of brass is
+reddish, as in _tombac_ or red brass, which contains about 10%. With
+about 20% the colour becomes more yellow, and a series of metals is
+obtained which simulate gold more or less closely; such are _Dutch
+metal, Mannheim gold, similar_ and _pinchbeck_, the last deriving its
+name from a London clockmaker, Christopher Pinchbeck, who invented it in
+1732. Ordinary brass contains about 30% of zinc, and when 40% is
+present, as in _Muntz, yellow_ or _patent_ metal (invented by G.F. Muntz
+in 1832), the colour becomes a full yellow. When the proportion of zinc
+is largely increased the colour becomes silver-white and finally grey.
+The limit of elasticity increases with the percentage of zinc, as also
+does the amount of elongation before fracture, the maximum occurring
+with 30%. The tenacity increases with the proportion of zinc up to a
+maximum with 45%; then it decreases rapidly, and with 50% the metals are
+fragile. By varying the proportion between 30 and 43% a series of alloys
+may be prepared presenting very varied properties. The most malleable of
+the series has an elongation of about 60%, with a tensile strength of
+17.5 tons per sq. in. Increase in the proportion of zinc gives higher
+tensile strength, accompanied, however, by a smaller percentage of
+elongation and a materially increased tendency to produce unsound
+castings. The quality of copper-zinc alloys is improved by the addition
+of a small quantity of iron, a fact of which advantage is taken in the
+production of Aich's metal and delta metal. Of the latter there are
+several varieties, modified in composition to suit different purposes.
+Some of them possess high tensile strength and ductility. They are
+remarkably resistant to corrosion by sea-water, and are well suited for
+screw-propellers as well as for pump-plungers, pistons and glands.
+Heated to a dull red delta metal becomes malleable and can be worked
+under the hammer, press or stamps. By such treatment an ultimate tensile
+strength of 30 tons per sq. in. may be obtained, with an elongation of
+32% in 2 in. and a contraction of area of 30%.
+
+In the arts brass is a most important and widely used alloy. As compared
+with copper its superior hardness makes it wear better, while being more
+fusible it can be cast with greater facility. It is readily drawn into
+fine wire, and formed into rolled sheets and rods which are machined
+into a huge number of useful and ornamental articles. It is susceptible
+of a fine polish, but tarnishes with exposure to the air; the brilliancy
+of the surface can, however, be preserved if the metal is thoroughly
+cleansed by "dipping" in nitric acid and "lacquered" with a coating of
+varnish consisting of seed-lac dissolved in spirit.
+
+
+
+
+BRASSES, MONUMENTAL, a species of engraved sepulchral memorials which in
+the early part of the 13th century began to take the place of tombs and
+effigies carved in stone. Made of hard _latten_ or sheet brass, let into
+the pavement, and thus forming no obstruction in the space required for
+the services of the church, they speedily came into general use, and
+continued to be a favourite style of sepulchral memorial for three
+centuries. Besides their great value as historical monuments, they are
+interesting as authentic contemporary evidence of the varieties of
+armour and costume, or the peculiarities of palaeography and heraldic
+designs, and they are often the only authoritative records of the
+intricate details of family history. Although the intrinsic value of the
+metal has unfortunately contributed to the wholesale spoliation of these
+interesting monuments, they are still found in remarkable profusion in
+England, and they were at one time equally common in France, Germany and
+the Low Countries. In France, however, those that survived the troubles
+of the 16th century were totally swept away during the reign of terror,
+and almost the only evidence of their existence is now supplied by the
+collection of drawings bequeathed by Gough to the Bodleian library. The
+fine memorials of the royal house of Saxony in the cathedrals of Meissen
+and Freiberg are the most artistic and striking brasses in Germany.
+Among the 13th-century examples existing in German churches are the
+full-length memorials of Yso von Welpe, bishop of Verden (1231), and of
+Bernard, bishop of Paderborn (1340). Many fine Flemish specimens exist
+in Belgium, especially at Bruges. Only two or three examples, and these
+of late date, are known in Scotland, among which are the memorials of
+Alexander Cockburn (1564) at Ormiston; of the regent Murray (1569) in
+the collegiate church of St Giles, Edinburgh; and of the Minto family
+(1605) in the south aisle of the nave of Glasgow cathedral. England is
+the only country which now possesses an extensive series of these
+interesting memorials, of which it is calculated that there may be about
+4000 still remaining in the various churches. They are most abundant in
+the eastern counties, and this fact has been frequently adduced in
+support of the opinion that they were of Flemish manufacture. But in the
+days when sepulchral brasses were most in fashion the eastern counties
+of England were full of commercial activity and wealth, and nowhere do
+the engraved memorials of civilians and prosperous merchants more abound
+than in the churches of Ipswich, Norwich, Lynn and Lincoln. Flemish
+brasses do occur in England, but they were never numerous, and they are
+readily distinguished from those of native workmanship. The Flemish
+examples have the figures engraved in the centre of a large plate, the
+background filled in with diapered or scroll work, and the inscription
+placed round the edge of the plate. The English examples have the
+figures cut out to the outline and inserted in corresponding cavities in
+the slab, the darker colour of the stone serving as a background. This
+is not an invariable distinction, however, as "figure-brasses" of
+Flemish origin are found both at Bruges and in England. But the
+character of the engraving is constant, the Flemish work being more
+florid in design, the lines shallower, and the broad lines cut with a
+chisel-pointed tool instead of the lozenge-shaped burin. The brass of
+Robert Hallum, bishop of Salisbury, the envoy of Henry V. to the council
+of Constance, who died and was interred there in 1416, precisely
+resembles the brasses of England in the peculiarities which distinguish
+them from continental specimens. Scarcely any of the brasses which now
+exist in England can be confidently referred to the first half of the
+13th century, though several undoubted examples of this period are on
+record. The full-sized brass of Sir John d'Aubernon at Stoke d'Abernon
+in Surrey (c. 1277) has the decorations of the shield filled in with a
+species of enamel. Other examples of this occur, and the probability is,
+that, in most cases, the lines of the engraving were filled with
+colouring-matter, though brass would scarcely bear the heat requisite to
+fuse the ordinary enamels. A well-known 13th-century example is that of
+Sir Roger de Trumpington (c. 1290), who accompanied Prince Edward in his
+expedition to Palestine and is represented cross-legged. About half a
+dozen instances of this peculiarity are known. The 14th-century brasses
+are much more numerous, and present a remarkable variety in their
+details. The finest specimen is that of Nicholas Lord Burnell (1315) in
+the church of Acton Burnell, Shropshire. In the 15th century the design
+and execution of monumental brasses had attained their highest
+excellence. The beautiful brass of Thomas Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d.
+1401), and his wife Margaret, which formerly covered the tomb in St
+Mary's church, Warwick, is a striking example. One of the best specimens
+of plate armour is that of Sir Robert Stantoun (1458) in Castle
+Donnington church, Leicestershire, and one of the finest existing
+brasses of ecclesiastics is that of Abbot de la Mare of St Albans. It is
+only in the 16th century that the engraved representations become
+portraits. Previous to that period the features were invariably
+represented conventionally, though sometimes personal peculiarities were
+given. A large number of brasses in England are _palimpsests_, the back
+of an ancient brass having been engraved for the more recent memorial.
+Thus a brass commemorative of Margaret Bulstrode (1540) at Hedgerley, on
+being removed from its position, was discovered to have been previously
+the memorial of Thomas Totyngton, abbot of St Edmunds, Bury (1312). The
+abbey was only surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1539, so that before the
+year was out the work of spoliation had begun, and the abbot's brass had
+been removed and re-engraved to Margaret Bulstrode. In explanation of
+the frequency with which ancient brasses have thus been stolen and
+re-erected after being engraved on the reverse, as at Berkhampstead, it
+may be remarked that all the sheet brass used in England previous to the
+establishment of a manufactory at Esher by a German in 1649, had to be
+imported from the continent.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Sir John D'Abernon, 1277. Stoke D'Abernon Surrey.
+
+  Fig. 2.--Margaret de Camoys. 1310. Trotton, Sussex.
+
+  Fig. 3.--Henry de Grofhurst, c. 1330 Horsemonden, Kent.
+
+  Fig. 4.--Sir Nicholas Burnell, 1382. Acton Burnell, Shropshire.
+
+  Fig. 5.--Margaret Lady Cobham, 1385. Cobham, Kent.
+
+  Fig. 6.--Sir John Corp and Eleanor, his grand-daughter 1391, 1361.
+  Stoke Fleming, Devonshire.
+
+  Fig. 7.--Sir Symon de Felbrigge and Margaret his wife, 1400.
+  Felbrigge, Norfolk.
+
+  Figs. 1 and 6 from Waller's _Monumental Brasses._
+
+  Figs. 5 and 7 from Boutell's _Monumental Brasses._
+
+  Figs. 2, 3, and 4 by permission of the _Monumental Brass Society_.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Thomas de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick and Lady, 1406 and 1401.
+  St. Mary's Church, Warwick.
+
+  Fig. 2.--Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin, 1417. New College,
+  Oxford.
+
+  Fig. 3.--Sir William Vernon and Lady, 1467. Tong Church, Shropshire.
+
+  Fig. 4.--John Shelley, Esq., 1526, and his wife Elizabeth, 1513.
+  Clapham, Sussex.
+
+  Fig. 5.--Dame Margaret Chute, 1614. Mardon, Herefordshire.
+
+  Fig. 6.--Sir Edward Filmer and Lady, 1638. East Sutton, Kent.
+
+  Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 6 from Waller's _Monumental Brasses_.
+
+  Figs. 4 and 5 by permission of the _Monumental Brass Society_.]
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(1) General: _Manual for the Study of Monumental
+  Brasses_ (Oxford, 1848); Boutell's _Monumental Brasses of England_,
+  engravings on wood, folio (London, 1849); _Manual of Monumental
+  Brasses_, by H. Haines (2 vols. 8vo, 1861); Waller's _Series of
+  Monumental Brasses in England_ (London and Oxford, Parkers, 1863);
+  _Monumental Brasses_, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, 1890); _The Brasses of
+  England_, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, London, 1907). (2) English Counties:
+  Cotman's _Engravings of the most Remarkable of the Sepulchral Brasses
+  of Norfolk_ (4to, London, 1813-1816); and second edition, with plates
+  and notes by Meyrick, Albert Way and Sir Harris Nicholas (2 vols.
+  folio, London, 1839); _Illustrations of Monumental Brasses in
+  Cambridge_ (4to, Camden Society, 1846); _Monumental Brasses of
+  Northamptonshire_, by F. Hudson (folio, 1853); _The Monumental Brasses
+  of Wiltshire_, by G. Kite (8vo, London, 1860); _Architectural and
+  Historical Notes of the Churches of Cambridgeshire_, by A.C. Hill
+  (8vo, 1880); _Monumental Brasses of Cornwall_, by E.H.W. Dunken (4to,
+  London, 1882); _Monumental Brasses of Worcestershire and
+  Herefordshire_, ed. by C.T. Davis (1884); _Kentish Brasses_, by W.D.
+  Belcher (4to, London, 1888); _List of Monumental Brasses in the County
+  of Norfolk_, by the Rev. E. Farrer (Norwich, 1890); _The Monumental
+  Brasses of Lancashire and Cheshire_, by James Thornby (8vo, Hull,
+  1893); _Monumental Brasses in the Bedfordshire Churches_, by Grace
+  Isherwood (8vo, London, 1906), a large collection of rubbings of
+  special interest and value. (3) Foreign: _Monumental Brasses and
+  Incised Slabs in Belgium_ (8vo, 1849); _Books of Facsimiles of
+  Monumental Brasses of the Continent of Europe_, folio (1884), by the
+  Rev. W.F. Greeny.
+
+
+
+
+BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ÉTIENNE (1814-1874), Belgian
+ethnographer, was born at Bourbourg, near Dunkirk, on the 8th of
+September 1814. He entered the Roman Catholic priesthood, was professor
+of ecclesiastical history in the Quebec seminary in 1845, vicar-general
+at Boston in 1846, and from 1848 to 1863 travelled as a missionary,
+chiefly in Mexico and Central America. He gave great attention to
+Mexican antiquities, published in 1857-1859 a history of Aztec
+civilization, and from 1861 to 1864 edited a collection of documents in
+the indigenous languages. In 1863 he announced the discovery of a key to
+Mexican hieroglyphic writing, but its value is very questionable. In
+1864 he was archaeologist to the French military expedition in Mexico,
+and his _Monuments anciens du Mexique_ was published by the French
+Government in 1866. Perhaps his greatest service was the publication in
+1861 of a French translation of the _Popol Vuh_, a sacred book of the
+Quiché Indians, together with a Quiché grammar, and an essay on Central
+American mythology. In 1871 he brought out his _Bibliothèque
+Mexico-Guatemalienne_, and in 1869-1870 gave the principles of his
+decipherment of Indian picture-writing in his _Manuscrit Troano, études
+sur le système graphique et la langue des Mayas._ He died at Nice on the
+8th of January 1874. His chief merit is his diligent collection of
+materials; his interpretations are generally fanciful.
+
+
+
+
+BRASSEY, THOMAS (1805-1870), English railway contractor, was born at
+Buerton, near Chester, on the 7th of November 1805. His father, besides
+cultivating land of his own, held a large farm of the marquess of
+Westminster; his ancestors, according to family tradition, having been
+settled for several centuries at Bulkeley, near Malpas, Cheshire, before
+they went to Buerton in 1663. Thomas Brassey received an ordinary
+commercial education at a Chester school. At the age of sixteen he was
+apprenticed to a surveyor, and on the completion of his term became the
+partner of his master, eventually assuming the sole management of the
+business. In the local surveys to which he devoted his attention during
+his early years he acquired the knowledge and practical experience which
+were the necessary foundation of his great reputation. His first
+engagement as railway contractor was entered upon in 1835, when he
+undertook the execution of a portion of the Grand Junction railway, on
+the invitation of the distinguished engineer Joseph Locke, who soon
+afterwards entrusted him with the completion of the London and
+Southampton railway, a task which involved contracts to the amount of
+£4,000,000 sterling and the employment of a body of 3000 men. At the
+same time he was engaged on portions of several other lines in the north
+of England and in Scotland. In conjunction with his partner, W.
+Mackenzie, Brassey undertook, in 1840, the construction of the railway
+from Paris to Rouen, of which Locke was engineer. He subsequently
+carried out the extension of the same line. A few years later he was
+engaged with his partner on five other French lines, and on his own
+account on the same number of lines in England, Wales and Scotland.
+Brassey was now in control of an industrial army of 75,000 men, and the
+capital involved in his various contracts amounted to some £36,000,000.
+But his energy and capacity were equal to still larger tasks. He
+undertook in 1851 other works in England and Scotland; and in the
+following year he engaged in the construction of railways in Holland,
+Prussia, Spain and Italy. One of his largest undertakings was the Grand
+Trunk railway of Canada, 1100 m. in length, with its fine bridge over
+the St Lawrence. In this work he was associated with Sir M. Peto and
+E.L. Betts. In the following years divisions of his industrial army were
+found in almost every country in Europe, in India, in Australia and in
+South America. Besides actual railway works, he originated and
+maintained a great number of subordinate assistant establishments, coal
+and iron works, dockyards, &c., the direction of which alone would be
+sufficient to strain the energies of an ordinary mind. His profits were,
+of course, enormous, but prosperity did not intoxicate him; and when
+heavy losses came, as sometimes they did, he took them bravely and
+quietly. Among the greatest of his pecuniary disasters were those caused
+by the fall of the great Barentin viaduct on the Rouen and Havre
+railway, and by the failure of Peto and Betts. Brassey was one of the
+first to aim at improving the relations between engineers and
+contractors, by setting himself against the corrupt practices which were
+common. He resolutely resisted the "scamping" of work and the bribery of
+inspectors, and what he called the "smothering of the engineer"; and he
+did much in this way to bring about a better state of things.
+Large-hearted and generous to a rare degree, modest and simple in his
+taste and manners, he was conscious of his power as a leader in his
+calling, and knew how to use it wisely and for noble ends. Honours came
+to him unsought. The cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred on him.
+From Victor Emmanuel he received the cross of the Order of St Maurice
+and St Lazarus; and from the emperor of Austria the decoration of the
+Iron Crown, which it is said had not before been given to a foreigner.
+He died at St Leonards on the 8th of December 1870. His life and labours
+are commemorated in a volume by Sir Arthur Helps (1872).
+
+He left three sons, of whom the eldest, THOMAS (b. 1836), was knighted
+and afterwards (1886) created BARON BRASSEY. Lord Brassey, who was
+educated at Rugby and Oxford, entered parliament as a liberal in 1865,
+and devoted himself largely to naval affairs. He was civil lord of the
+admiralty (1880-1883), and secretary to the admiralty (1883-1885); and
+both before and after his elevation to the peerage did important work on
+naval and statistical inquiries for the government. In 1893-1805 he was
+president of the Institution of Naval Architects. In 1894 he was a
+lord-in-waiting, and from 1895 to 1900 was governor of Victoria. In 1908
+he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque Ports. His voyages in his
+yacht "Sunbeam" from 1876 onwards, with his first wife (d. 1887), who
+published an interesting book on the subject, took him all over the
+world. Lord Brassey married a second time in 1890. Among other
+publications, his inauguration of the _Naval Annual_ (1886 onwards), and
+his volumes on _The British Navy_, are the most important. His eldest
+son Thomas, who edited the _Naval Annual_ (1890-1904), and
+unsuccessfully contested several parliamentary constituencies, was born
+in 1862.
+
+
+
+
+BRASSÓ (Ger. _Kronstadt_; Rumanian, _Brasov_), a town of Hungary, in
+Transylvania, 206 m. S.E. of Kolozsvár by rail. Pop. (1900) 34,511. It
+is the capital of the comitat (county) of the same name, also known as
+Burzenland, a fertile country inhabited by an industrious population of
+Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. Brassó is beautifully situated on the
+slopes of the Transylvanian Alps, in a narrow valley, shut in by
+mountains, and presenting only one opening on the north-west towards the
+Burzen plain. The town is entirely dominated by the Zinne of
+Kapellenberg, a mountain rising 1276 ft. above the town (total altitude
+3153 ft.), from which a beautiful view is obtained of the lofty
+mountains around and of the carefully cultivated plain of the
+Burzenland, dotted with tastefully built and well-kept villages. On the
+summit of the mountain is one of the numerous monuments erected in 1896
+in different parts of the country to commemorate the thousandth
+anniversary of the foundation of the Hungarian state. It is known as
+Árpád's Monument, and consists of a Doric column erected on a circular
+pedestal, which supports the bronze figure of a warrior from the time of
+Árpád.
+
+Brassó consists of the inner town, which is the commercial centre, and
+the suburbs of Blumenau, Altstadt and Obere Vorstadt or Bolgárszeg,
+inhabited respectively by Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. To the east of
+the inner town rises the Schlossberg, crowned by the citadel, which was
+erected in 1553, and constitutes the principal remaining fragment of the
+old fortifications with which Brassó was encircled. The most interesting
+building in the town is the Protestant church, popularly called the
+Black Church, owing to its smoke-stained walls, caused by the great fire
+of 1689. This church, the finest in Transylvania, is a Gothic edifice
+with traces of Romanesque influence, and was built in 1385-1425. In the
+square in front of it is the statue of Johannes Honterus (1498-1549),
+"the apostle of Transylvania," who was born in Brassó, and established
+here the first printing-press in Transylvania. In the principal square
+of the inner town stands the town hall, built in 1420 and restored in
+the 18th century, with a tower 190 ft. high. Brassó is the most
+important commercial and manufacturing town of Transylvania. Lying near
+the frontier of Rumania, with easy access through the Tömös pass, it
+developed from the earliest time an active trade with that country and
+with the whole of the Balkan states. Its chief industries are iron and
+copper works, wool-spinning, turkey-red dyeing, leather goods, paper,
+cement and petroleum refineries. The timber industry in all its
+branches, with a speciality for the manufacture of the wooden bottles
+largely used by the peasantry in Hungary and in the Balkan states, as
+well as the dairy industry, and ham-curing are also fully developed. A
+peculiarity of Brassó, which constitutes a survival of the old methods
+of trade with the Balkan states, is the number of money-changers who ply
+their trade at small movable tables in the market-place and in the open
+street. Brassó is the most populous town of Transylvania, and its
+population is composed in about equal numbers of Germans, Magyars and
+Rumanians. The town, especially on market days, presents an animated and
+picturesque aspect. Here are seen Germans, Szeklers, Magyars, Rumanians,
+Armenians and Gipsies, each of them wearing their distinctive national
+costume, and talking and bargaining in their own special idiom.
+
+Amongst the places of interest round Brassó is the watering-place
+Zaizon, 15 m. to the east, with ferruginous and iodine waters; while
+about 17 m. to the south-west lies the pretty Rumanian village of
+Zernest, where in 1690 the Austrian general Heussler was defeated and
+taken prisoner by Imre (Emerich) Tököly, the usurper of the
+Transylvanian throne.
+
+Brassó was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1211, and soon became a
+flourishing town. Through the activity of Honterus it played a leading
+part in the introduction of the Reformation in Transylvania in the 16th
+century. The town was almost completely destroyed by the big fire of
+1689. During the revolution of 1848-1849 it was besieged by the
+Hungarians under General Bern from March to July 1849, and several
+engagements between the Austrian and the Hungarian troops took place in
+its neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+BRATHWAIT, RICHARD (1588-1673), English poet, son of Thomas Brathwait,
+was born in 1588 at his father's manor of Burneshead, near Kendal,
+Westmorland. He entered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1604, and remained
+there for some years, pursuing the study of poetry and Roman history. He
+removed to Cambridge to study law and afterwards to London to the Inns
+of Court. Thomas Brathwait died in 1610, and the son went down to live
+on the estate he inherited from his father. In 1617 he married Frances
+Lawson of Nesham, near Darlington. On the death of his elder brother,
+Sir Thomas Brathwait, in 1618, Richard became the head of the family,
+and an important personage in the county, being deputy-lieutenant and
+justice of the peace. In 1633 his wife died, and in 1639 he married
+again. His only son by this second marriage, Sir Stafford Brathwait, was
+killed in a sea-fight against the Algerian pirates. Richard Brathwait's
+most famous work is _Barnabae Itinerarium or Barnabees Journall_ [1638],
+by "Corymbaeus," written in English and Latin rhyme. The title-page says
+it is written for the "travellers' solace" and is to be chanted to the
+old tune of "Barnabe." The story of "drunken Barnabee's" four journeys
+to the north of England contains much amusing topographical information,
+and its gaiety is unflagging. Barnabee rarely visits a town or village
+without some notice of an excellent inn or a charming hostess, but he
+hardly deserves the epithet "drunken." At Banbury he saw the Puritan who
+has become proverbial,
+
+  "Hanging of his cat on Monday
+   For killing of a Mouse on Sunday."
+
+Brathwait's identity with "Corymbaeus" was first established by Joseph
+Haslewood. In his later years he removed to Catterick, where he died on
+the 4th of May 1673. Among his other works are: _The Golden Fleece_
+(1611), with a second title-page announcing "sonnets and madrigals," and
+a treatise on the _Art of Poesy_, which is not preserved; _The Poets
+Willow; or the Passionate Shepheard_ (1614); _The Prodigals Teares_
+(1614); _The Schollers Medley, or an intermixt Discourse upon Historicall
+and Poeticall relations_ (1614), known in later editions as a _Survey of
+History_ (1638, &c.); a collection of epigrams and satires entitled _A
+Strappado for the Divell_ (1615), with which was published incongruously
+_Loves Labyrinth_ (edited, 1878, by J.W. Ebsworth); _Natures Embassie;
+or, the wildemans measures; danced naked by twelve satyres_ (1621),
+thirty satires finding antique parallels for modern vices; with these are
+bound up _The Shepheards Tales_ (1621), a collection of pastorals, one
+section of which was reprinted by Sir Egerton Brydges in 1815; two
+treatises on manners, _The English Gentleman_ (1630) and _The English
+Gentlewoman_ (1631); _Anniversaries upon his Panarete_ (1634), a poem in
+memory of his wife; _Essaies upon the Five Senses_ (1620); _The Psalmes
+of David ... and other holy Prophets, paraphras'd in English_ (1638); _A
+Comment upon Two Tales of ... Jeffray Chaucer_ (1665; edited for the
+Chaucer Soc. by C. Spurgeon, 1901). Thomas Hearne, on whose testimony
+(MS. collections for the year 1713, vol. 47, p. 127) the authorship of
+the _Itinerarium_ chiefly rests, not inappropriately called him "the
+scribler of those times," and the list just given of his works, published
+under various pseudonyms, is by no means complete.
+
+  A full bibliography is given in Joseph Haslewood's edition of
+  _Barnabee's Journall_ (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1876). See also J. Corser,
+  _Collectanea_ (Chetham Soc., 1860, &c.).
+
+
+
+
+BRATIANU (or BRATIANO), ION C. (1821-1891), Rumanian statesman, was born
+at Pitesci in Walachia on the 2nd of June 1821. He entered the Walachian
+army in 1838, and visited Paris in 1841 for purposes of study. Returning
+to Walachia, he took part, with his friend C.A. Rosetti and other
+prominent politicians, in the Rumanian rebellion of 1848, and acted as
+prefect of police in the provisional government formed in that year. The
+restoration of Russian and Turkish authority shortly afterwards drove
+him into exile. He took refuge in Paris, and endeavoured to influence
+French opinion in favour of the proposed union and autonomy of the
+Danubian principalities. In 1854, however, he was sentenced to a fine of
+£120 and three months' imprisonment for sedition, and later confined in
+a lunatic asylum; but in 1856 he returned home with his brother,
+Dimitrie Bratianu, afterwards one of his foremost political opponents.
+During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Bratianu figured
+prominently as one of the Liberal leaders. He assisted in 1866 in the
+deposition of Cuza and the election of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern,
+under whom he held several ministerial appointments during the next four
+years. He was arrested for complicity in the revolution of 1870, but
+soon released. In 1876, aided by C.A. Rosetti, he formed a Liberal
+cabinet, which remained in power until 1888. For an account of his work
+in connexion with the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the Berlin congress,
+the establishment of the Rumanian kingdom, the revision of the
+constitution, and other reforms, see RUMANIA. After 1883 Bratianu acted
+as sole leader of the Liberals, owing to a quarrel with C.A. Rosetti,
+his friend and political ally for nearly forty years. His long tenure of
+office, without parallel in Rumanian history, rendered Bratianu
+extremely unpopular, and at its close his impeachment appeared
+inevitable. But any proceedings taken against the minister would have
+involved charges against the king, who was largely responsible for his
+policy; and the impeachment was averted by a vote of parliament in
+February 1890. Bratianu died on the 16th of May 1891. Besides being the
+leading statesman of Rumania during the critical years 1876-1888, he
+attained some eminence as a writer. His French political pamphlets,
+_Mémoire sur l'empire d'Autriche dans la question d'Orient_ (1855),
+_Réflexions sur la situation_ (1856), _Mémoire sur la situation de la
+Moldavie depuis le traité de Paris_ (1857), and _La Question religieuse
+en Roumanie_ (1866), were all published in Paris.
+
+  For his other writings and speeches see _Din Scrierile si cuvîntarile
+  lui I.C. Bratianu_, 1821-1891 (Bucharest, 1903, &c.), edited with a
+  biographical introduction by D.A. Sturza. A brief anonymous biography,
+  _Ion C. Bratianu_, appeared at Bucharest in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+BRATLANDSDAL (i.e. Bratland valley), a gorge of southern Norway in
+Stavanger _amt_ (county), formed by the Bratland river, a powerful
+torrent issuing into Lake Suldal. A remarkable road traverses the gorge
+by means of cuttings and a tunnel, and the scenery is among the most
+magnificent in Norway. It is usually approached from Stavanger by way of
+Sand and Lake Suldal, and the road divides above the gorge, branches
+running north to Odde and south-east through Telemarken. The junction
+of the roads is near Breifond, 13 m. above Naes at the mouth of the
+river, on the west shore of Lake Roldal, which is fed by the snowfield
+to the west, north and east, and is drained by the Bratland river.
+
+
+
+
+BRATTISHING, or BRANDISHING (from the Fr. _bretèche_), in architecture,
+a sort of crest or ridge on a parapet, or species of embattlement. The
+term, however, is generally employed to describe the ranges of flowers
+which form the crests of so many parapets in the Tudor period.
+
+
+
+
+BRATTLEBORO, a village of Windham county, Vermont, U.S.A., in a township
+(pop. 1910, 7541) of the same name, in the south-east part of the state,
+60 m. N. of Springfield, Massachusetts, on the Connecticut river. Pop.
+(1890) 5467; (1900) 5297 (686 foreign-born); (1910) 6517. It is served
+by the Central Vermont and the Boston & Maine railways. Situated in a
+hilly, heavily wooded country, it is an attractive place, with a few
+houses dating from the 18th century. Among the manufactures are toys,
+furniture, overalls and organs, the Estey and the Carpenter organs being
+made there. First settled about 1753, Brattleboro took its name from one
+of the original patentees, William Brattle (1702-1776), a Massachusetts
+loyalist. It was incorporated ten years later.
+
+  See H. Burnham, _Brattleboro_ (Brattleboro, 1880), and H.M. Burt, _The
+  Attractions of Brattleboro, Glimpses of Past and Present_
+  (Brattleboro, 1866).
+
+
+
+
+BRAUNAU (Czech _Broumov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 139 m. E.N.E. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7622, chiefly German. The town is built on a
+rocky eminence on the right bank of the Steine. It has an imposing
+Benedictine abbey, once a castle, but converted into a religious house
+in 1322, when Ottakar I. gave the district to the Benedictines.
+Noteworthy also is the great church of Saints Wenceslaus and Adalbert,
+built between 1683 and 1733. This stands on the site where, in 1618, the
+Protestants attempted to build a church, the forcible prevention of
+which by Abbot Wolfgang Solander was the immediate cause of the protest
+of the Bohemian estates and the "defenestration" of the ministers
+Martinic and Slavata, which opened the Thirty Years' War. After the
+battle of the White Hill, near Prague (1620), the town was deprived of
+all its privileges, which were, however, in great part restored nine
+years later. It is now a manufacturing centre (cloth, woollen and cotton
+stuffs, &c.) and has a considerable trade.
+
+
+
+
+BRAUNSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, 38 m. by rail
+S.W. of Königsberg, on the Passarge, 4 m. from its mouth in the Frisches
+Haff. Pop. (1900) 12,497. It possesses numerous Roman Catholic
+institutions, of which the most important is the Lyceum Hosianum
+(enjoying university rank), founded in 1564 by the cardinal bishop
+Stanislaus Hosius. Brewing, tanning, and the manufactures of soap,
+yeast, carriages and bricks are the most important industries of the
+town, which also carries on a certain amount of trade in corn, ship
+timber and yarn. The river is navigable for small vessels. The castle of
+Braunsberg was built by the Teutonic knights in 1241, and the town was
+founded ten years later. Destroyed by the Prussians in 1262, it was
+restored in 1279. The town, which was the seat of the bishops of
+Ermeland from 1255 to 1298, was granted the "law of Lübeck" by its
+bishop in 1284, and admitted to the Hanseatic League. After numerous
+vicissitudes it fell into the hands of the Poles in 1520, and in 1626 it
+was captured by Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedes kept possession till 1635.
+It fell to Prussia by the first partition of Poland in 1772.
+
+
+
+
+BRAVO (Ital. for "brave"), the name for hired assassins such as were
+formerly common in Italy. The word had at first no evil meaning, but was
+applied to the retainers of the great noble houses, or to the
+cavalier-type of swashbucklers familiar in fiction. In later Italian
+history, especially in that of Venice, the _bravi_ were desperate
+ruffians who for payment were ready to commit any crime, however foul.
+
+
+
+
+BRAWLING (probably connected with Ger. _brallen_, to roar, shout), in
+law, the offence of quarrelling, or creating a disturbance in a church
+or churchyard. During the early stages of the Reformation in England
+religious controversy too often became converted into actual
+disturbance, and the ritual lawlessness of the parochial clergy very
+frequently provoked popular violence. To repress these disturbances an
+act was passed in 1551, by which it was enacted "that if any person
+shall, by words only, quarrel, chide or brawl in any church or
+churchyard, it shall be lawful for the ordinary of the place where the
+same shall be done and proved by two lawful witnesses, to suspend any
+person so offending, if he be a layman, from the entrance of the church,
+and if he be a clerk, from the ministration of his office, for so long
+as the said ordinary shall think meet, according to the fault." An act
+of 1553 added the punishment of imprisonment until the party should
+repent. The act of 1551 was partly repealed in 1828 and wholly repealed
+as regards laymen by the Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860.
+Under that act, which applies to Ireland as well as to England, persons
+guilty of riotous, violent or indecent behaviour, in churches and
+chapels of the Church of England or Ireland, or in any chapel of any
+religious denomination, or in England in any place of religious worship
+duly certified, or in churchyards or burial-grounds, are liable on
+conviction before two justices to a penalty of not more than £5, or
+imprisonment for any term not exceeding two months. This enactment
+applies to clergy as well as to laity, and a clergyman of the Church of
+England convicted under it may also be dealt with under the Clergy
+Discipline Act of 1892 (_Girt v. Fillingham_, 1901, L.R. Prob. 176).
+When Mr J. Kensit during an ordination service in St Paul's cathedral
+"objected" to one of the candidates for ordination, on grounds which did
+not constitute an impediment or notable crime within the meaning of the
+ordination service, he was held to have unlawfully disturbed the bishop
+of London in the conduct of the service, and to be liable to conviction
+under the act of 1860 (_Kensit_ v. _Dean and Chapter of St Paul's_,
+1905, L.R. 2 K.B. 249). The public worship of Protestant Dissenters,
+Roman Catholics and Jews in England had before 1860 been protected by a
+series of statutes beginning with the Toleration Act of 1689, and ending
+with the Liberty of Religious Worship Act 1855. These enactments, though
+not repealed, are for practical purposes superseded by the summary
+remedy given by the act of 1860. In Scotland disturbance of public
+worship is punishable as a breach of the peace (_Dougall_ v. _Dykes_,
+1861, 4 Irvine 101).
+
+In British possessions abroad interference with religious worship is
+usually dealt with by legislation, and not as a common-law offence. In
+India it is an offence voluntarily to cause disturbance to any assembly
+lawfully engaged in the performance of religious worship or religious
+ceremonies (Penal Code, s. 296). Under the Queensland Criminal Code of
+1899 (s. 207) penalties are imposed on persons who wilfully and without
+lawful justification or excuse (the proof of which lies on them)
+disquiet or disturb any meeting of persons lawfully assembled for
+religious worship, or assault any forces lawfully officiating at such
+meeting, or any of the persons there assembled.
+
+In the United States disturbance of religious worship is treated as an
+offence under the common law, which is in many states supplemented by
+legislation (see Bishop, _Amer. Crim. Law_, 8th ed. 1892, vol. i. s.
+542, vol. ii. ss. 303-305; California Penal Code, s. 302; _Revised Laws
+of Massachusetts_, 1902, chap. 212, s. 30.).
+
+
+
+
+BRAY, SIR REGINALD (d. 1503), British statesman and architect, was the
+second son of Sir Richard Bray, one of the privy council of Henry VI.
+Reginald was born in the parish of St John Bedwardine, near Worcester,
+but the date of his birth is uncertain. He was receiver-general and
+steward of the household to Sir Henry Stafford, second husband of
+Margaret, countess of Richmond, whose son afterwards became King Henry
+VII. The accession of the king Henry VII. favoured the fortunes of
+Reginald Bray, who was created a knight of the Bath at the coronation
+and afterwards a knight of the Garter. In the first year of Henry VII.'s
+reign he was given a grant of the constableship of Oakham Castle in
+Rutland, and was appointed joint chief justice with Lord Fitz Walter of
+all the forest south of Trent and chosen of the privy council.
+Subsequently he was made high treasurer and chancellor of the duchy of
+Lancaster. In October 1494 he became high steward of the university of
+Oxford, and he was a member of the parliament summoned in the 11th year
+of Henry VII's reign. In June 1497 he was at the battle of Blackheath,
+and his services in repressing the Cornish rebels were rewarded with a
+gift of estates and the title of knight banneret. His taste and skill in
+architecture are attested by Henry VII.'s chapel at Westminster and St
+George's chapel at Windsor. He directed the building of the former, and
+the finishing and decoration of the latter, to which, moreover, he was a
+liberal contributor, building at his own expense a chapel still called
+by his name and ornamented with his crest, the initial letters of his
+name, and a device representing the hemp-bray, an instrument used by
+hemp manufacturers. He died in 1503, before the Westminster chapel was
+completed, and was interred in St George's chapel.
+
+
+
+
+BRAY, THOMAS (1656-1730), English divine, was born at Marton,
+Shropshire, in 1656, and educated at All Souls' College, Oxford. After
+leaving the university he was appointed vicar of Over-Whitacre, and
+rector of Sheldon in Warwickshire, where he wrote his famous
+_Catechetical Lectures_. Henry Compton, bishop of London, appointed him
+in 1696 as his commissary to organize the Anglican church in Maryland,
+and he was in that colony in 1699-1700. He took a great interest in
+colonial missions, especially among the American Indians, and it is to
+his exertions that the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel owes
+its existence. He also projected a successful scheme for establishing
+parish libraries in England and America, out of which grew the Society
+for Promoting Christian Knowledge. From 1706 till his death in February
+1730 he was rector of St Botolph-Without, Aldgate, London, being
+unceasingly engaged in philanthropic and literary pursuits.
+
+
+
+
+BRAY, a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire,
+England, beautifully situated on the west (right) bank of the Thames, 1
+m. S. of Maidenhead Bridge. Pop. (1901) 2978. There are numerous
+riverside residences in the locality. The church of St Michael has
+portions of various dates from the Early English period onward, and is
+much restored. It contains a number of brasses of the 14th, 15th, 16th
+and 17th centuries. A well-known ballad, "The Vicar of Bray," tells how
+a vicar held his position by easy conversions of faith according to
+necessity, from the days of Charles II. until the accession of George I.
+and the foundation of "the illustrious house of Hanover" (1714). One
+Francis Carswell, who is buried in the church, was vicar for forty-two
+years, approximately during this period, dying in 1709; but the legend
+is earlier, and the name of the vicar who gave rise to it is not
+certainly known. That of Simon Aleyn, who held the office from c. 1540
+to 1588, is generally accepted, as, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward
+VI., Mary and Elizabeth, he is said to have been successively Papist,
+Protestant, Papist and Protestant. The name of Simon Simonds is also
+given on the authority of the vicar of the parish in 1745; Simonds died
+a canon of Windsor in 1551, but had been vicar of Bray. Tradition
+ascribes the song to a soldier in Colonel Fuller's troop of dragoons in
+the reign of George I.
+
+
+
+
+BRAY, a seaport and watering-place of Co. Wicklow, Ireland, 12 m. S.S.E.
+of Dublin on the Dublin & South-Eastern railway, situated on both sides
+of the river Bray. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7424. For parliamentary
+purposes it is divided between the eastern division of county Wicklow
+and the southern of county Dublin. A harbour was constructed by the
+urban district council (the harbour authority) which accommodates ships
+of 400 tons. There is some industry in brewing, milling and fishing, but
+the town, which is known as the "Irish Brighton," is almost wholly
+dependent for its prosperity on visitors from Dublin and elsewhere. It
+therefore possesses all the equipments of a modern seaside resort; there
+is a fine sea-wall with esplanade upwards of a mile in length; the
+bathing is good, and race meetings are held. The town is rapidly
+increasing in size. The coast, especially towards the promontory of Bray
+Head, offers beautiful sea-views, and some of the best inland scenery in
+the county is readily accessible, such as the Glens of the Dargle and
+the Downs, the demesne of Powerscourt, the Bray river, with its loughs,
+and the pass of the Scalp. The demesne of Kilruddery, the seat of the
+earls of Meath, is specially beautiful. About 1170 Bray was bestowed by
+Richard de Clare or Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and Strigul, on Walter
+de Reddesford, who took the title of baron of Bray, and built a castle.
+
+
+
+
+BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE (1773-1854), English antiquary and topographer,
+was born at Lambeth, London, in 1773. He was apprenticed to the
+enamelling trade, but early developed literary tastes. He formed a close
+friendship with John Britton, which lasted for sixty-five years. They
+entered into a literary partnership, and after some small successes at
+song and play writing they became joint editors of _The Beauties of
+England and Wales_, themselves writing many of the volumes. Long after
+he had become famous as a topographer, Brayley continued his enamel
+work. In 1823 he was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He
+died in London on the 23rd of September 1854. His other works include
+_Sir Reginalde or the Black Tower_ (1803); _Views in Suffolk, Norfolk
+and Northamptonshire, illustrative of works of Robt. Bloowifield_
+(1806); _Lambeth Palace_ (1806); _The History of the Abbey Church of
+Westminster_ (2 vols., 1818); _Topographical Sketches of
+Brighthelmstone_ (1825); _Historical and Descriptive Accounts of
+Theatres of London_ (1826); _Londiniana_ (1829); _History of Surrey_ (5
+vols., 1841-1848).
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIER (from the Fr. _brasier_, which comes from _braise_, hot
+charcoal), a metal receptacle for holding burning coals or charcoal,
+much used in southern Europe and the East for warming rooms. Braziers
+are often elegant in form, and highly artistic in ornamentation, with
+chased or embossed feet and decorated exteriors.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL, or BRASIL, a legendary island in the Atlantic Ocean. The name
+connects itself with the red dye-woods so called in the middle ages,
+possibly also applied to other vegetable dyes, and so descending from
+the _Insulae Purpurariae_ of Pliny. It first appears as the _I. de
+Brazi_ in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco (1436), where it is found
+attached to one of the larger islands of the Azores. When this group
+became better known and was colonized, the island in question was
+renamed Terceira. It is probable that the familiar existence of "Brazil"
+as a geographical name led to its bestowal upon the vast region of South
+America, which was found to supply dye-woods kindred to those which the
+name properly denoted. The older memory survived also, and the Island of
+Brazil retained its place in mid-ocean, some hundred miles to the west
+of Ireland, both in the traditions of the forecastle and in charts. In
+J. Purdy's _General Chart of the Atlantic_, "corrected to 1830," the
+"Brazil Rock (high)" is marked with no indication of doubt, in 51° 10'
+N. and 15° 50' W. In a chart of currents by A.G. Findlay, dated 1853,
+these names appear again. But in his 12th edition of Purdy's _Memoir
+Descriptive and Explanatory of the N. Atlantic Ocean_ (1865), the
+existence of Brazil and some other legendary islands is briefly
+discussed and rejected. (See also ATLANTIS.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL, a republic of South America, the largest political division of
+that continent and the third largest of the western hemisphere. It is
+larger than the continental United States excluding Alaska, and slightly
+larger than the great bulk of Europe lying east of France. Its extreme
+dimensions are 2629 m. from Cape Orange (4° 21' N.) almost due south to
+the river Chuy (33° 45' S. lat.), and 2691 m. from Olinda (Ponta de
+Pedra, 8° 0' 57" S., 34° 50' W.) due west to the Peruvian frontier
+(about 73° 50' W.). The most northerly point, the Serra Roraima on the
+Venezuela and British Guiana frontier (5° 10' N.), is 56 m. farther
+north than Cape Orange. The area, which was augmented by more than
+60,000 sq. m. in 1903 and diminished slightly in the boundary adjustment
+with British Guiana (1904), is estimated to have been 3,228,452 sq. m.
+in 1900 (A. Supan, _Die Bevölkerung der Erde_, Gotha, 1904). A
+subsequent planimetric calculation, which takes into account these
+territorial changes, increases the area to 3,270,000 sq. m.
+
+_Boundaries._--Brazil is bounded N. by Colombia, Venezuela and the
+Guianas, N.E., E. and S.E. by the Atlantic, S. by Uruguay, Paraguay and
+Bolivia, and W. by Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and
+Colombia. Its territory touches that of every South American nation,
+except Chile, and with each one there has been a boundary dispute at
+some stage in its political life. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns
+attempted to define the limits between their American colonies in 1750
+and 1777, and the lines adopted still serve in great part to separate
+Brazil from its neighbours. Lack of information regarding the
+geographical features of the interior, however, led to some indefinite
+descriptions, and these have been fruitful sources of dispute ever
+since. The Portuguese were persistent trespassers in early colonial
+times, and their land-hunger took them far beyond the limits fixed by
+Pope Alexander VI. In the boundary disputes which have followed, Brazil
+seems to have pursued this traditional policy, and generally with
+success.
+
+Beginning at the mouth of the Arroyo del Chuy, at the southern extremity
+of a long sandbank separating Lake Mirim from the Atlantic (33°45' S.
+lat.), the boundary line between Brazil and Uruguay passes up that
+rivulet and across to the most southerly tributary of Lake Mirim, thence
+down the western shore of that lake to the Jaguarão and up that river to
+its most southerly source. The line then crosses to the hill-range
+called Cuchilla de Sant' Anna, which is followed in a north-west
+direction to the source of the Cuareim, or Quarahy, this river becoming
+the boundary down to the Uruguay. This line was fixed by the treaty of
+1851, by which the control of Lake Mirim remains with Brazil. Beginning
+at the mouth of the Quarahy, the boundary line between Brazil and
+Argentina ascends the Uruguay, crosses to the source of the Santo
+Antonio, and descends that small stream and the Iguassú to the Paraná,
+where it terminates. This line was defined by the treaty of 1857, and by
+the decision of President Cleveland in 1895 with regard to the small
+section between the Uruguay and Iguassú rivers. The boundary with
+Paraguay was definitely settled in 1872. It ascends the Paraná to the
+great falls of Guayrá, or Sete Quedas, and thence westward along the
+water-parting of the Sierra de Maracayú to the _cerro_ of that name,
+thence northerly along the Sierra d'Amambay to the source of the
+Estrella, a small tributary of the Apá, and thence down those two
+streams to the Paraguay. From this point the line ascends the Paraguay
+to the mouth of the Rio Negro, the outlet of the Bahia Negra, where the
+Bolivian boundary begins. As regards the Peruvian boundary, an agreement
+was reached in 1904 to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the
+president of Argentina in case further efforts to reach an amicable
+settlement failed. The provisional line, representing the Brazilian
+claim, begins at the termination of the Bolivian section (the
+intersection of the 11th parallel with the meridian of 72° 26' W.
+approx.) and follows a semicircular direction north-west and north to
+the source of the Javary (or Yavary), to include the basins of the Purús
+and Juruá within Brazilian jurisdiction. The line follows the Javary to
+its junction with the Amazon, and runs thence north by east direct to
+the mouth of the Apaporis, a tributary of the Yapurá, in about 1° 30' S.
+lat., 69° 20' W. long., where the Peruvian section ends. The whole of
+this line, however, was subject to future adjustments, Peru claiming all
+that part of the Amazon valley extending eastward to the Madeira and
+lying between the Beni and the east and west boundary line agreed upon
+by Spain and Portugal in 1750 and 1777, which is near the 7th parallel.
+With regard to the section between the Amazon and the Apaporis river,
+already settled between Brazil and Peru, the territory has been in
+protracted dispute between Peru, Ecuador and Colombia; but a treaty of
+limits between Brazil and Ecuador was signed in 1901 and promulgated in
+1905. The boundary with Colombia, fixed by treaty of April 24, 1907,
+follows the lower rim of the Amazon basin, as defined by Brazil. The
+Colombian claim included the left bank of the Amazon eastward to the
+Auahy or Avahy-paraná channel between the Amazon and Yapurá, whence the
+line ran northward to the Negro near the intersection of the 66th
+meridian. The Brazilian line ran north and north-west from the mouth of
+the Apaporis to the 70th meridian, which was followed to the
+water-parting south of the Uaupés basin, thence north-east to the Uaupés
+river, which was crossed close to the 69th meridian, thence easterly
+along the Serra Tunaji and Isana river to Cuyari, thence northerly up
+the Cuyari and one of its small tributaries to the Serra Capparro, and
+thence east and south-east along this range to the Cucuhy rock (Pedra de
+Cucuhy) on the left bank of the Negro, where the Colombian section ends.
+Negotiations for the settlement of this controversy, which involved
+fully one-third of the state of Amazonas, were broken off in 1870, but
+were resumed in 1905. The boundary with Venezuela, which was defined by
+a treaty of 1859, runs south-eastward from Cucuhy across a level country
+intersected by rivers and channels tributary to both the Negro and
+Orinoco, to the Serra Cupuy watershed which separates the rivers of the
+Amazon and Orinoco valleys. This watershed includes the ranges running
+eastward and northward under the names of Imeri, Tapiira-peco, Curupira,
+Parima and Pacaraima, the Venezuelan section terminating at Mt. Roraima.
+On the 9th of December 1905 protocols were signed at Caracas accepting
+the line between Cucuhy and the Serra Cupuy located in 1880, and
+referring the remainder, which had been located by a Brazilian
+commission in 1882 and 1884, to a mixed commission for verification.
+
+The disputed boundary between Brazil and British Guiana, which involved
+the possession of a territory having an estimated area of 12,741 sq. m.,
+was settled by arbitration in 1904 with the king of Italy as arbitrator,
+the award being a compromise division by which Great Britain received
+about 7336 sq. m. and Brazil about 5405. The definite boundary line
+starts from Mt. Roraima and follows the water-parting east and south to
+the source of the Ireng or Mahu river, which with the Takutú forms the
+boundary as far south as 1° N. to enclose the basin of the Essequibo and
+its tributaries, thence it turns east and north of east along the Serra
+Acaria to unite with the unsettled boundary line of Dutch Guiana near
+the intersection of the 2nd parallel north with the 56th meridian.
+Negotiations were initiated in 1905 for the definite location of the
+boundary with Dutch Guiana. Running north-east and south-east to enclose
+the sources of the Rio Paru, it unites with the French Guiana line at 2°
+10' N., 55° W., and thence runs easterly along the water-parting of the
+Serra Tumuc-Humac to the source of the Oyapok, which river is the
+divisional line to the Atlantic coast. The boundary with French Guiana
+(see GUIANA), which had long been a subject of dispute, was settled by
+arbitration in 1900, the award being rendered by the government of
+Switzerland. The area of the disputed territory was about 34,750 sq. m.
+
+  _Physical Geography._--A relief map of Brazil shows two very irregular
+  divisions of surface: the great river basins, or plains, of the
+  Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata, which are practically connected by low
+  elevations in Bolivia, and a huge, shapeless mass of highlands filling
+  the eastern projection of the continent and extending southward to the
+  plains of Rio Grande do Sul and westward to the Bolivian frontier.
+  Besides these there are a narrow coastal plain, the low plains of Rio
+  Grande do Sul, and the Guiana highlands on the northern slope of the
+  Amazon basin below the Rio Negro.
+
+
+    Relief.
+
+  The coastal plain consists in great part of sandy beaches, detritus
+  formations, and partially submerged areas caused by uplifted beaches
+  and obstructed river channels. Mangrove swamps, lagoons and marshes,
+  with inland canals following the coast line for long distances, are
+  characteristic features of a large extent of the Brazilian coast.
+  Parts of this coastal plain, however, have an elevation of 100 to 200
+  ft., are rolling and fertile in character, and terminate on the coast
+  in a line of bluffs. In the larger depressions, like that of the
+  Reconcavo of Bahia, there are large alluvial areas celebrated for
+  their fertility. This plain is of varying width, and on some parts of
+  the coast it disappears altogether. In Rio Grande do Sul, where two
+  large lakes have been created by uplifted sand beaches, the coastal
+  plain widens greatly, and is merged in an extensive open, rolling
+  grassy plain, traversed by ridges of low hills (_cuchillas_), similar
+  to the neighbouring republic of Uruguay. The western part of this
+  plain is drained by the Uruguay and its tributaries, which places it
+  within the river Plate (La Plata) basin.
+
+  The two great river basins of the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata
+  comprise within themselves, approximately, three-fifths of the total
+  area of Brazil. Large areas of these great river plains are annually
+  flooded, the flood-plains of the Amazon extending nearly across the
+  whole country and comprising thousands of square miles. The Amazon
+  plain is heavily forested and has a slope of less than one inch to the
+  mile within Brazilian territory--one competent authority placing it at
+  about one-fifth of an inch per mile. The La Plata basin is less
+  heavily wooded, its surface more varied, and its Brazilian part stands
+  at a much higher elevation.
+
+  Of the two highland regions of Brazil, that of the northern slope of
+  the Amazon basin belongs physically to the isolated mountain system
+  extending eastward from the Negro and Orinoco to the Atlantic, the
+  water-parting of which forms the boundary line between the Guianas and
+  Brazil. The culminating point is near the western extremity of this
+  chain and its altitude is estimated at 8500 ft. The ranges gradually
+  diminish in elevation towards the east, the highest point of the
+  Tumuc-Humac range, on the frontier of French Guiana, being about 2600
+  ft. The Brazilian plateau slopes southward and eastward, traversed by
+  broken ranges of low mountains and deeply eroded by river courses. The
+  table-topped hills of Almeyrin (or Almeirim) and Ereré, which lie near
+  the lower Amazon and rise to heights of 800 and 900 ft., are generally
+  considered the southernmost margin of this plateau, though Agassiz and
+  others describe them as remains of a great sandstone sheet which once
+  covered the entire Amazon valley. Its general elevation has been
+  estimated to be about 2000 ft. It is a stony, semi-arid region, thinly
+  wooded, having good grazing _campos_ in its extreme western section.
+  Its semi-arid character is due to the mountain ranges on its northern
+  frontier, which extract the moisture from the north-east trades and
+  leave the Brazilian plateau behind them with a very limited rainfall,
+  except near the Atlantic coast. The more arid districts offer no
+  inducement for settlement and are inhabited only by a few roving bands
+  of Indians, but there were settlements of whites in the grazing
+  districts of the Rio Branco at an early date, and a few hundreds of
+  adventurers have occupied the mining districts of the east. In
+  general, Brazilian Guiana, as this plateau region is sometimes called,
+  is one of the least attractive parts of the republic.
+
+  The great Brazilian plateau, which is the most important physical
+  division of Brazil, consists of an elevated tableland 1000 to 3000 ft.
+  above the sea-level, traversed by two great mountain systems, and
+  deeply eroded and indented by numerous rivers. A thick sandstone sheet
+  once covered the greater part if not all of it, remains of which are
+  found on the elevated _chapadas_ of the interior and on isolated
+  elevations extending across the republic toward its western frontier.
+  These chapadas and elevations, which are usually described as mountain
+  ranges, are capped by horizontal strata of sandstone and show the
+  original surface, which has been worn away by the rivers, leaving here
+  and there broad flat-topped ridges between river basins and narrower
+  ranges of hills between river courses. From the valleys their rugged,
+  deeply indented escarpments, stretching away to the horizon, have the
+  appearance of a continuous chain of mountains. The only true mountain
+  systems, however, so far as known, are the two parallel ranges which
+  follow the contour of the coast, and the central, or Goyana, system.
+  The first consists of an almost continuous range crossing the northern
+  end of Rio Grande do Sul and following the coast northward to the
+  vicinity of Cape Frio, and thence northward in broken ranges to the
+  vicinity of Cape St Roque, and a second parallel range running from
+  eastern São Paulo northeast and north to the eastern margin of the São
+  Francisco basin in northern Bahia, where that river turns eastward to
+  the Atlantic. The first of these is generally known as the Serra do
+  Mar, or Coast Range, though it is locally known under many names. Its
+  culminating point is in the Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgãos), near
+  Rio de Janeiro, which reaches an elevation of 7323 ft. The inland
+  range, which is separated from the Coast Range in the vicinity of Rio
+  de Janeiro by the valley of the Parahyba do Sul river, is known as the
+  Serra da Mantiqueira, and from the point where it turns northward to
+  form the eastern rim of the São Francisco basin, as the Serra do
+  Espinhaço. This range is also known under various local names. Its
+  culminating point is toward the western extremity of the Mantiqueira
+  range where the Itatiaya, or Itatiaia-assu, peak rises to an elevation
+  of 8898 ft. (other measurements give 9823 ft.), probably the highest
+  summit in Brazil. This range forms the true backbone of the maritime
+  mountainous belt and rises from the plateau itself, while the Coast
+  Range rises on its eastern margin and forms a rim to the plateau.
+  North of Cape Frio the Coast Range is much broken and less elevated,
+  while the Serra do Espinhaço takes a more inland course and is
+  separated from the coast by great gently-sloping, semi-barren
+  terraces. The second system--the Central or Goyana--consists of two
+  distinct chains of mountains converging toward the north in the
+  elevated _chapadão_ between the Tocantins and São Francisco basins.
+  The eastern range of this central system, which crosses western Minas
+  Geraes from the so-called Serra das Vertentes to the valley of the
+  Paracatú, a western tributary of the São Francisco, is called the
+  Serra da Canastra and Serra da Matta da Corde. Its culminating point
+  is toward its southern extremity in the Serra da Canastra, 4206 ft.
+  above sea-level. The western range, or what is definitely known of it,
+  runs across southern Goyaz, south-west to north-east, and forms the
+  water-parting between the Paraná and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. Its
+  culminating point is in the Montes Pyreneos, near the city of Goyaz,
+  and is about 4500 ft. above sea-level.
+
+  The great part of this immense region consists of _chapadões_, as the
+  larger table-land areas are called, _chapadas_ or smaller sections of
+  the same, and broadly excavated river valleys. How extensive this work
+  of erosion has been may be seen in the Tocantins-Araguaya basin, where
+  a great pear-shaped depression, approximately 100 to 500 m. wide, 700
+  m. long, and from 1000 to 1500 ft. deep, has been excavated northward
+  from the centre of the plateau. Southward the Paraná has excavated
+  another great basin and eastward the São Francisco another. Add to
+  these the eroded river basins of the Xingú, Tapajós and Guaporé on the
+  north and west, the Paraguay on the south-west, and the scores of
+  smaller rivers along the Atlantic coast, and we may have some
+  conception of the agencies that have been at work in breaking down and
+  shaping this great table-land, perhaps the oldest part of the
+  continent. The most southern of these _chapadões_, that of the Paraná
+  basin, in which may be included the northern part of the Uruguay and
+  eastern part of the Paraguay basins, includes the greater part of the
+  states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Paraná and São Paulo,
+  the south-western corner of Minas Geraes, a part of southern Goyaz,
+  and the south-eastern corner of Matto Grosso. The greatest elevation
+  is on its eastern or Atlantic margin where the average is about 3280
+  ft. above sea-level. The plateau breaks down abruptly toward the sea,
+  and slopes gradually some hundreds of feet toward the south and west.
+  There has been considerable denudation toward the west, the eastern
+  tributaries of the Paraná rising very near the coast. The northern and
+  western parts of this plateau have an average elevation a little less
+  than that of the Atlantic margin, and their slopes are toward the
+  south and east, those of Goyaz and Matto Grosso being abrupt and
+  deeply eroded. This great _chapadão_ is in many respects the best part
+  of Brazil, having a temperate climate, extensive areas of fertile
+  soil, rich forests and a regular rainfall. Its Atlantic slopes are
+  heavily wooded, but the western slopes exhibit grass-covered _campos_
+  between the river courses. The São Francisco _chapadão_, which has a
+  general elevation of about 2600 ft., covers the greater part of the
+  states of Minas Geraes and Bahia, and a small part of western
+  Pernambuco, and might also be considered continuous with those of the
+  Parnahyba and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. This region is more tropical
+  in character, partially barren, and has an uncertain rainfall, a large
+  part of the São Francisco basin and the upper Atlantic slope of its
+  eastern rim being subject to long-continued droughts. This region is
+  well wooded along the river courses of Minas Geraes, the lower
+  Atlantic slopes of Bahia, which are perhaps outside the plateau
+  proper, and on the weather side of some of the elevated ridges where
+  the rainfall is heavy and regular. It has extensive _campos_ and large
+  areas of exposed rock and stony steppes, but is richly provided with
+  mineral deposits. It breaks down less abruptly toward the Atlantic,
+  the slopes in Bahia being long and gradual. The Parnahyba _chapadão_
+  covers the state of Piauhy, the southern part of Maranhão, and the
+  western part of Ceará. Its general elevation is less than that of the
+  São Francisco region, owing to the slope of the plateau surface toward
+  the Amazon depression and to denudation. It resembles the São
+  Francisco region in its uncertain rainfall and exposure to droughts,
+  and in having large areas of _campos_ suitable for grazing purposes.
+  It is thinly wooded, except in the north, where the climatic
+  conditions approach those of the Amazon valley. Its climate is more
+  tropical and its development has gone forward less rapidly than in the
+  more temperate regions of the south. The Amazonian _chapadão_, which
+  includes the remainder of the great Brazilian plateau west of the São
+  Francisco and Parnahyba regions and which appears to be the
+  continuation of these tablelands westward, is much the largest of
+  these plateau divisions. It covers the greater part of the states of
+  Matto Grosso and Goyaz, a large part of southern Pará, the southern
+  margin of Amazonas, and a considerable part of western Maranhão. It
+  includes the river basins of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingú, Tapajós,
+  and the eastern tributaries of the Guaporé-Madeira. A considerable
+  part of it has been excavated by these rivers to a level which gives
+  their valleys the elevation and character of lowlands, though isolated
+  hills and ranges with the characteristic overlying horizontal
+  sandstone strata of the ancient plateau show that it was once a
+  highland region. The southern margin of this plateau breaks down
+  abruptly toward the south and overlooks the Paraná and Paraguay basins
+  from elevations of 2600 to 3000 ft. There is great diversity in the
+  character and appearance of this extensive region. It lies wholly
+  within the tropics, though its more elevated districts enjoy a
+  temperate climate. Its _chapadas_ are covered with extensive _campos_,
+  its shallow valleys with open woodlands, and its deeper valleys with
+  heavy forests. The rainfall is good, but not heavy. The general slope
+  is toward the Amazon, and its rivers debouch upon the Amazonian plain
+  through a succession of falls and rapids.
+
+  There remains only the elevated valley of the Parahyba do Sul, lying
+  between the so-called Serra das Vertentes of southern Minas Geraes and
+  the Serra do Mar, and extending from the Serra da Bocaina, near the
+  city of São Paulo, eastward to Cape Frio and the coastal plain north
+  of that point. It includes a small part of eastern São Paulo, the
+  greater part of the state of Rio de Janeiro, a small corner of
+  Espirito Santo, and a narrow strip along the southern border of Minas
+  Geraes. It is traversed by two mountain chains, the Serra da
+  Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar, and the broad, fertile valley of the
+  Parahyba do Sul which lies between them, and which slopes gently
+  toward the east from a general elevation exceeding 2000 ft. in São
+  Paulo. This region is the smallest of the _chapadão_ divisions of the
+  great plateau, and might be considered either a southward extension of
+  the São Francisco or an eastward extension of the Paraná _chapadão_.
+  It is one of the most favoured regions of Brazil, having an abundant
+  rainfall, extensive forests of valuable timber, and large areas of
+  fertile soil. The mountain slopes are still masses of dense forest,
+  though their lower elevations and neighbouring valleys have been
+  cleared for cultivation and by dealers in rosewood and other valuable
+  woods. This elevated valley is noted for its fertility and was once
+  the principal coffee-producing district of Brazil.
+
+  [Illustration: BRAZIL
+
+  Scale, 1:17,000,000]
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  Outside the two great river systems of the Amazon and river Plate (Rio
+  de la Plata), which are treated under their respective titles, the
+  rivers of Brazil are limited to the numerous small streams and three
+  or four large rivers which flow eastward from the plateau regions
+  directly into the Atlantic. The Amazon system covers the entire
+  north-western part of the republic, the state of Amazonas, nearly the
+  whole of Pará and the greater part of Matto Grosso being drained by
+  this great river and its tributaries. If the Tocantins-Araguaya basin
+  is included in the hydrographic system, the greater part of Goyaz and
+  a small part of Maranhão should be added to this drainage area. The
+  Tocantins is sometimes treated as a tributary of the Amazon because
+  its outlet, called the Rio Pará, is connected with that great river by
+  a number of inland channels. It is an entirely separate river,
+  however, and the inland communication between them is due to the
+  slight elevation of the intervening country above their ordinary
+  levels and to the enormous volume of water brought down by the Amazon,
+  especially in the flood season. As the outlet of the Tocantins is so
+  near to that of the Amazon, and their lower valleys are conterminous,
+  it is convenient to treat them as parts of the same hydrographic
+  basin.
+
+  In the extreme north-east corner of the republic where the Brazilian
+  Guiana plateau slopes toward the Atlantic there is a small area lying
+  outside the drainage basin of the Amazon. Its rivers flow easterly
+  into the Atlantic and drain a triangular-shaped area of the plateau
+  lying between the northern frontier and the southern and western
+  watersheds of the Araguary, whose extreme limits are about 0° 30' N.
+  lat. and 53° 50' W. long. The more important of these rivers are the
+  Araguary, Amapá, Calçoene, Cassiporé and Oyapok. The Araguary rises in
+  the Tumuc-Humac mountains, in about 2° 30' N. lat., 52° 10' W. long.,
+  and follows a tortuous course south and north-east to the Atlantic.
+  Its largest tributary, the Amapary, rises still farther west. Little
+  is known of the country through which it flows, and its channel is
+  broken by rapids and waterfalls where it descends to the coastal
+  plain. The Amapá is a short river rising on the eastern slopes of the
+  same range and flowing across a low, wooded plain, filled with
+  lagoons. The Calçoene and Cassiporé enter the Atlantic farther north
+  and have a north-east course across the same plain. All these small
+  rivers are described as auriferous and have attracted attention for
+  this reason. The Oyapok, or Vicente Pinzon, is the best-known of the
+  group and forms the boundary line between Brazil and French Guiana
+  under the arbitration award of 1900. It rises in about 2° 05' N., 53°
+  48' W., and flows easterly and north-easterly to the Atlantic. Its
+  course is less tortuous than that of the Araguary.
+
+  The rivers of the great Brazilian plateau which flow directly to the
+  Atlantic coast may be divided into two classes: those of its northward
+  slope which flow in a northerly and north-easterly direction to the
+  north-east coast of the republic, and those which drain its eastern
+  slope and flow to the sea in an easterly direction. The former reach
+  the coastal plain over long and gradual descents, and are navigable
+  for considerable distances. The latter descend from the plateau much
+  nearer the coast, and are in most cases navigable for short distances
+  only. In both classes navigation is greatly impeded by sandbars at the
+  mouths of these rivers, while in the districts of periodical rainfall
+  it is greatly restricted in the dry season. The more important rivers
+  of the first division, which are described in more detail under the
+  titles of the Brazilian states through which they flow, are the
+  following: the Gurupy, Tury-assú, Mearim, Itapicurú and Balsas, in the
+  state of Maranhão; the Parnahyba and its tributaries in Piauhy;
+  Jaguaribe in Ceará; and the Apody and Piranhas in Rio Grande do Norte.
+  Of these the Parnahyba is the most important, having a total length of
+  about 900 m., broken at intervals by rapids and navigable in sections.
+  It receives only one important tributary from Maranhão--the Rio das
+  Balsas, 447 m. long--and five from Piauhy, the Urussuhy-assú,
+  Gurgueia, Canindé, Poty and Longa. Piauhy is wholly within its
+  drainage basin, although the river forms the boundary line between
+  that state and Maranhão throughout its entire length. All the rivers
+  in this division are influenced by the periodical character of the
+  rainfall, their navigable channels being greatly shortened in the dry
+  season (August-January). In Ceará the smaller rivers become dry
+  channels in the dry season, and in protracted droughts the larger ones
+  disappear also.
+
+  The rivers of the second division are included in a very great
+  extension of coast and are influenced by wide differences in climate.
+  Their character is also determined by the distance of the Serra do Mar
+  from the coast, the more southern rivers having short precipitous
+  courses. The more northern rivers are subject to periodical variations
+  in volume caused by wet and dry seasons, but the greater distance of
+  the coast range and the more gradual breaking down of the plateau
+  toward the sea, give them longer courses and a greater extent of
+  navigable water. North of the São Francisco the watershed projecting
+  from the plateau eastward toward Cape St Roque, known as the Serra da
+  Borborema in Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte where its direction
+  becomes north-east, leaves a triangular section of the easterly slope
+  in which the river courses are short and much broken by rapids. The
+  rainfall, also, is limited and uncertain. The largest of this group of
+  small rivers is the Parahyba do Norte, belonging to the state of
+  Parahyba, whose length is said to be less than 200 m., only 5 or 6 m.
+  of which are navigable for small steamers. The São Francisco, which
+  belongs to the inland plateau region, is the largest river of the
+  eastern coast of Brazil and exists by virtue of climatic conditions
+  wholly different from those of the coast where it enters the Atlantic.
+  The tributaries of the lower half of this great river, which belong to
+  the Atlantic coast region, are small and often dry, but the upper
+  river where the rainfall is heavier and more regular receives several
+  large affluents. The river is navigable up to the Paulo Affonso falls,
+  192 m. from the coast, and above the falls there is a much longer
+  stretch of navigable water.
+
+  From the São Francisco to Cape Frio there are many short rivers rising
+  on the slopes of the plateau and crossing the narrow coastal plain to
+  the sea. There are also a few of greater length which rise far back on
+  the plateau itself and flow down to the plain through deeply cut,
+  precipitous courses. The navigable channels of these rivers are
+  restricted to the coastal plain, except where a river has excavated
+  for itself a valley back into the plateau. The more important of these
+  rivers are the Itapicurú, Paraguassú, Contas or Jussiape, Pardo or
+  Patype, and Jequitinhonha, of Bahia; the Mucury, and Doce, of Espirito
+  Santo; and the Parahyba do Sul of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Of the
+  Bahia group, the Jequitinhonha, sometimes called the Belmonte on its
+  lower course, is the longest and most important, rising near Serro in
+  the state of Minas Geraes and flowing in a curving north-east
+  direction for a distance of about 500 m., 84 of which are navigable
+  inland from the sea. The Mucury and Doce also rise in Minas Geraes,
+  and are much broken in their descent to the lower plains, the former
+  having a navigable channel of 98 m. and the latter of 138 m. The
+  Parahyba, or Parahyba do Sul, which enters the sea about 30 m. north
+  of Cape S. Thomé, is the largest and most important of the Atlantic
+  coast rivers south of the São Francisco. It rises on an elevated
+  tableland in the state of São Paulo and flows across the state of Rio
+  de Janeiro from west to east, through a broad fertile valley producing
+  coffee in its most elevated districts and sugar on its alluvial
+  bottom-lands nearer the sea. It has a total length of 658 m., 57 of
+  which are navigable between S. Fidelis and its mouth, and about 90 m.
+  of its upper course.
+
+  South of Cape Frio there are no large rivers along the coast because
+  of the proximity of the Serra do Mar--the coastal plain being very
+  narrow and in places disappearing altogether. There are many short
+  streams along this coast, fed by heavy rainfalls, but they have no
+  geographic importance and no economic value under existing conditions.
+  The largest of these and the only one of commercial value is the
+  Ribeira de Iguape, which has its source on the tablelands of Paraná
+  and after receiving several affluents west of the Serra do Mar breaks
+  through a depression in that range and discharges into the Atlantic
+  some miles below Santos on the southern boundary of the state of São
+  Paulo. This river has a navigable channel of 118 m. below Xiririca,
+  and communicates with an inland canal or waterway extending for many
+  miles along this coast and known as the Iguape, or Mar Pequeno. In Rio
+  Grande do Sul the Atlantic coastal plain extends westward more than
+  half-way across the state, and is well watered by numerous streams
+  flowing eastward to the Lagôa dos Patos. Of these only two are of
+  large size--the Guayba and Camaquam. The first is formed by the
+  confluence of the Jacuhy, Cahy, Sinos and Gravatahy, and is known
+  under this name only from Porto Alegre to the Ponta de Itapuã, where
+  it enters the Lagôa dos Patos. This river system drains a large part
+  of the northern mountainous region of the state, and has a
+  considerable extension of navigable channels between the plateau
+  margin and the lake. In the extreme southern part of the state, the
+  Lagôa Mirim empties into the Lagôa dos Patos through a navigable
+  channel 61½ m. long, called the Rio São Gonçalo.
+
+  The Brazilian rivers of the Rio de la Plata system are numerous and
+  important. Those of the Paraguay drain the south-western part of Matto
+  Grosso, and the tributaries of the Paraná cover the western slopes of
+  the Serra do Mar from Rio Grande do Sul north to the south-west part
+  of Minas Geraes, and include the south-east part of Matto Grosso and
+  the south part of Goyaz within their drainage basin. This is one of
+  the most important fluvial systems of Brazil, but its economic value
+  is impaired by the great waterfalls of Guayrá, or Sete Quedas, and
+  Uribú-punga, and by the rapids and waterfalls in the majority of its
+  affluents near their junction with the main stream. Between the two
+  great waterfalls of the Paraná there is an open channel of 276 m.,
+  passing through a rich and healthy country, and receiving large
+  tributaries from one of the most fertile regions of Brazil. Among the
+  larger of these are the great falls of the Iguassú, near the junction
+  of that river with the Paraná. Though the Uruguay plays a less
+  important part, its relations to the country are similar to those of
+  the Paraná, and its tributaries from the plateau region are similarly
+  broken by falls and rapids. The Paraguay is in great part a lowland
+  river, with a sluggish current, and is navigable by large river
+  steamers up to Corumbá, and by smaller steamers to Cuyabá and the
+  mouth of the Jaurú.
+
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  Compared with the number, length and volume of its rivers, Brazil has
+  very few lakes, only two of which are noticeable for their size. There
+  are a number of lakes in the lowland region of the Amazon valley, but
+  these are mainly overflow reservoirs whose areas expand and contract
+  with the rise and fall of the great river. The coastal plain is also
+  intersected by lagoons, lakes and inland channels formed by uplifted
+  beaches. These inland channels often afford many miles of sheltered
+  navigation. The lakes formed in this manner are generally shallow, and
+  are sometimes associated with extensive swamps, as in southern Bahia.
+  The lakes of the Alagôas coast, however, are long, narrow and deep,
+  occupying valleys which were deeply excavated when the land stood at a
+  higher level, and which were transformed into lakes by the elevation
+  of the coast. The largest of these are the Lagôa do Norte, on whose
+  margin stands the city of Maceió, and the Lagôa do Sul, a few miles
+  south of that city. Both have outlets to the sea, and the former is
+  salt There is a large number of these lakes along the coasts of
+  Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, some of them of considerable size.
+  The two largest lakes of this class are on the coast of Rio Grande do
+  Sul and are known as the Lagôa dos Patos and Lagôa Mirim. Both of
+  these lakes lie nearly parallel with the coast line, are separated
+  from the ocean by broad sand beaches filled with small lakes, and
+  communicate with the ocean through the same channel. The Lagôa dos
+  Patos is about 124 m. long with a maximum width of 37 m., and Lagôa
+  Mirim is 108 m. long with a maximum width of 15 m. Both are navigable,
+  though comparatively shallow and filled with sandbanks. So far as
+  known, there are no lakes of noteworthy size in the interior of the
+  country. There are a few small lakes in Maranhão and Piauhy, some in
+  Goyaz in the great valley of the Araguaya, and a considerable number
+  in Matto Grosso, especially in the Paraguay basin, where the sluggish
+  current of that river is unable to carry away the rainfall in the
+  rainy season.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  The coast of Brazil is indented with a number of almost landlocked
+  bays, forming spacious and accessible harbours. The larger and more
+  important of these are Todos os Santos, on which is located the city
+  of São Salvador or Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro or Guanabara, beside
+  which stands the capital of the republic. These two are freely
+  accessible to the largest ships afloat. The bays of Espirito Santo,
+  Paranaguá and São Francisco have similar characteristics, but they are
+  smaller and more difficult of access. The first is the harbour for the
+  city of Victoria, and the other two for ports of the same name in
+  southern Brazil. The port of Pernambuco, or Recife, is formed by a
+  stone reef lying across the entrance to a shallow bay at the mouth of
+  two small rivers, Beberibe and Capibaribe, and is accessible to
+  steamers of medium draught. Santa Catharina and Maranhão have
+  well-sheltered harbours formed by an island lying in the mouth of a
+  large bay, but the latter is shallow and difficult of access. Pará,
+  Parnahyba, Parahyba, Santos and Rio Grande do Sul are river ports
+  situated near the sea on rivers having the same name; but, with the
+  exception of Pará and Santos, they are difficult of access and are of
+  secondary importance. There are still other bays along the coast which
+  are well adapted for commercial purposes but are used only in the
+  coasting trade. Many of the Atlantic coast rivers would afford
+  excellent port facilities if obstructions were removed from their
+  mouths.
+
+  _Geology._--Brazil is a region which has been free from violent
+  disturbances since an early geological period. It has, indeed, been
+  subject to oscillations, but the movements have been regional in
+  character and have not been accompanied by the formation of any
+  mountain chain or any belt of intense folding. From the Devonian
+  onwards the beds lie flat or dip at low angles. They are faulted but
+  not sharply folded. The mountain ranges of the east of Brazil, from
+  Cape St Roque to the mouth of the river Plate, are composed chiefly of
+  crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Some of the metamorphic rocks may
+  belong to the older Palaeozoic period, but the greater part of the
+  series is probably Archaean. Similar rocks cover a large area in the
+  province of Goyaz and in the south of the Matto Grosso, and they form,
+  also, the hills which border the basin of the Amazon on the confines
+  of Venezuela and Guiana. They constitute, in fact, an incomplete rim
+  around the basin of sedimentary beds which occupies the Amazonian
+  depression. In a large part of this basin the covering of sedimentary
+  deposits is comparatively thin. The crystalline floor is exposed in
+  the valleys of the Madeira, Xingú, &c. Some of the rocks thus exposed
+  are, however, eruptive (e.g. in the Tapajoz), and probably do not
+  belong to the Archaean. The crystalline rocks are succeeded by beds
+  which have been referred to the Cambrian and Silurian systems. In the
+  valley of the Trombetas, one of the northern tributaries of the
+  Amazon, fossils have been found which indicate either the top of the
+  Ordovician or the bottom of the Silurian. In the Maecuru, another
+  northern affluent, graptolites of Ordovician age have been discovered,
+  and Silurian fossils are said to have been found in the Maraca.
+  Elsewhere the identification of the Silurian and older systems does
+  not rest on palaeontological evidence. Devonian beds cover a much more
+  extensive area. They crop out in a band some 25 to 50 m. north of the
+  lower Amazon and in another band at a still greater distance south of
+  that river. These bands are often concealed by more recent deposits,
+  but it is clear that in this region the Devonian beds form a basin or
+  synclinal with the Amazon for its axis. Devonian beds also lie upon
+  the older rocks in the Matto Grosso and other provinces in the
+  interior of Brazil, where they generally form plateaux of nearly
+  horizontal strata. Fossils have been found in many localities. They
+  belong to either the lower or the middle division of the Devonian
+  system. The fauna shows striking analogies with that of the Bokkeveld
+  beds of South Africa on the one hand and of the Hamilton group of
+  North America on the other. The Carboniferous system in Brazil
+  presents itself under two facies, the one marine and the other
+  terrestrial. In the basin of the Lower Amazon the Carboniferous beds
+  lie within the Devonian synclinal and crop out on both sides of the
+  river next to the Devonian bands. There is a lower series consisting
+  of sandstone and an upper series of limestone. The former appears to
+  be almost unfossiliferous, the latter has yielded a rich marine fauna,
+  which belongs to the top of the Carboniferous or to the
+  Permo-carboniferous. In southern Brazil, on the other hand, in Rio
+  Grande do Sul, Paraná, &c., the beds of this period are of terrestrial
+  origin, containing coal seams and remains of plants. Some of the
+  plants are European forms, others belong to the Glossopteris flora
+  characteristic of India and South Africa. The beds are homotaxial with
+  the Karharbári series of India, and represent either the top of the
+  Carboniferous or the base of the Permian of Europe. The only Mesozoic
+  system which is represented in Brazil by marine beds is the
+  Cretaceous, and the marine facies, is restricted to the coasts and the
+  basin of the Amazon. In the province of Sergipe, on the east coast,
+  the beds are approximately on the horizon of the Cenomanian; in the
+  valley of the Amazon they belong to the highest parts of the
+  Cretaceous system, and the fauna shows Tertiary affinities. In the
+  interior of Brazil, the Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid by a
+  series of red sandstones, &c., which appear to be of continental
+  origin and of which the age is uncertain. Tertiary beds cover a
+  considerable area, especially in the Amazonian depression. They
+  consist chiefly of sands and clays of aeolian and freshwater origin.
+  Of the Pleistocene and recent deposits the most interesting are the
+  remains of extinct animals (_Glyptodon_, _Mylodon_, _Megatherium_,
+  &c.) in the caves of the São Francisco.
+
+  From the above account it will appear that, excepting near the coast
+  and in the basin of the Amazon, there is no evidence that any part of
+  Brazil has been under the sea since the close of the Devonian period.
+  During the Triassic and Jurassic periods even the basin of the Amazon
+  appears to have been dry land. Eruptive rocks occur in the Devonian
+  and Carboniferous beds, but there is no evidence of volcanic activity
+  since the Palaeozoic epoch. The remarkable "stone reefs" of the
+  north-east coast are ancient beaches hardened by the infiltration of
+  carbonate of lime. They are quite distinct in their formation from the
+  coral reefs of the same coast.
+
+  _Climate._--Brazil lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, less
+  than one-twelfth of its area lying south of the tropic of Capricorn.
+  In general terms, it is a tropical country, with sub-tropical and
+  temperate areas covering its three southern states and a great part of
+  the elevated central plateau. The forest-covered, lowland valley of
+  the Amazon is a region of high temperatures which vary little
+  throughout the year, and of heavy rainfall. There is no appreciable
+  change of seasons, except that produced by increased rainfall in the
+  rainy season. The average temperature according to Castelnau is about
+  78°F., or 82.40° to 84.20° F. according to Agassiz. There is an
+  increase in the rainfall from August to October, and again from
+  November to March, the latter being the regular rainy season, but the
+  time varies considerably between the valley of the upper Amazon and
+  those of the upper Madeira and Negro. There is usually a short dry
+  season on the upper Amazon in January and February, which causes two
+  annual floods--that of November-December, and the great flood of
+  March-June. The subsidence of the latter usually lasts until October.
+  The average rainfall throughout the whole Amazon valley is estimated
+  by Reclus as "probably in excess of 2 metres" (78.7 in.), and the
+  maximum rise of the great flood is about 45 ft. The prevailing winds
+  in the Amazon valley are easterly and westerly (or south-westerly),
+  the former warm and charged with moisture, the latter dry and cold.
+  The easterly winds, which are deflections of the trade winds, blow
+  upstream with great regularity and force, more especially in the
+  winter or dry season, and are felt as far inland as the mouths of the
+  Madeira and Negro. Above these they are less regular and are attracted
+  northward by the heated _llanos_ of Venezuela in winter, or southward
+  by the heated _campos_ of Matto Grosso in summer. The cold
+  south-westerly winds are felt when the sun is north of the equator,
+  and are most severe, for a few days, in the month of May, when a
+  _tempo da friagem_ (cold period) causes much discomfort throughout the
+  upper Amazon region. There are winter winds from the Andes, but in the
+  summer season there are cold currents of air from up-river (_ventos da
+  cima_) which are usually followed by downpours of rain.
+
+  The coastal plain as far south as Santos is a region of high
+  temperatures and great humidity. The year is usually divided into a
+  winter (_inverno_) and summer (_verão_), corresponding approximately
+  to a dry and wet season. The "dry" season, however, is a season of
+  moderate rainfall, except on the north-east coast where arid
+  conditions prevail. Another exception is that of the Pernambuco coast,
+  where the rainy season comes between March and August, with the
+  heaviest rainfall from May to July, which is the time of the southern
+  winter. Going southward there is also a gradual decrease in the mean
+  annual temperature, the difference between Rio de Janeiro and the
+  Amazon being about 5°. The north-east coast, which is sandy and
+  barren, shows an average mean annual temperature (at Fortaleza) of
+  nearly 80° F., which is slightly higher than those of Maranhão and
+  Pará. At Pernambuco the mean summer temperature is 79.5° and that of
+  winter 76.8°, which are about 3° lower than the mean temperature of
+  Bahia in summer, and 5° higher than the Bahia mean in winter. South of
+  Bahia there is a gradual increase in the rainfall, that of Rio de
+  Janeiro exceeding 43 in. per annum. At Santos the rainfall is
+  exceptionally heavy and the mean temperature high, but below that
+  point the climatic conditions are considerably modified, the range in
+  temperature being greater, the mean annual temperature lower, and the
+  rainfall more evenly distributed throughout the year. The winds are
+  more variable, and the seasons are more sharply defined. In Rio Grande
+  do Sul the range in temperature is from 26° to 80°, the climate being
+  similar to that of Uruguay. At Pelotas, a sea-level port on Lagôa dos
+  Patos, the mean annual temperature is about 63° and the annual
+  rainfall about 42 in. Extreme variations in temperature are often
+  produced by cold south-west storms from the Argentine pampas, which
+  sweep across southern Brazil as far north as Cape Frio, the fall in
+  temperature sometimes being 22° to 27°. These storms usually last from
+  two to three days and cause much discomfort. Winter rains are more
+  frequent in southern Brazil, and violent storms prevail in August and
+  September. At Blumenau, on the Santa Catharina coast, the annual
+  rainfall is 53 in.
+
+  The climatic conditions of the Brazilian plateau are widely different
+  from those of the coast in many respects. There is less uniformity in
+  temperature, and the elevated _chapadas_ are generally hotter during
+  the day and cooler at night than are localities of the same latitude
+  on the coast. The Brazilian Guiana plateau, lying immediately north of
+  the equator, is in great part a hot, stony desert. Geographically it
+  belongs to the Amazon basin, as its western and southern slopes are
+  drained by tributaries of that great river. Climatically, however, it
+  is a region apart. It lies in the north-east trade winds belt, but the
+  mountain chain on its northern frontier robs these winds of their
+  moisture and leaves the greater part of the Brazilian plateau
+  rainless. Its eastern and western extremities, however, receive more
+  rain, the former being well forested, while the latter is covered with
+  grassy _campos_. South of the Amazon valley and filling a great part
+  of the eastern projection of the continent, is another arid,
+  semi-barren plateau, lying within the south-east trade winds belt, and
+  extending from Piauhy southward to southern Bahia. It covers the state
+  of Piauhy and the western or inland parts of the states of Ceará, Rio
+  Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco and Bahia. The year is divided
+  into a dry and wet season, the first from June to December, when rain
+  rarely falls, the streams dry up and the _campos_ are burned bare, and
+  the second from January to May when the rains are sometimes heavy and
+  the _campos_ are covered with luxuriant verdure. The rains are neither
+  regular nor certain, however, and sometimes fail for a succession of
+  years, causing destructive _sêccas_ (droughts). The interior districts
+  of Ceará, Pernambuco and Bahia have suffered severely from these
+  _sêccas_. The sun temperature is high on these barren tablelands, but
+  the nights are cool and refreshing. The prevailing winds are the
+  south-east trades, which have lost some of their moisture in rising
+  from the coastal plain. In summer, becoming warmed by the heated
+  surface of the plateau, they sweep across it without a cloud or drop
+  of rain. In winter the plateau is less heated, and cold currents of
+  air from the west and south-west cause precipitation over a part if
+  not all of this region. South and south-west of this arid plateau lie
+  the inhabited tablelands of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas
+  Geraes, where the climate is greatly modified by a luxuriant
+  vegetation and southerly winds, as well as by the elevation. Minas
+  Geraes is forested along its water courses and along its southern
+  border only; its sun temperature, therefore, is high and the rainfall
+  in its northern districts is comparatively light. São Paulo is partly
+  covered by open _campos_, and these also serve to augment the maximum
+  temperature. In both of these states, however, the nights are cool,
+  and the mean annual temperature ranges from 68° to 77°, the northern
+  districts of Minas Geraes being much warmer than the southern. In São
+  Paulo and southern Minas Geraes there are sometimes frosts. In the
+  Parahyba valley, which extends across the state of Rio de Janeiro, the
+  mean temperature is somewhat higher than it is in São Paulo and Minas
+  Geraes, and the nights are warmer, but the higher valleys of the Serra
+  do Mar enjoy a delightfully temperate climate. The rainfall throughout
+  this region is abundant, except in northern Minas Geraes, where the
+  climatic conditions are influenced to some extent by the arid eastern
+  plateau. South of São Paulo the tablelands of Paraná, Santa Catharina
+  and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate climate, with an abundant
+  rainfall. There are occasional frosts, but snow is never seen. Of
+  Goyaz and Matto Grosso very little can be said. The lower river
+  valleys of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingú, Tapajós and Paraguay are
+  essentially tropical, their climate being hot and humid like that of
+  the Amazon. The higher valleys of the Paraná and its tributaries, and
+  of the rivers which flow northward, are sub-tropical in character,
+  having high sun temperatures and cool nights. Above these, the
+  _chapadas_ lie open to the sun and wind and have a cool, bracing
+  atmosphere even where high sun temperatures prevail. The mean annual
+  temperature at Goyaz (city), according to a limited number of
+  observations, is about 77°. There is no absolutely dry season in this
+  part of the great Brazilian plateau, though the year is customarily
+  divided into a dry and wet season, the latter running from September
+  to April in Goyaz, and from November to April in Matto Grosso. The
+  prevailing winds are from the north-west in this region, and westerly
+  winds in the rainy season are usually accompanied by rain.
+
+  _Fauna._--The indigenous fauna of Brazil is noteworthy not only for
+  the variety and number of its genera and species, but also for its
+  deficiency in the larger mammals. Of this, one of the best authorities
+  on the subject (H.W. Bates in _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_)
+  says: "Brazil, moreover, is throughout poor in terrestrial mammals,
+  and the species are of small size." It is noteworthy, also, for the
+  large number of species having arboreal habits, the density and extent
+  of the Amazon forests favouring their development rather than the
+  development of those of terrestrial habits. Of Quadrumana there are
+  about fifty species in Brazil, all arboreal, thirty-eight of which
+  inhabit the Amazon region. They belong mostly to the _Cebidae_ family,
+  and are provided with prehensile tails. The Carnivora are represented
+  by six species of the _Felidae_, the best known of which is the onça,
+  or jaguar (_F. onça, L_.), and the cougar, or puma (_F. concolor_);
+  three species of the _Canidae_, the South American wolf (_C.
+  jubatus_), and two small jackals (_C. brasiliensis_ and _C. vetulus_);
+  and a few species of the Mustelina including two of the otter, two
+  _Galictis_ and one _Mephitis_. Of the plantigrades, Brazil has no
+  bears, but has the related species of raccoon (_Nasua socialis_ and
+  _N. solitaria_), popularly called _coatis_. The opossum (_Didelphis_)
+  is represented by three or four species, two of which are so small
+  that they are generally called wood rats. The rodents are numerous and
+  include several peculiar species. Only one species of hare is found in
+  Brazil, the _Lepus brasiliensis_, and but one also of the squirrel
+  (_Scyurus_). Of the amphibious rodents, the prêá (_Cavia aperea_),
+  mocó (_C. rupestris_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_), cutia (_Dasyprocta
+  aguti_) and capybara (_Hydrochoerus capybara_) are noteworthy for
+  their size and extensive range. Their flesh is used as an article of
+  food, that of the paca being highly esteemed. Of the Muridae there are
+  several genera and a large number of species, some of them evidently
+  importations from the Old World. Brazil has three groups of animals
+  similar to the common rat--the _Capromydae_, _Loncheridae_ and
+  _Psammoryctidae_--the best known of which is the "tuco-tuco"
+  (_Clenomys brasiliensis_), a small burrowing animal of Rio Grande do
+  Sul which excavates long subterranean galleries and lives on roots and
+  bulbs. One of the characteristic orders of the Brazilian fauna is that
+  of the Edentata, which comprises the sloth, armadillo and ant-eater.
+  These animals are found only in the tropical regions of South America.
+  The range of the sloth is from the Guianas south into Minas Geraes,
+  the armadillo as far south as the Argentine pampas and the ant-eater
+  from the Amazon south to Paraguay, though it is found in the Amazon
+  region principally. The sloth (_Bradypus_) is an arboreal animal which
+  feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of the Cecropias. It includes
+  two recognized genera and half a dozen species, the best known of
+  which is _B. didactylus_. The common name in Brazil is _preguiça_,
+  which is equivalent to its English name. Of armadillos, commonly
+  called _tatú_ in Brazil, the largest species is the _Dasypus gigas_,
+  but the best known is the _tatú-été_ (_D. octocinctus_), which is
+  highly esteemed for its flesh. The ant-eaters (_Myrmecophaga_) are
+  divided into three or four species, one of which (_M. jubata_) is
+  exclusively terrestrial, and the others arboreal. The popular name for
+  the animal is _tamanduá_. The _M. jubata_, or _tamanduá bandeira_, is
+  sometimes found as far south as Paraguay. Of the ruminants, Brazil has
+  only four or five species of _Cervidae_, which are likewise common to
+  other countries of South America. The largest of these is the marsh
+  deer (_C. paludosus_), which in size resembles its European congeners.
+  The others are the _C. campestris_, _C. nemorivagus_, _C. rufus_ and a
+  small species or variety called _C. nanus_ by the Danish naturalist Dr
+  P.W. Lund. The pachyderms are represented by three species of the
+  peccary (_Dicotyles_) and two of the anta, or tapir (_Tapirus_). The
+  former are found over a wide range of country, extending into Bolivia
+  and Argentina, and are noted for their impetuous pugnacity. The tapir
+  also has an extensive range between the coast and the foothills of the
+  Andes, and from northern Argentina to south-eastern Colombia. It is
+  the largest of the Brazilian mammals, and inhabits densely forested
+  tracts near river courses. The two species are _T. americanus_, which
+  is the larger and best known, and the _anta chure_, found in Minas
+  Geraes, which is said to be identical with the _T. Roulini_ of
+  Colombia. Perhaps the most interesting mammal of Brazil is the
+  _manati_, or sea-cow (_Manatus americanus_), which inhabits the lower
+  Amazon and sometimes reaches a length of 15 to 20 ft. It is taken with
+  the harpoon and its oil is one of the commercial products of the
+  Amazon valley.
+
+  The avifauna of Brazil is rich in genera, species and individuals,
+  especially in species with brilliantly-coloured plumage. It is
+  estimated that more than half the birds of Brazil are insectivorous,
+  and that more than one-eighth are climbers. The range in size is a
+  wide one--from the tiny humming-bird to the ema, rhea, or American
+  ostrich. Although the order which includes song-birds is numerous in
+  species and individuals, it is noticeably poor in really good
+  songsters. On the other hand it is exceptionally rich in species
+  having strident voices and peculiar unmusical calls, like the _pacô_
+  (_Coracina scuttata_) and the _araponga_ (_Chasmorhynchus
+  nudicollis_). Two species of vultures, twenty-three of falcons and
+  eight of owls represent the birds of prey. The best known vulture is
+  the common _urubú_ (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig), which is the
+  universal scavenger of the tropics. The climbers comprise a large
+  number of species, some of which, like those of the parrot
+  (_Psittacidae_) and woodpecker (_Picus_), are particularly noticeable
+  in every wooded region of the country. One of the most striking
+  species of the former is the brilliantly-coloured _arara_
+  (_Macrocercus_, L.), which is common throughout northern Brazil.
+  Another interesting species is the toucan (_Ramphastos_), whose
+  enormous beak, awkward flight and raucous voice make it a conspicuous
+  object in the great forests of northern Brazil. In strong contrast to
+  the ungainly toucan is the tiny humming-bird, whose beautiful plumage,
+  swiftness of flight and power of wing are sources of constant wonder
+  and admiration. Of this smallest of birds there are fifty-nine
+  well-known species, divided into two groups, the _Phaethorninae_,
+  which prefer the forest shade and live on insects, and the
+  _Trochilinae_, which frequent open sunny places where flowers are to
+  be found. One of the Brazilian birds whose habits have attracted much
+  interest is the _João de Barro_ (Clay John) or oven bird (_Furnarius
+  rufus_), which builds a house of reddish clay for its nest and
+  attaches it to the branch of a tree, usually in a fork. The thrush is
+  represented by a number of species, one of which, the _sabiá_
+  (_Mimus_), has become the popular song-bird of Brazil through a poem
+  written by Gonçalves Dias. The dove and pigeon have also a number of
+  native species, one of which, the _pomba jurity_ (_Peristera
+  frontalis_), is a highly-appreciated table luxury. The gallinaceous
+  birds are well represented, especially in game birds. The most
+  numerous of these are the _perdiz_ (partridge), the best known of
+  which is the _Tinamus maculosa_ which frequents the _campos_ of the
+  south, the _inhambú_ (_Crypturus_), _capoeira_ (_Odontophorus_), and
+  several species of the penelope family popularly known as the
+  _jacutinga, jacú_ and _jacú-assú_. The common domesticated fowl is not
+  indigenous. Among the wading and running birds, of which the _ema_ is
+  the largest representative, there are many species of both
+  descriptions. In the Amazon lowlands are white herons (_Ardea
+  candidissima_), egrets (_A. egretta_), bitterns (_A. exilis_), blue
+  herons (_A. herodias_) scarlet ibises (_Ibis rubra_), roseate
+  spoonbills (_Platalea ajaja_); on higher ground the beautiful peacock
+  heron (_A. helias_) which is easily domesticated; and on the dry
+  elevated _campos_ the _ceriema_ (_Dicholophus cristatus_) which is
+  prized for its flesh, and the _jacamin_ (_Psophia crepitans_) which is
+  frequently domesticated. Prominent among the storks is the great
+  black-headed white crane, called the _jaburú_ (_Mycteria americana_),
+  which is found along the Amazon and down the coast and grows to a
+  height of 4½ ft. Of the swimmers, the number of species is smaller,
+  but some of them are widely distributed and numerous in individuals.
+  There are but few species of ducks, and they are apparently more
+  numerous in southern Brazil than on the Amazon.
+
+  The reptilian fauna exhibits an exceptionally large number of
+  interesting genera and species. A great part of the river systems of
+  the country with their flooded areas are highly favourable to the
+  development of reptilian life. Most prominent among these is the
+  American alligator, of which there are, according to Netterer, two
+  genera and eight species in Brazil. They are very numerous in the
+  Amazon and its tributaries and in the Paraguay, and are found in all
+  the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Three of the Brazilian species are
+  voracious and dangerous. The largest of the Amazon species are the
+  _jacaré-assú_ (_Caïman niger_), _jacaré_ (_C. fissipes_) and
+  _jacaré-tinga_ (_C. sclerops_). The Amazon is also the home of one of
+  the largest fresh-water turtles known, the _Emys amazonica_, locally
+  called the _jurará-assú_ or _tartaruga grande_. These turtles are so
+  numerous that their flesh and eggs have long been a principal food
+  supply for the Indian population of that region. Another Amazon
+  species, the _E. tracaxa_, is still more highly esteemed for its
+  flesh, but it is smaller and deposits fewer eggs in the sandy river
+  beaches. Lagartos (_Iguanas_) and lizards are common everywhere. The
+  ophidians are also numerous, especially in the wooded lowlands
+  valleys, and the poisonous species, though less numerous than others,
+  include some of the most dangerous known--the rattlesnake _surucucú_
+  (_Lachesis rhombeatus_), and _jararáca_ (_Bothrops_). The Amazon
+  region is frequented by the _giboia_ (boa constrictor), and the
+  central plateau by the _sucuriú_ (_Eunectes murinus_), both
+  distinguished for their enormous size. The batrachians include a very
+  large number of genera and species, especially in the Amazon valley.
+
+  The fauna of the rivers and coast of Brazil is richer in species and
+  individuals than that of the land. All the rivers are richly stocked,
+  and valuable fishing grounds are to be found along the coast,
+  especially that of southern Bahia and Espirito Santo where the
+  _garoupa_ (_Serranus_) is found in large numbers. Some of the small
+  fish along the coast are highly esteemed for their flavour. Whales
+  were once numerous between Capes St Roque and Frio, but are now rarely
+  seen. Of the edible river fish, the best known is the _pirarucú_
+  (_Sudis gigas_), a large fish of the Amazon which is salted and dried
+  for market during the low-water season. Fish is a staple food of the
+  Indian tribes of the Amazon region, and their fishing season is during
+  the period of low water. The visit of Professor Louis Agassiz to the
+  Amazon in 1865 resulted in a list of 1143 species, but it is believed
+  that no less than 1800 to 2000 species are to be found in that great
+  river and its tributaries.
+
+  In strong contrast to the poverty of Brazil in the larger mammals is
+  the astonishing profusion of insect life in every part of the country.
+  The Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are especially numerous, both in
+  species and individuals. A striking illustration of this extraordinary
+  profusion was given by the English naturalist H.W. Bates, who found
+  7000 species of insects in the vicinity of only one of his collecting
+  places on the Amazon (Ega), of which 550 species were of butterflies.
+  Within an hour's walk of Pará are to be found, he says, about 700
+  species of butterflies, "whilst the total number found in the British
+  Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports only
+  321." (H.W. Bates, _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_.) One of the
+  rare species of the Amazon _Morphos_ (_M. hecuba_) measures 8 to 9 in.
+  across its expanded wings. Dipterous insects are also very numerous in
+  species, especially in those of sanguinary habits, such as the
+  mosquito, _pium_, _maroim_, _carapana_, _borochudo_, &c. In some
+  places these insects constitute a veritable plague, and the infested
+  regions are practically uninhabitable. The related species of the
+  _Oestridae_ family, which include the widely disseminated _chigoe_ or
+  _bicho do pé_ (_Pulex penetrans_), and the equally troublesome _berne_
+  (_Cutiterebra noxialis_), which is so injurious to animals, are
+  equally numerous. The most numerous of all, however, and perhaps the
+  most harmful to civilized man, are the termites and ants, which are
+  found everywhere in the uninhabited campo and forest regions, as well
+  as in the cultivated districts. Nature has provided several species of
+  animals, birds and reptiles, to feed upon these insects, and various
+  poisonous and suffocating compounds are used to destroy them, but with
+  no great degree of success. It is not uncommon to find once cultivated
+  fields abandoned because of their ravages and to see large _campos_
+  completely covered with enormous ant-hills. The termites, or "white
+  ants," are exceptionally destructive because of their habit of
+  tunnelling through the softer woods of habitations and furniture,
+  while some species of ants, like the _saúba_, are equally destructive
+  to plantations because of the rapidity with which they strip a tree of
+  its foliage. Spiders are represented by a very large number of
+  species, some of which are beautifully coloured. The largest of these
+  is the _Mygale_ with a body 2 in. in length and outstretched legs
+  covering 7 in., a monster strong enough to capture and kill small
+  birds. A large _Mygale_ found on the island of Siriba, of the Abrolhos
+  group, feeds upon lizards, and has been known to attack and kill young
+  chickens. One of the most troublesome pests of the interior is a
+  minute degenerate spider of the genus _Ixodes_, called _carrapato_, or
+  bush-tick, which breeds on the ground and then creeps up the grass
+  blades and bushes where it waits for some passing man or beast. Its
+  habit is to bury its head in its victim's skin and remain there until
+  gorged with blood, when it drops off. Scorpions are common, but are
+  considered less poisonous than some European species.
+
+  _Flora._--Brazil not only is marvellously rich in botanical species,
+  but included at the beginning of the 20th century the largest area of
+  virgin forest on the surface of the earth. The flora falls naturally
+  into three great divisions: that of the Amazon basin where exceptional
+  conditions of heat and moisture prevail; that of the coast where heat,
+  varying rainfall, oceanic influences and changing seasons have greatly
+  modified the general character of the vegetation; and that of the
+  elevated interior, or _sertao_, where dryer conditions, rocky
+  surfaces, higher sun temperatures and large open spaces produce a
+  vegetation widely different from those of the other two regions.
+  Besides these, the flora of the Paraguay basin varies widely from that
+  of the inland plateau, and that of the Brazilian Guiana region is
+  essentially distinct from the Amazon. The latter region is densely
+  forested from the Atlantic to the Andes, but with a varying width of
+  about 200 m. on the coast to about 900 m. between the Bolivian and
+  Venezuelan _llanos_, and thus far civilization has made only a very
+  slight impression upon it. Even where settlements have been located,
+  constant effort is required to keep the vegetation down. Along the
+  coast, much of the virgin forest has been cut away, not only for the
+  creation of cultivated plantations, but to meet the commercial demand
+  for Brazil-wood and furniture woods.
+
+  The chief characteristic of the Amazonian forest, aside from its
+  magnitude, is the great diversity of genera and species. In the
+  northern temperate zone we find forests of a single species, others of
+  three or four species; in this great tropical forest the habit of
+  growth is solitary and an acre of ground will contain hundreds of
+  species--palms, myrtles, acacias, mimosas, cecropias, euphorbias,
+  malvaceas, laurels, cedrellas, bignonias, bombaceas, apocyneas,
+  malpigias, lecythises, swartzias, &c. The vegetation of the lower
+  river-margins, which are periodically flooded, differs in some
+  particulars from that of the higher ground, and the same variation is
+  to be found between the forests of the upper and lower Amazon, and
+  between the Amazon and its principal tributaries. The density of the
+  forest is greatly augmented by the _cipós_, or lianas, which overgrow
+  the largest trees to their tops, and by a profusion of epiphytes which
+  cover the highest branches. As a rule the trees of the Amazon forest
+  are not conspicuously high, a few species rarely reaching a height of
+  200 ft. The average is probably less than one-half that height. This
+  is especially true of the flood plains where the annual inundations
+  prevent the formation of humus and retard forest growth. The largest
+  of the Amazon forest trees are the _massaranduba_ (_Mimusops elata_),
+  called the cow-tree because of its milky sap, the _samaúma_
+  (_Eriodendron samauma_) or silk-cotton tree, the _páu d' arco_
+  (_Tecoma speciosa_), _páu d' alho_ (_Catraeva tapia_), _bacori_
+  (_Symphonea coccinea_), _sapucaia_ (_Lecythis ollaria_), and
+  _castanheira_ or brazil-nut tree (_Bertholletia excelsa_). The Amazon
+  region has a comparatively narrow frontage on the Atlantic. In
+  Maranhão, which belongs to the coast region, open spaces or _campos_
+  appear, though the state is well wooded and its forests have the
+  general characteristics of the lower Amazon. South-east of the
+  Parnahyba the coast region becomes dryer and more sandy and the
+  forests disappear. The coast and tide-water rivers are fringed with
+  mangrove, and the sandy plain reaching back to the margin of the
+  inland plateau is generally bare of vegetation, though the carnahuba
+  palm (_Copernicia cerifera_) and some species of low-growing trees are
+  to be found in many places. The higher levels of this plain are
+  covered with shrubs and small trees, principally mimosas. The slopes
+  of the plateau, which receive a better rainfall, are more heavily
+  forested, some districts being covered with deciduous trees, forming
+  _catingas_ in local parlance. This dry, thinly-wooded region extends
+  south to the states of Parahyba, where a more regular rainfall favours
+  forest growth nearer the coast. Between Parahyba and southern Bahia
+  forests and open plains are intermingled; thence southward the narrow
+  coastal plain and bordering mountain slopes are heavily forested. The
+  sea-coast, bays and tide-water rivers are still fringed with mangrove,
+  and on the sandy shores above Cape Frio grow large numbers of the
+  exotic cocoa-nut palm. Many species of indigenous palms abound, and in
+  places the forests are indescribably luxuriant. These are made up, as
+  Prince Max zu Neuwied found in southern Bahia in 1817, "of the genera
+  _Cocos_, _Melastoma_, _Bignonia_, _Rhexia_, _Mimosa_, _Ingá_,
+  _Bombax_, _Ilex_, _Laurus_, _Myrthus_, _Eugenia_, _Jacarandá_,
+  _Jatropha_, _Visinia_, _Lecythis_, _Ficus_, and a thousand other, for
+  the most part, unknown species of trees." Further inland the higher
+  country becomes more open and the forests are less luxuriant. Giant
+  cacti and spiny scrub abound. Then come the _catinga_ tracts, and,
+  beyond these, the open _campos_ of the elevated plateau, dotted with
+  clumps of low growing bushes and broken by tracts of _carrasco_, a
+  thick, matted, bushy growth 10 to 12 ft. in height. Formerly this
+  coast region furnished large quantities of Brazil-wood (_Caesalpinia
+  echinata_), and the river valleys have long been the principal source
+  of Brazil's best cabinet-wood--rosewood (_Dalbergia nigra_), jacarandá
+  (_Machaeriumfirmum_, Benth.), vinhatico (_Plathymenia foliosa_,
+  Benth.), peroba (_Aspidosperma peroba_), cedro, &c. The exotic
+  _mangabeira_ (mango) is found everywhere along the coast, together
+  with the bamboo, orange, lemon, banana, cashew, &c.
+
+  Of the great inland region, which includes the arid campos of the
+  north, the partially-wooded plateaus of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and Matto
+  Grosso, the temperate highlands of the south, and the tropical
+  lowlands of the Paraguay basin, no adequate description can be given
+  without taking each section in detail, which can be done to better
+  advantage in describing the individual states. In general, the
+  _carrasco_ growth extends over the whole central plateau, and heavy
+  forests are found only in the deep river valleys. Those opening
+  northward have the characteristic flora of the Amazon basin. The
+  Paraguay basin is covered with extensive marshy tracts and open
+  woodlands, the palms being the conspicuous feature. The vegetation is
+  similar to that of Paraguay and the Chaco, and aquatic plants are
+  specially numerous and luxuriant. On the temperate uplands of the
+  southern states there are imposing forests of South American pine
+  (_Araucaria brasiliensis_), whose bare trunks and umbrella-like tops
+  give to them the appearance of open woodland. These forests extend
+  from Paraná into Rio Grande do Sul and smaller tracts are also found
+  in Minas Geraes. Large tracts of _Ilex paraguayensis_, from which
+  _maté_, or Paraguay-tea, is gathered, are found in this same region.
+
+  The economic plants of Brazil, both indigenous and exotic, are
+  noticeably numerous. Coffee naturally occupies first place, and is
+  grown wherever frosts are not severe from the Amazon south to Paraná.
+  The states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes are the
+  largest producers, but it is also grown for export in Espirito Santo,
+  Bahia and Ceará. The export in 1905 was 10,820,604 bags of 132 lb.
+  each, with an official valuation of £21,420,330. Sugar cane, another
+  exotic, has an equally wide distribution, and cotton is grown along
+  the coast from Maranhão to São Paulo. Other economic plants and fruits
+  having a wide distribution are tobacco, maize, rice, beans, sweet
+  potatoes, bananas, cacáo (_Theobroma cacao_), mandioca or cassava
+  (_Manihot utilitissima_), _aipim_ or sweet mandioca (_M. aipi_),
+  guavas (_Psidium guayava_, Raddi), oranges, lemons, limes, grapes,
+  pineapples, _mamão_ (_Carica papaya_), bread-fruit (_Artocarpus
+  incisa_), jack fruit (_A. integrifolia_), and many others less known
+  outside the tropics. Among the palms there are several of great
+  economic value, not only as food producers but also for various
+  domestic uses. The fruit of the _pupunha_ or peach palm (_Guilielma
+  speciosa_) is an important food among the Indians of the Amazon
+  valley, where the tree was cultivated by them long before the
+  discovery of America. Humboldt found it among the native tribes of the
+  Orinoco valley, where it is called _pirijao_. The ita palm,
+  _Mauritia_, _flexuosa_ (a fan-leaf palm) provides an edible fruit,
+  medullary meal, drink, fibre, roofing and timber, but is less used on
+  the Amazon than it is on the lower Orinoco. The _assaí_ (_Euterpe
+  oleracea_) is another highly-prized palm because of a beverage made
+  from its fruit along the lower Amazon. A closely-related species or
+  variety (_Euterpe edulis_) is the well-known palmito or cabbage palm
+  found over the greater part of Brazil, whose terminal phylophore is
+  cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Another highly useful palm is the
+  _carnauba_ or _carnahuba_ (_Copernicia cerifera_) which supplies
+  fruit, medullary meal, food for cattle, boards and timber, fibre, wax
+  and medicine. The fibre of the _piassava (Leopoldinia piassava_, or
+  _Attalea funifera_) is widely used for cordage, brushes and brooms.
+  There are many other palms whose fruit, fibre and wood enter largely
+  into the domestic economy of the natives, but the list given shows how
+  important a service these trees rendered to the aboriginal inhabitants
+  of tropical America, and likewise how useful they still are to the
+  people of tropical Brazil. Another vegetable product of the Amazon
+  region is made from the fruit of the _Paullinia sorbilis_, Mart., and
+  is known by the name of _guaraná_. It is largely consumed in Bolivia
+  and Matto Grosso, where it is used in the preparation of a beverage
+  which has excellent medicinal properties. The Brazilian flora is also
+  rich in medicinal and aromatic plants, dye-woods, and a wide range of
+  gum and resin-producing shrubs and trees. The best known of these are
+  sarsaparilla, ipecacuanhá, cinchona, jaborandi and copaiba; vanilla,
+  tonka beans and cloves; Brazil-wood and anatto (_Bixa orellana_);
+  india-rubber and balata. India-rubber is derived principally from the
+  _Hevea guayanensis_, sometimes called the _Siphonia elastica_, which
+  is found on the Amazon and its tributaries as far inland as the
+  foothills of the Andes. Other rubber-producing trees are the
+  _maniçoba_ (_Jatropha Glasiovii_) of Ceará, and the _mangabeira_
+  (_Hancornia speciosa_), of the central upland regions.
+
+_Population._--The first explorers of Brazil reported a numerous Indian
+population, but, as the sea-coast afforded a larger and more easily
+acquired food supply than did the interior, the Indian population was
+probably numerous only in a comparatively small part of this immense
+territory, along the sea-coast. Modern explorations have shown that the
+unsettled inland regions of Brazil are populated by Indians only where
+the conditions are favourable. They are to be found in wooded districts
+near rivers, and are rarely found on the elevated _campos_. The
+immediate result of European colonization was the enslavement and
+extermination of the Indians along the coast and in all those favoured
+inland localities where the whites came into contact with them. The
+southern districts and the Amazon and its tributaries were often raided
+by slave-hunting expeditions, and their Indian populations were either
+decimated, or driven farther into the inaccessible forests. But there is
+no record that the inland districts of western and north-western Brazil
+were treated in this manner, and their present population may be assumed
+to represent approximately what it was when the Europeans first came.
+According to the census of 1890 the Indian population was 1,295,796, but
+so far as the migratory tribes are concerned the figures are only
+guesswork. A considerable number of these Indians have been gathered
+together in _aldeas_ under the charge of government tutors, but the
+larger part still live in their own villages or as nomads.
+
+Down to the beginning of the 19th century the white colonists were
+almost exclusively Portuguese. The immigration from countries other than
+Portugal during the first half of that century was small, but before its
+close it increased rapidly, particularly from Italy. Fully nine-tenths
+of these immigrants, including those from the mother country, were of
+the Latin race. The introduction of African slaves followed closely upon
+the development of agricultural industries, and continued nominally
+until 1850, actually until 1854, and according to some authors until
+1860. About 1826 it was estimated that the negro population numbered
+2,500,000 or three times the white population of that period. The
+unrestricted intermixture of these three races forms the principal basis
+of the Brazilian population at the beginning of the 20th century. Brazil
+has never had a "colour line," and there has never been any popular
+prejudice against race mixtures. According to the census of 1872 the
+total population was 9,930,478, of which 1,510,806 were slaves; the race
+enumeration gave 3,787,289 whites, 1,959,452 Africans, 386,955 Indians,
+and 3,801,782 mixed bloods. The Indian population certainly exceeded the
+total given, and the white population must have included many of mixed
+blood, the habit of so describing themselves being common among the
+better classes of South American mestizos. The census of 1890 increased
+the total population to 14,333,915, which, according to an unofficial
+analysis (_Statesman's Year Book_, 1905), was made up of 6,302,198
+whites, 4,638,495 mixed bloods, 2,097,426 Africans, and 1,295,796
+Indians. This analysis, if correct, indicates that the vegetative
+increase of the whites has been greater than that of the Africans and
+mixed races. This is not the conclusion of many observers, but it may
+be due to the excessive infant mortality among the lower classes, where
+an observance of the simplest sanitary laws is practically unknown. The
+census of the 31st of December 1900 was strikingly defective; it was
+wholly discarded for the city of Rio de Janeiro, and had to be completed
+by office computations in the returns from several states. The
+compilation of the returns was not completed and published until May
+1908, according to which the total population was 17,318,556, of which
+8,825,636 were males and 8,492,920 females. Not including the city of
+Rio de Janeiro, whose population was estimated at 691,565 in conformity
+with a special municipal census of 1906, the total population was
+16,626,991, of which 15,572,671 were Roman Catholics, 177,727
+Protestants, 876,593 of other faiths. The returns also show a total of
+3,038,500 domiciles outside the federal capital, which gives an average
+of 5.472 to the domicile. These returns will serve to correct the
+exaggerated estimate of 22,315,000 for 1900 which was published in
+Brazil and accepted by many foreign publications.
+
+The racial character of the people is not uniform throughout the
+republic, the whites predominating in the southern states, the Indians
+in Amazonas and, probably, Matto Grosso, and the mixed races in the
+central and northern coast states. The excess of whites over the
+coloured races in the southern states is due to their smaller slave
+population and to the large number of immigrants attracted to them.
+Slavery was not abolished until the 13th of May 1888, but a number of
+successful colonies had already been founded in these states. Other
+colonies were founded in Bahia, Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro during
+the same period, but they were unsuccessful, partly because of the
+competition of slave labour. Since the abolition of slavery immigration
+has poured a large number of labourers into the coffee-producing states,
+and with beneficial results. This strengthening of the white population
+of the South with fresh European blood must eventually divide Brazil
+into two distinct sections: the white states of the south, and the mixed
+or coloured states of the north. The introduction of European immigrants
+dates from 1818 when a Swiss colony was located at Nova Friburgo, near
+Rio de Janeiro, and it was continued under the direction and with the
+aid of the imperial government down to the creation of the republic.
+Since then the state governments have assumed charge of immigration, and
+some of them are spending large sums in the acquisition of labourers.
+The old system of locating immigrants in colonies, or colonial nuclei,
+which involved an enormous outlay of money with but slight benefit to
+the country, has been superseded by a system of locating the immigrants
+on the large plantations under formal contracts. In some of the coffee
+districts these contracts have resulted very profitably to the Italian
+labourers. The total number of colonists and immigrants entering Brazil
+between 1804 and 1902, inclusive, according to official returns, was
+2,208,353. The arrivals fluctuate greatly in number from year to year,
+influenced by the prevailing economic conditions in the country. At
+first the Portuguese outnumbered all other nationalities in the
+immigration returns, but since the abolition of slavery the Italians
+have passed all competitors and number more than one-half the total
+arrivals. Of the 700,211 immigrants located in the state of São Paulo
+from 1827 to the end of 1896, no less than 493,535 were Italians, and
+their aggregate throughout the republic was estimated in 1906 at more
+than 1,100,000. The German immigration, of which so much has been
+written for political ends, has been greatly over-estimated; trustworthy
+estimates in 1906 made the German contingent in the population vary from
+350,000 to 500,000. They are settled chiefly in colonies in the southern
+states, and form a most desirable body of settlers.
+
+_Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into twenty states and
+one federal district, which are the same as the provinces and "municipio
+neutro" of the empire. Their names also remain unchanged, except that of
+the federalized district in which the national capital is located, which
+is called the "districto federal." The republic has no territories,
+although Amazonas, Matto Grosso, Pará and Goyaz cover an immense region
+of uninhabited and only partially explored territory. The states are
+subdivided into _comarcas_, or judicial districts, and into
+_municipios_, or townships, which is the smallest autonomous division.
+The constitution provides for the autonomy of the municipalities in
+order to safeguard the permanence of representative institutions. The
+_parochia_, or parish, an ecclesiastical division, is often used for
+administrative purposes, but it has no political organization. The
+names, areas, and populations of the states, together with the names and
+populations of their capitals, are as follows:--
+
+  +--------------------+---------+-----------------------+-----------------------+--------+
+  |                    |Area,[1] |     Population[2]     |                       |Popula- |
+  |      States.       |   Sq.   +-----------+-----------+    State Capitals.    |tion,[3]|
+  |                    |  miles. |  Census   |  Census   |                       | Census |
+  |                    |         |   1890.   |   1900.   |                       |  1890. |
+  +--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+
+  | Alagôas            |  22,584 |   511,440 |   649,273 | Maceió                | 31,498 |
+  | Amazonas           | 742,123 |   147,915 |   249,756 | Manáos                | 38,720 |
+  | Bahia              | 164,650 | 1,919,802 | 2,117,956 | São Salvador[4]       |174,412 |
+  | Ceará              |  40,253 |   805,687 |   849,127 | Fortaleza             | 40,902 |
+  | Espirito Santo     |  17,313 |   135,997 |   209,783 | Victoria              | 16,887 |
+  | Federal District   |     538 |   522,651 |   691,565 | Rio de Janeiro        |522,651 |
+  | Goyaz              | 288,549 |   227,572 |   255,284 | Goyaz[4]              | 17,181 |
+  | Maranhão           | 177,569 |   430,854 |   499,308 | S. Luiz do Maranhão[4]| 29,308 |
+  | Matto Grosso       | 532,370 |    92,827 |   118,025 | Cuyabá                | 17,815 |
+  | Minas Geraes       | 221,961 | 3,184,099 | 3,594,471 | Ouro Preto[5]         | 59,249 |
+  | Pará               | 443,922 |   328,455 |   445,356 | Belem[4]              | 50,064 |
+  | Parahyba           |  28,855 |   457,232 |   490,784 | Parahyba              | 18,645 |
+  | Paraná             |  85,455 |   249,491 |   327,136 | Curityba              | 24,553 |
+  | Pernambuco         |  49,575 | 1,030,224 | 1,178,150 | Recife[4]             |111,556 |
+  | Piauhy             | 116,529 |   267,609 |   334,328 | Therezina             | 31,523 |
+  | Rio de Janeiro     |  26,635 |   276,884 |   274,317 | Nictheroy             | 34,269 |
+  | Rio Grande do Norte|  22,196 |   268,273 | 1,149,070 | Natal                 | 13,725 |
+  | Rio Grande do Sul  |  91,337 |   897,455 |   926,035 | Porto Alegre          | 52,421 |
+  | Santa Catharina    |  28,633 |   283,769 |   320,289 | Desterro[6]           | 30,637 |
+  | São Paulo          | 112,312 | 1,384,753 | 2,282,279 | São Paulo             | 64,934 |
+  | Sergipe            |  15,093 |   310,926 |   356,264 | Ararajú               | 16,336 |
+  |                    +---------+-----------+-----------+                       |        |
+  |       Brazil       |3,228,452|14,333,915 |17,318,556 |                       |        |
+  +--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+
+
+  _Communications._--Railway construction in Brazil dates from 1852,
+  when work was initiated on the Mauá railway running from the head of
+  the bay of Rio de Janeiro to the foot of the Serra where Petropolis is
+  situated. The road is 10 m. long, and its first section was opened to
+  traffic on April 30, 1854, and its second December 16, 1856. The
+  mountain section, 5½ m. long, which uses the Riggenbach system from
+  the terminal to Petropolis, was constructed between 1881 and 1883. The
+  development of railway construction in Brazil has been impeded to a
+  great extent by two unfavourable conditions--by the chain of mountains
+  or plateau escarpments which follow the coast line and obstruct
+  communication with the interior, and by the detached positions of the
+  settlements along the Atlantic, which compel the building of lines
+  from many widely separated points on the coast into a sparsely
+  populated hinterland. A majority of the ports, from which these roads
+  are built, are small and difficult of access, and the coasting trade
+  is restricted to vessels carrying the Brazilian flag. The only ports
+  having a rich and well-populated country behind them are Rio de
+  Janeiro and Santos, and these are the terminals of long lines of
+  railway which are being slowly extended farther into the interior.
+
+  The total mileage under traffic at the beginning of 1905 was 10,600
+  m., divided into 94 separate lines. There were also 745 m. under
+  construction, 1740 m. under survey, and about 1600 m. projected. Of
+  the 94 lines under traffic, 45 were operating by virtue of national
+  and 49 by provincial and state concessions. They were grouped in the
+  official reports of 1905 as follows:--
+
+    Government lines (21):--                  Miles.
+      Administered by the state  (6)            2228
+      Leased to private parties (15)            2174
+                                               -----   4402
+    Private lines (24)--
+      With national interest guarantees (12)    1290
+      Without such guarantees (12)               815
+                                               -----   2105
+    Private and state lines operated by
+      virtue of state concessions, with and
+      without interest guarantees (49)                 4093
+                                                     ------
+                                                     10,600
+                                                     ======
+
+  The policy of the national government has been gradually to lease all
+  its lines except the Estrada de Ferro Central do Brazil, which is
+  retained for sentimental reasons. This great railway runs from the
+  city of Rio de Janeiro westward to the city of São Paulo and northward
+  into the interior of Minas Geraes, with a total length at the
+  beginning of 1905 of 1002 m., and an extension of about 104 m. to
+  Pirapora, on the São Francisco river. It was formerly known as the "E.
+  de F. Dom Pedro II.," in honour of the sovereign who encouraged its
+  construction. The main line has a gauge of 63 in. (1.60 m.) and
+  affords an outlet for a number of inland metre-gauge lines. The first
+  two sections of this great railway, which carry it across the coast
+  range, were opened to traffic in 1858 and 1864. The series of trunk
+  lines terminating at the port of Santos are owned by private companies
+  and are formed by the São Paulo, Paulista and Mogyana lines, the first
+  owned by an English company, and the other two by Brazilian companies.
+  The Mogyana carries the system entirely across the state of São Paulo
+  into the western districts of Minas Geraes. The principal trunk lines
+  (the São Paulo and Paulista) have a broad gauge, while their
+  extensions and feeders have a narrow gauge. The comparatively short
+  lines extending inland from the ports of São Salvador (Bahia),
+  Pernambuco, Maceió, Victoria and Paranaguá serve only a narrow zone
+  along the coast. To encourage the investment of private capital in the
+  construction of railways, the general railway law of 1853 authorized
+  the national government to grant guarantees of interest on the capital
+  invested. Under this law companies were organized in England for
+  building the São Paulo railway, and the lines running from Bahia and
+  Pernambuco toward the São Francisco river. Political considerations
+  also led to the construction of similar lines in the states of Rio
+  Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Alagôas, Sergipe, Espirito Santo, Paraná,
+  Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul. The result was that the
+  national treasury became burdened with a heavy annual interest charge,
+  payable abroad in gold, which did not tend to diminish, and had a long
+  period to run before the expiration of the contracts. The government
+  finally determined to take over these guaranteed lines from the
+  foreign companies owning them, and a statement issued in October 1902
+  showed that 1335 m. had been acquired at a cost of £14,605,000 in
+  bonds, the interest on which is £584,200 a year against an aggregate
+  of £831,750 in interest guarantees which the government had been
+  paying. In addition to this economy it was calculated that the lines
+  could be leased for £132,000 a year. The loan finally issued in London
+  to cover the purchase of these railways aggregated £16,619,320. All
+  but three of these lines had been leased in 1905.
+
+  The use of tramways for the transportation of passengers in cities
+  dates from 1868, when the first section of the Botanical Garden line
+  of Rio de Janeiro was opened to traffic. The line was completed with
+  its surplus earnings and continued under the control of the American
+  company which built it until 1882, when it was sold to a Brazilian
+  company. Subsequently the tramways of the city have been mostly
+  concentrated in the hands of a single Canadian company. All the large
+  cities of Brazil are liberally provided with tramways, those of the
+  city of São Paulo, where electric traction is used, being noticeably
+  good. The substitution of electricity for animal traction was begun in
+  São Salvador in 1906. Mules are universally employed for animal
+  traction, and narrow gauge lines with single-mule trams are generally
+  used where the traffic is light.
+
+  Brazil is lamentably deficient in steamship communication considering
+  its importance in a country where the centres of population are
+  separated by such distances of coasts and river. Previous to the
+  creation of the republic, the coastwise service was performed by two
+  national companies (now united), and partially by foreign lines
+  calling at two or more ports. A considerable number of foreign sailing
+  vessels also carried on an important coasting trade. The coastwise
+  service centres at Rio de Janeiro, from which port the Lloyd
+  Brazileiro sends steamers regularly south to Montevideo, and north to
+  Pará and Manáos, calling at the more important intermediate ports.
+  From Montevideo river steamers are sent up the Paraná and Paraguay
+  rivers to Corumbá and Cuyabá, in the state of Matto Grosso. The
+  company receives a heavy subsidy from the national government. Parts
+  of this coastwise traffic are covered by other companies, two of which
+  receive subsidies. There were also six lines of river steamers
+  receiving subsidies from the national government in 1904, and the
+  aggregate paid to these and the coastwise lines was 2,830,061 milreis.
+  The largest of the river lines is the Amazon Steam Navigation Co. (an
+  English corporation), whose service covers the main river and several
+  of its principal tributaries. Two subsidized companies maintain
+  services on the São Francisco river--one below the Paulo Affonso
+  falls, and the other above, the latter covering 854 m. of navigable
+  channel between Joazeiro and Pirapora. Besides these there are other
+  companies engaged in the coasting and river traffic, either with
+  subsidies from the state governments, as feeders for railway lines, or
+  as private unsubsidized undertakings.
+
+  The telegraph lines, which date from 1852, are owned and operated by
+  the national government, with the exception of the lines constructed
+  by private railway companies, and the cable lines of the Amazon and
+  the coast. The government lines extend from Pará to the Argentine and
+  Uruguayan frontiers, where they connect with the telegraph systems of
+  those republics, and from Rio de Janeiro westward across country, in
+  great part unsettled, to the capitals of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. At
+  Pará connexion is made with the cable laid in the bed of the Amazon to
+  Manáos, which is owned and operated by a subsidized English company.
+  At Vizeu, Pará, connexion is made with a French cable to the West
+  Indies and the United States, and at Pernambuco with two cable lines
+  to Europe. A coastwise cable runs from Pará to Montevideo with double
+  cables between Pernambuco and Montevideo. There were in 1903 a total
+  of 15,150 m. of land lines, with 29,310 m. of wire and 1102 telegraph
+  offices. The government maintains reciprocal rates with most of the
+  private railway lines.
+
+  The Brazilian postal service is under the general supervision of the
+  minister of communications and public works, and is administered by a
+  director-general. Owing to the size of the country and the
+  sparsely-populated state of a large part of the interior, the
+  transportation of the mails is attended with much difficulty and
+  expense. Although the postal rates are high, the service is not
+  self-sustaining, the receipts for 1904 being 7,018,344 milreis,
+  against a total expenditure of 10,099,545 milreis. There were 2847
+  post offices (_agencias_), of which 2166 were of the 4th or lowest
+  grade. Brazil is a member of the Postal Union, and like Argentina
+  exacts higher nominal rates of postage upon outgoing mail than those
+  agreed upon to cover the depreciation in her own currency. The letter
+  rate was at first 200 reis (nearly 5½ d.), but it has been increased
+  to 300 reis, which is equivalent to 8 d. at par and 4½ d. at 15 d.
+  exchange. An inland parcel post was in operation long before the
+  overthrow of the monarchy, and a similar service with Portugal has
+  been successfully maintained for a number of years, notwithstanding
+  the difficulties interposed by customs regulations. National and
+  international money order systems are also in operation.
+
+  The constitution of Brazil provides that the coastwise trade shall be
+  carried on by national vessels, but this provision did not go into
+  effect until 1896. And even then, because of the insufficient number
+  of Brazilian vessels it was provided in the regulations that foreign
+  vessels could be enrolled in that trade by using the Brazilian flag
+  and employing a certain proportion of Brazilians on the crew. One of
+  the purposes of this restrictive provision was that of creating a
+  national merchant marine, but the disinclination of Brazilians for
+  maritime pursuits has been a serious obstacle to its realization. In
+  1901 the merchant navy included 228 steamers of 91,465 tons net, and
+  343 sailing vessels of 76,992 tons net. These vessels are all engaged
+  in the coasting and river trade of the country. Efforts have been
+  made, however, to engage in foreign trade, and subsidies were offered
+  for a passenger and freight service to the United States. On the 23rd
+  of February 1906 the government completed a new contract with the
+  Lloyd Brazileiro Company for its coastwise and river service, and
+  included clauses providing for a line to the United States. This
+  foreign service (monthly) began in August 1906.
+
+  Although the coast of Brazil shows a large number of bays and
+  tide-water river channels which are apparently suitable for commercial
+  ports, a close examination of them reduces the number of good ports to
+  less than a dozen. The others are either difficult of access, or are
+  rendered practically useless by dangerous reefs, sand bars and shoals.
+  Important improvements have been undertaken in some of these ports.
+  Those at Santos and Manáos, for example, have produced good results.
+  In many cases, as at Rio de Janeiro, Santos and Manáos, the cost and
+  maintenance of the new port-works are met by an additional tax on
+  merchandise, though the immediate expenditures are met by advances
+  from the national treasury, and at Rio de Janeiro by a foreign loan.
+
+  _Commerce._--The imports, exports and domestic trade of Brazil are
+  by reason of their magnitude and peculiar character the most important
+  in South America, though the _per capita_ aggregate is less than that
+  of Argentina. Although an agricultural country, Brazil does not
+  produce all its own bread and meat, and the imports of wheat, wheat
+  flour, rice, fish, jerked beef and preserved meats, lard, butter,
+  beans, potatoes, packed fruits and vegetables, Indian corn and other
+  food-stuffs, are surprisingly large. Since the creation of the
+  republic, extreme protective measures have caused the creation of a
+  large number of cotton factories and other manufactures, but these are
+  able to supply only a part of the consumption, and the importation of
+  cotton and woollen fabrics, silks, ready-made clothing, boots and
+  shoes, &c., is large. Modern industrial development in some of the
+  states has greatly increased the importation of machinery, electric
+  supplies, materials for construction, coal, &c. Kerosene oil also
+  figures among the principal imports, and beef cattle are imported for
+  consumption by some cities. The exports cover a wide range of
+  agricultural, pastoral and natural productions, including coffee,
+  rubber, sugar, cotton, cocoa, Brazil nuts, _maté_ (Paraguay tea),
+  hides, skins, fruits, gold, diamonds, manganese ore, cabinet woods and
+  medicinal leaves, roots and resins. Coffee and rubber, however,
+  represent from 80 to 90% of the official valuation of all exports.
+  High import duties are imposed by the national government and export
+  duties by the states. The exchange of domestic products between the
+  states is greatly restricted through lack of cheap transportation
+  facilities, and by the suicidal imposition of import and export duties
+  by the states, either for revenue or for the protection of home
+  industries.
+
+  According to a summary for the six years 1901 to 1906, derived from
+  official sources and published in the annual _Retrospecto_ of the
+  _Jornal do Commercio_, of Rio de Janeiro, the values of the imports
+  and exports for those years (exclusive of coin), reduced to pounds
+  sterling at the average rate of exchange (or value of one milreis) for
+  each year, were as follows:--
+
+    +------+-----------+------------+-------------+
+    |      |  Average  |            |             |
+    | Year.| Value of  | Imports in | Exports in  |
+    |      |the Milreis|Pounds Ster.| Pounds Ster.|
+    |      | in Pence. |            |             |
+    +------+-----------+------------+-------------+
+    |      |           |     £      |      £      |
+    | 1901 |   11.33   | 21,377,270 |  40,621,993 |
+    | 1902 |   11.93   | 23,279,418 |  36,437,456 |
+    | 1903 |   11.99   | 24,207,811 |  36,883,175 |
+    | 1904 |   12.22   | 25,915,423 |  39,430,136 |
+    | 1905 |   15.94   | 29,830,050 |  44,643,113 |
+    | 1906 |   16.17   | 33,204,041 |  53,059,480 |
+    +------+-----------+------------+-------------+
+
+  Nearly 76½% of the exports of 1906 were of coffee and rubber, the
+  official valuations of these being: coffee 245,474,525 milreis gold
+  (£27,615,884), and rubber (including maniçoba and mangabeira),
+  124,941,433 milreis gold (£14,055,911).
+
+  Brazil is essentially an agricultural country. No other country has
+  been able to equal Brazil in the production of coffee, and under
+  better labour conditions the country might compete with the foremost
+  in the production of cane sugar, cotton and tobacco. Besides these it
+  might easily excel in producing many of the tropical fruits for which
+  there is a commercial demand. During the colonial period sugar cane
+  was cultivated from Parahyba S. to the vicinity of Santos, and sugar
+  was the principal export of the colony. Before the middle of the 19th
+  century coffee became one of the leading exports, and its cultivation
+  in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes has been
+  so increased since that time that it represents over four-fifths in
+  value of the total export of agricultural produce. The principal
+  sugar-producing states are Alagôas, Sergipe, Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio
+  de Janeiro, and the production is between 200,000 and 300,000 tons,
+  the greater part of which is consumed in the country. Cotton has been
+  widely cultivated since early colonial days, principally in the
+  northern Atlantic states. Tobacco is also widely cultivated, and the
+  product of some states, such as Bahia, Minas Geraes and Goyaz, has a
+  high local reputation for its excellence. Cacáu (cocoa) is cultivated
+  extensively in the Amazon Valley and along the coast as far south as
+  southern Bahia, and forms one of the leading exports. In 1906 São
+  Paulo offered premiums for its cultivation in the state. Rice has been
+  cultivated in places, but without much success, although the quality
+  produced compared favourably with the imported article. Indian corn
+  grows luxuriantly everywhere, but it does not mature well in the humid
+  regions of the Amazon region and the coast. The product of the
+  elevated inland regions is good, but the costs of transportation and
+  the small profits afforded have prevented its extensive cultivation,
+  and it is imported from the La Plata republics for consumption along
+  the coast. Much has been said in regard to the production of wheat,
+  and efforts have been made in various places to promote its
+  cultivation. It was once cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul with some
+  success, and it has been grown in Minas Geraes and São Paulo, but in
+  no case have the returns been sufficient to give it a permanent
+  standing among the productions of the country. The great majority of
+  the people are unused to wheaten bread, using the coarse flour of the
+  mandioca root instead, consequently the demand for wheat and flour is
+  confined to the large cities, which can obtain them from Argentina
+  more cheaply than they can be produced in the country. One of the most
+  common and important productions of Brazil is _mandioca_ (_Manihot_),
+  of which there are two well-known species, _M. utilissima_ and _M.
+  aipi_. The first named, which is poisonous in its native state, is the
+  _cassava_ of Spanish America. From it is made _farinha de mandioca_,
+  which is the bread of the common people of Brazil, and tapioca. The
+  poison is extracted by soaking the bruised or grated roots in water,
+  after which the coarse flour is roasted. Mandioca was cultivated by
+  the natives before the discovery of America, and the wide area over
+  which it has been distributed warrants the conclusion that the
+  discovery of its value as a food and the means of separating its
+  poisonous properties must have occurred at a very remote period. The
+  peanut, or ground-nut (_Arachis hypogaea_), is another
+  widely-cultivated plant, dating from pre-Columbian times. Very little
+  attention has thus far been given to the cultivation of fruit for
+  exportation, the exceptions being bananas for the Argentine and
+  Uruguayan markets, and oranges and pineapples for European markets.
+  The coast region from Ceará to Rio de Janeiro is adapted to the
+  cultivation of a great variety of fruits of a superior quality. Ceará,
+  Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro are celebrated for their oranges, and
+  Pernambuco for its delicious pineapples. Tangerines, lemons, limes,
+  grapes, guavas, figs, cashews or cajús (_Anacardium occidentale_),
+  mangabas (_Hancornia speciosa_), joboticabas (_Eugenia cauliflora_ and
+  _E. jaboticaba_, Mart.), cocoa-nuts, mangos, _fruitas de conde_
+  (_Anona squamosa_), plantains, &c. are produced in abundance and with
+  little labour. In some parts of southern Brazil the fruits and
+  vegetables of the temperate zone do well, but within the tropics they
+  thrive well only at a considerable elevation above sea-level. Apples,
+  peaches, quinces, raspberries, strawberries, &c., are produced under
+  such conditions, but the flavour of their kind grown in colder
+  climates is usually wanting. The vegetable productions are less
+  numerous, but they include sweet potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower,
+  lettuce, beans, peas, onions, garlic, tomatoes, okra, radishes,
+  cucumbers, couve, chuchu (_Sechium edule_), and aipim (_Manihot
+  aipi_). The white potato, known as "batata inglez" (English potato),
+  is grown in elevated localities, but it deteriorates so greatly after
+  the first planting that fresh imported seed is necessary every second
+  or third year.
+
+  The pastoral industries, which date from early colonial times, have
+  suffered many vicissitudes, and their development has failed to keep
+  pace with the country's growth in population. Horses are used to some
+  extent for riding, but very little for carriage and draught purposes,
+  consequently there has been no great incentive for their breeding.
+  They are largely used and raised in Rio Grande do Sul, but in the
+  warmer regions of the north only to a limited extent. The hardier
+  mules are generally employed for draught, carriage, and saddle
+  purposes in every part of the country, and their breeding is a
+  lucrative industry in the southern states. Cattle-raising is the
+  principal industry in Rio Grande do Sul, and receives considerable
+  attention in Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, Santa Catharina, Paraná,
+  Piauhy and Rio Grande do Norte. It was estimated that there were
+  30,000,000 head of cattle in the republic in 1904, but the estimate
+  was unquestionably too large. A very large part of the jerked beef
+  consumed in Brazil is imported from Argentina and Uruguay, and some
+  beef cattle also are imported. These importations at Rio de Janeiro in
+  1906 were 12,464,170 kilograms of jerked beef and 12,575 head of
+  cattle. In the Rio Branco region of Amazonas and in Piauhy, where the
+  national government has long been the owner of extensive cattle
+  ranges, the industry is in a state of decadence. This is partly due to
+  such pests as the vampire bat and bush ticks (_carrapatos_), and
+  partly to the unprogressiveness of the cattlemen. Cattle-raising was
+  once a flourishing industry on the island of Marajó, at the mouth of
+  the Amazon, and it is followed to some extent at Alemquer and other
+  points along the Amazon, but the cattle are small, and commonly in bad
+  condition. In southern Bahia the industry has been nearly extinguished
+  through increasing aridity and droughts, but in the state of Rio de
+  Janeiro the planters are increasing their herds. Minas Geraes produces
+  cheese, butter and milk, as well as beef cattle for neighbouring
+  cities. Matto Grosso classifies cattle-raising as a principal
+  industry, but under present conditions the accessible markets are too
+  small for any large development. In Rio Grande do Sul, where it has
+  attained its greatest development, about 400,000 beeves are
+  slaughtered annually for the manufacture of jerked beef (_xarque_),
+  beef extract, &c. Little attention has been given to sheep in Brazil
+  except in the southern states, and even there the flocks are small.
+  They were to be found in Ceará and Piauhy in colonial times, and small
+  flocks are still to be seen in the latter state, but no use is made of
+  their wool, and the market for mutton is extremely limited because of
+  popular prejudices. Woollen manufactures have been established in Rio
+  de Janeiro, São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. The exportation of wool
+  amounted to 1,130,160 lb. in 1906. Goats have been found highly
+  profitable in many of the middle Atlantic states, where the long dry
+  seasons render the campos unsuitable for cattle pasturage. The export
+  of goat skins from these states is large. Swine do well in all parts
+  of the country, especially in Minas Geraes, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro,
+  Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul, and domestic pork and lard are slowly
+  supplanting the heavily-taxed foreign products.
+
+  Although the coast and river fisheries of Brazil are numerous and
+  valuable, cured fish is one of the staple imports, and foreign
+  products are to be found even along the Amazon. In the Amazon valley
+  fish is a principal article of food, and large quantities of
+  _pirarucú_ (_Sudis gigas_) are caught during the season of low water
+  and prepared for storage or market by drying in the sun. This and the
+  collection of turtle eggs for their oil, or butter, are chiefly Indian
+  industries, and contribute largely to the support of the native
+  population of that region. Along the coast the best known fisheries
+  are among the Abrolhos islands and in the shallow waters of Espirito
+  Santo, where the garoupa, pargo and vermelho (species of _Serranus_)
+  abound in great numbers.
+
+  The extractive or forest industries of Brazil were among the first to
+  engage the attention of Europeans, and have always been considered a
+  principal source of colonial and national wealth. The varied uses of
+  india-rubber in modern times, however, have given them a greatly
+  enhanced importance and value. Of the exports of 1905, 36% were of
+  this class, while those of the pastoral and mining industries combined
+  were not quite 6½%. In 1906 the percentages were 31 and 6.67, showing
+  a considerable loss for the former and a slight gain for the latter.
+  The principal products of this class are india-rubber, maté, Brazil
+  nuts, vegetable wax, palm fibre, cabinet woods, and medicinal leaves,
+  roots, resins, &c. Before the discovery of the cheaper aniline
+  colours, dye-woods were among the most valuable products of the
+  country; in fact, Brazil derives her name from that of a dye-wood
+  (Brazil-wood--_Caesalpinia echinata_), known as _bresill, brasilly,
+  bresilji, braxilis_, or _brasile_ long before the discovery of America
+  (see Humboldt's _Géographic du nouveau continent_, tom. ii. p. 214),
+  which for many generations was the most highly prized of her natural
+  productions. Of the total exports of this group (1905) very nearly 90%
+  was of india-rubber, which percentage was reduced to 85 in the
+  following year. The exportation for 1906 was 69,761,123 lb. of Hevea,
+  5,871,968 lb. of maniçoba, and 1,440,131 lb. of mangabeira rubber, the
+  whole valued at 124,941,433 milreis gold. The dried leaves and smaller
+  twigs of maté (Paraguayan tea--_Ilex paraguayensis_) are exported to
+  the southern Spanish American republics, where (as in Rio Grande do
+  Sul) the beverage is exceedingly popular. The export in 1906 amounted
+  to 127,417,950 lb., officially valued at 16,502,881 milreis gold. The
+  collection of Brazil nuts along the Amazon and its tributaries is
+  essentially a poor man's industry, requiring no other plant than a
+  boat. The harvest comes in January and February, in the rainy season,
+  and the nut-gatherers often come one or two hundred miles in their
+  boats to the best forests. The nuts are the fruit of the _Bertholletia
+  excelsa_, one of the largest trees of the Amazon forest region, and
+  are enclosed, sixteen to eighteen in number, in a hard, thick
+  pericarp. Another nut-producing tree is the _sapucaia_ (_Lecythis
+  ollaria_), whose nuts are enclosed in a larger pericarp, and are
+  considered to be better flavoured than those first described. The crop
+  is a variable one, the export in 1905 having been 198,226 hectolitres,
+  while that of 1906 was 96,770 hectolitres. It could undoubtedly be
+  largely increased. Vegetable wax, which is an excellent substitute for
+  beeswax, is a product of the _carnahuba_ palm (_Copernicia cerifera_),
+  and is an important export from Ceará. Palm, or piassava fibre,
+  derived from the _piassava_ palm, is used in the manufacture of
+  brooms, brushes, &c. It is found as far south as southern Bahia, and
+  the export could be very largely increased. The export of cabinet
+  woods is not large, considering the forest area of Brazil and the
+  variety and quality of the woods. This is principally due to the cost
+  and difficulties of transporting timbers to the coast. The export is
+  confined principally to rosewood. Of the medicinal plants, the
+  best-known products are ipecacuanhá, sarsaparilla, copaiba, jaborandi
+  and cinchona, but this is only a part of the list. Besides these,
+  tonka beans, anatto, vanilla, and castor-oil seeds form a part of the
+  exports.
+
+  The mineral exports are surprisingly small. Gold was discovered by the
+  Portuguese soon after their settlement of the coast in the 16th
+  century, but the washings were poor and attracted little attention.
+  The richer deposits of Minas Geraes were discovered about 1693, and
+  those of Matto Grosso early in the following century. Abandoned placer
+  mines are to be found in every part of the unsettled interior, showing
+  how thoroughly it had been explored by gold-hunters in those early
+  days. Some good mines, like Morro Velho and the abandoned Gongo Soco,
+  have been developed in Minas Geraes, but the great majority are small
+  and not very productive. Diamonds were discovered in Minas Geraes,
+  near the town now called Diamantina, during the first half of the 18th
+  century, the dates given ranging from 1725 to 1746, but the
+  productiveness of the district has greatly decreased. Diamonds have
+  also been found in Bahia, Goyaz and Paraná. Other precious stones
+  found in Brazil are the topaz, ruby aquamarine, tourmaline,
+  chrysoberyl, garnet and amethyst. Among the minerals are silver,
+  platinum, copper, iron, lead, manganese, chromium, quicksilver,
+  bismuth, arsenic and antimony, of which only iron and manganese have
+  been regularly mined. The copper deposits of Minas Geraes are said to
+  be promising. Manganese is mined in Minas Geraes for export. Iron ores
+  have been found in most of the states, and are especially abundant in
+  Minas Geraes. The Ypanema mine and ironworks, near Sorocaba, São
+  Paulo, which belong to the national government, have been in operation
+  since 1810 and small charcoal forges were in operation in colonial
+  times and supplied the mines with a considerable part of the iron
+  needed by them. Many of the richer deposits have never been developed
+  because of a lack of fuel and limestone. Bituminous coal of an
+  inferior quality is mined to a limited extent in Rio Grande do Sul,
+  and another mine has been opened in Santa Catharina. These coal
+  deposits extend from Rio Grande do Sul north into the state of São
+  Paulo. Salt, which does not figure in the list of exports, is produced
+  along the coast between Pernambuco and Cape St Roque. The annual
+  production is about 240,000 tons.
+
+  To illustrate the comparative productiveness and relationship of these
+  sources of national wealth and industry, the following official
+  returns of export for the years 1905 and 1906 are arranged in the four
+  general classes previously discussed, the values being in Brazilian
+  gold milreis, worth 2s. 3d. or 54.6 cents to the milreis:--
+
+      _Agricultural._
+
+                                    1905.              1906.
+                                Milreis, gold.    Milreis, gold.
+
+    Coffee   .   .   .   .   .  190,404,576        245,474,525
+    Cotton   .   .   .   .   .   10,290,790         14,726,492
+    Cacau    .   .   .   .   .    9,240,313         12,323,922
+    Tobacco  .   .   .   .   .    7,335,163          8,283,150
+    Sugar    .   .   .   .   .    3,608,476          5,388,596
+    Bran[7]  .   .   .   .   .    1,490,312          1,128,761
+    Cottonseed   .   .   .   .      964,074          1,084,742
+    Mandioca flour   .   .   .      692,079            789,913
+    Fruits   .   .   .   .   .      606,678            714,332
+    Castor-oil seeds .   .   .      214,016            333,250
+                                -----------        -----------
+                                224,846,477        290,247,683
+
+      _Natural and Forest._
+
+    Rubber:
+      Mangabeira     .   .   .    1,286,672          1,376,014
+      Maniçoba   .   .   .   .    7,418,559          7,335,870
+      Hevea (Pará)   .   .   .  119,434,947        116,229,549
+    Maté (Paraguay tea)  .   .   11,088,108         16,502,881
+    Brazil nuts  .   .   .   .    2,064,049          1,190,177
+    Palm wax (Carnahuba) .   .    1,847,273          3,733,478
+    Cabinet woods    .   .   .      390,070            318,873
+    Piassaya fibre   .   .   .      336,668            347,323
+    Medicinal leaves, roots,
+        resins, &c.  .   .   .      191,534            263,137
+                                -----------        -----------
+                                143,331,142        147,297,302
+
+      _Pastoral and Animal._
+
+    Salted hides .   .   .   .    7,010,498          9,691,180
+    Dry hides    .   .   .   .    5,330,440          7,675,715
+    Skins.   .   .   .   .   .    4,117,590          4,639,512
+    Horse hair   .   .   .   .      307,505            403,541
+    Horns    .   .   .   .   .      276,172            277,488
+    Wool .   .   .   .   .   .      142,414            354,045
+    Beef extract, &c .   .   .       81,607            110,925
+                                 ----------         ----------
+                                 17,266,226         23,152,406
+
+       _Mineral Products._
+
+    Gold, in bars    .   .   .    3,734,469          4,379,160
+    Manganese ore    .   .   .    2,958,462          1,594,486
+    Monazite sand    .   .   .      889,231            881,289
+    Precious stones  .   .   .      633,916          1,480,260
+                                  ---------          ---------
+                                  8,216,078          8,335,195
+
+      _Miscellaneous._
+
+    Old metals[8].   .   .   .      263,506            382,073
+    Sundry products  .   .   .    2,177,512          2,225,163
+                                  ---------          ---------
+                                  2,441,018          2,607,236
+                                -----------        -----------
+    Total, all products  .   .  396,827,679        471,639,822
+
+  _Manufactures._--Before the establishment of the republic very little
+  attention had been given to manufacturing industries beyond what was
+  necessary to prepare certain crude products for market. Sugar and rum
+  were essentially plantation products down to the last ten years of the
+  empire, when central usines using improved machinery and methods were
+  introduced as a means of saving the sugar plantations from ruin. The
+  crude methods of preparing jerked beef were also modified to some
+  extent by better equipped abattoirs and establishments for preparing
+  beef extract, preserved meats, &c. There were also mills for crushing
+  the dried maté leaves, cigar and cigarette factories, small chocolate
+  factories, hat factories, brick and tile yards, potteries, tanneries,
+  saddleries, and many other small industries common to all large
+  communities. Considerable protection was afforded to many of these
+  industries by the customs tariff of that time, but protection did not
+  become an acknowledged national policy until after 1889. After that
+  time the duties on imports were repeatedly and largely increased, both
+  as a means of raising larger revenues and as an encouragement to
+  manufacturing enterprise. Although the protective tariffs thus imposed
+  have resulted in a large increase in manufacturing industries, some of
+  them have been antagonistic to the productive interests of the
+  country, as in the case of weaving mills which use imported yarns.
+  Other industries are carried on entirely with imported materials, and
+  are national only in name. Among these are flour mills, factories for
+  the cutting of wire nails and making hollow ware from sheet iron, and
+  factories for the manufacture of umbrellas, boots and shoes, &c. The
+  greatest progress has been made in the manufacture of cotton fabrics,
+  principally of the plainer and coarser grades used by the common
+  people. There were 155 of these factories in 1895, but in 1905 only
+  108 were in operation, with 715,000 spindles, and about 37,000
+  operatives. Nearly one-half of these were weaving mills, using
+  imported yarn. The factories are widely distributed, and some are
+  favoured by state legislation in addition to the national tariff. The
+  largest and best equipped of them are located in the federal states of
+  Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, though the greater part of the raw
+  cotton used comes from the northern states and pays high freight
+  rates. The manufacture of woollen blankets, cashmeres, flannels, &c.,
+  had also undergone noteworthy development and is carried on in fifteen
+  factories, located principally in Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro
+  and São Paulo. Biscuit-making is represented by a large number of
+  factories, for the most part in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, and
+  there are a number of breweries of the most modern type in the same
+  two states. The manufacture of boots and shoes has also received much
+  attention, but the materials used are for the most part imported.
+  Among other manufactures are butter and cheese, canned fruits and
+  vegetables, glass and earthenware, printing and wrapping paper,
+  furniture, matches, hats, clothing, pharmaceutical products, soaps and
+  perfumery, ice, artificial drinks, cigars and cigarettes, fireworks
+  and candles.
+
+_Government._--The overthrow of the monarchy by a military revolt in Rio
+de Janeiro on 15th November 1889, resulted in the creation of a federal
+republic under the name of United States of Brazil (Estados Unidos do
+Brazil). The constitution under which the republic is governed was
+drafted by a constituent assembly convened on the 15th of November 1890,
+and was adopted on the 24th of February 1891. The supreme powers of the
+nation are vested in three partially independent branches of
+government--executive, legislative, and judicial--represented by the
+president and his cabinet, a national congress of two chambers, and a
+supreme tribunal. The states forming the federation consist of the
+twenty provinces and municipal district of the empire, but the number
+may be increased or diminished by the states concerned with the approval
+of the national congress. The states are self-governed, and have
+exclusive control of the public lands, mines, industries, and all local
+affairs. They have the sole right also to impose duties on exports and
+taxes upon real estate, industries and professions, and transfers of
+property. Among other things they are charged with the supervision and
+support of primary education, with the maintenance of order, and with
+the organization and support of a system of state courts. Both the
+national and state governments exercise the right to impose stamp and
+consumption taxes, and the municipalities likewise are permitted to
+impose licence and consumption taxes. The national government reserves
+for itself the exclusive right to direct the foreign affairs of the
+republic, to maintain an army and navy, to impose duties on imports, to
+regulate foreign commerce, to collect port dues, to issue money and
+create banks of issue, and to maintain a postal and national telegraph
+service. It also supervises secondary and superior education, issues
+patents, and provides federal courts for the trial of cases amenable to
+federal laws. The national government is forbidden to interfere in the
+peculiar affairs of the states except to repel foreign invasion, to
+maintain a republican form of government, to re-establish order at the
+request of a state, or to enforce federal laws and sentences. The states
+are forbidden, likewise, to tax federal property, to tax inter-state
+commerce, to impose duties of their own on foreign imports, or to resist
+the execution of judicial sentences originating in other states. The
+separation of church and state is provided for by the constitution, and
+both the nation and the states are forbidden to establish, subsidize or
+restrict the exercise of any religious worship. Foreigners are eligible
+to Brazilian citizenship, and the right of suffrage is conferred upon
+all male citizens over twenty-one years of age, except beggars,
+illiterates, the rank and file of the armed forces, members of monastic
+orders, &c., bound by private vows, and all unregistered citizens.
+
+The executive power of the nation is vested in a president, elected for
+a term of four years by a direct vote of the electors. He must be a
+native Brazilian over thirty-five years of age, in the full enjoyment of
+his political rights, and is ineligible for the next succeeding term. A
+vice-president is elected at the same time and under the same
+conditions, who is president of the senate _ex officio_, and succeeds to
+the presidency in case the office becomes vacant during the last two
+years of the presidential term. Should the vacancy occur during the
+first two years of the term, a new election must be held. The president
+receives a salary of 120,000 milreis and the vice-president of 36,000
+milreis. The president is advised and assisted by a cabinet of six
+ministers, viz. foreign affairs; finance; agriculture, industry and
+commerce;[9] communications (_Viacao_) and public works;[9] war; and
+marine. The ministers are appointed and removed by the president, take
+no part in the sessions of congress, and are responsible to the
+president alone for their advisory acts. The president sanctions and
+promulgates, or vetoes, or ignores the laws, and resolutions voted by
+congress, and issues decrees and regulations for their execution. His
+veto may be over-ridden by a two-thirds vote in each chamber, and
+permitting ten days to pass without signing an act is considered as
+acquiescence and it is promulgated by congress. The president is charged
+with the duties (among others) of commanding the armed forces of the
+republic, appointing the prefect of the national capital, designating
+members of the supreme tribunal and diplomatic representatives for the
+approval of the senate, to negotiate treaties, &c., _ad referendum_ to
+congress, and maintain relations with foreign powers, to declare war in
+case of invasion and to declare martial law in case of grave internal
+disorder, and to advise congress at the opening of the annual session of
+the progress and state of public affairs. He may be impeached before the
+senate for his official acts and suspended from office, or tried by the
+supreme tribunal for criminal offences.
+
+The legislative power is vested in a national congress of two chambers,
+elected by direct suffrage, and convened on the 3rd of May each year.
+The regular annual sessions are of four months' duration, but they may
+be extended to complete necessary legislation. The senate consists of
+sixty-three members (three from each state and the federal district)
+elected for a period of nine years, one-third of each delegation being
+renewed every three years. The senators must be not less than
+thirty-five years of age, and are exempt from all legal processes not
+previously authorized by the senate during their term of office, except
+in cases of arrest _in flagrante delicto_ for a capital crime. The
+chamber of deputies contains 212 members, the membership being
+distributed among the states on a basis of one for each 70,000 of
+population, but with a minimum representation of four for each state.
+The deputies are elected by direct suffrage for the legislative session
+of three years, and have the same immunities from legal process as the
+senators. The chamber has the right of initiative in the organization of
+the annual budget laws and those relative to the numerical strength of
+the army and navy. The members of both houses receive a _per diem_
+subsidy.
+
+The judicial system of the republic consists of a supreme federal
+tribunal of fifteen judges in the national capital, and a district
+tribunal in the capital of each state, which forms a federal judicial
+district. The judges are appointed for life and can be removed only by
+judicial sentence and impeachment. One member of the supreme tribunal
+holds the position of solicitor-general of the republic. The judges and
+solicitor-general are appointed by the president with the approval of
+the senate, but the tribunal chooses its own presiding officers and
+secretaries and, nominally, is independent of executive control. The
+supreme tribunal has original and appellate jurisdiction, but its power
+to pass on the constitutionality of federal laws and executive acts
+seems to fall short of that of the United States Supreme Court. It has
+authority, however, to review the acts and laws of state governments and
+to decide upon their constitutionality. The district federal court has
+but one judge (_juiz de secção_) and a solicitor of the republic, and
+has original jurisdiction in federal causes. Each state has its own
+local laws and courts, independent of federal control, but subject to
+the review of the supreme tribunal, and with rights of appeal to that
+tribunal in specified cases. The federal district, which has a municipal
+council instead of a legislature, has a system of municipal and higher
+courts peculiar to itself. Limited judicial powers are exercised by
+chiefs of police, and by certain department commissions, or boards, of
+an executive character. The members of the army and navy are governed by
+special laws, enjoy immunities from civil process, and are subject to
+the jurisdiction of military courts. The civil code of the republic is
+based upon Roman law.
+
+_Army._--The nominal strength of the army in 1906 was 29,489, including
+the officers of the general and subordinate staffs and the officers and
+cadets of the military schools. This total represents the nominal
+strength of the army in times of peace. Its actual strength, however, is
+about 15,000 men, some of the regimental and battalion organizations
+being skeletons. Its organization consists of 40 battalions of infantry
+with one transport and one depot company, 14 regiments of cavalry of 4
+squadrons each, 6 regiments of field artillery with 24 batteries and 6
+battalions of heavy artillery with 24 batteries, and two battalions of
+engineers. Efforts to organize a national guard have been unsuccessful,
+although officers have been appointed and the organization perfected, on
+paper. The police force, however, is organized on a military footing and
+armed, and is available for service in case of necessity. It is credited
+with 20,000 men. According to law military service is obligatory, but
+the government has been unable to enforce it. Impressment is commonly
+employed to fill the ranks, and in cases of emergency the prison
+population is drawn upon for recruits. The president is nominally
+commander-in-chief of the army, but the actual command is vested in a
+general staff in the national capital, and in the general commanding
+each of the seven military districts into which the republic is divided.
+The most important of these districts is that of Rio Grande do Sul,
+where a force of 11,226 men is stationed. The principal war arsenal is
+in Rio de Janeiro. The rifle used by the infantry is a modified Mauser
+of the German 1888 model. Military instruction is given at the Eschola
+Militar of Rio de Janeiro. The military organization is provided with an
+elaborate code and systems of military courts, which culminate in a
+supreme military tribunal composed of 15 judges holding office for life,
+of which 8 are general army officers, 4 general naval officers and 3
+civil judges.
+
+_Navy._--The naval strength of the republic consisted in 1906 of a
+collection of armoured and wooden vessels of various ages and types of
+construction, of which three armoured vessels (including the two
+designed for coast defence), four protected cruisers, five destroyers
+and torpedo-cruisers, and half a dozen torpedo boats represented what
+may be termed the effective fighting force. The loss of the armoured
+turret ship "Aquidaban" by a magazine explosion in the bay of
+Jacarepagua, near Rio de Janeiro, in 1905, had left Brazil with but one
+fighting vessel (the "Reachuelo") of any importance. Many of the wooden
+and iron vessels listed in the Naval Annual, 1906, though obsolete and
+of no value whatever as fighting machines, are used for river and
+harbour service, and in the suppression of trifling insurrections. The
+Annual describes 21 vessels of various types, and mentions 23 small
+gunboats used for river and harbour service. Besides these there are a
+number of practice boats (small school-ships), transports, dispatch
+boats and launches. A considerable part of the armament is old, but the
+more modern vessels are armed with Armstrong rifled guns. The naval
+programme of the republic for 1905 provided for the prompt construction
+of 3 battleships of the largest displacement, 3 armoured cruisers, 6
+destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and 3 submarine boats; and by 1909 the
+reorganization of the navy was far advanced. The principal naval arsenal
+is located at Rio de Janeiro. The government possesses dry docks at Rio
+de Janeiro. The naval school, which has always enjoyed a high reputation
+among Brazilians, is situated on the island of Enxadas in the bay of Rio
+de Janeiro. There are smaller arsenals at Pará, Pernambuco, São Salvador
+and Ladario (Matto Grosso) and a shipbuilding yard of considerable
+importance at the Rio de Janeiro arsenal.
+
+_Education._--Education is in a backward condition, and it is estimated
+that 80% of the population can neither read nor write. The lowest rate
+of illiteracy is to be found in the southern half of the republic.
+Public instruction, is, by constitutional provision, under secular
+control, but religious denominations are permitted to have their own
+schools. Primary instruction is free but not compulsory, and the schools
+are supported and supervised by the states. An incomplete return in 1891
+gave 8793 schools and 376,399 pupils. Secondary and higher education are
+under both federal and state control, the former being represented by
+lyceums in the state capitals, and by such institutions as the Gymnasio
+Nacional (formerly Collegio Dom Pedro II.) in Rio de Janeiro. Many of
+the states also maintain normal schools of an inferior type, that of São
+Paulo being the best and most modern of the number. Higher, or superior,
+instruction is confined almost exclusively to professional schools--the
+medical schools of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, the law schools of São
+Paulo and Pernambuco, the polytechnic of Rio de Janeiro, and the school
+of mines of Ouro Preto. There are many private schools in all the large
+cities, from the primary schools maintained by the church and various
+corporations and religious associations to schools of secondary and
+collegiate grades, such as the Protestant mission schools of Petropolis,
+Piracicaba, Juiz de Fóra, São Paulo and Paraná, the Lyceu de Artes e
+Ofiicios (night school) of Rio de Janeiro, and the Mackenzie College of
+São Paulo. Perhaps the best educational work in Brazil is done in these
+private schools. In addition to these there are a number of seminaries
+for the education of priests, where special attention is given to the
+classics and belles-lettres.
+
+_Religion._--The revolution of 1889 and the constitution adopted in 1891
+not only effected a radical change in the form of government, but also
+brought about the separation of church and state. Before that time the
+Roman Catholic Church had been recognized and supported by the state.
+Not only are the national and state governments forbidden by the
+constitution to establish or subsidize religious worship, but its
+freedom is guaranteed by a prohibition against placing obstructions upon
+its exercise. The relations of the state with the disestablished church
+since 1889 have been somewhat anomalous, the government having decided
+to continue during their lives the stipends of the church functionaries
+at the time of disestablishment. The census of 1890 divided the
+population into 14,179,615 Roman Catholics, 143,743 Protestants, 3300 of
+all other faiths, 7257 of no religious profession, and 600,000
+unchristianized Indians. The increase of population through immigration
+is overwhelmingly Catholic, and the nation must, therefore, continue
+Roman Catholic whether the church is subsidized by the state or not. The
+moral character of churchmen in Brazil has been severely criticized by
+many observers, and the ease with which disestablishment was effected is
+probably largely due to their failings. The church had exercised a
+preponderating influence in all matters relating to education and the
+social life of the people, and it was felt that no sweeping reforms
+could be secured until its domination had been broken. The immediate
+results of disestablishment were civil marriage, the civil registry of
+births and deaths, and the secularization of cemeteries; but the church
+retains its influence over all loyal churchmen through the confessional,
+the last rites of the church, and their sentiment against the
+profanation of holy ground. Formerly Brazil constituted an
+ecclesiastical province under the metropolitan jurisdiction of an
+archbishop residing at Bahia, with 11 suffragan bishops, 12
+vicars-general and about 2000 curates. In 1892 the diocese of Rio de
+Janeiro was made an archbishopric, and four new dioceses were created.
+Three more have been added since, making twenty dioceses in all. In 1905
+the archbishop of Rio de Janeiro was made a cardinal. The church has
+eleven seminaries for the education of priests, and maintains a large
+number of private schools, especially for girls, which are patronized by
+the better classes. The church likewise exercises a far-reaching
+influence over the people through the beneficent work of its lay orders,
+and through the hospitals and asylums under its control in every part of
+the country. A Misericordia hospital is to be found in almost every town
+of importance, and _recolhimentos_ for orphan girls in all the large
+cities. In no country have these charities received more generous
+support than in Brazil. The Protestant contingent consists of a number
+of small congregations scattered throughout the country, a few
+Portuguese Protestants from the Azores, a part of the German colonists
+settled in the central and southern states, and a large percentage of
+the North Europeans and Americans temporarily resident in Brazil. The
+Positivists are few in number, but their congregations are made up of
+educated and influential people.
+
+_Art, Science and Literature._--The Brazilian people have the natural
+taste for art, music and literature so common among the Latin nations of
+the Old World. The emperor Dom Pedro II. did much to encourage these
+pursuits, and many promising young men received their education in
+Europe at his personal expense. Still earlier in the century (1815) the
+regent Dom John VI. brought out a number of French artists to educate
+his subjects in the fine arts, and the _Escola Real de Sciencias, Artes
+e Officios_ was founded in the following year. From this beginning
+resulted the _Academia de Bellas Artes_ of a later date, to which was
+added a conservatory of music in 1841. The institution is now called the
+_Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes_. Free instruction in the fine arts has
+been given in this school. The higher results of artistic training,
+however, are less marked than a widespread dilettantism. The Brazilian
+composer Carlos Gomes (1839-1896) is the best known of those who have
+adopted music as a profession, his opera _Il Guarani_ having been
+produced at most of the European capitals. The most prominent among
+Brazilian painters is Pedro Americo, and in sculpture Rodolpho
+Bernardelli has done good work. In science Brazil has accomplished very
+little, although many eminent foreign naturalists have spent years of
+study within her borders. João Barbosa Rodrigues has done some good work
+in botany, especially in the study of the palms of the Amazon, and João
+Baptista de Lacerda has made important biological investigations at the
+national museum of Rio de Janeiro. There are several scientific
+societies and institutions in the country, but they rarely undertake
+original work. The most active are the geographical societies, but very
+little has been done in the direction of scientific exploration. Some
+interesting results have been obtained from the boundary surveys, from
+Dr E. Cruls's exploration of a section of the Goyaz plateau in 1892 in
+search of a site for the future capital of the republic, and from some
+of the river and railway surveys. In 1875 a geological commission was
+organized under the direction of Professor Charles Frederick Hartt, but
+it was disbanded two years later. In 1906 Congress resolved to undertake
+a national geological survey under the direction of Mr Orville A. Derby,
+one of Professor Hartt's assistants. The coal resources of the southern
+states were investigated in 1904, under the auspices of the national
+government, by Dr J.C. White, of the U.S. Geological Survey, who found
+strata of fairly good coal at depths of 100 to 200 ft. extending from
+Rio Grande do Sul north to São Paulo. The more important contributions
+to our present knowledge of Brazil, however, have been obtained through
+the labours of foreign naturalists. Beginning with the German
+mineralogist W.L. von Eschwege, who spent nineteen years in Brazil
+(1809-1828), the list includes A. de Saint-Hilaire (1816-1820 and
+1830), J.B. von Spix and C.F. von Martins (1817-1820), Prince Max zu
+Neuwied (1815-1817), P.W. Lund (1827-1830, and 1830 to 1880, the year of
+his death), George Gardner (1836-1841), A.R. Wallace (1848-1852), H.W.
+Bates (1848-1859), Hermann Burmeister (1850-1852), Louis Agassiz
+(1865-1866), Charles Frederick Hartt (1865-1866, 1872 and 1875-1878) and
+Karl von den Steinen (1884-1885 and 1887-1888). These explorations cover
+every branch of natural science and resulted in publications of
+inestimable scientific value. There should also be mentioned the
+monumental work of C.F.P. von Martius on the _Flora Braziliensis_, and
+the explorations of Agassiz and Lund. Among other scientists of a later
+date who have published important works on Brazil are the American
+geologists O.A. Derby and J.C. Branner, the Swiss naturalist E.A.
+Goeldi, the German botanist J. Huber, the German ethnologist H. von
+Ihring, and'the German geographer Fried. Katzer. The _Instituto
+Historico e Geographico Brazileiro_, though devoted chiefly to
+historical research, has rendered noteworthy service in its
+encouragement of geographical exploration and by its publication of
+various scientific memoirs. The Museu Nacional at Rio de Janeiro, which
+has occupied the imperial palace of São Christovão since the overthrow
+of the monarchy, contains large collections of much scientific value,
+but defective organization and apathetic direction have rendered them of
+comparatively slight service. The Observatorio Nacional at Rio de
+Janeiro is another prominent public institution. The botanical gardens
+of Brazil are developing into permanent exhibitions of the flora of the
+regions in which they are located. That of Rio de Janeiro is widely
+celebrated for its avenues of royal palms, but it has also rendered an
+important service to the country in the dissemination of exotic plants.
+
+Brazilian literature has been seriously prejudiced by partisan politics
+and dilettantism. The colonial period was one of strict repression, the
+intellectual life of the people being jealously supervised by the church
+to protect itself against heresy, and their progress being restricted by
+the Portuguese crown to protect its monopoly of the natural resources of
+the country. The arrival of Dom John VI. in 1808 broke down some of
+these restrictions, and the first year of his residence in Rio de
+Janeiro saw the establishment of the first printing press in Brazil and
+the publication of an official gazette. There was no freedom of the
+press, however, until 1821, when the abolition of the censorship and the
+constitutional struggle in Portugal gave rise to a political discussion
+that marked the opening of a new era in the development of the nation,
+and aroused an intellectual activity that has been highly productive in
+journalistic and polemical writings. In no country, perhaps, has the
+press exercised a more direct and powerful influence upon government
+than in Brazil, and in no other country can there be found so high a
+percentage of journalists in official life. Some of the political
+writers have played an important part in moulding public opinion on
+certain questions, as in the case of A.C. Tavares Bastos, whose _Cartas
+do Solitario_ were highly instrumental in causing the Amazon to be
+thrown open to the world's commerce and also in preparing the way for
+the abolition of slavery; and in that of Joaquim Saldanha Marinho, whose
+discussions in 1874-1876 of the relations between church and state
+prepared the way for their separation. The personal element is
+conspicuous in the Brazilian journalism, and for a considerable period
+of its history libellous attacks on persons, signed by professional
+sponsors, popularly called _testas de ferro_ (iron heads), were admitted
+at so much a line in the best newspapers.
+
+The singular adaptability of the Portuguese language to poetical
+expression, coupled with the imaginative temperament of the people, has
+led to an unusual production and appreciation of poetry. The percentage
+of educated men who have written little volumes of lyrics is
+surprisingly large, and this may be accounted for by the old Portuguese
+custom of reciting poetry with musical accompaniment. The most popular
+of the Brazilian poets are Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, Antonio Gonçalves
+Dias and Bernardo Guimarães. Among the dramatists and novelists may be
+mentioned Joaquim Manoel de Macedo, José Martiniano de Alencar, Bernardo
+Guimarães, A. de Escrangnolle Taunay and J.M. Machado de Assis. José M.
+de Alencar is usually described as the greatest of Brazilian novelists.
+The most popular of his romances are _Iracema_ and _O Guarany_. In
+historical literature Brazil has produced one writer of high
+standing--Francisco Adolpho Varnhagen (Visconde de Porto Seguro), whose
+_Historia Geral do Brazil_ is a standard authority on that subject. The
+two English authorities, Robert Southey's _History of Brazil_, covering
+the colonial period, and John Armitage's _History of Brazil_, covering
+the period between the arrival of the Braganza family (1808) and the
+abdication of Dom Pedro I. (1831), have been translated into Portuguese.
+Another Brazilian historian of recognized merit is João Manoel Pereira
+da Silva, whose historical writings cover the first years of the empire,
+from its foundation to 1840. Among the later writers João Capistrano de
+Abren has produced some short historical studies of great merit. In the
+field of philosophic speculation, Auguste Comte has had many disciples
+in Brazil.
+
+  _Finance._--The national revenue is derived largely from the duties on
+  imports, the duties on exports having been surrendered to the states
+  when the republic was organized. Other sources of revenue are stamp
+  taxes on business transactions, domestic consumption taxes (usually
+  payable in stamps) on manufactured tobaccos, beverages, boots and
+  shoes, textiles, matches, salt, preserved foods, hats, pharmaceutical
+  preparations, perfumeries, candles, vinegar, walking sticks and
+  playing cards, and taxes on lotteries, passenger tickets, salaries and
+  dividends of joint-stock companies. Formerly import duties were
+  payable in currency, but in 1899 it was decided to collect 10% of them
+  in gold to provide the government with specie for its foreign
+  remittances. The revenues and expenditures have since then been
+  calculated in gold and currency together, to the complete
+  mystification of the average citizen, and the gold percentage of the
+  duties on imports has been increased to 35 and 50% (in 1907), the
+  higher rate to apply to specified articles and rule when exchange on
+  London is above 14 pence per milreis, and the lower when it is below.
+  The service of the national debt absorbs a very large part of the
+  expenditure, about 45% of the estimates for 1907 being assigned to the
+  department of finance. The department of industry, communications and
+  public works takes the next highest proportion, but about half its
+  expenditures are met by special taxes, as in the case of port works
+  and railway inspection, and by the revenues of the state railways,
+  telegraph lines and post office. The depreciation and unstable
+  character of the paper currency render it difficult to give a clear
+  statement of receipts and expenditures for a term of years, the
+  sterling equivalents often showing a decrease, through a fall in the
+  value of the milreis, where there has been an actual increase in
+  currency returns. This was most noticeable between 1889 and 1898, when
+  exchange, which represents the value of the milreis, fell from a
+  maximum of 27¾ pence (27d. being the par value of the milreis) to a
+  minimum of 5-5/8 pence. Since 1898 there has been an upward movement
+  of exchange, the average rate for 1905 having been very nearly 16
+  pence. In this period the increase in the sterling equivalents would
+  be proportionately greater than that of the currency values. The gold
+  and currency receipts and expenditures for the six years 1900 to 1905,
+  inclusive, according to official returns, were as follows:--
+
+    +------+---------+---------------------------+--------------------------+
+    |      | Average |         Revenue.          |       Expenditure.       |
+    | Year.| Rate of +-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    |      |Exchange.|    Gold     |  Currency   |    Gold    |  Currency   |
+    |      | Pence.  |   Milreis.  |   Milreis.  |   Milreis. |   Milreis.  |
+    +------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    | 1900 |   9.50  |  49,955,522 | 263,687,253 | 41,892,150 | 372,753,986 |
+    | 1901 |  11.38  |  44,041,302 | 239,284,702 | 40,493,241 | 261,629,212 |
+    | 1902 |  11.97  |  42,904,844 | 266,584,912 | 34,574,643 | 236,458,862 |
+    | 1903 |  12     |  45,121,844 | 327,370,063 | 48,324,642 | 291,198,960 |
+    | 1904 |  12.28  |  50,566,572 | 342,782,191 | 48,476,413 | 352,292,147 |
+    | 1905 |  15.89  |  64,207,004 | 243,355,396 | 51,606,272 | 265,699,281 |
+    +------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+
+  Reducing gold to a currency basis at 15d. per milreis (the official
+  valuation adopted in 1906), the budget for 1907 provided for a revenue
+  of 353,590,593 milreis and an expenditure of 409,482,284 milreis,
+  showing a deficit of 55,891,691 milreis. These deficits were common
+  enough under the monarchy, but they have become still more prominent
+  under the republic. According to the "Retrospecto Commercial" for 1906
+  of the _Jornal do Commercio_ (Rio de Janeiro, March 5, 1907), the
+  aggregate deficits for the eleven years 1891 to 1904 were 692,000,000
+  milreis, or, say, £43,250,000.
+
+  The natural result of such a regime is increasing indebtedness. In
+  1888, a year before the republic was proclaimed, the internal and
+  external national debts amounted to £74,000,000 sterling, with the
+  currency at par. Ten years later, when the currency had fallen to
+  5-5/8 pence per milreis, the government found itself unable to meet
+  the interest obligations on its debt and railway guarantees, and an
+  arrangement was made with its creditors in London for the issue of a
+  5% funding loan to an amount not to exceed £10,000,000, and the
+  suspension of all amortization for thirteen years. On the other hand
+  the government agreed to withdraw currency, which had reached a total
+  of 788,364,614 ½-milreis, _pari passu_ with the issue of the loan, the
+  milreis being computed at 18 pence. The purpose of this condition was
+  in order to improve the value of the paper milreis in order to
+  increase the specie value of the revenues. The scheme came into
+  operation in June 1898, and not only was a complete suspension of
+  payments avoided but the financial situation was greatly improved. The
+  government even withdrew more of its currency issues than required by
+  the agreement, and the value of the milreis steadily improved. At the
+  same time the government carried out the forced conversion of the
+  national loans into lower interest-bearing issues, which greatly
+  reduced the annual interest charges. These measures would have put the
+  financial affairs of the nation on a solid footing in a very few years
+  had the government been able to keep its expenditure within its
+  income. The naval revolt of 1893-1894, however, had aroused the spirit
+  of militarism in the ruling classes, and the effort to perfect the
+  organization and equipment of the army, strengthen the fortifications
+  of Rio de Janeiro, and increase the navy, have kept expenditures in
+  excess of the revenues. The purchase of guaranteed railways owned by
+  foreign companies likewise added largely to the bonded indebtedness,
+  though the onus was in existence in another form. The result of these
+  measures was a large addition to the public debt, which on 31st
+  December 1906 was approximately as follows (_apolices_ being the name
+  given to bonds inscribed to the holder):--
+
+    External debt:                               £        s.  d.
+      Loans of 1883, 1888 and 1889.          26,478,500
+      Oestede Minas R.R. loan                 3,388,100
+      Loan of 1898                            7,331,600
+      Funding loan of 1898                    8,613,717   9   9
+      Railway rescission loan of 1901        15,467,015  16   1
+      Port works loan of 1903                 8,500,000
+                                            -------------------
+                                            £69,778,933   5  10
+                                            ===================
+
+    Internal debt, funded:                            Milreis
+      5 % apolices, Law of 1827                     483,546,600
+      4½%    "         "   1879                      20,548,000
+      6 %    "         "   1897                      37,082,000
+      5 %    "         "   1903                      17,300,000
+                                                    -----------
+                 Total, funded                      558,476,600
+                    (at 15d. £34,904,787)           ===========
+
+    Internal debt, not funded:                          Milreis
+      Paper money                                   664,792,960
+      Savings bank and other deposits:
+        In paper                                    246,812,407
+        In gold, 19,053,861 r (say)                  34,296,950
+    Floating indebtedness (a/cs current, bills, &c.)     ?
+                                                    -----------
+                 Total, not funded, approx.         945,902,317
+                    (at 15d. £59,118,895 stg.)      ===========
+
+    Approximate total indebtedness                 £163,802,675
+
+  In addition to these, the government was still responsible for
+  interest guarantees on fourteen railways, or sections of existing
+  lines, with an aggregate capital of about £4,900,000 held in Europe
+  and 12,055,440 milreis held in Brazil, on which the national treasury
+  paid in interest £191,324 and 1,398,493 milreis.
+
+  The paper currency of Brazil consists of both treasury issues and
+  bank-notes, the latter issued under government supervision. Its
+  fluctuations in value have been not only a serious inconvenience in
+  commercial transactions, but also the cause of heavy loss to the
+  people. Under the provisions of the funding loan of 1898 a scheme for
+  the withdrawal of the paper money was carried into effect, and by the
+  end of December 1906 the amount in circulation had been reduced from
+  788,364,614 ½-milreis (the outstanding circulation 31st August 1898)
+  to 664,792,960 ½-milreis. Two funds were created for the redemption
+  and guarantee of paper issues, the latter receiving 5% of the import
+  duties payable in gold. Up to 1906 the Caixa da Amortisação
+  (redemption bureau), which has charge of the service of the internal
+  funded debt, superintended the redemption of the currency, but in that
+  year (December 6, 1906) a Caixa de Conversão (conversion bureau) was
+  created for this special service. It is modelled after the Argentine
+  Conversion office, and is authorized to issue notes to bearer against
+  deposits of gold at the rate of 15 pence per milreis although exchange
+  was above 17d. when the scheme was proposed. The notes are to be
+  redeemable in gold at sight, the Caixa de Conversão to keep the gold
+  paid in for that express purpose. The coffee producers of São Paulo
+  and other states found that the appreciation in value of the milreis
+  was reducing their profits, and they advocated this measure (at first
+  with a valuation of 12d.) to check the upward movement in exchange.
+  Metallic money is limited to nickel and bronze coins, but in 1906 the
+  government was authorized to purchase bar silver for the coinage of
+  pieces of the denomination of two milreis, one milreis and 500 reis
+  (½-milreis). Gold is the nominal standard of value, the monetary unit
+  being the gold milreis worth 2s. 2½d. at par. The 10-milreis gold
+  piece weighs 8.9648 grammes, 916 fine, and contains 8.2178 grammes of
+  pure gold. There is no gold in circulation, however, and gold duties
+  are paid with gold cheques purchased at certain banks with paper
+  money. The banking facilities of the republic have undergone many
+  changes under the new regime. A fruitful cause of disaster has been
+  the practice of issuing agricultural and industrial loans under
+  government authorization. Commercial business at the principal ports
+  is largely transacted through foreign banks, of which there are a
+  large number.
+
+  In addition to the indebtedness of the national government, the
+  individual states have also incurred funded debts of their own. The
+  aggregate of these debts in 1904 was £20,199,440, and the several
+  loans made during the next two years, including those of the
+  municipalities of Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia and Manáos, add fully
+  two and a half millions more to the total. (A. J. L.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+  The Portuguese in Brazil.
+
+Brazil was discovered in February 1499 (o.s.) by Vicente Yañez Pinzon, a
+companion of Columbus. He descried the land near Cape St Augustine, and
+sailed along the coast as far as the river Amazon, whence he proceeded
+to the mouth of the Orinoco. He made no settlement, but took possession
+of the country in the name of the Spanish government, and carried home,
+as specimens of its natural productions, some drugs, gems and
+Brazil-wood. Next year the Portuguese commander, Pedro Alvares Cabral,
+appointed by his monarch to follow the course of Vasco da Gama in the
+East, was driven by adverse winds so far from his track, that he reached
+the Brazilian coast, April 24, and anchored in Porto Seguro (16° S.
+lat.) on Good Friday. On Easter day an altar was erected, mass
+celebrated in presence of the natives, the country declared an apanage
+of Portugal, and a stone cross erected in commemoration of the event.
+Cabral despatched a small vessel to Lisbon to announce his discovery,
+and, without forming any settlement, proceeded to India on the 3rd of
+May. On the arrival of the news in Portugal, Emanuel invited Amerigo
+Vespucci to enter his service, and despatched him with three vessels to
+explore the country. The navigator's first voyage was unsuccessful; but,
+according to his own account, in a second he discovered a safe port, to
+which he gave the name of All-Saints and where he erected a small fort.
+Vespucci's narrative is, however, suspected of being apocryphal (see
+VESPUCCI, AMERIGO).
+
+The poor and barbarous tribes of Brazil, and their country, the mineral
+riches of which were not immediately discovered, offered but few
+attractions to a government into the coffers of which the wealth of
+India and Africa was flowing. For nearly thirty years the kings of
+Portugal paid no further attention to their newly-acquired territory
+than what consisted, in combating the attempts of the Spaniards to
+occupy it, and dispersing the private adventurers from France who sought
+its shores for the purposes of commerce. The colonization of Brazil was
+prosecuted, however, by subjects of the Portuguese monarchy, who traded
+thither chiefly for Brazil-wood. The government also sought to make
+criminals of some use to the state, by placing them in a situation where
+they could do little harm to society, and might help to uphold the
+dominion of their nation.
+
+
+  First organization in Brazil.
+
+The first attempt on the part of a Portuguese monarch to introduce an
+organized government into his dominions was made by John III. He adopted
+a plan which had been found to succeed well in Madeira and the
+Azores,--dividing the country into hereditary captaincies, and granting
+them to such persons as were willing to undertake their settlement, with
+unlimited powers of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. Each
+captaincy extended along fifty leagues of coast. The boundaries in the
+interior were undefined. The first settlement made under this new system
+was that of São Vicente Piratininga, in the present province of São
+Paulo. Martim Affonso de Sousa, having obtained a grant, fitted out a
+considerable armament and proceeded to explore the country in person. He
+began to survey the coast about Rio de Janeiro, to which he gave that
+name, because he discovered it on the 1st of January 1531. He proceeded
+south as far as La Plata, naming the places he surveyed on the way from
+the days on which the respective discoveries were made. He fixed upon an
+island in 24½° S. lat., called by the natives Guaibe, for his
+settlement. The Goagnazes, or prevailing tribe of Indians in that
+neighbourhood, as soon as they discovered the intentions of the
+new-comers to fix themselves permanently there, collected for the
+purpose of expelling them. Fortunately, however, a shipwrecked
+Portuguese, who had lived many years under the protection of the
+principal chief, was successful in concluding a treaty of perpetual
+alliance between his countrymen and the natives. Finding the spot chosen
+for the new town inconvenient, the colonists removed to the adjoining
+island of São Vicente, from which the captaincy derived its name. Cattle
+and the sugar-cane were at an early period introduced from Madeira, and
+here the other captaincies supplied themselves with both.
+
+Pero Lopes de Sousa received the grant of a captaincy, and set sail from
+Portugal at the same time as his brother, the founder of São Vicente. He
+chose to have his fifty leagues in two allotments. That to which he gave
+the name of Santo Amaro adjoined São Vicente, the two towns being only
+three leagues asunder. The other division lay much nearer to the line
+between Parahyba and Pernambuco. He experienced considerable difficulty
+in founding this second colony, from the strenuous opposition of a
+neighbouring tribe, the Petiguares; at length he succeeded in clearing
+his lands of them, but not long afterwards he perished by shipwreck.
+
+Rio de Janeiro was not settled till a later period; and for a
+considerable time the nearest captaincy to Santo Amaro, sailing along
+the coast northwards, was that of Espirito Santo. It was founded by
+Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, who having acquired a large fortune in India,
+sank it in this scheme of colonization. He carried with him no less than
+sixty fidalgos. They named their town by anticipation, Our Lady of the
+Victory (Victoria); but it cost them some hard fighting with the
+Goagnazes to justify the title.
+
+Pedro de Campo Tourinho, a nobleman and excellent navigator, received a
+grant of the adjoining captaincy of Porto Seguro. This, it will be
+remembered, is the spot where Cabral first took possession of Brazil.
+The Tupinoquins at first offered some opposition; but having made peace,
+they observed it faithfully, notwithstanding that the oppression of the
+Portuguese obliged them to forsake the country. Sugar-works were
+established, and considerable quantities of the produce exported to the
+mother country.
+
+Jorge de Figueiredo, _Escrivam da Fazenda_, was the first donatory of
+the captaincy Ilhéos, 140 m. south of Bahia. His office preventing him
+from taking possession in person, he deputed the task to Francisco
+Romeiro, a Castilian. The Tupinoquins, the most tractable of the
+Brazilian tribes, made peace with the settlers, and the colony was
+founded without a struggle.
+
+The coast from the Rio São Francisco to Bahia was granted to Francisco
+Pereira Coutinho; the bay itself, with all its creeks, was afterwards
+added to the grant. When Coutinho formed his establishment, where Villa
+Velha now stands, he found a noble Portuguese living in the
+neighbourhood who, having been shipwrecked, had, by means of his
+fire-arms, raised himself to the rank of chief among the natives. He was
+surrounded by a patriarchal establishment of wives and children; and to
+him most of the distinguished families of Bahia still trace their
+lineage. The regard entertained by the natives for Caramuru (signifying
+_man of fire_) induced them to extend a hospitable welcome to his
+countrymen, and for a time everything went on well. Coutinho had,
+however, learned in India to be an oppressor, and the Tupinambas were
+the fiercest and most powerful of the native tribes. The Portuguese were
+obliged to abandon their settlement; but several of them returned at a
+later period, with Caramuru, and thus a European community was
+established in the district.
+
+Some time before the period at which these captaincies were established,
+a factory had been planted at Pernambuco. A ship from Marseilles took
+it, and left seventy men in it as a garrison; but she was captured on
+her return, and carried into Lisbon, and immediate measures were taken
+for reoccupying the place. The captaincy of Pernambuco was granted to
+Don Duarte Coelho Pereira as the reward of his services in India. It
+extended along the coast from the Rio São Francisco, northward to the
+Rio de Juraza. Duarte sailed with his wife and children, and many of his
+kinsmen, to take possession, of his new colony, and landed in the port
+of Pernambuco. To the town which was there founded he gave the name of
+Olinda. The Cabetes, who possessed the soil, were fierce and
+pertinacious; and, assisted by the French, who traded to that coast,
+Coelho had to gain by inches what was granted him by leagues. The
+Portuguese managed, however, to beat off their enemies; and, having
+entered into an alliance with the Tobayanes, followed up their success.
+
+Attempts were made about this time to establish two other captaincies,
+but without success. Pedro de Goes obtained a grant of the captaincy of
+Parahyba between those of São Vicente and Espirito Santo; but his means
+were too feeble to enable him to make head against the aborigines, and
+the colony was broken up after a painful struggle of seven years. João
+de Barros, the historian, obtained the captaincy of Maranhão. For the
+sake of increasing his capital, he divided his grant with Fernão Alvares
+de Andrade and Aires da Cunha. They projected a scheme of conquest and
+colonization upon a large scale. Nine hundred men, of whom one hundred
+and thirteen were horsemen, embarked in ten ships under the command of
+Aires da Cunha. But the vessels were wrecked upon some shoals about one
+hundred leagues to the south of Maranhão; the few survivors, after
+suffering immense hardships, escaped to the nearest settlements, and the
+undertaking was abandoned.
+
+By these adventures the whole line of Brazilian coast, from the mouth of
+La Plata to the mouth of the Amazon, had become studded at intervals
+with Portuguese settlements, in all of which law and justice were
+administered, however inadequately. It is worthy of observation, that
+Brazil was the first colony founded in America upon an agricultural
+principle, for until then the precious metals were the exclusive
+attraction. Sufficient capital was attracted between the year 1531 (in
+which De Sousa founded the first captaincy) and the year 1548 to render
+these colonies an object of importance to the mother country. Their
+organization, however, in regard to their means of defence against both
+external aggression and internal violence, was extremely defective.
+Their territories were surrounded and partly occupied by large tribes of
+savages. Behind them the Spaniards, who had an establishment at
+Asuncion, had penetrated almost to the sources of the waters of
+Paraguay, and had succeeded in establishing communication with Peru.
+Orellana, on the other hand, setting out from Peru, had crossed the
+mountains and sailed down the Amazon. Nor had the French abandoned their
+hopes of effecting an establishment on the coast.
+
+The obvious remedy for these evils was to concentrate the executive
+power, to render the petty chiefs amenable to one tribunal, and to
+confide the management of the defensive force to one hand. In order to
+this the powers of the several captains were revoked, whilst their
+property in their grants was reserved to them. A governor-general was
+appointed, with full powers, civil and criminal. The judicial and
+financial functions in each province were vested in the _Ouvidor_, whose
+authority in the college of finance was second only to that of the
+governor. Every colonist was enrolled either in the _Milicias_ or
+_Ordenanzas_. The former were obliged to serve beyond the boundaries of
+the province, the latter only at home. The chief cities received
+municipal constitutions, as in Portugal. Thome de Sousa was the first
+person nominated to the important post of governor-general. He was
+instructed to build a strong city in Bahia and to establish there the
+seat of his government. In pursuance of his commission he arrived at
+Bahia in April 1549, with a fleet of six vessels, on board of which were
+three hundred and twenty persons in the king's pay, four hundred
+convicts and about three hundred free colonists. Care had been taken for
+the spiritual wants of the provinces by associating six Jesuits with the
+expedition.
+
+
+  First Jesuit missions.
+
+Old Caramuru, who still survived, rendered the governor essential
+service by gaining for his countrymen the goodwill of the natives. The
+new city, to which the name of São Salvador was given, was established
+on the heights above the Bay of All Saints (Todos os Santos), from which
+its later name of Bahia is taken. Within four months one hundred houses
+were built, and surrounded by a mud wall. Sugar plantations were laid
+out in the vicinity. During the four years of Sousa's government there
+were sent out at different times supplies of all kinds. Female orphans
+of noble families were given in marriage to the officers, and portioned
+from the royal estates, and orphan boys were sent to be educated by the
+Jesuits. The capital rose rapidly in importance, and the captaincies
+learned to regard it as a common head and centre of wealth. Meanwhile
+the Jesuits undertook the moral and religious culture of the natives,
+and of the scarcely less savage colonists. Strong opposition was at
+first experienced from the gross ignorance of the Indians, and the
+depravity of the Portuguese, fostered by the licentious encouragement of
+some abandoned priests who had found their way to Brazil. Over these
+persons the Jesuits had no authority; and it was not until the arrival
+of the first bishop of Brazil in 1552, that anything like an efficient
+check was imposed upon them. Next year Sousa was succeeded by Duarte da
+Costa, who brought with him a reinforcement of Jesuits, at the head of
+whom was Luis de Gran, appointed, with Nobrega the chief of the first
+mission, joint provincial of Brazil.
+
+Nobrega's first act was one which has exercised the most beneficial
+influence over the social system of Brazil, namely, the establishment of
+a college on the then unreclaimed plains of Piratininga. It was named
+São Paulo, and has been at once the source whence knowledge and
+civilization have been diffused through Brazil, and the nucleus of a
+colony of its manliest and hardiest citizens, which sent out successive
+swarms of hardy adventurers to people the interior. The good intentions
+of the Jesuits were in part frustrated by the opposition of Costa the
+governor; and it was not until 1558, when Mem de Sa was sent out to
+supersede him, that their projects were allowed free scope.
+
+
+  Settlement of Rio de Janeiro.
+
+Rio de Janeiro was first occupied by French settlers. Nicholas Durand de
+Villegagnon, a bold and skilful seaman, having visited Brazil, saw at
+once the advantages which might accrue his country from a settlement
+there. In order to secure the interest of Coligny, he gave out that his
+projected colony was intended to serve as a place of refuge for the
+persecuted Huguenots. Under the patronage of that admiral, he arrived at
+Rio de Janeiro in 1558 with a train of numerous and respectable
+colonists. As soon, however, as he thought his power secure, he threw
+off the mask, and began to harass and oppress the Huguenots by every
+means he could devise. Many of them were forced by his tyranny to return
+to France; and ten thousand Protestants, ready to embark for the new
+colony, were deterred by their representations. Villegagnon, finding his
+force much diminished in consequence of his treachery, sailed for France
+in quest of recruits; and during his absence the Portuguese governor, by
+order of his court, attacked and dispersed the settlement. For some
+years the French kept up a kind of bush warfare; but in 1567 the
+Portuguese succeeded in establishing a settlement at Rio.
+
+Mem de Sa continued to hold the reins of government in Brazil upon terms
+of the best understanding with the clergy, and to the great advantage of
+the colonies, for fourteen years. On the expiration of his power, which
+was nearly contemporary with that of his life, an attempt was made to
+divide Brazil into two governments; but this having failed, the
+territory was reunited in 1578, the year in which Diego Laurenço da
+Veiga was appointed governor. At this time the colonies, although not
+yet independent of supplies from the mother country, were in a
+flourishing condition; but the usurpation of the crown of Portugal by
+Philip II. changed the aspect of affairs. Brazil, believed to be
+inferior to the Spanish possessions in mines, was consequently abandoned
+in comparative neglect for the period intervening between 1578 and 1640,
+during which it continued an apanage of Spain.
+
+
+  English and French aggressions.
+
+No sooner had Brazil passed under the Spanish crown, than English
+adventurers directed their hostile enterprises against its shores. In
+1586 Witherington plundered Bahia; in 1591 Cavendish made an abortive
+attack on Santos; in 1595 Lancaster attacked Olinda. These exploits,
+however, were transient in their effects. In 1612 the French attempted
+to found a permanent colony in the island of Marajò, where they
+succeeded in maintaining themselves till 1618. This attempt led to the
+erection of Maranhão and Pará into a separate _Estado_. But it was on
+the part of the Dutch that the most skilful and pertinacious efforts
+were made for securing a footing in Brazil; and they alone of all the
+rivals of the Portuguese have left traces of their presence in the
+national spirit and institutions of Brazil.
+
+
+  Struggle with the Dutch.
+
+The success of the Dutch East India Company led to the establishment of
+a similar one for the West Indies, to which a monopoly of the trade to
+America and Africa was granted. This body despatched in 1624 a fleet
+against Bahia. The town yielded almost without a struggle. The fleet
+soon after sailed, a squadron being detached against Angola, with the
+intention of taking possession of that colony, in order to secure a
+supply of slaves. The fall of Bahia for once roused the Spaniards and
+Portuguese to joint action, and a great expedition speedily sailed from
+Cadiz and Lisbon for Bahia. Once more, though strongly garrisoned, the
+town was retaken without any serious fighting in May 1625. The honours
+bestowed upon the Indian chiefs for their assistance in this war broke
+down in a great measure the barrier between the two races; and there is
+at this day a greater admixture of their blood among the better classes
+in Bahia than is to be found elsewhere in Brazil.
+
+
+  Dutch settlement in Brazil.
+
+In 1630 the Dutch attempted again to effect a settlement; and Olinda,
+with its port, the Recife-Olinda, was destroyed, but the Recife was
+fortified and held, reinforcements and supplies being sent by sea from
+Holland. The Dutch were unable, however, to extend their power beyond
+the limits of the town, until the arrival of Count John Maurice of
+Nassau-Siegen in 1636. His first step was to introduce a regular
+government among his countrymen; his second, to send to the African
+coast one of his officers, who took possession of a Portuguese
+settlement, and thus secured a supply of slaves. In the course of eight
+years, the limited period of his government, he succeeded in asserting
+the Dutch supremacy along the coast of Brazil from the mouth of São
+Francisco to Maranhão. The Recife was rebuilt and adorned with splendid
+residences and gardens and received from its founder the name of
+Mauritstad. He promoted the amalgamation of the different races, and
+sought to conciliate the Portuguese by the confidence he reposed in
+them. His object was to found a great empire; but this was a project at
+variance with the wishes of his employers--an association of merchants,
+who were dissatisfied because the wealth which they expected to see
+flowing into their coffers was expended in promoting the permanent
+interests of a distant country. Count Maurice resigned his post in 1644.
+His successors possessed neither his political nor his military talents,
+and had to contend with more difficult circumstances.
+
+In 1640 the revolution which placed the house of Braganza on the throne
+of Portugal restored Brazil to masters more inclined to promote its
+interests and assert its possession than the Spaniards. It was indeed
+high time that some exertion should be made. The northern provinces had
+fallen into the power of Holland; the southern, peopled in a great
+measure by the hardy descendants of the successive colonists who had
+issued on all sides from the central establishment of São Paulo, had
+learned from their habits of unaided and successful enterprise to court
+independence. They had ascended the waters of the Paraguay to their
+sources. They had extended their limits southwards till they reached
+the Spanish settlements of La Plata. They had reduced to slavery
+numerous tribes of the natives. They were rich in cattle, and had
+commenced the discovery of the mines. When, therefore, the inhabitants
+of São Paulo saw themselves about to be transferred, as a dependency of
+Portugal, from one master to another, they conceived the idea of
+erecting their country into an independent state. Their attempt,
+however, was frustrated by Amador Bueno, the person whom they had
+selected for their king. When the people shouted "Long live King
+Amador," he cried out "Long live John IV.," and took refuge in a
+convent. The multitude, left without a leader, acquiesced, and this
+important province was secured to the house of Braganza.
+
+
+  Revolt against the Dutch.
+
+  French expedition to Brazil, 1710.
+
+Rio and Santos, although both evinced a desire of independence, followed
+the example of the Paulistas. Bahia, as capital of the Brazilian states,
+felt that its ascendancy depended upon the union with Portugal. The
+government, thus left in quiet possession of the rest of Brazil, had
+time to concentrate its attention upon the Dutch conquests. The crown of
+Portugal was, however, much too weak to adopt energetic measures. But
+the Brazilian colonists, now that the mother country had thrown off the
+Spanish yoke, determined even without assistance from the homeland to
+rise in revolt against foreign domination. The departure of Count
+Maurice, moreover, had seriously weakened the position of the Dutch, for
+his successors had neither his conciliatory manners nor his capacity.
+João Fernandes Vieyra, a native of Madeira, organized the insurrection
+which broke out in 1645. This insurrection gave birth to one of those
+wars in which a whole nation, destitute of pecuniary resources, military
+organization and skilful leaders, but familiar with the country, is
+opposed to a handful of soldiers advantageously posted and well
+officered. But home difficulties and financial necessities prevented the
+West India Company from sending adequate reinforcements from Holland. In
+1649 a rival company was started in Portugal known as the Brazil
+Company, which sent out a fleet to help the colonists in Pernambuco.
+Slowly the Dutch lost ground and the outbreak of war with England
+sounded the knell of their dominion in Brazil. In 1654 their capital and
+last stronghold fell into the hands of Vieyra. It was not, however, till
+1662 that Holland signed a treaty with Portugal, by which all
+territorial claims in Brazil were abandoned in exchange for a cash
+indemnity and certain commercial privileges. After this, except some
+inroads on the frontiers, the only foreign invasion which Brazil had to
+suffer was from France. In 1710 a squadron, commanded by Duclerc,
+disembarked 1000 men, and attacked Rio de Janeiro. After having lost
+half of his men in a battle, Duclerc and all his surviving companions
+were made prisoners. The governor treated them cruelly. A new squadron
+with 6000 troops was entrusted to the famous admiral Duguay Trouin to
+revenge this injury. They arrived at Rio on the 12th of September 1711.
+After four days of hard fighting the town was taken. The governor
+retreated to a position out of it, and was only awaiting reinforcements
+from Minas to retake it; but, Duguay Trouin threatening to burn it, he
+was obliged on the 10th of October to sign a capitulation, and pay to
+the French admiral 610,000 crusados, 500 cases of sugar, and provisions
+for the return of the fleet to Europe. Duguay Trouin departed to Bahia
+to obtain fresh spoils; but having lost in a storm two of his best
+ships, with an important part of the money received, he renounced this
+plan and returned directly to France.
+
+After this the Portuguese governed their colony undisturbed. The
+approach of foreign traders was prohibited, while the regalities
+reserved by the crown drained the country of a great proportion of its
+wealth.
+
+The important part which the inhabitants of São Paulo have played in the
+history of Brazil has been already adverted to. The establishment of the
+Jesuit college had attracted settlers to its neighbourhood, and frequent
+marriages had taken place between the Indians of the district and the
+colonists. A hardy and enterprising race of men had sprung from this
+mixture, who, first searching whether their new country were rich in
+metals, soon began adventurous raids into the interior, making
+excursions also against the remote Indian tribes with a view to
+obtaining slaves, and from the year 1629 onwards repeatedly attacked the
+Indian reductions of the Jesuits in Paraguay, although both provinces
+were then nominally subject to the crown of Spain. Other bands
+penetrated into Minas and still farther north and westward, discovering
+mines there and in Goyaz and Cuyabá. New colonies were thus formed round
+those districts in which gold had been found, and in the beginning of
+the 18th century five principal settlements in Minas Geraes had been
+elevated by royal charter to the privileges of towns. In 1720 this
+district was separated from São Paulo, to which it had previously been
+dependent. As early as 1618 a code of laws for the regulation of the
+mining industry had been drawn up by Philip III., the executive and
+judicial functions in the mining districts being vested in a _provedor_,
+and the fiscal in a treasurer, who received the royal fifths and
+superintended the weighing of all the gold, rendering a yearly account
+of all discoveries and produce. For many years, however, these laws were
+little more than a dead letter. The same infatuated passion for mining
+speculation which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South
+America now began to actuate the Portuguese; labourers and capital were
+drained off to the mining districts, and Brazil, which had hitherto in
+great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank before the competition of
+the English and French. A new source of wealth was now opened up; some
+adventurers from Villa do Principe in Minas, going north to the Seria
+Frio, made the discovery of diamonds about the year 1710, but it was not
+till 1730 that the discovery was for the first time announced to the
+government, which immediately declared them _regalia_. While the
+population of Brazil continued to increase, the moral and intellectual
+culture of its inhabitants was left in great measure to chance; they
+grew up with those robust and healthy sentiments which are engendered by
+the absence of false teachers, but with a repugnance to legal
+ordinances, and encouraged in their ascendancy over the Indians to
+habits of violence and oppression. The Jesuits from the first moment of
+their landing in Brazil had constituted themselves the protectors of the
+natives, and though strenuously opposed by the colonists and ordinary
+clergy, had gathered the Indians together in many _aldeas_, over which
+officials of their order exercised spiritual and temporal authority. A
+more efficacious stop, however, was put to the persecution of the
+Indians by the importation of large numbers of negroes from the
+Portuguese possessions in Africa, these being found more active and
+serviceable than the native tribes.
+
+
+  Reforms of Pombal.
+
+The Portuguese government, under the administration of Carvalho,
+afterwards marquis of Pombal, attempted to extend to Brazil the bold
+spirit of innovation which directed all his efforts. The proud minister
+had been resisted in his plans of reform at home by the Jesuits, and,
+determining to attack the power of the order, first deprived them of all
+temporal power in the state of Maranhão and Pará. These ordinances soon
+spread to the whole of Brazil, and a pretext being found in the
+suspicion of Jesuit influence in some partial revolts of the Indian
+troops on the Rio Negro, the order was expelled from Brazil under
+circumstances of great severity in 1760. The Brazilian Company founded
+by Vieyra, which so materially contributed to preserve its South
+American possessions to Portugal, had been abolished in 1721 by John V.;
+but such an instrument being well suited to the bold spirit of Pombal,
+he established a chartered company again in 1755, to trade exclusively
+with Maranhão and Pará; and in 1759, in spite of the remonstrance of the
+British Factory at Lisbon, formed another company for Parahyba and
+Pernambuco. Pombal's arrangements extended also to the interior of the
+country, where he extinguished at once the now indefinite and oppressive
+claims of the original donatories of the captaincies, and strengthened
+and enforced the regulations of the mining districts. The policy of many
+of Pombal's measures is more than questionable; but his admission of all
+races to equal rights in the eye of the law, his abolition of feudal
+privileges, and the firmer organization of the powers of the land which
+he introduced, powerfully co-operated towards the development of the
+capabilities of Brazil. Yet on the death of his king and patron in 1777,
+when court intrigue forced him from his high station, he who had done so
+much for his country's institutions was reviled on all hands.
+
+The most important feature in the history of Brazil during the first
+thirty years following the retirement of Pombal was the conspiracy of
+Minas in 1789. The successful issue of the recent revolution of the
+English colonies in North America had filled the minds of some of the
+more educated youth of that province; and in imitation, a project to
+throw off the Portuguese yoke was formed,--a cavalry officer, Silva
+Xavier, nicknamed Tira-dentes (tooth-drawer), being the chief
+conspirator. But the plot being discovered during their inactivity, the
+conspirators were banished to Africa, and Tira-dentes, the leader, was
+hanged. Thenceforward affairs went on prosperously; the mining districts
+continued to be enlarged; the trading companies of the littoral
+provinces were abolished, but the impulse they had given to agriculture
+remained.
+
+
+  Portuguese royal family in Brazil, 1807.
+
+  Reorganization on Portuguese model.
+
+Removed from all communication with the rest of the world except through
+the mother country, Brazil remained unaffected by the first years of the
+great revolutionary war in Europe. Indirectly, however, the fate of this
+isolated country was decided by the consequences of the French
+Revolution. Brazil is the only instance of a colony becoming the seat of
+the government of its own mother country, and this was the work of
+Napoleon. When he resolved upon the invasion and conquest of Portugal,
+the prince regent, afterwards Dom John VI., having no means of
+resistance, decided to take refuge in Brazil. He created a regency in
+Lisbon, and departed for Brazil on the 29th of November 1807,
+accompanied by the queen Donna Maria I., the royal family, all the great
+officers of state, a large part of the nobility and numerous retainers.
+They arrived at Bahia on the 21st of January 1808, and were received
+with enthusiasm. The regent was requested to establish there the seat of
+his government, but a more secure asylum presented itself in Rio de
+Janeiro, where the royal fugitives arrived on the 7th of March. Before
+leaving Bahia, Dom John took the first step to emancipate Brazil,
+opening its ports to foreign commerce, and permitting the export of all
+Brazilian produce under any flag, the royal monopolies of diamonds and
+Brazil-wood excepted. Once established in Rio de Janeiro, the government
+of the regent was directed to the creation of an administrative
+machinery for the dominions that remained to him as it existed in
+Portugal. Besides the ministry which had come with the regent, the
+council of state, and the departments of the four ministries of home,
+finances, war and marine then existing, there were created in the course
+of one year a supreme court of justice, a board of patronage and
+administration of the property of the church and military orders, an
+inferior court of appeal, the court of exchequer and royal treasury, the
+royal mint, bank of Brazil, royal printing-office, powder-mills on a
+large scale, and a supreme military court. The maintenance of the court,
+and the salaries of so large a number of high officials, entailed the
+imposition of new taxes to meet these expenses. Notwithstanding this the
+expenses continued to augment, and the government had recourse to the
+reprehensible measure of altering the money standard, and the whole
+monetary system was soon thrown into the greatest confusion. The bank,
+in addition to its private functions, farmed many of the _regalia_, and
+was in the practice of advancing large sums to the state, transactions
+which gave rise to extensive corruption, and terminated some years later
+in the breaking of the bank.
+
+Thus the government of the prince regent began its career in the new
+world with dangerous errors in the financial system; yet the increased
+activity which a multitude of new customers and the increase of
+circulating medium gave to the trade of Rio, added a new stimulus to the
+industry of the whole nation. Numbers of English artisans and
+shipbuilders, Swedish iron-founders, German engineers and French
+manufacturers sought fortunes in the new country, and diffused industry
+by their example.
+
+In the beginning of 1809, in retaliation for the occupation of Portugal,
+an expedition was sent from Pará to the French colony of Guiana, and
+after some fighting this part of Guiana was incorporated with Brazil.
+This conquest was, however, of short duration; for, by the treaty of
+Vienna in 1815, the colony was restored to France. Its occupation
+contributed to the improvement of agriculture in Brazil; it had been the
+policy of Portugal up to this time to separate the productions of its
+colonies, to reserve sugar for Brazil, and spices to the East Indies,
+and to prohibit the cultivation of these in the African possessions.
+Now, however, many plants were imported not only from Guiana but from
+India and Africa, cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, and thence
+distributed. The same principle which dictated the conquest of French
+Guiana originated attempts to seize the Spanish colonies of Montevideo
+and Buenos Aires, Portugal being also at war with Spain. The chiefs of
+these colonies were invited to place them under the protection of the
+Portuguese crown, but these at first affecting loyalty to Spain declined
+the offer, then threw off the mask and declared themselves independent,
+and the Spanish governor, Elio, was afterwards defeated by Artigas, the
+leader of the independents.
+
+
+  Brazil declared an integral portion of the monarchy.
+
+The inroads made on the frontiers of Rio Grande and São Paulo decided
+the court of Rio to take possession of Montevideo; a force of 5000
+troops was sent thither from Portugal, together with a Brazilian corps;
+and the irregulars of Artigas, unable to withstand disciplined troops,
+were forced, after a total defeat, to take refuge beyond the River
+Uruguay. The Portuguese took possession of the city of Montevideo in
+January 1817, and the territory of Misiones was afterwards occupied. The
+importance which Brazil was acquiring decided the regent to give it the
+title of kingdom, and by decree of the 16th January 1815, the Portuguese
+sovereignty thenceforward took the title of the United Kingdom of
+Portugal, Brazil and Algarves. Thus the old colonial government
+disappeared even in name. In March 1816 the queen Donna Maria I. died,
+and the prince regent became king under the title of Dom John VI.
+
+
+  Pedro proclaims the independence of Brazil, 1822.
+
+Although Brazil had now become in fact the head of its own mother
+country, the government was not in the hands of Brazilians, but of the
+Portuguese, who had followed the court. The discontent arising among
+Brazilians from this cause was heightened by a decree assigning a heavy
+tax on the chief Brazilian custom houses, to be in operation for forty
+years, for the benefit of the Portuguese noblemen who had suffered
+during the war with France. The amiable character of the king preserved
+his own popularity, but the government was ignorant and profligate,
+justice was ill administered, negligence and disorder reigned in all its
+departments. Nor was the discontent less in Portugal on account of its
+anomalous position. These causes and the fermentation of liberal
+principles produced by the French Revolution originated a conspiracy in
+Lisbon in 1817, which was, however, discovered in time to prevent its
+success. A similar plot and rebellion took place in the province of
+Pernambuco, where the inhabitants of the important commercial city of
+Recife (Pernambuco) were jealous of Rio and the sacrifices they were
+compelled to make for the support of the luxurious court there. Another
+conspiracy to establish a republican government was promptly smothered
+in Bahia, and the outbreak in Pernambuco was put down after a republic
+had been formed there for ninety days. Still the progress of the
+republican spirit in Brazil caused Dom João to send to Portugal for
+bodies of picked troops, which were stationed throughout the provincial
+capitals. In Portugal the popular discontent produced the revolution of
+1820, when representative government was proclaimed--the Spanish
+constitution of 1812 being provisionally adopted. In Rio, the Portuguese
+troops with which the king had surrounded himself as the defence against
+the liberal spirit of the Brazilians, took up arms on the 26th of
+February 1821, to force him to accept the system proclaimed in
+Portugal. The prince Dom Pedro, heir to the crown, who now for the first
+time took part in public affairs, actively exerted himself as a
+negotiator between the king and the troops, who were joined by bodies of
+the people. After attempting a compromise the king finally submitted,
+took the oath and named a new ministry. The idea of free government
+filled the people with enthusiasm, and the principles of a
+representative legislature were freely adopted, the first care being for
+the election of deputies to the Cortes of Lisbon to take part in framing
+the new constitution. As the king could not abandon Portugal to itself
+he determined at first to send the prince thither as regent, but Dom
+Pedro had acquired such popularity by his conduct in the revolution, and
+had exhibited such a thirst for glory, that the king feared to trust his
+adventurous spirit in Europe, and decided to go himself. The Brazilian
+deputies on arriving in Lisbon expressed dissatisfaction with the Cortes
+for having begun the framing of the constitution before their arrival,
+for Brazil could not be treated as a secondary part of the monarchy.
+Sharp discussions and angry words passed between the Brazilian and
+Portuguese deputies, the news of which excited great discontent in
+Brazil. An insulting decree was passed in the Cortes, ordering the
+prince Dom Pedro to come to Europe, which filled the Brazilians with
+alarm; they foresaw that without a central authority the country would
+fall back to its former colonial state subject to Portugal. The
+provisional government of São Paulo, influenced by the brothers Andrada,
+began a movement for independence by asking the prince to disobey the
+Cortes and remain in Brazil, and the council of Rio de Janeiro followed
+with a similar representation, to which the prince assented. The
+Portuguese troops of the capital at first assumed a coercive attitude,
+but were forced to give way before the ardour and military preparations
+of the Brazilians, and submitted to embark for Portugal. These scenes
+were repeated in Pernambuco, where the Portuguese, after various
+conflicts, were obliged to leave the country; in Bahia, however, as well
+as in Maranhão and Pará, the Portuguese prevailed. In the agitation for
+independence continued. The two brothers Andrada were called to the
+ministry; and the municipal council conferred upon the prince regent the
+title of Perpetual Defender of Brazil. With great activity he set off to
+the central provinces of Minas and São Paulo to suppress disaffected
+movements and direct the revolution. In São Paulo, on the 7th of
+September 1822, he proclaimed the independence of Brazil. On his return
+to Rio de Janeiro on the l2th of October he was proclaimed
+constitutional emperor with great enthusiasm.
+
+The Cortes at Lisbon chose Bahia as a centre for resisting the
+independence, and large forces were sent thither. But the city was
+vigorously besieged by the Brazilians by land, and finally the
+Portuguese were obliged to re-embark on the 2nd of July 1823. A
+Brazilian squadron, under command of Lord Cochrane, attacked the
+Portuguese vessels, embarrassed with troops, and took several of them.
+Taylor, another Englishman in Brazilian service, followed the vessels
+across the Atlantic, and even captured some of the ships in sight of the
+land of Portugal. The troops in Montevideo also embarked for Portugal,
+and the Banda Oriental remained a part of Brazil with the title of the
+_Provincia Cisplatina_. Before the end of 1823 the authority of the new
+emperor and the independence of Brazil were undisputed throughout the
+whole country.
+
+
+  Constitution of 1824.
+
+Republican movements now began to spread, to suppress which the
+authorities made use of the Portuguese remaining in the country; and the
+disposition of the emperor to consider these as his firmest supporters
+much influenced the course of his government and his future destiny. The
+two Andradas, who imagined they could govern the young emperor as a
+sovereign of their own creation, encountered great opposition in the
+constitutional assembly, which had been opened in Rio in May 1823, to
+discuss the project of a new constitution. In July the emperor resolved
+to dismiss them and form a new ministry, but against this the brothers
+raised a violent opposition. In November the emperor put an end to the
+angry debates which ensued in the assembly by dissolving it, exiling
+the Andradas to France, and convoking a new assembly to deliberate on a
+proposed constitution more liberal than the former project. The
+proclamation of a republic in the provinces of Pernambuco and Ceará,
+with the rebellion of the Cisplatina province, favoured by Buenos Aires
+and its ultimate loss to Brazil, were the result of the _coup d'état_ of
+November 1823. The Brazilians were universally discontented--on one side
+fearing absolutism if they supported the emperor, on the other anarchy
+if he fell. Knowing the danger of an undefined position, the emperor
+caused the councils to dispense with their deliberations, and adopt, as
+the constitution of the empire, the project framed by the council of
+state. Accordingly, on the 25th of March 1824, the emperor swore to the
+constitution with great solemnity and public rejoicings. By this stroke
+of policy he saved himself and Brazil. Negotiations were opened in
+London between the Brazilian and Portuguese plenipotentiaries, treating
+for the recognition of the independence of Brazil; and on the 25th of
+August 1825 a treaty was signed by which the Portuguese king, Dom John
+VI., assumed the title of emperor of Brazil, and immediately abdicated
+in favour of his son, acknowledging Brazil as an independent empire, but
+the treaty obliged Brazil to take upon herself the Portuguese debt,
+amounting to nearly two millions sterling.
+
+The rebellion of the Banda Oriental was followed by a declaration of war
+with Buenos Aires which had supported it, and operations by sea and land
+were conducted against that republic in a feeble way. Meanwhile the
+well-deserved popularity of the emperor began to decline. He had given
+himself up to the influence of the Portuguese; the most popular men who
+had worked for the independence were banished; and a continual change of
+ministry showed a disposition on the part of the sovereign to prosecute
+obstinately measures of which his advisers disapproved. His popularity
+was regained, however, to some extent, when, on the death of his father,
+he was unanimously acknowledged king of Portugal, and especially when he
+abdicated that crown in favour of his daughter, Donna Maria; but his
+line of policy was not altered, and commercial treaties entered into
+with European states conceding them favours, which were popularly
+considered to be injurious to Brazilian trade, met with bitter censure.
+
+During the year 1827 the public debt was consolidated, and a department
+was created for the application of a sinking fund.
+
+
+  Abdication of Pedro I., 1831.
+
+The year 1828 was a calamitous one for Brazil. It began with the defeat
+of the Brazilian army by the Argentine forces, and this entirely through
+the incapacity of the commander-in-chief; and misunderstandings,
+afterwards compensated by humbling money-payments on the part of Brazil,
+arose with the United States, France and England on account of merchant
+vessels captured by the Brazilian squadron blockading Buenos Aires.
+Financial embarrassments increased to an alarming extent; the emperor
+was compelled by the British government to make peace with Buenos Aires
+and to renounce the Banda Oriental; and to fill the sum of disasters Dom
+Miguel had treacherously usurped the crown of Portugal. It was under
+these unlucky auspices that the elections of new deputies took place in
+1829. As was expected the result was the election everywhere of
+ultra-liberals opposed to the emperor, and in the succeeding year people
+everywhere exhibited their disaffection. During the session of 1830 the
+chambers adopted a criminal code in which punishment by death for
+political offences was abolished. It was openly suggested in the
+journals to reform the constitution by turning Brazil into independent
+federal provinces, governed by authorities popularly elected, as in the
+United States. Alarmed at length at the ground gained by this idea in
+the provinces, the emperor set off to Minas to stir up the former
+enthusiasm in his favour from recollections of the independence, but was
+coldly received. On his return to Rio in March 1831 scenes of disorder
+occurred, and great agitation among the Liberal party. Imagining himself
+sure of a brilliant destiny in Europe if he lost his Brazilian crown,
+the emperor attempted to risk a decisive attack against the Liberals,
+and to form a new ministry composed of men favourable to absolutism.
+This step caused excited public meetings in the capital, which were
+joined in by the troops, and deputations went to ask the emperor to
+dismiss the unpopular ministry. He replied by dissolving the ministry
+without naming another, and by abdicating the crown in favour of the
+heir apparent, then only five years of age. Dom Pedro immediately
+embarked in an English ship, leaving the new emperor Dom Pedro II. and
+the princesses Januaria, Francisca and Paula. The subsequent career of
+this unfortunate prince belongs to the history of Portugal.
+
+A provisional and afterwards a permanent regency, composed of three
+members, was now formed in Brazil, but scenes of disorder succeeded, and
+discussions and struggles between the republican party and the
+government, and a reactionary third party in favour of the restoration
+of Dom Pedro, occupied the succeeding years. In 1834 a reform which was
+well received consisted in the alteration of the regency, from that of
+three members elected by the legislative chambers, to one regent chosen
+by the whole of the electors in the same manner as the deputies; and the
+councils of the provinces were replaced by legislative provincial
+assemblies. Virtually, this was a republican government like that of the
+United States, for no difference existed in the mode of election of the
+regent from that of a president. The ex-minister Feijoó was chosen for
+this office. With the exception of Pará and Rio Grande the provinces
+were at peace, but these were in open rebellion; the former was reduced
+to obedience, but in the latter, though the imperial troops occupied the
+town, the country was ravaged by its warlike inhabitants. The regent was
+now accused of conniving at this rebellion, and the opposition of the
+chamber of deputies became so violent as to necessitate his resignation.
+Araujo Lima, minister of the home department, who strove to give his
+government the character of a monarchical reaction against the
+principles of democracy, was chosen by a large majority in his stead.
+The experiment of republican government had proved so discreditable, and
+had so wearied the country of cabals, that men hitherto known for their
+sympathy with democratic principles became more monarchical than the
+regent himself; and under this influence a movement to give the regency
+into the hands of the princess Donna Januaria, now in her 18th year, was
+set on foot. It was soon perceived, however, that if the empire could be
+governed by a princess of eighteen it could be managed better by the
+emperor himself, who was then fourteen.
+
+
+  Majority of Pedro II., 1840.
+
+A bill was accordingly presented to the legislature dispensing with the
+age of the emperor and declaring his majority, which after a noisy
+discussion was carried. The majority of the emperor Dom Pedro II. was
+proclaimed on the 23rd of July 1840. Several ministries, in which
+various parties predominated for a time, now governed the country till
+1848, during which period the rebellious province of Rio Grande was
+pacified, more by negotiation than force of arms. In 1848 hostilities
+were roused with the British government through the neglect shown by the
+Brazilians in putting in force a treaty for the abolition of the slave
+trade, which had been concluded as far back as 1826; on the other hand
+the governor of Buenos Aires, General Rosas, was endeavouring to stir up
+revolution again in Rio Grande. The appearance of yellow fever in 1849,
+until then unknown in Brazil, was attributed to the importation of
+slaves. Public opinion declared against the traffic; severe laws were
+passed against it, and were so firmly enforced that in 1853 not a single
+disembarkation took place. The ministry of the Visconde de Olinda in
+1849 entered into alliances with the governors of Montevideo, Paraguay
+and the states of Entre Rios and Corrientes, for the purpose of
+maintaining the integrity of the republics of Uruguay and Paraguay,
+which Rosas intended to reunite to Buenos Aires, and the troops of
+Rosa's which besieged Montevideo were forced to capitulate. Rosas then
+declared war formally against Brazil. An army of Correntine, Uruguayan
+and Brazilian troops, under General Urquiza, assisted by a Brazilian
+naval squadron, advanced on Buenos Aires, completely routed the forces
+of Rosas, and crushed for ever the power of that dictator. From 1844
+Brazil was free from intestine commotions, and had resumed its activity.
+Public works and education were advanced, and the finances rose to a
+degree of prosperity previously unknown.
+
+
+  War with Paraguay.
+
+In 1855 the emperor of Brazil sent a squadron of eleven men-of-war and
+as many transports up the Paraná to adjust several questions pending
+between the empire and the republic of Paraguay, the most important of
+which was that of the right of way by the Paraguay river to the interior
+Brazilian province of Matto Grosso. This right had been in dispute for
+several years. The expedition was not permitted to ascend the river
+Paraguay, and returned completely foiled in its main purpose. Though the
+discord resulting between the states on account of this failure was
+subsequently allayed for a time by a treaty granting to Brazil the right
+to navigate the river, every obstacle was thrown in the way by the
+Paraguayan government, and indignities of all kinds were offered not
+only to Brazil but to the representatives of the Argentine and the
+United States. In 1864 the ambitious dictator of Paraguay, Francisco
+Solano Lopez, without previous declaration of war, captured a Brazilian
+vessel in the Paraguay, and rapidly followed up this outrage by an armed
+invasion of the provinces of Matto Grosso and Rio Grande in Brazil, and
+that of Corrientes in the Argentine Republic. A triple alliance of the
+invaded states with Uruguay ensued, and the tide of war was soon turned
+from being an offensive one on the part of Paraguay to a defensive
+struggle within that republic against the superior number of the allies.
+So strong was the natural position of Paraguay, however, and so complete
+the subjection of its inhabitants to the will of the dictator, that it
+was not until the year 1870, after the republic had been completely
+drained of its manhood and resources, that the long war was terminated
+by the capture and death of Lopez with his last handful of men by the
+pursuing Brazilians. From its duration and frequent battles and sieges
+this war involved an immense sacrifice of life to Brazil, the army in
+the field having been constantly maintained at between 20,000 and 30,000
+men, and the expenditure in maintaining it was very great, having been
+calculated at upwards of fifty millions sterling. Large deficits in the
+financial budgets of the state resulted, involving increased taxation
+and the contracting of loans from foreign countries.
+
+Notwithstanding this the sources of public wealth in Brazil were
+unaffected, and commerce continued steadily to increase. A grand social
+reform was effected in the law passed in September 1871, which enacted
+that from that date every child born of slave parents should be free,
+and also declared all the slaves belonging to the state or to the
+imperial household free from that time. The same law provided an
+emancipation fund, to be annually applied to the ransom of a certain
+number of slaves owned by private individuals.
+
+
+  Character of Pedro II.'s reign.
+
+Under the long reign of Dom Pedro II. progress and material prosperity
+made steady advancement in Brazil. Occasional political outbreaks
+occurred, but none of very serious nature except in Rio Grande do Sul,
+where a long guerrilla warfare was carried on against the imperial
+authority. The emperor occupied himself to a far greater extent with the
+economic development of his people and country than with active
+political life. Unostentatious in his habits, Dom Pedro always had at
+heart the true interests of the Brazilians. Himself a highly-educated
+man, he sincerely desired to further the cause of education, and devoted
+a large portion of his time to the study of this question. His extreme
+liberalism prevented his opposing the spread of Socialist doctrines
+preached far and wide by Benjamin Constant. Begun about 1880, this
+propaganda took deep root in the educated classes, creating a desire for
+change and culminating in the military conspiracy of November 1889, by
+which monarchy was replaced by a republican form of government.
+
+At first the revolutionary propaganda produced no personal animosity
+against the emperor, who continued to be treated by his people with
+every mark of respect and affection, but this state of things gradually
+changed. In 1864 the princess Isabella, the eldest daughter of the
+emperor and empress, had married the Comte d'Eu, a member of the Orleans
+family. The marriage was never popular in the country, owing partly to
+the fact that the Comte d'Eu was a reserved man who made few intimate
+friends and never attempted to become a favourite. Princess Isabella was
+charitable in many ways, always ready to take her full share of the
+duties falling upon her as the future empress, and thoroughly realizing
+the responsibilities of her position; but she was greatly influenced by
+the clerical party and the priesthood, and she thereby incurred the
+hostility of the Progressives. When Dom Pedro left Brazil for the
+purpose of making a tour through Europe and the United States he
+appointed Princess Isabella to act as regent, and she showed herself so
+swayed in political questions by Church influence that Liberal feeling
+became more and more anti-dynastic. Another incident which gave strength
+to the opposition was the sudden abolition of slavery without any
+compensation to slave-owners. The planters, the principal possessors of
+wealth, regarded the measure as unnecessary in view of the act which had
+been passed in 1885 providing for the gradual freeing of all slaves. The
+arguments used were, however, of no avail with the regent, and the
+decree was promulgated on the 13th of May 1888. No active opposition was
+offered to this measure, but the feelings of unrest and discontent
+spread rapidly.
+
+
+  Establishment of the Republic, 1889.
+
+Towards the close of 1888 the emperor returned and was received by the
+populace with every demonstration of affection and esteem. Even among
+the advocates of republicanism there was no intention of dethroning Dom
+Pedro, excepting a few extreme members of the party, now gained the
+upper hand. They argued that it would be much more difficult to carry
+out a successful coup _d'état_ when the good-natured, confiding emperor
+had been succeeded by his more suspicious and energetic daughter.
+Discontented officers in the army and navy rallied to this idea, and a
+conspiracy was organized to depose the emperor and declare a republic.
+On the 14th of November 1889 the palace was quietly surrounded, and on
+the following morning the emperor and his family were placed on board
+ship and sent off to Portugal. A provisional government was then formed
+and a proclamation issued to the effect that the country would
+henceforth be known as the United States of Brazil, and that in due time
+a republican constitution would be framed. The only voice raised in
+protest was that of the minister of war, and he was shot at and severely
+wounded as a consequence. Dom Pedro, completely broken down by the
+ingratitude of the people whom he had loved so much and laboured for so
+strenuously, made no attempt at resistance. The republican government
+offered to compensate him for the property he had held in Brazil as
+emperor, but this proposal was declined. His private possessions were
+respected, and were afterwards still held by Princess Isabella.
+
+The citizen named as president of the provisional government, was
+General Deodoro da Fonseca, who owed his advancement to the personal
+friendship and assistance of Dom Pedro. Second in authority was placed
+General Floriano Peixoto, an officer also under heavy obligations to the
+deposed monarch, as indeed were nearly all of those who took active part
+in the conspiracy.
+
+
+  Brazil under the Republic.
+
+Though the overthrow of the imperial dynasty was totally unexpected
+throughout, the new regime was accepted without any disturbances. Under
+the leadership of General Deodoro da Fonseca a praetorian system of
+government, in which the military element was all-powerful, came into
+existence, and continued till February 1891, when a national congress
+assembled and formulated the constitution for the United States of
+Brazil. The former provinces were converted into states, the only right
+of the federal government to interfere in their administration being for
+the purposes of national defence, the maintenance of public order or the
+enforcement of the federal laws. The constitution of the United States
+of America was taken as a model for drawing up that of Brazil, and the
+general terms were as far as possible adhered to (see above, section
+_Government_).
+
+General da Fonseca and General Floriano Peixoto were elected to fill the
+offices of president and vice-president until the 15th of November 1894.
+This implied the continuance of praetorian methods of administration.
+The older class of more conservative Brazilians, who had formerly taken
+part in the administration under the emperor, withdrew altogether from
+public life. Many left Brazil and went into voluntary exile, while
+others retired to their estates. In the absence of these more
+respectable elements, the government fell into the hands of a gang of
+military adventurers and unscrupulous politicians, whose only object was
+to exploit the national resources for their own benefit. As a
+consequence, deep-rooted discontent rapidly arose. A conspiracy, of
+which Admiral Wandenkolk was the prime instigator, was discovered, and
+those who had taken part in it were banished to the distant state of
+Amazonas. Disturbances then broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, in
+consequence of disputes between the official party and the people living
+in the country districts. Under the leadership of Gumercindo Saraïva the
+country people broke into open revolt in September 1891. This outbreak
+was partially suppressed, but afterwards it again burst into flame with
+great vigour. In view of the discontent, conspiracies and revolutionary
+movements, President da Fonseca declared himself dictator. This act,
+however, met with such strong opposition that he resigned office on the
+23rd of November 1891, and Vice-President Floriano Peixoto assumed the
+presidency.
+
+Floriano Peixoto had been accustomed all his life to use harsh measures.
+For the first year of his term of office he kept seditious attempts in
+check, but discontent grew apace. Nor was this surprising to those who
+knew the corruption in the administration. Concessions and subsidies
+were given broadcast for worthless undertakings in order to benefit the
+friends of the president. Brazilian credit gave way under the strain,
+and evidences were not wanting at the beginning of 1893 that an outburst
+of public opinion was not far distant. Nevertheless President Peixoto
+made no effort to reform the methods of administration. Meanwhile, the
+revolution in Rio Grande do Sul had revived; and in July 1893 the
+federal government was forced to send most of the available regular
+troops to that state to hold the insurgents in check.
+
+
+  Naval revolt and civil war, 1893.
+
+On the 6th of September prevailing discontent took definite shape in the
+form of a naval revolt in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Admiral Custodio de
+Mello took command of the naval forces, and demanded the resignation of
+the president. General Peixoto replied by organizing a defence against
+any attack from the squadron. Admiral Mello, finding that his demands
+were not complied with, began a bombardment of the city, but did not
+effect his purpose of compelling Peixoto to resign. The foreign
+ministers then arranged a compromise between the contending parties,
+according to which President Peixoto was to place no artillery in the
+city, while Admiral Mello was to refrain from bombarding the town, which
+was thus saved from destruction. Shortly afterwards the cruiser
+"Republica" and a transport ran the gauntlet of the government forts at
+the entrance of the bay, and proceeded south to the province of Santa
+Catharina, taking possession of Desterro, its capital. A provisional
+government was proclaimed by the insurgents, with headquarters at
+Desterro, and communication was opened with Gumercindo Saraïva, the
+leader of the insurrection in Rio Grande do Sul. It was proposed that
+the army of some 10,000 men under his command should advance northwards
+towards Rio de Janeiro, while the insurgent squadron threatened the city
+of Rio. In November Admiral Mello left Rio de Janeiro in the armoured
+cruiser "Aquidaban" and went to Desterro, the naval forces in Rio Bay
+being left in charge of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, an ardent monarchist,
+who had thrown in his lot with the insurgent cause. All was, apparently,
+going well with the revolt, Saraïva having invaded the states of Santa
+Catharina and Paraná, and defeated the government troops in several
+encounters. Meanwhile, President Peixoto had fortified the approaches
+to the city of Rio de Janeiro, bought vessels of war in Europe and the
+United States and organized the National Guard.
+
+Early in 1894 dissensions occurred between Saraïva and Mello, which
+prevented any advance of the insurgent forces, and allowed Peixoto to
+perfect his plans. Admiral da Gama, unable to leave the Bay of Rio de
+Janeiro on account of lack of transport for the sick and wounded and the
+civilians claiming his protection, could do no more than wait for
+Admiral Mello to return from Desterro. In the meantime the ships bought
+by President Peixoto arrived off Rio de Janeiro and prevented da Gama
+from escaping. On the 15th of March 1894 the rebel forces evacuated
+their positions on the islands of Villegaignon, Cobras and Enxadas,
+abandoned their vessels, and were received on board two Portuguese
+warships then in the harbour, whence they were conveyed to Montevideo.
+The action of the Portuguese commander was prompted by a desire to save
+life, for had the rebels fallen into the hands of Peixoto, they would
+assuredly have been executed.
+
+When the news of the surrender of Saldanha da Gama reached Gumercindo
+Saraïva, then at Curitiba in Paraná, he proceeded to retire to Rio
+Grande do Sul. Government troops were despatched to intercept his
+retreat, and in one of the skirmishes which followed Saraïva was killed.
+The rebel army then dispersed. Admiral Mello made an unsuccessful attack
+on the town of Rio Grande, and then sailed to Buenos Aires, there
+surrendering the rebel squadron to the Argentine authorities, by whom it
+was immediately delivered to the Brazilian government. After six months
+of civil war peace was once more established, but there still remained
+some small rebel groups in Rio Grande do Sul. These were joined by
+Admiral da Gama and a number of the naval officers, who had escaped from
+Rio de Janeiro; but in June 1895 the admiral was killed in a fight with
+the government troops. After the cessation of hostilities, the greatest
+barbarities were practised upon those who, although they had taken no
+part in the insurrection, were known to have desired the overthrow of
+President Peixoto. The baron Cerro Azul was shot down without trial;
+Marshal de Gama Eza, an old imperial soldier of eighty years of age, was
+murdered in cold blood, and numerous executions of men of lesser note
+took place, among these being two Frenchmen for whose death the
+Brazilian government was subsequently called upon to pay heavy
+compensation.
+
+General Peixoto was succeeded as president on the 15th of November 1894
+by Dr Prudente de Moraes Barros. It was a moot question whether Peixoto,
+after the revolt was crushed, would not declare himself dictator;
+certainly many of his friends were anxious that he should follow this
+course, but he was broken down by the strain which had been imposed upon
+him and was glad to surrender his duties. He did not recover his health
+and died shortly afterwards.
+
+From the first day that he assumed office, President Moraes showed that
+he intended to suppress praetorian systems and reduce militarism to a
+minimum. This policy received the approval and sympathy of the majority
+of Brazilians, but naturally met with bitter opposition from the
+military element. The president gradually drew to him some members of
+the better conservative class to assist in his administration, and felt
+confident that he had the support of public opinion. Early in 1895
+murmurings and disorderly conduct against the authorities began to take
+place in the military school at Rio de Janeiro, which had always been a
+hotbed of intrigue. Some of the officers and students were promptly
+expelled, and the president closed the school for several months. This
+salutary lesson had due effect, and no more discontent was fomented from
+that quarter. Two great difficulties stood in the way of steering the
+country to prosperity. The first was the chaotic confusion of the
+finances resulting from the maladministration of the national resources
+since the deposition of Dom Pedro II., and the corruption that had crept
+into every branch of the public service. Much was done by President
+Moraes to correct abuses, but the task was of too herculean a nature to
+allow of accomplishment within the four years during which he was at
+the head of affairs. The second difficulty was the war waged by
+religious fanatics under the leadership of Antonio Maciel, known as
+"Conselheiro," against the constituted authorities of Brazil.
+
+The story of Conselheiro is a remarkable one. A native of Pernambuco,
+when a young man he married against the wishes of his mother, who took a
+violent dislike to the bride. Shortly after the marriage the mother
+assured her son that his wife held clandestine meetings with a lover,
+and stated that if he would go to a certain spot not far from the house
+that evening he would himself see that her assertion was true. The
+mother invented some plea to send the wife to the trysting-place, and
+then, dressing herself in male clothing, prepared to come suddenly on
+the scene as the lover, trusting to be able to make her escape before
+she was recognized. The three met almost simultaneously. Conselheiro,
+deeming his worst suspicions confirmed, shot and killed his wife and his
+mother before explanations could be offered. He was tried and allowed to
+go at liberty after some detention in prison. From that time Conselheiro
+was a victim of remorse, and to expiate his sin became a missionary in
+the _sertao_ or interior of Brazil among the wild Jagunço people. He
+built places of worship in many different districts, and at length
+became the recognized chief of the people among whom he had thus
+strangely cast his lot. Eventually he formed a settlement near Canudos,
+situated about 400 m. inland from Bahia. Difficulty arose between the
+governor of Bahia and this fanatical missionary, with the result that
+Conselheiro was ordered to leave the settlement and take away his
+people. This order was met with a sturdy refusal to move. Early in 1897
+a police force was sent to eject the settlers, but encountered strong
+resistance, and suffered heavy loss without being able to effect the
+purpose intended. In March 1897 a body of 1500 troops, with four guns,
+was despatched to bring the Jagunçoes to reason, but was totally
+defeated. An army comprising some 5000 officers and men was then sent to
+crush Conselheiro and his people at all costs. Little progress was made,
+the country being difficult of access and the Jagunçoes laying
+ambuscades at every available place. Finally strong reinforcements were
+sent forward, the minister of war himself proceeding to take command of
+the army, now numbering nearly 13,000 men. Canudos was besieged and
+captured in September 1897, Conselheiro being killed in the final
+assault. The expense of these expeditions was very heavy, and prevented
+President Moraes from carrying out many of the retrenchments he had
+planned.
+
+Soon after the Canudos affair a conspiracy was hatched to assassinate
+the president. He was watching the disembarkation of some troops when a
+shot was fired which narrowly missed him, and killed General Bitencourt,
+the minister of war. The actual perpetrator of the deed, a soldier, was
+tried and executed, but he was apparently ignorant of the persons who
+procured his services. Three other men implicated in the conspiracy were
+subsequently sentenced to imprisonment for a term of thirty years. The
+remainder of the presidency of Dr Moraes was uneventful; and on the 15th
+of November 1898 he was succeeded by Dr Campos Salles, who had
+previously been governor of the state of São Paulo. President Salles
+publicly promised political reform, economy in the administration, and
+absolute respect for civil rights, and speedily made efforts to fulfil
+these pledges.
+
+
+  Reform under President Campos Salles.
+
+The difficulties in the reorganization of the finances of the state,
+which Dr Campos Salles had to face on his accession to power, were very
+great. The heavy cost involved in the suppression of internal disorders,
+maladministration, and the hindrances placed in the way of economical
+development by the semi-independence of the federal states had seriously
+depreciated the national credit. The president-elect accordingly
+undertook with the full approval of Dr Moraes, who was still in office,
+the task of visiting Europe with the object of endeavouring to make an
+arrangement with the creditors of the state for a temporary suspension
+of payments. He was successful in his object, and an agreement was made
+by which bonds should be issued instead of interest payments from the
+1st of July 1898, the promise being given that every effort should be
+made for the resumption of cash payments in 1901. President Campos
+Salles entered upon his tenure of office on the 15th of November 1898,
+and at once proceeded to initiate fiscal legislation for the purpose of
+reducing expenditure and increasing the revenue. He had to face
+opposition from sectional interests and from the jealousy of
+interference with their rights on the part of provincial
+administrations, but he was able to achieve a considerable measure of
+success and to lay the foundation of a sounder system under which the
+financial position of the republic has made steady progress. The chief
+feature of the administration of Dr Campos Salles was the statesmanlike
+ability with which various disputes with foreign powers on boundary
+questions were seriously taken in hand and brought to a satisfactory and
+pacific settlement. There had for a long period been difficulties with
+France with regard to the territory which lay between the mouth of the
+Amazon and Cayenne or French Guiana. The language of various treatises
+was doubtful and ambiguous, largely owing to the ignorance of the
+diplomatists who drew up the articles of the exact geography of the
+territory in question. Napoleon had forced the Portuguese government to
+cede to him the northernmost arm of the mouth of the Amazon as the
+southern boundary of French Guiana with a large slice of the unexplored
+interior westwards. A few years later the Portuguese had in their turn
+conquered French Guiana, but had been compelled to restore it at the
+peace of Paris. The old ambiguity attaching to the interpretation of
+earlier treaties, however, remained, and in April 1899 the question by
+an agreement between the two states was referred to the arbitration of
+the president of the Swiss confederation. The decision was given in
+December 1900 and was entirely in favour of the Brazilian contention. A
+still more interesting boundary dispute was that between Great Britain
+and Brazil, as to the southern frontier line of British Guiana. The
+dispute was of very old standing, and the settlement by arbitration in
+1899 of the acute misunderstanding between Great Britain and Venezuela
+regarding the western boundary of British Guiana, and the reference to
+arbitration in that same year of the Franco-Brazilian dispute, led to an
+agreement being made in 1901 between Brazil and Great Britain for the
+submission of their differences to the arbitration of the king of Italy.
+The district in dispute was the site of the fabled Lake of Parima and
+the Golden City of Manoa, the search for which in the early days of
+European settlement attracted so many adventurous expeditions, and which
+fascinated the imagination of Raleigh and drew him to his doom. The
+question was a complicated one involving the historical survey of Dutch
+and Portuguese exploration and control in the far interior of Guiana
+during two centuries; and it was not until 1904 that the king of Italy
+gave his award, which was largely in favour of the British claim, and
+grants to British Guiana access to the northern affluents of the Amazon.
+Before this decision was given Senhor Rodrigues Alves had been elected
+president in 1902. Dr Campos Salles had signalized his administration,
+not only by the settlement of disputes with European powers, but by
+efforts to arrive at a good understanding with the neighbouring South
+American republics. In July 1899 President Roca had visited Rio de
+Janeiro accompanied by an Argentine squadron, this being the first
+official visit that any South American president had ever paid to one of
+the adjoining states. In October 1900 Dr Campos Salles returned the
+visit and met with an excellent reception at Buenos Aires. The result
+was of importance, as it was known that Brazil was on friendly terms
+with Chile, and this interchange of courtesies had some effect in
+bringing about a settlement of the controversy between Chile and
+Argentina over the Andean frontier question without recourse to
+hostilities. This was indeed a time when questions concerning boundaries
+were springing up on every side, for it was only through the moderation
+with which the high-handed action of Bolivia in regard to the Acré
+rubber-producing territory was met by the Brazilian government that war
+was avoided. Negotiations were set on foot, and finally by treating the
+matter in a give-and-take spirit a settlement was reached and a treaty
+for an amicable exchange of territories in the district in question,
+accompanied by a pecuniary indemnity, was signed by President Alves at
+Petropolis on the 17th of November 1903. During the remainder of the
+term of this president internal and financial progress were undisturbed
+save by an outbreak in 1904 in the Cunani district, the very portion of
+disputed territory which had been assigned to Brazil by the arbitration
+with France. This province, being difficult of access, was able for a
+time to assert a practical independence. In 1906 Dr Affonso Penna, three
+times minister under Pedro II., and at that time governor of the state
+of Minas-Geraes, of which he had founded the new capital, Bello
+Horizonte, was elected president, a choice due to a coalition of the
+other states against São Paulo, to which all the recent presidents had
+belonged. Penna's presidency was distinguished by his successful efforts
+to place the finances on a sound basis. He died in office on the 14th of
+June 1909.     (K. J.; C. E. A.; G. E.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--History: Capistrano de Abreu, _Descobrimento do Brazil
+  e seu desenvolvimento no seculo xix_. (Rio de Janeiro, 1883); John
+  Armitage, _History of Brazil from 1808 to 1831_ (2 vols., London,
+  1836); Moreira de Azevedo, _Historia do Brazil de 1831 à 1840_ (Rio de
+  Janeiro, 1841); V.L. Basil, _L'Empire du Brésil_ (Paris, 1862); Caspar
+  Barlaeus, _Rerun per octennium in Brasiliâ ... sub praefecturâ
+  Mauritii Nassovii... historia_ (Amsterdam, 1647); F.S. Constancio,
+  _Historia do Brazil_ (Pernambuco, 1843); Anfonso Fialho, _Historia
+  d'estabelecimento da republica "Estados Unidos do Brazil"_ (Rio de
+  Janeiro 1890); P. Gaffarel, _Histoire du Brésil français_ (Paris,
+  1878); E. Grosse, _Dom Pedro I._ (Leipzig, 1836); E. Levasseur,
+  _L'Abolition de I'esclavage en Brésil_ (Paris, 1888); J.M. de Macedo,
+  _Anno biographico brazileiro_ (3 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1876); A.J.
+  Mello Moraes, _Brazil historico_ (4 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1839);
+  _Chorographia historica, chronographica genealogica, nobiliaria e
+  politica do Brazil_ (5 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1858-1863); _A
+  Independencia e o imperio do Brazil_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); B. Mossé,
+  _Dom Pedro II., empereur du Brésil_ (Paris, 1889); P. Netscher, _Les
+  Hollandais au Brésil_ (Hague, 1853); J.M. Pereira da Silva, _Varões
+  illustres do Brazil_ (2 vols., Paris, 1888); _Historia da fundação do
+  imperio brazileiro_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); _Segundo Periodo do
+  reinado de D. Pedro I._ (Paris, 1875); _Historia do Brazil de 1831 à
+  1840_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1888); J.P. Oliveira Martins, _O Brazil e as
+  colonias Portuguezas_ (Lisbon, 1888); S. da Rocha Pitta, _Historia da
+  America Portugueza_ (Lisbon, 1730); C. da Silva. _L'Oyapock et
+  I'Amazone_ (2 vols., Paris, 1861); R. Southey, _History of Brazil_ (3
+  vols., London, 1810-1819); J.B. Spix and C.F. von Martius, _Reise in
+  Brasilien_, 1817-1820 (3 parts, Munich, 1823-1831); F.A. de Varnhagen,
+  _Historia geral do Brazil_ (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877); _Historia
+  das luctas com os Hollandeses_ (Vienna, 187:); C.E. Akers, _Hist. of
+  South America, 1854-1904_ (1904); the _Revista trimensal do Instituto
+  Historico e Geographico do Brazil_ (1839-1908), one or two volumes
+  annually, is a storehouse of papers, studies and original documents
+  bearing on the history of Brazil.
+
+  Geography, &c.: Elisée Reclus, _Universal Geography_ (1875-1894), vol.
+  xix. pp. 77-291; J.E. Wappãus, _Geographica physica do Brazil_ (Rio de
+  Janeiro, 1884); A. Moreira Pinto, _Chorographia do Brazil_ (5th ed.,
+  Rip de Janeiro, 1895); Therese Prinzessin von Bayern, _Meine Reise
+  indenbrasilianischen Tropen_ (Berlin, 1897); M. Lamberg, _Brasilien,
+  Land und Leute_ (Leipzig, 1899); L. Hutchinson, _Report_ on Trade in
+  Brazil (Washington, 1906); F. Katzer, _Grundzüge der Geologie des
+  unteren Amazonegebietes_ (Leipzig, 1903); J.C. Branner, _A
+  Bibliography of the Geology, Mineralogy and Paleontology of Brazil_
+  (Rio de Janeiro, 1903); J.W. Evans, "The Rocks of the Cataracts of the
+  River Madeira and the adjoining Portions of the Beni and Mamoré,"
+  _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, London, vol. lxii., 1906, pp. 88-124, pl.
+  v.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The areas are reduced from the planimetrical calculations made at
+    Gotha and used by A. Supan in _Die Bevölkerung der Erde_ (1904). They
+    are corrected to cover all boundary changes to 1906.
+
+  [2] The census of 1890 is the last one of which complete returns are
+    published. That of 1900 was notoriously inaccurate in many instances.
+
+  [3] The census returns are for municipalities, and not for cities
+    proper. As a municipality covers a large extent of country, the
+    population given is larger than that of the urban parishes, and is
+    therefore not strictly correct according to European practice.
+
+  [4] The Brazilian official titles are given for the state capitals:
+    Belem for Pará; São Luiz for Maranhão; São Salvador for Bahia; and
+    Recife for Pernambuco.
+
+  [5] The capital of Minas Geraes in 1890 was Ouro Preto; it has since
+    been transferred to Bello Horizonte, or Cidade de Minas, which has an
+    estimated population of 25,000.
+
+  [6] Since the naval revolt of 1893-1894 the name of the capital of
+    Santa Catharina has been changed from Desterro to Florianopolis in
+    honour of President Floriano Peixoto.
+
+  [7] The "bran" exported is from imported wheat and cannot be
+    considered a national product.
+
+  [8] The "old metals" consist of old iron, brass, &c., derived from
+    railway material, machinery, &c., all imported, and should not be
+    considered a Brazilian product.
+
+    The "sundry products" would probably be included in the four general
+    classes were the items given.
+
+  [9] Previous to 1907 these two departments were united in one under
+    the designation of "Industry, Communications and Public Works." The
+    division was decreed December 29, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL, a city and the county-seat of Clay county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
+situated in the west central part of the state, about 16 m. E. of Terre
+Haute and about 57 m. W.S.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 5905; (1900)
+7786 (723 foreign-born); (1910) 9340. It is served by the Central
+Indiana, the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, the Evansville & Indianapolis
+and the Vandalia railways, and is connected with Indianapolis, Terre
+Haute and other cities by an interurban electric line. The principal
+business thoroughfare is part of the old National Road. Brazil's chief
+industrial importance is due to its situation in the heart of the
+"Brazil block" coal (so named because it naturally breaks into almost
+perfect rectangular blocks) and clay and shale region; among its
+manufactures are mining machinery and tools, boilers, paving and
+enamelled building bricks, hollow bricks, tiles, conduits, sewer-pipe
+and pottery. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. The
+first settlement here was in 1844; and Brazil was incorporated as a town
+in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL NUTS, the seeds of _Bertholletia excelsa_, a gigantic tree
+belonging to the natural order Lecythidaceae, which grows in the valleys
+of the Amazons and generally throughout tropical America. The tree
+attains an average height of 130 ft., having a smooth cylindrical trunk,
+with a diameter of 14 ft. 50 ft. from the ground, and branching at a
+height of about 100 ft. The lower portion of the trunk presents a
+buttressed aspect, owing to the upward extension of the roots in the
+form of thin prop-like walls surrounding the stem. The fruit of the tree
+is globular, with a diameter of 5 or 6 in., and consists of a thick hard
+woody shell, within which are closely packed the seeds which constitute
+the so-called nuts of commerce. The seeds are triangular in form, having
+a hard woody testa enclosing the "kernel"; and of these each fruit
+contains from eighteen to twenty-five. The fruits as they ripen fall
+from their lofty position, and they are at the proper season annually
+collected and broken open by the Indians. Brazil nuts are largely eaten;
+they also yield in the proportion of about 9 oz. to each lb. of kernels
+a fine bland fluid oil, highly valued for use in cookery, and used by
+watchmakers and artists.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL WOOD, a dye wood of commercial importance, obtained from the West
+Indies and South America, belonging to the genera _Caesalpinia_ and
+_Peltophorum_ of the natural order Leguminosae. There are several woods
+of the kind, commercially distinguished as Brazil wood, Nicaragua or
+Peach wood, Pernambuco wood and Lima wood, each of which has a different
+commercial value, although the tinctorial principle they yield is
+similar. Commercial Brazil wood is imported for the use of dyers in
+billets of large size, and is a dense compact wood of a reddish brown
+colour, rather bright when freshly cut, but becoming dull on exposure.
+The colouring-matter of Brazil wood, brazilin, C16H14O5, crystallizes
+with 1½ H2O, and is freely soluble in water; it is extracted for use by
+simple infusion or decoction of the coarsely-powdered wood. When freshly
+prepared the extract is of a yellowish tint; but by contact with the
+air, or the addition of an alkaline solution, it develops a brick-red
+colour. This is due to the formation of brazilein, C16H12O5·H2O, which
+is the colouring matter used by the dyer. Brazilin crystallizes in
+hexagonal amber yellow crystals, which are soluble in water and alcohol.
+The solution when free of oxygen is colourless, but on the access of air
+it assumes first a yellow and thereafter a reddish yellow colour. With
+soda-ley it takes a brilliant deep carmine tint, which colour may be
+discharged by heating in a closed vessel with zinc dust, in which
+condition, the solution is excessively sensitive to oxygen, the
+slightest exposure to air immediately giving a deep carmine. With tin
+mordants Brazil wood gives brilliant but fugitive steam reds in
+calico-printing; but on account of the loose nature of its dyes it is
+seldom used except as an adjunct to other colours. It is used to form
+lakes which are employed in tinting papers, staining paper-hangings, and
+for various other decorative purposes.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZING AND SOLDERING, in metal work, termed respectively hard and soft
+soldering, are processes which correspond with soldering done at high
+and at low temperatures. The first embraces jointing effected with
+soldering mixtures into which copper, brass, or silver largely enter,
+the second those in which lead and tin are the only, or the principal,
+constituents. Some metals, as aluminium and cast iron, are less easily
+soldered than others. Aluminium, owing to its high conductivity, removes
+the heat from the solder rapidly. Aluminium enters into the composition
+of most of the solders for these metals, and the "soldering bit" is of
+pure nickel.
+
+The hard solders are the spelter and the silver solders. Soft spelter
+solder is composed of equal parts of copper and zinc, melted and
+granulated and passed through a sieve. As some of the zinc volatilizes
+the ultimate proportions are not quite equal. The proportion of zinc is
+increased if the solder is required to be softer or more fusible. A
+valuable property of the zinc is that its volatilization indicates the
+fusing of the solder. Silver solder is used for jewelry and other fine
+metal work, arid has the advantage of high fusing points. The hardest
+contains from 4 parts of silver to 1 of copper; the softest 2 of silver
+to 1 of brass wire. Borax is the flux used, with silver solder as with
+spelter.
+
+The soft solders are composed mainly of tin and lead. They occur in a
+large range. Common tinner's solder is composed of equal parts of tin
+and lead, and melts at 370° Fah. Plumber's solder has 2 of lead to 1 of
+tin. Excess of lead in plumber's solder renders the solder difficult to
+work, excess of tin allows it to melt too easily. Pewterers add bismuth
+to render the solder more fusible, e.g. lead 4, tin 3, bismuth 2; or
+lead 1, tin 2, bismuth 1. Unless these are cooled quickly the bismuth
+separates out.
+
+The essentials of a soldered joint are the contact of absolutely clean
+surfaces, free from oxide and dirt. The surfaces are therefore scraped,
+filed and otherwise treated, and then, in order to cleanse and preserve
+them from any trace of oxide which might form during subsequent
+manipulation, a fluxing material is used. The soldering material is
+compelled to follow the areas prepared for it by the flux, and it will
+not adhere anywhere else. There is much similarity between soldering and
+welding in this respect. A weld joint must as a rule be fluxed, or metal
+will not adhere to metal. There is not, however, the absolute need for
+fluxing that there is in soldered joints, and many welds in good fibrous
+iron are made without a flux. But the explanation here is that the metal
+is brought to a temperature of semifusion, and the shapes of joints are
+generally such that particles of scale are squeezed out from between the
+joint in the act of closing the weld. But in brazing and soldering the
+parts to be united are generally nearly cold, and only the soldering
+material is fused, so that the conditions are less favourable to the
+removal of oxide than in welding processes.
+
+Fluxes are either liquid or solid, but the latter are not efficient
+until they fuse and cover the surfaces to be united. Hydrochloric acid
+(spirits of salts) is the one used chiefly for soft soldering. It is
+"killed" by the addition of a little zinc, the resulting chloride of
+zinc rendering its action quiet. Common fluxes are powdered resin, and
+tallow (used chiefly by plumbers for wiped joints). These, with others,
+are employed for soft solder joints, the temperature of which rarely
+exceeds about 600° Fah. The best flux for zinc is chloride of zinc. For
+brazed joints, spelter or powdered brass is employed, and the flux is
+usually borax. The borax will not cover the joint until it has been
+deprived of its water of crystallization, and this is effected by
+raising it to a full red heat, when it swells in bulk, "boils," and
+afterwards sinks quietly and spreads over, or into the joint. There are
+differences in details of working. The borax is generally powdered and
+mixed with the spelter, and both with water. But sometimes they are
+applied separately, the borax first and over this the particles of
+spelter. Another flux used for copper is sal ammoniac, either alone or
+mixed with powdered resin.
+
+As brazed joints often have to be very strong, other precautions are
+frequently taken beyond that of the mere overlapping of the joint edges.
+In pipes subjected to high steam pressures, and articles subjected to
+severe stresses, the joints are "cramped" before the solder is applied.
+That is, the edges are notched in a manner having somewhat the
+appearance of the dovetails of the carpenter; the notched portions
+overlap the opposite edges, and on alternate sides. Such joints when
+brazed are stronger than plain overlapping joints would be. Steam dome
+coverings are jointed thus longitudinally as cylinders, and the crown is
+jointed thereto, also by cramping. Another common method of union is
+that of flanges to copper pipes. In these the pipe passes freely within
+a hole bored right through the flange, and the solder is run between.
+The pipe is suspended vertically, flange downwards, and the spelter run
+in from the back of the flange. The fused borax works its way in by
+capillary action, and the spelter follows.
+
+The "copper bit" is used in soft soldering. Its end is a prismatic
+pyramid of copper, riveted to an iron shank in a wooden handle. It is
+made hot, and the contained heat is sufficient to melt the solder. It
+has to be "tinned," by being heated to a dull red, filed, rubbed with
+sal ammoniac, and then rubbed upon the solder. It is wiped with tow
+before use. For small brazed work the blow-pipe is commonly employed;
+large works are done on the brazier's hearth, or in any clear coke fire.
+If coal is used it must be kept away from the joint.
+
+In "sweating on," a variation in soldering, the surfaces to be united
+are cleaned, and solder melted and spread over them. They are then
+brought together, and the temperature raised sufficiently to melt the
+solder.
+
+A detail of first importance is the essential difference between the
+melting points of the objects to be brazed or soldered, and that of the
+solder used. The latter must always be lower than the former. This
+explains why soldering materials are used in a large range of
+temperatures. A few will melt at the temperature of boiling water. At
+the other extreme 2000° Fah. is required to melt a solder for brazing.
+If this point is neglected, it will often happen that the object to be
+soldered will fuse before the solder melts. This accident may occur in
+the soft Britannia and white metals at the one extreme, and in the
+softer brasses at the other. It would not do, for example, to use
+flanges of common brass, or even ordinary gun-metal, to be brazed to
+copper pipe, for they would begin to fuse before the joint was made.
+Such flanges must be made of nearly pure copper, to withstand the
+temperature, usually 98 of copper to 2 of tin (brazing metal). A most
+valuable feature in solder is that by varying the proportions of the
+metals used a great range in hardness and fusibility is obtainable. The
+useful solders therefore number many scores. This is also a source of
+danger, unless regard be had to the relative fusing points of solders,
+and of the parts they unite.     (J. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL FRANÇOIS CAMILLE SAVORGNAN DE, COUNT (1852-1905),
+French explorer and administrator, founder of French Congo, was born on
+board ship in the harbour of Rio de Janeiro on the 26th of January 1852.
+He was of Italian parentage, the family name being de Brazza Savorgnani.
+Through the instrumentality of the astronomer Secchi he was sent to the
+Jesuit college in Paris, and in 1868 obtained authorization to enter as
+a foreigner the marine college at Brest. In the Franco-Prussian War of
+1870-71 he took part in the operations of the French fleet. In 1874 when
+the warship on which he was serving was in the Gabun, Alfred Marche and
+the marquis de Compiègne arrived at Libreville from an expedition in the
+lower Ogowé district. Interested in the reports of these travellers, de
+Brazza conceived the idea of exploring the Ogowé, which he thought might
+prove to be the lower course of the Lualaba, a river then recently
+discovered by David Livingstone. Having meantime been naturalized as a
+Frenchman, de Brazza in 1875 obtained permission to undertake his
+African scheme, and with the naval doctor, Noel Ballay, he explored the
+Ogowé river. Penetrating beyond the basin of that river, he discovered
+the Alima and Likona, but did not descend either stream. Thence turning
+northwards the travellers eventually regained the coast at the end of
+November 1878, having left Paris in August 1875. On arrival in Paris, de
+Brazza learned of the navigation of the Congo by H.M. Stanley, and
+recognized that the rivers he had discovered were affluents of that
+stream.
+
+De Brazza was anxious to obtain for France some part of the Congo. The
+French ministry, however, determined to utilize his energies in another
+quarter of Africa. Their attention had been drawn to the Niger through
+the formation of the United African Company by Sir George Goldie (then
+Mr Goldie Taubman) in July 1879, Goldie's object being to secure Nigeria
+for Great Britain. A new expedition was fitted out, and de Brazza left
+Paris at the end of 1879 with orders to go to the Niger, make treaties,
+and plant French flags. When on the point of sailing; from Lisbon he
+received a telegram cancelling these instructions, and altering his
+destination to the Congo. This was a decision of great moment. Had the
+Nigerian policy of France been maintained the International African
+Association (afterwards the Congo Free State) would have had a clear
+field on the Congo, while the young British Company would have been
+crushed out by French opposition; so that the two great basins of the
+Niger and the Congo would have had a vastly different history.
+
+Acting on his new instructions, de Brazza, who was again accompanied by
+Ballay, reached the Gabun early in 1880. Rapidly ascending the Ogowé he
+founded the station of Franceville on the upper waters of that river and
+pushed on to the Congo at Stanley Pool, where Brazzaville was
+subsequently founded. With Makoko, chief of the Bateke tribe, de Brazza
+concluded treaties in September and October 1880, placing the country
+under French protection. With these treaties in his possession Brazza
+proceeded down the Congo, and at Isangila on the 7th of November met
+Stanley, who was working his way up stream concluding treaties with the
+chiefs on behalf of the International African Association. De Brazza
+spent the next eighteen months exploring the hinterland of the Gabun,
+and returned to France in June 1882. The ratification by the French
+chambers in the following November of the treaties with Makoko
+(described by Stanley as worthless pieces of paper) committed France to
+the action of her agent.
+
+Furnished with funds by the French government, de Brazza returned in
+1883 to the Congo to open up the new colony, of which he was named
+commissioner-general in 1886. This post he held until January 1898, when
+he was recalled. During his period of office the work of exploration was
+systematically carried out by numerous expeditions which he organized.
+The incessant demands on the resources of the infant colony for these
+and other expeditions to the far interior greatly retarded its progress.
+De Brazza's administration was severely criticized; but that its
+comparative failure was largely due to inadequate support from the home
+authorities was recognized in the grant to him in 1902 of a pension by
+the chambers. Both as explorer and administrator his dealings with the
+natives were marked by consideration, kindness and patience, and he
+earned the title of "Father of the Slaves." His efforts to connect the
+upper Congo with the Atlantic by a railway through French territory
+showed that he understood the chief economic needs of the colony. After
+seven years of retirement in France de Brazza accepted, in February
+1905, a mission to investigate charges of cruelty to natives brought
+against officials of the Congo colony. Having concluded his inquiry he
+sailed for France, but died at Dakar, Senegal, on the 4th of September
+1905. His body was taken to Paris for burial, but in 1908 was reinterred
+at Algiers.
+
+  See D. Neuville et Ch. Bréard, _Les Voyages de Savorgnan de Brazza,
+  Ogooué et Congo, 1875-1882_ (Paris, 1884), and _Conférences et lettres
+  de P. Savorgnan de Brazza sur ses trois explorations dans l'ouest
+  africain de 1875 à 1886_ (Paris, 1887); A.J. Wauters, "Savorgnan de
+  Brazza et la conquête du Congo français," in _Le Mouvement
+  geographique_, vol. xxii., No. 39 (Brussels, 1905). Giacomo or Jacques
+  de Brazza (1859-1883), a younger brother of Savorgnan, and one of the
+  men he employed in the work of exploration, published in collaboration
+  with his companion A. Pecile, _Tre Anni e mezzo nella regione del
+  Congo e dell' Ogowe_ (Rome, 1887).     (G. T. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAZZA (Serbo-Croatian, _Brac;_ Lat. _Brattia_), an island in the
+Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) 24,408.
+With an area of 170 sq. m. Brazza is the largest of the Dalmatian
+Islands; it is also the most thickly populated, and one of the most
+fertile. Its closely cultivated surface though ragged and mountainous
+yields an abundance of olives, figs, almonds and saffron, while its
+wines are of good quality. The corn-crop, however, barely suffices for
+three months' food. Other local industries are fishing and
+silkworm-rearing. The most important among twenty small villages on the
+island is Milná (pop. 2579), a steamship station, provided with
+shipwrights' wharves. The early history of Brazza is obscure. In the
+first years of the 13th century it was ruled by the piratical counts of
+Almissa; but after a successful revolt and a brief period of liberty it
+came under the dominion of Hungary. From 1413 to 1416 it was subject to
+Ragusa; and in 1420 it passed, with the greater part of Dalmatia, under
+Venetian sovereignty.
+
+
+
+
+BREACH (Mid. Eng. _breche_, derived from the common Teutonic root
+_brec_, which appears in "break," Ger. _brechen_, &c.), in general, a
+breaking, or an opening made by breaking; in law, the infringement of a
+right or the violation of an obligation or duty. The word is used in
+various phrases: _breach of close_, the unlawful entry upon another
+person's land (see TRESPASS); _breach of covenant or contract_, the
+non-fulfilment of an agreement either to do or not to do some act (see
+DAMAGES); _breach of the peace_, a disturbance of the public order (see
+PEACE, BREACH OF); _breach of pound_, the taking by force out of a pound
+things lawfully impounded (see POUND); _breach of promise of marriage_,
+the non-fulfilment of a contract mutually entered into by a man and a
+woman that they will marry each other (see MARRIAGE); _breach of trust_,
+any deviation by a trustee from the duty imposed upon him by the
+instrument creating the trust (_q.v_.).
+
+
+
+
+BREAD, the name given to the staple food-product prepared by the baking
+of flour. The word itself, O. Eng. _bréad_, is common in various forms
+to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Brot_, Dutch, _brood_, and Swed.
+and Dan. _bröt_; it has been derived from the root of "brew," but more
+probably is connected with the root of "break," for its early uses are
+confined to "broken pieces, or bits" of bread, the Lat. _frustum_, and
+it was not till the 12th century that it took the place, as the generic
+name of bread, of _hlaf_, "loaf," which appears to be the oldest
+Teutonic name, cf. Old High Ger. _hleib_, and modern Ger. _Laib_.
+
+_History._--Bread-baking, or at any rate the preparation of cakes from
+flour or parched grain by means of heat, is one of the most ancient of
+human arts. At Wangen and Robenhausen have been found the calcined
+remains of cakes made from coarsely-ground grain in Swiss lake-dwellings
+that date back to the Stone Age. The cakes were made of different kinds
+of grain, barley and one-grained wheat (_Triticum monococcum_) being
+among the ingredients. This bread was made, not from fine meal, but from
+grain crushed between some hard surfaces, and in these lake-dwellings
+many round-shaped stones have been found, which were evidently used for
+pounding or crushing grain against the surface, more or less concave, of
+another stone (see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE). Perhaps the earliest
+form of bread, if that word may be used, was prepared from acorns and
+beech nuts. To this day a sort of cake prepared from crushed acorns is
+eaten by the Indians of the Pacific slopes. The flour extracted from
+acorns is bitter and unfit to eat till it has been thoroughly soaked in
+boiling water. The saturated flour is squeezed into a kind of cake and
+dried in the sun. Pliny speaks of a similar crude process in connexion
+with wheat; the grain was evidently pounded, and the crushed remnant,
+soaked into a sort of pulp, then made into a cake and dried in the sun.
+Virgil (_Georgics_, i. 267) refers to the husbandman first torrefying
+and then crushing his grain between stones:--"_Nunc torrete igni fruges,
+nunc frangite saxo._"
+
+The question naturally arises, how did the lake-dwellers bake their
+cakes of bruised grain? Probably the dough was laid on a flat or
+convex-shaped stone, which was heated, while the cake was covered with
+hot ashes. Stones have been found among prehistoric remains which were
+apparently used for this purpose. In ancient Egyptian tombs cakes of
+durra have been found, of concave shape, suggesting the use of such
+baking-slabs; here the cake was evidently prepared from coarsely-cracked
+grain. In primitive times milling and baking were twin arts. The
+housewife, and the daughters or handmaids, crushed or ground the grain
+and prepared the bread or cakes. When Abraham entertained the angels
+unawares (Genesis xviii.) he bade his wife Sarah "make ready quickly
+three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth."
+Professor Maspero says that an oven for baking bread was to be found in
+the courtyard of every house in Chaldaea; close by were kept the
+grinding stones. That bread prepared by means of leaven was known in the
+days of the patriarchs may be fairly inferred from the passage in
+Genesis ML, where it is said of Lot that he "made a feast, and did bake
+unleavened bread." Whether the shew-bread of the Jewish tabernacle was
+leavened is an open question, but it is significant that the Passover
+cakes eaten by Jews to-day, known as Matzos, are innocent of leaven.
+Made from flour and water only, they are about 12 in. in diameter, and
+have somewhat the look of water biscuits.
+
+The ancient Egyptians carried the art of baking to high perfection.
+Herodotus remarks of them, "dough they knead with their feet, but clay
+with their hands." The practice of using the feet for dough kneading,
+however repulsive, long persisted in Scotland, if indeed it is yet
+defunct. The Egyptians used for their bread, wheat, spelt, barley and
+durra (sorghum). In the opinion of Dr Wallis Budge, barley was in Egypt
+the grain of most primitive culture. However that may be, it is certain
+that even in ancient Egypt white bread made from wheat was used by the
+rich. The form of the bread is revealed by ancient monuments. A common
+shape was a small, round loaf, something like the muffin of to-day.
+Other loaves were elongated rolls, and curiously enough were sprinkled
+on the top with seeds like modern Vienna bread.
+
+The history of baking in classical Greece and Italy can be clearly
+traced. Athenaeus in his _Deipnosophists_ minutely describes many
+different kinds of bread, which may be assumed to have been currently
+used in Greece. According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist_, xviii. II. § 28) Rome
+had no public bakers till after the war with Perseus (171-168 B.C.).
+That long after public bakehouses came into use the Romans and other
+urban dwellers in Italy continued to make a great deal of bread at home
+is certain. In Pompeii several private houses had their own mill and
+bakehouse. That city must also have possessed bakers by trade, as loaves
+of bread have been found, round in form, and stamped with the maker's
+name, possibly to fix responsibility for weight and purity. In the time
+of the Republic, public bakehouses were under the control of the
+aediles. Grain was delivered to the public granaries by the _Saccarii_,
+while another body called _Catabolenses_ distributed the grain to the
+bakers. The latter were known as _Pistores_ or "pounders," a
+reminiscence no doubt of the primitive time when grain was pounded by a
+pestle in a mortar. Slaves were largely employed in the irksome work of
+grinding, and when Constantine abolished slavery the staff of the
+_pistrinae_ was largely recruited from criminals. The emperor Trajan
+incorporated about A.D. 100 the college of _Pistores_ (millers and
+bakers), but its members were employers, not operatives. The work of a
+bakery is depicted in a set of bas-reliefs on the tomb of a master
+Pistor named Eurysaces, who flourished about a century before the
+foundation of the college. Here the grain is being brought and paid for;
+mills driven by horse and ass (or mule) power are busy; men are sieving
+out the bran from the flour by hand (bolters); bakers are moulding
+loaves on a board; an oven of domelike shape is being charged by means
+of a shovel (peel); and baskets of bread are being weighed on the one
+hand and carried off on men's backs on the other.
+
+_Regulation of Sale._--In the middle ages bakers were subjected to
+special regulations in all European lands. These regulations were
+supposed to be conceived in the interests of bread consumers, and no
+doubt were intended to secure fair dealing on the part of bread vendors.
+The legislators appear, however, to have been unduly biased against the
+baker, who was often beset by harassing restrictions. Bakers were formed
+into gilds, which were under the control, not only of their own
+officials, but of the municipality. In London the bakers formed a
+brotherhood as early as 1155, and were incorporated in 1307. There were
+two distinct corporate bodies concerned with bread-making, the Company
+of White Bakers and the Company of Brown Bakers; these were nominally
+united in 1509, but the union did not become complete till the middle of
+the 17th century. In Austria, bakers who offended against police
+regulations respecting the sale of bread were liable, until
+comparatively recent times, to fine, imprisonment and even corporal
+punishment. In Turkey the lot of the baker was very hard. Baron de Tott,
+writing of Constantinople in the 18th century, says that it was usual,
+when bread went to famine prices, to hang a baker or two. He would have
+us believe that it was the custom of master bakers to keep a second
+hand, who, in consideration of a small increase of his weekly wage, was
+willing to appear before the cadi in case a victim were wanted. A
+barbarous punishment, inflicted in Turkey and in Egypt on bakers who
+sold light or adulterated bread, consisted in nailing the culprit by his
+ear to the door-post of his shop. In France a decree of 1863 relieved
+bakers from many of the restrictions under which they previously
+suffered, but it did not touch the powers of the municipalities to
+regulate the quality and sale of bread. It left them the right conferred
+in 1791, to enforce the _taxe du pain_, the object of which was to
+prevent bakers from increasing the price of bread beyond a point
+justified by the price of the raw materials; but the right was exercised
+on their own responsibility, subject to appeal to higher authorities,
+and by a circular issued in 1863 they were invited to abolish this _taxe
+officielle_. In places where it exists it is fixed every week or
+fortnight, according to the average price of grain in the local markets.
+
+In England an act of parliament was passed in 1266 for regulating the
+price of bread by a public assize, and that system continued in
+operation till 1822 in the case of the city of London, and till 1836 for
+the rest of the country. The price of bread was determined by adding a
+certain sum to the price of every quarter of flour, to cover the baker's
+expenses and profit; and for the sum so arrived at tradesmen were
+required to bake and sell eighty quartern loaves or a like proportion of
+other sizes, which it was reckoned each quarter of flour ought to yield.
+The acts now regulating the manufacture and sale of bread in Great
+Britain are one of 1822 (Sale of Bread in the City of London and within
+10 m. of the Royal Exchange), and the Bread Act of 1836, as to sale of
+bread beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange. The acts require that bread
+shall be sold by weight, and in no other manner, under a penalty not
+exceeding forty shillings. This does not, however, mean that a seller is
+bound to sell at any particular weight; the words quartern and
+half-quartern, though commonly used and taken to indicate a 4-lb. and
+2-lb. loaf respectively, have no legal sanction. That is to say, a baker
+is not bound to sell a loaf weighing either 4 lb. or 2; all he has to
+do, when a customer asks for a loaf, is to put one on the scale, weigh
+it, and declare the weight. When bread is sold over the counter it is
+usual for the vendor to cut off and tender a piece of bread to make up
+any deficiency in the loaf. This is known as the "overweight." There is
+little doubt the somewhat misty wording of the bread acts lends itself
+to a good deal of fraudulent dealing. For instance, when bread is sold
+over the counter, two loaves may be 5 or 6 oz. short, while the piece of
+makeweight may not reach an ounce. The customer sees the bread put on
+the scale, but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred does not trouble to
+verify the weight, and unless he expressly asks for 2 lb. or some
+specific weight of bread, it is very doubtful whether the seller, having
+satisfied the letter of the law by placing the bread on the scales,
+could be convicted of fraud. The provision as to selling by weight does
+not apply to fancy bread and rolls. No exact definition of "fancy bread"
+has ever been laid down, and it must be largely a question of fact in
+each particular case. All bakers or sellers of bread must use
+avoirdupois weight, and must provide, in a conspicuous place in the
+shop, beams, scales and weights, in order that all bread there sold may
+from time to time be weighed in the presence of the purchaser. The
+penalty for using any other weight than avoirdupois is a sum not
+exceeding £5 nor less than forty shillings, and for failing to provide
+beams and scales a sum not exceeding £5. Also every baker and seller of
+bread, delivering by cart or other conveyance, must be provided with
+scales and weights for weighing bread; but since the Weights and
+Measures Act 1889, no penalty is incurred by omission to weigh, unless
+there has been a request on the part of the purchaser. The acts also
+define precisely what ingredients may be employed in the manufacture of
+bread, and impose a penalty not exceeding £10 nor less than £5 for the
+adulteration of bread. (See further under ADULTERATION.)
+
+Although the act of 1836 extends to the whole of the United Kingdom
+(Ireland excepted) out of the city of London and beyond 10 m. of the
+Royal Exchange, yet in many Scottish burghs this act is replaced by
+local acts on the sale of bread. These are in all cases of a much more
+stringent nature, requiring all batch or household bread to be stamped
+with the reputed weight. Any deficiency within a certain time from the
+withdrawal of the bread from the oven is an offence. The London County
+Council desired to introduce a similar system into the area under their
+jurisdiction, and promoted a bill to that effect in 1905, but it fell
+through. The bill was opposed not only by the National Association of
+Master Bakers, the London Master Bakers' Protection Society, and by the
+West End metropolitan bakers in a body, but also by the Home Office,
+which objected to what it termed exceptional legislation.
+
+It may be noted that the acts of 1822 and 1836 define precisely what may
+and may not be sold as bread. It is laid down in section 2 that "it
+shall and may be lawful ... to make and sell ... bread made of flour or
+meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, Indian corn, peas, beans,
+rice or potatoes, or any of them, and with any (common) salt, pure
+water, eggs, milk, barm, leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in
+such proportions as they shall think fit, and with no other ingredients
+or matter whatsoever."
+
+_Sanitation of Bakehouses._--The sanitary arrangements of bakehouses in
+England were first regulated by the Bakehouse Regulation Act 1863, which
+was repealed and replaced by the Factory and Workshop Act 1878; this
+act, with various amending acts, was in turn repealed and replaced by
+the Factory and Workshop Act 1901. By the act of 1901 a bakehouse is
+defined as a place in which are baked bread, biscuits or confectionery,
+from the baking or selling of which a profit is derived. The act of 1863
+placed the sanitary supervision of bakehouses in the hands of local
+authorities; from 1878 to 1883 supervision was in the hands of
+inspectors of factories, but in 1883 the supervision of retail
+bakehouses was placed in the hands of local authorities. Under the act
+of 1901 the supervision of bakehouses which are "workshops" is carried
+out by local authorities, and for the purposes of the act every
+bakehouse is a workshop unless within it, or its close or curtilage or
+precincts, steam, water or other mechanical power is used in aid of the
+manufacturing process carried on there, in which case it is treated as a
+non-textile factory, and is under the supervision of factory inspectors.
+
+  The more important regulations laid down by the act are: (1) No
+  water-closet, &c., must be within or communicate directly with the
+  bakehouse; every cistern for supplying water to the bakehouse must be
+  separate and distinct from any cistern supplying a water-closet; no
+  drain or pipe for carrying off sewage matter shall have an opening
+  within the bakehouse. (2) The interior of all bakehouses must be
+  limewashed, painted or varnished at stated periods. (3) No place on
+  the same level with a bakehouse or forming part of the same building
+  may be used as a sleeping place, unless specially constructed to meet
+  the requirements of the act. (4) No underground bakehouse (one of
+  which the floor is more than 3 ft. below the surface of the footway of
+  the adjoining street) shall be used unless certified by the district
+  council as suitable for the purpose (see Redgrave, _Factory Acts_;
+  Evans Austin, _Factory Acts_).
+
+_Bread Sluffs._--As compared with wheat-flour, all other materials used
+for making bread are of secondary importance. Rye bread is largely
+consumed in some of the northern parts of Europe, and cakes of maize
+meal are eaten in the United States. In southern Europe the meal of
+various species of millet is used, and in India and China durra and
+other cereal grains are baked for food. Of non-cereal flour, the
+principal used for bread-making is buckwheat (_Fagopyrum esculentum_),
+extensively employed in Russia, Holland and the United States. The flour
+of pease, beans and other leguminous seeds is also baked into cakes, and
+in South America the meal of the tapioca plant, _Jatropha Manihot_, is
+employed. But, excepting rye, none of these substances is used for
+making vesiculated or fermented bread.
+
+
+  Quality of flour.
+
+A normal sample of wheat-flour consists roughly of 10 parts of moisture,
+72 of starch, 14 of nitrogenous matter, 2.25 of fatty matters, and 1.75%
+of mineral matter. Starch is thus the predominating component; it is
+not, however, the dough-forming ingredient. By itself, starch, when
+saturated with water, forms a putty-like mass devoid of coherence, and
+it is the gluten of the nitrogenous matter which is the binding
+constituent in dough-making, because when wetted it forms a more or less
+elastic body. The proportion of gluten in wheat-flour varies from 7 to
+15%, but the mere quantity of gluten is by no means the only standard of
+the commercial value of the flour, the quality also counting for much.
+One of the functions of gluten is to produce a high or well-piled loaf,
+and its value for this purpose depends largely on its quality. This is
+turn depends largely on the variety of wheat; certain races of wheat are
+much richer in nitrogenous elements than others, but such wheats
+usually only flourish in certain countries. Soil and climate are
+undoubtedly factors in modifying the character of wheat, and necessarily
+therefore of the flour. The same wheat grown in the same soil will show
+very varying degrees of strength (i.e. of gluten) in different seasons.
+For instance, the north-western districts of America grow a hard spring
+wheat which in a normal season is of almost unequalled strength. In 1904
+an excess of moisture and deficiency in sun in the Red River Valley
+during the critical months of June and July caused a serious attack of
+red and black rust in these wheat fields, the disease being more
+virulent in the American than the Canadian side of the valley. The
+result was that the quality of the gluten of that season's American
+spring wheat was most seriously affected, its famed strength being
+almost gone. Wheat from the Canadian side was also affected, but not
+nearly to so great an extent. Flour milled from hard winter wheat in the
+American winter districts is sometimes nearly as strong as the spring
+wheat of the North-west. Hungarian flour milled from Theis wheat is also
+very strong, and so is the flour milled from some south Russian spring
+wheats. But here again the degree of strength will vary from season to
+season in a remarkable manner. In the main each land has its own clearly
+marked type of wheat. While the United States, Canada, Hungary and
+Russia are each capable of growing strong wheat, Great Britain, France
+and Germany produce wheat more or less weak. It follows that the bread
+baked from flour milled from wheat from British, French or German wheat
+alone would not make a loaf of sufficient volume, judged by present
+British standards. As a matter of fact, except in some country
+districts, British bakers either use strong foreign flour to blend with
+English country flour, or, more frequently, they are supplied with flour
+by British millers milled from a blend in which very often English wheat
+has a small, or no place at all. If the baker's trade calls for the
+making of household bread, especially of the London type, he must use a
+strong flour, with plenty of staple gluten in it, because it is this
+element which supplies the driving or lifting force, without which a
+high, bold loaf cannot be produced. If the demand is for tin or (as it
+is called in many parts of the north of England) pan bread, a weaker
+flour will suffice, as the tin will keep it up. A Vienna loaf should be
+made with at least a certain proportion of Hungarian patent flour, which
+is normally the highest-priced flour in the market, though probably the
+bulk of the Vienna rolls made in London contain no Hungarian flour. A
+cake of flat shape can be very well made with a rather weak flour, but
+any cake that is required to present a domed top cannot be prepared
+without a flour of some strength.
+
+
+  Flavour of flour.
+
+It is a general opinion, though contested by some authorities, that
+soft, weak flours contain more flavour than strong, harsh flours. The
+strong wheats of the American and Canadian North-West make less flavoury
+flour than soft red winter from the American South-West. It would not,
+however, be correct to say that all strong wheats are necessarily less
+full of flavour than weak wheats. Hungarian wheat, for instance, is one
+of the strongest wheats of the world, but has a characteristic and
+pleasant flavour of its own. Indian wheats, on the other hand, are not
+particularly strong, but are liable to give a rather harsh flavour to
+the bread. English, French and German wheats, when harvested in good
+condition, produce flour of more or less agreeable flavour. None of
+these wheats could be classified as strong, though from each of those
+lands wheat of fair strength may be obtained under favourable
+meteorological conditions. The Australasian continent raises white wheat
+of fine quality which has much affinity with British wheat--it is the
+descendant in many cases of seed wheats imported from England--but it is
+occasionally stronger. The resultant flour is noted for its sweetness.
+Both millers and bakers who are concerned with the supply of high-class
+bread and flour make free use of what may be termed flavoury wheats. The
+proportion of English wheat used in London mills is very small, but
+millers who supply West-End bakeries with what is known as top-price
+flour are careful to use a certain amount of English wheat, if it is to
+be had in prime condition. They term this ingredient of their mixture
+"sugar." London bakers again, with customers who appreciate nicely
+flavoured bread, will "pitch" into their trough a certain proportion of
+English country flour, that is, flour milled entirely or chiefly from
+English wheat, which under such conditions is strengthened by a blend of
+strong flour, a patent flour for choice. It has been objected that as
+English wheat contains a large proportion of starch, and as starch is
+admittedly destitute of flavour, there is no reason why flour milled
+from English wheat should possess a sweeter flavour than any other
+starchy wheat flour. Experience, however, has amply proved that
+well-ripened English wheat produces bread with an agreeable flavour,
+though it does not follow that all English wheat is under all conditions
+capable of baking bread of the highest quality. But it would be as
+fallacious to hold that weak flour is necessarily flavoury, as that all
+strong flour is insipid and harsh. Different wheats are undoubtedly
+possessed of different flavours, but not all these flavours are of a
+pleasing character. In some cases the very reverse is true. Californian
+and Australian wheats have occasionally aromatic odours, due to the
+presence of certain seeds, that will impart an objectionable flavour to
+the resultant bread.
+
+While the essential character of particular wheats will account for a
+good deal of the flavour that may be detected in the bread made from
+them, the baking process must also be responsible to some extent for
+flavour. The temperature of the oven and the degree of fermentation must
+be factors in the question. It has been asserted that the same flour
+will bake into bread of very different flavour according as the
+fermentation is carried out slowly or quickly, or as the oven is hot or
+the reverse. A high temperature seems to have the effect of quickly
+drawing out the subtle essences which go to give flavour to the bread,
+but it is a question whether they are not subsequently rapidly
+volatilized and partially or wholly lost. The rapid formation of a solid
+crust is no doubt likely to retain some of these flavouring essences. A
+moist, or "slack," sponge, or dough, appears distinctly favourable to
+the retention of flavour, the theory being that under such conditions
+the yeast, having more room to "breathe," works more easily, and is
+therefore less likely to convert into food those soluble constituents of
+the flour which give flavour.
+
+
+  Colour of flour.
+
+The colour of flour is a valuable, though not an infallible, index to
+its baking qualities. Thus, a flour of good colour, by which bakers mean
+a flour of bright appearance, white, but not a dull dead white, will
+usually bake into a loaf of good appearance. At the same time, a flour
+of pronounced white tint may bake into a dirty grey loaf. This has been
+particularly noted in the case of flours milled in Argentina. The colour
+of flour will vary from a rich, creamy white to a dull grey, according
+to its quality. The different shades are many and various, but the
+prevailing tints are comparatively few. Perhaps Blandy's classification
+of the colours as white, yellow, red, brown and grey is as serviceable
+as any. Each of these tints is directly caused by the presence of
+certain substances. White denotes the presence of a considerable
+proportion of starch, while a pronounced yellow tint proclaims gluten of
+more or less good quality. Red and brown are tints only found in flours
+of low grade, because they are sure proofs of an undue proportion of
+branny or fibrous particles. A greyish flour invariably contains
+impurities, such as crease dirt, from the wheat, the intensity of the
+tint varying in proportion to their amount. With regard to a yellow
+tint, though this always denotes the presence of gluten, it is difficult
+to estimate the baking quality of the flour by the shade of yellow. In
+the best Hungarian patent flour the whole sample will be suffused by an
+amber tint, known to Budapest and Vienna bakers as _gelblicher Stich_.
+Rolls baked from the best Hungarian flour will not infrequently cut
+yellow as if eggs had been used in making them up, though nothing more
+than flour, yeast and water has been employed. Strong flour milled from
+American or Canadian spring wheat is also yellowish in colour, but the
+tint is not so deep as with Hungarian flour. On the other hand, there
+are flours of no great strength, such as those from some Australian
+wheats, which are apt to look yellow. When the colour of flour is not
+maintained in the bread, the reason is generally to be found in the
+baking process employed. Colour is a fairly trustworthy, but not an
+absolute guide to the chemical composition of flour.
+
+
+  Damp and flour.
+
+Unfortunately not all flour of good colour is sound for bread-making
+purposes. Wheat which has been harvested in a damp condition, or has
+been thoroughly soaked, by drenching showers previous to cutting, or has
+got wet in the stook, is liable, unless carefully handled, to produce
+flour that will only bake flat, sodden loaves. Wheat which has received
+too much rain as it is approaching maturity, and has then been exposed
+to strong sunlight, is peculiarly liable to sprout. This seems to happen
+not infrequently to La Plata wheat, and though wheat shippers in that
+country are usually careful to clean off the little green spikes, this
+outward cleansing does not remedy the mischief wrought to the internal
+constitution of the berry. Such wheat makes flour lacking in strength
+and stability. Its gluten is immature and low in percentage, while the
+soluble albuminoids are in high percentage and in a more or less active
+diastasic state. The starch granules are liable to have weakened or
+fissured walls, and the proportion of moisture and of soluble extract
+will be high. With regard to the beneficial action of kiln or other
+drying on damp flour, William Jago was convinced by a series of
+experiments that the gentle artificial drying of flour increases its
+water-absorbing capacity to about three times the amount of water lost
+by evaporation. On the other hand, a damp flour dried too quickly and at
+too great a heat is liable to be made more instead of less susceptible
+to diastasic changes.
+
+  _Alum._--Strictly speaking, when employed with weak and unstable
+  flours alum is a remedial agent. The popular idea that it acts as a
+  kind of bleacher of flour, having the faculty of converting flour that
+  is dark-coloured through containing a sensible proportion of branny
+  particles and woody fibre, into white-coloured loaves, is erroneous.
+  Its action as a producer of white bread is indirect, not direct,
+  though it is none the less effective. It seems to act as a brace to or
+  steadier of unstable gluten. If from the same wheat a certain
+  proportion of gluten be extracted and divided into two parts, of which
+  one is placed in a glass of water containing a strong solution of
+  alum, and the other in a glass of plain water, the gluten in the
+  latter case will become spent days and perhaps weeks before the sample
+  in the alumed water is disintegrated. The place of alum in the process
+  of fermentation is well marked. By holding together unstable gluten,
+  it checks the diastasic action, and the proportion of starch converted
+  into glucose (grape sugar) is reduced, with the result that a whiter
+  and more porous loaf is produced. It is generally admitted that by the
+  use of alum more or less eatable bread may be baked from flour which
+  otherwise could hardly be made into bread at all. Strictly, therefore,
+  this substance is not an adulterant, inasmuch as it is not a
+  substitute in any sense for flour. But it is admittedly unwholesome,
+  and therefore its legal interdiction for alimentary purposes is quite
+  justifiable. Another aspect of the use of alum is that it is employed
+  for the purpose of enabling bakers to use poor flour.
+
+  A fairly satisfactory test for alum in bread (or flour) is afforded by
+  an alkaline solution of logwood and a saturated solution of ammonium
+  carbonate. The presence of alum is shown by a lavender or full blue
+  colour. The depth of the tint is said to be a rough guide to the
+  quantity of alum present. According to Jago this test is so sensitive
+  that it has resulted in the detection of 7 grains of alum in a 4-lb
+  loaf.
+
+  Besides alum, small quantities of copper sulphate have been used for
+  checking diastasis and retarding fermentation. This substance has the
+  same effect as alum, but as all copper salts are active poisons, the
+  employment of copper sulphate is most strongly to be condemned.
+
+  _Lime-water._--The object of using either alum or copper sulphate is
+  to check over-rapid diastasis during fermentation. Baron Liebig
+  pointed out a much less objectionable means of attaining the same end
+  by means of lime-water, about 1½ oz. of fresh quicklime being
+  dissolved in the water used for doughing one sack of flour. Bread made
+  in this way is said to be spongy in texture, of agreeable flavour, and
+  perfectly free from acidity. In the baked loaf the lime is transformed
+  into calcium carbonate (chalk) by the carbon dioxide resulting from
+  the panary fermentation. It is said that an increased yield of bread
+  may be obtained by the use of lime-water; the explanation may be that
+  lime-water, by retarding the degradation of the gluten and the
+  diastasis of the starch, increases the water-retaining power of the
+  flour, so that the same weight of flour yields a greater volume of
+  bread.
+
+_Unvesiculated and Vesiculated Bread._--Wheaten bread may be divided
+into two main divisions, unvesiculated and vesiculated. The term
+vesiculated simply means provided with vesicles, or small membranous
+cavities, such as are found in all bread that has been treated by yeast,
+leaven or any other agent for rendering it spongiform in structure by
+the action of carbonic acid gas. Nearly all bread eaten by civilized
+folk is vesiculated, though there are different methods and processes
+for attaining this result. Into the category of unvesiculated bread
+enter such products as the Australian damper, a flat cake prepared from
+flour, water and salt, and baked in the hot ashes of a wood fire. The
+dough is spread on a flat stone and covered with a tin plate, while the
+hot ashes are heaped around and over it; the heat should not be much in
+excess of 212° Fahr. The scone, the bannock and other similar cakes,
+still much appreciated in Scotland and the north of England, are also
+examples of unvesiculated bread. They are baked on hot plates or
+"griddles," on hearths, and sometimes in ovens. Biscuits differ from
+these cakes in the fact that they are baked by a high instead of a
+moderate heat. But they enter so far into the class of unvesiculated
+bread that they are generally prepared without the aid of any such
+aerating agent as carbon dioxide. (See BISCUIT.)
+
+Vesiculated bread is now the only article of diet made from flour to
+which the term bread is applied, and there are various ways of producing
+the spongiform texture by which it is characterized. The ordinary and
+doubtless the most satisfactory way is by developing the carbon dioxide
+within the dough itself by the use of yeast (q.v.) or leaven, which sets
+up alcoholic fermentation, splitting up the saccharine matters in the
+flour into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The latter is retained by the
+dough and distends it, causing the bread to "rise." Or the carbon
+dioxide may be artificially introduced, as in the so-called "aerated"
+bread (see below), or it may be produced by the agency of certain
+chemicals, as for instance of baking powders.
+
+
+  Baking powders.
+
+Such powders are mixtures which, under the influence of either water or
+heat, evolve carbon dioxide. These powders have been divided by Jago
+into three groups:--(1) _Tartrate_ powders, in which the acid
+constituent is either free or partly combined tartaric acid; (2)
+_Phosphate_ powders, in which the acid is some form of phosphoric acid;
+(3) _Alum_ powders. All these powders have a more or less aperient
+action on the human system. Tartrate powders have the disadvantage that
+both commercial tartaric acid and cream of tartar frequently contain
+lead, a poisonous substance. Phosphate powders are less open to
+objection, as they are more easy to obtain free from lead and other
+metallic impurities. Alum powders contain potassium bisulphate and alum.
+It is somewhat remarkable that while the presence of alum in bread is
+regarded by the law of England as adulteration, its use in baking powder
+was pronounced legal in _James_ v. _Jones_, 1894, 1, Q.B. 304, on the
+ground that baking powder is not food within the meaning of the Sale of
+Food and Drugs Act 1875. In making wholemeal bread, hydrochloric acid
+and sodium bicarbonate are often used in such proportions that they
+neutralize each other. Carbon dioxide is evolved and raises the dough.
+In preparing wholemeal bread the use of this combination has the
+advantage that the acid acting rapidly on the sodium bicarbonate soon
+produces enough carbon dioxide to aerate the dough, and thus hasten its
+entry into the oven. Wholemeal flour contains so large a proportion of
+cerealin that diastasis is apt to proceed rapidly, the result being a
+clammy, sodden loaf. For this reason, perhaps the so-called aerated
+process is even more suitable for making wholemeal than white bread.
+
+
+  Methods of making dough.
+
+Methods of dough-making differ in different countries, and even in
+different parts of the same land. In the _off hand_ method the dough is
+made right off, without any preliminary stages of ferment or sponge.
+This plan is sometimes adopted for making tin bread, and occasionally
+for crusty loaves. For tin bread a strong flour would be used and made
+into a slack dough, and about 1½ lb. to 2 lb. of distillers' yeast would
+be used for the sack (280 lb.) of flour, occasionally with the addition
+of a little brewers' yeast. Salt is used in the proportion of 3 lb. to
+3½ lb. per sack. Formerly also it was the custom to add 10-14 lb. of
+boiled potatoes, but the use of potatoes has greatly decreased. A
+tin-bread dough would be made slack, with about 70 quarts of water to
+the sack, and after being mixed, would be fermented at a temperature of
+76-80° Fahr. It should lie for about ten hours. A dough for crusty bread
+such as cottage loaves, would be made much tighter, not more than 60
+quarts of water being allowed to the sack. It would be fermented at a
+higher temperature, and would not lie more than about six hours. A slack
+dough is much less laborious to work (when the dough is hand-made) than
+a tight dough, for which a mechanical kneader is very suitable, but as a
+matter of fact the use of machinery (see below) is still the exception,
+not the rule. When a stiff dough is made by hand, it is usually made
+somewhat slack to begin with, and then "cut back" and "dusted" at
+regular intervals, that is to say, more and more flour is added till a
+dough of the required consistency has been obtained. (In the British
+baker's vocabulary "dust" means flour, and good dust stands for good
+flour.) This system, on the one hand, saves the labour involved for
+"sponging" and other operations, and the bread is produced in less time;
+but on the other hand more yeast is used, and bakers generally hold that
+the system sacrifices the colour and texture of the loaf to convenience
+of working and yield. The high porportion of yeast enables the dough to
+carry a large quantity of water, and about 104 4-lb. loaves to the sack
+is said by Jago to be a not unusual yield in the case of slack doughs.
+But such a result would only be possible with very strong flour. In an
+ordinary way 96 loaves to the sack is a very high yield, unattainable
+except with strong flour, and probably the average yield is not more
+than 90 loaves to the sack. In London the manager of a "tied" shop is
+usually held to account for 92 loaves to the sack.
+
+In the _ferment and dough_ system, the ferment usually consists of 10 to
+14 lb. of potatoes to the sack of flour, boiled or steamed, and mashed
+with water, so as to yield about 3 gallons of liquor. There are several
+substitutes for potatoes, including raw and scalded flour, malt, malt
+extracts, &c.; brewers' or distillers' yeast may also be used. A ferment
+should contain saccharine matters and yeast stimulants in such a form as
+to favour the growth and reproduction of yeast in a vigorous condition.
+Hence it should not be too concentrated. About six hours are required
+for its preparation. It is added, together with 2 to 3 lb. of salt, to
+the dough, which is prepared with about 56 quarts of water to the sack,
+and worked at a temperature of 80-84° Fahr. The dough is allowed to lie
+from two to five hours according to the flour used, the character of the
+ferment, and the working temperature. In this system the proportion of
+strong flour is usually reduced to 40% of the dough, and no doubt in
+some cases only soft or weak flours are used. Naturally the yield of
+bread is not so high as in the case of an off hand dough made entirely
+from strong flour, and it will probably not exceed 90 loaves to the
+sack. This method has many advantages. After the ferment is made the
+labour required is not much greater than with the off hand doughs, and
+less yeast is required, while potatoes, which are somewhat troublesome,
+from the necessary cleaning, can be replaced by the substitutes already
+mentioned. The method produces good-looking and palatable bread, though
+the loaves should be eaten within some twelve hours of leaving the oven.
+
+The _sponge and dough_ system, which is probably in widest use in
+England, is adapted to almost every kind of bread, and has the advantage
+that any kind of flour can be employed. The stronger flours which need
+long fermentation can be and usually are used in the "sponge" stage,
+while soft flours are utilized in the dough. (The sponge is a certain
+proportion, varying from a quarter to one-half, of the flour necessary
+for making the batch.) In London the baker often uses for the sponge a
+bag (140 lb) of American spring wheat flour, and for the dough a sack
+(280 lb) of British milled flour, which, whether it be country flour
+milled largely from English wheat or London milled, is always softer and
+weaker than that used for the sponge. The sponge is made very slack, 26
+to 32 quarts of water being used to say 100 lb. of flour. Yeast, either
+distillers' or brewers', must be added, in proportions varying according
+to its character and strength. Of distillers' yeast 6 to 10 oz. may be
+used for 280 lb. of flour (including sponge and dough). Salt is added to
+the sponge sparingly, at the rate of about ½ lb. to the sack of 280 lb.
+The object of making the sponge so slack is to quicken the fermentation.
+When set the sponge is allowed to ferment from six to ten hours,
+according to temperature and other conditions. Sometimes all the water
+it is intended to use is put into the sponge, which is then known as a
+"batter" sponge. The sponge, when ready, is incorporated with the rest
+of the flour to which the necessary amount of water and salt is added.
+The whole mass is then doughed up into the requisite consistency, the
+dough being allowed to lie for about two hours. Bread made by this
+method, always assuming that over-fermentation has been avoided, is of
+good appearance, presenting a bold loaf, with even texture and a nice
+sheen. Owing to the use of soft flours, the flavour should be agreeable,
+and the loaves ought to keep much longer than bread made by ferment and
+dough. The yield may rise as high as 96 loaves per sack, if strong flour
+has been used in the sponge.
+
+A combination of the above two methods, known as the _ferment, sponge
+and dough_ system, is often used with brewers' yeast. In this case the
+yeast is not added to the sponge direct, but goes into the ferment. This
+method is rather in favour with bakers who make their own yeast.
+
+The system of bread-making generally used in Scotland is known as the
+_flour barm, sponge and dough_. The barm is a combination of a malt and
+hop yeast, with a slow, scalded flour ferment. To make the so-called
+"virgin" barm a Scottish baker would use a 30-gallon tub; a smaller
+vessel for malt-mashing; 10 lb. malt; 3 oz. hops and a jar for infusing
+them; 40 lb flour; 2 to 3 oz. malt; 8 to 12 oz. sugar, and 18 gallons of
+boiling water. With these materials a powerful ferment is produced,
+which it is considered best to use in the sponge the fourth or fifth day
+after brewing. The sponges used in Scotland are "half" or "quarter."
+About 6 lb. of malt go to the sack, one-sixth going into the sponge. As
+in England, strong flours are used for the sponge, but rather stronger
+flours are used for the dough than is usual in England. Scottish loaves
+are largely of the "brick" type, high and narrow. Such bread has an
+attractive appearance and keeps well. It has a rather sharp flavour,
+approaching acidity but avoiding sourness, while the large quantity of
+malt used adds a characteristic taste. The yield rises in some Glasgow
+bread factories to 100 loaves to the sack.
+
+
+  Leavened bread.
+
+In many parts of Europe bread is still made from leaven, which, properly
+speaking, consists of a portion of dough held over from the previous
+baking. This substance, known to French bakers as _levain_, is called in
+Germany _Sauerteig_ (_anglice_ "sour dough"). The lump of old dough,
+placed aside in a uniform temperature for some eight hours, swells and
+acquires an alcoholic odour, becoming the _levain de chef_ of the French
+bakers. It is then worked up with flour and water to a firm paste double
+its original volume, when it becomes the _levain de première_. Six hours
+later, by the addition of more flour and water its amount is again
+doubled, though its consistency is made rather softer, and it becomes
+the _levain de seconde_. Finally, by another addition of flour and
+water, the amount is again doubled, and the _levain de tous points_ is
+obtained. This mass is divided into two parts; one is baked yielding
+rather dark sour bread, while the other is mixed with more flour and
+water. This second portion is in turn halved, part is baked, and part
+again mixed with more flour, this last batch yielding the best and
+whitest bread. In North Germany leaven is generally used for making rye
+bread, and loaves baked from a mixture of wheat and rye flour. In the
+bakery of the Krupp works at Essen, each batch of the so-called
+Paderborn bread is prepared entirely with leaven from 270 kilos of rye
+flour (patent quality), 100 of wheat flour (seconds), 2 of buckwheat
+meal, 6 of salt, 5 of leaven, and one litre of oil. In Vienna leaven is
+never used for making the rolls and small goods for which that city is
+famous. Viennese bakers use either brewers' yeast or a ferment, prepared
+by themselves, of which the basis is an infusion of hops. Brewers' yeast
+is added to the ferment, which takes the form of a very slack dough.
+With 100 kilos (220.46 lb.) of flour about 17 litres or nearly 2 gallons
+of ferment are used.
+
+
+  Aerated bread.
+
+In the original Dauglish process for the manufacture of aerated bread,
+which was brought into operation in Great Britain in 1859, carbonic acid
+gas was evolved in a generating vessel by the action of sulphuric acid
+on chalk, and after purification was forced at high pressure into water,
+which was then used for doughing the flour. In this process the flour
+that had to be made into bread was submitted to the action of the
+super-aerated water by direct transference. It was found, however, in
+practice that much difficulty occurred in making the gas admix readily
+with the flour and water, great pressure being required, and to lessen
+the difficulties a new process, called the "wine whey," was introduced.
+To carry this out, a vat placed on the upper storey of the factory is
+charged with a portion of malt and flour, which is mashed and allowed to
+ferment until a weak and slightly acid thin wine is produced; this after
+passing through the coolers is stored until it is transformed into a
+vinous whey. This whey is then introduced into a strong cylinder partly
+filled with water, and is aerated by letting in the gas (now stored in a
+highly compressed form in bottles), the pressure required being only a
+quarter of that necessary with the original method. The flour having
+been placed in the mixers, which are of globular form containing
+revolving arms, the aerated fluid is admitted, and in a short period the
+flour and fluid are completely incorporated. By means of an ingenious
+appliance termed a dough cock, the exact amount of dough for a single
+loaf of bread is forced out under the pressure of the gas, and by
+reversing the lever the dough, which expands as it falls into a baking
+tin, is cut off. Two sacks of flour can be converted with ease into 400
+2-lb. loaves in forty minutes, whereas the ordinary baker's process
+would require about ten hours. At first a difficulty was encountered in
+the fact that the dough became discoloured by the action of the "wine
+whey" on the iron, but it was overcome by Killingworth Hedges, who
+discovered a non-poisonous vitreous enamel for coating the interior of
+the mixers, &c. It has been claimed for the Dauglish process that it
+saves the baker risks attendant on the production of carbon dioxide by
+the ordinary process of fermentation, in that he is no longer liable to
+have his dough spoilt by variations of temperature and other
+incalculable factors, the results being certain and uniform. A further
+claim is the saving of the proportion of starch consumed by conversion
+into glucose during the process of fermentation. The original objection,
+that, by the absence of fermentation, those subtle changes which help to
+produce flavour are lost, is annulled by the use of the wine whey
+process. The Dauglish process is well suited for producing small goods,
+such as cakes and scones, where flavour can be artificially imparted by
+means of currants, flavouring essences, &c. An undoubted advantage of
+the aerating process of bread-making is adaptability for utilizing flour
+with unstable gluten, which can thus be made into an excellent quality
+of bread. For wholemeal bread, too, there is probably no more suitable
+process than the Dauglish. The strong diastasic action of the cerealin,
+inevitable in fermentation, is entirely avoided. The Aerated Bread
+Company have about a hundred depots in London, which are supplied from a
+central factory.
+
+
+  Apostolov process.
+
+The essence of the bread-making process recently invented by Serge
+Apostolov is the combination of a flour mill and bakery. The wheat,
+after a preliminary cleaning, is ground into flour by a mill composed of
+metal disks dressed, that is furrowed, very much like the surfaces of a
+pair of mill-stones. The disks are not set to grind very close, because
+it is desired, by minimizing friction, to keep the meal cool. From the
+middlings obtained by this milling process about 10% of bran is
+separated, and the remainder of the middlings is treated by a peculiar
+process, akin to mashing, termed "lixiviation." The middlings are
+saturated with tepid water containing a small proportion of yeast, which
+causes a certain amount of fermentation. It is claimed that by this
+process a solution is obtained of the floury constituents of the
+middlings. From the vats the solution is poured on an inclined sieve
+which has a gentle reciprocating motion. The floury particles pass
+through the meshes, while the bran tails over the sieve; the proportion
+of the wheat berry thus rejected is given as about 2½%. On the other
+hand, the milky-looking solution, called "lactus," is caught in a
+special vessel, and delivered by a shoot into a trough, which may be
+either a mechanical kneader of an ordinary trough. This lactus takes
+the place of the ordinary sponge. The flour is added in the proportion
+necessary to make the required batch and the whole mass is doughed,
+either by hand or power. The resultant dough is moulded in the ordinary
+way into loaves, which are baked in due course. The advantages claimed
+for the process are that it permits of the utilization in bread-making
+of about 87½% of the wheat berry, that the resultant bread is fairly
+white in colour and is agreeable in flavour, and that it is extremely
+simple and provides a ready and cheap means of flour-making.
+
+  _Machine Bakeries._--Bread-baking, though one of the most important of
+  human industries, was long carried out in a most primitive manner, and
+  machinery is still practically unknown in the bulk of British
+  bakehouses. The reasons for this apparently anomalous condition of
+  things are not very far to seek. Bread, unlike biscuits, is a food
+  quite unfitted for long storage, and must be consumed within a
+  comparatively short time of being drawn from the oven. Hence the
+  bread-baker's output is necessarily limited to a greater or lesser
+  degree. This will be the more apparent when it is considered that the
+  cost of distributing bread is high relatively to the profits to be
+  realized. A baker's bread trade is therefore usually limited to local
+  requirements, and trading on a small scale he has less inducement to
+  lay out capital on the installation of machinery than other classes of
+  manufacturers. But there are now many machine bakeries (known in
+  Scotland as bread factories), both in London and in other parts of
+  Great Britain, where the manufacture of bread is carried out more or
+  less on a large scale. The evolution of the machine bakery has been
+  slow, and the mechanical operations of the bakehouse were long limited
+  to the mixing of the sponge and the kneading of the dough, but now the
+  work of the bakery engineer extends over almost every operation of
+  bread-making.
+
+  A bread-baking plant should be installed in a building of at least two
+  storeys. The ground floor may be used for the shop, with possibly a
+  bread-cooling and delivery room at the rear. The flour may be hoisted
+  to an attic at the top of the building, or to the top floor; in any
+  case there must be sufficient floor space to accommodate the flour
+  sacks and bags. Underneath the floor of the flour store should be
+  installed a flour sifter, a simple apparatus consisting essentially of
+  a hopper through which the flour enters a cylinder with a spiral
+  brush, by which it is thoroughly agitated previously to passing
+  through one or more sieves placed under the brush. A sack of flour may
+  be passed through this sifter in a couple of minutes, the operation
+  freeing the flour from lumps and pieces of string or other foreign
+  substances which may have found their way into the sack. The sifter
+  may also be combined with a blender or mixer, so that the baker may by
+  its means thoroughly blend different flours in any desired proportion.
+  The operation of blending is usually effected by a revolving blade of
+  suitable design or by a worm conveyor placed underneath the sieve or
+  sleeve. From the sifter and blender the flour descends by a sleeve
+  into the dough kneading machine on the floor below. But in cases where
+  it is desired merely to sift and blend flour ready for future use, it
+  may be received in a worm and elevated again to the storage floor by
+  an ordinary belt and bucket elevator. The water required for doughing
+  purposes is contained in an iron tank, fixed to the wall in convenient
+  proximity to the dough kneader. This tank, known as a water
+  attemperating and measuring tank, is provided with a gauge and
+  thermometer, and from it the exact quantity of water needed for
+  doughing can be rapidly drawn off at the desired temperature. The cold
+  water supply may be let into the tank at the top, and the hot water
+  supply at the bottom, the idea being that each supply shall permeate
+  the whole mass by gravity, the hot water ascending and the cold
+  descending. The chief types of dough kneader will be described
+  subsequently, but here it should be noted that not only have machines
+  been devised for cutting out the exact sizes of dough required for
+  small goods, such as buns and tartlets, but that the operations of
+  weighing and dividing dough for quartern and half-quartern loaves can
+  also be neatly and economically effected by machinery. Further, at
+  least two machines have been built which successfully mould loaves (of
+  simple shape), and the problem of moulding household bread by
+  machinery has certainly been solved, but whether delicate twists and
+  other fancy shapes could be equally well moulded mechanically is less
+  certain.
+
+  The machine bakery, however complete, is not likely ever to be quite
+  automatic and continuous like a modern flour mill, where the plant is
+  connected throughout and virtually forms one machine (see FLOUR AND
+  FLOUR MANUFACTURE), and though the engineer has at least managed to
+  effect every operation of the bakehouse by mechanical means, it is not
+  yet possible to shoot a sack of flour into the hopper of the sifter on
+  the top floor, and to turn it into bread, without any human
+  intervention whatever, though as things are, the moulded dough can be
+  put into the oven without undergoing actual contact with human hands.
+  In practice, some of the machines mentioned above are often dispensed
+  with, even in so-called machine bakeries. The flour sifter and blender
+  is indeed found in many bakeries where mechanical kneaders are
+  unknown, while not in all machine bakeries would be found dough
+  weighers and dividers, still less moulding machines. The economical
+  side of the argument on behalf of machinery is presented in the
+  familiar shape that a properly equipped machine bakery can turn out
+  better work at a lower cost (by dispensing with labour), or at any
+  rate can carry on a bigger trade with the same staff. There is
+  plausibility in this argument, but it must be admitted that
+  innumerable bakeries of capacities varying from 10 to 20 sacks per
+  week are carried on more or less successfully without machinery of any
+  kind, beyond perhaps a sifter or blender. Moreover, some of these
+  bakehouses produce bread which can hardly be improved on.
+
+  One advantage claimed for flour sifters, besides removing the
+  impurities, is that by thoroughly aerating flour they cause it to
+  become more "lively," in which condition it kneads more readily. It is
+  also quite possible that the air which is thus incorporated with the
+  dough has a stimulating effect on the yeast, causing a more energetic
+  fermentation. A strong argument in favour of dough kneaders is their
+  hygienic aspect. It is agreed that the operation of dough stirring by
+  hand, since it involves severe labour conducted in a heated
+  atmosphere, must be liable to cause contamination of the dough through
+  emanations from the bodies of the operatives. In well-managed bakeries
+  the utmost personal cleanliness on the part of the staff is exacted,
+  but the unpleasant contingency alluded to is certainly possible. It is
+  also contended that the use of machinery for dough kneading and batter
+  whisking will ensure better work, in the sense that the mass under
+  treatment will be more thoroughly worked by mechanically driven arms
+  of iron or steel than by human limbs, liable to weariness and fatigue.
+  The better worked the dough, the greater its power of expansion, and
+  consequently the greater its bread-making value.
+
+
+    Dough kneaders.
+
+  The most widely known machine used in connexion with bread-baking,
+  next to the sifter, is the dough kneadcr. The dough kneader is no new
+  invention. As far back as 1760, a kind of dough kneader was
+  constructed in France by one Salignac. It is described as consisting
+  of a trough, inside which the dough was agitated by arms shaped
+  somewhat like harrows. This machine is said to have been tested before
+  a committee of the Academy of Sciences, who reported that in their
+  presence dough had been prepared in fourteen to fifteen minutes. The
+  bread baked from this dough is said to have been most satisfactory,
+  but for some reason the machine never came into general use. For one
+  thing, the power problem would have been almost insuperable to a baker
+  in the France of those days. In general design this kneader
+  approximated to the machines which have since done good work in
+  bakeries all the world over. Salignac was quickly followed by another
+  inventor, Cousin, also a Frenchman, who brought out in 1761, or
+  thereabouts, a dough-kneading machine, which, however, had no better
+  success than its predecessor. The first kneading machine which appears
+  to have been in actual use in a bakery was constructed by a Paris
+  baker of the name of Lembert, after whom it was called the Lembertine.
+  Lembert is said to have been experimenting with this apparatus as
+  early as 1796. Be that as it may, it was not brought out till 1810,
+  when a prize of 1500 francs (£60) was offered by the Société
+  d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale. This reward was won by
+  Lembert, and his machine thereupon came into a certain amount of use
+  in France. It is remarkable that France long remained the only country
+  in which dough kneaders were employed, but even there their use was
+  limited.
+
+  The Fontaine, another French kneader, called after its inventor, was
+  first made in 1835. It had a certain success, but has long passed out
+  of use. It appears to have been a copy to a great extent of the
+  Lembertine. The objection against both these machines was that their
+  blades, while exercising a mixing action, were deficient in kneading
+  effect. Probably the first machine which achieved the task of
+  efficiently replacing the work of human arms in sponge breaking and
+  dough kneading was the Boland kneader. This was also a French machine,
+  and dates back to about the middle of the 19th century. It is believed
+  to have been first used in the Scipion bakery in Paris. It consists
+  essentially of a trough, inside which revolve a pair of blades so
+  arranged as to work somewhat like alternate screws: it is claimed for
+  these blades that their action has the effect of tossing the dough
+  backwards and forwards when it is slack, and of drawing it out when it
+  happens to be stiff. It is further claimed that the blades are so
+  shaped that their revolution has the effect of moving the dough from
+  right to left and left to right in the trough. The machine is geared
+  to give two speeds, the faster being suitable for sponge setting,
+  while the slow and most powerful speed is intended for the doughing.
+  The Boland machine has been widely adopted in other countries than
+  France, and was certainly one of the first dough kneaders to be used
+  in the United Kingdom. It was installed in the great Boland bakery in
+  Dublin, where it proved a great success. The proprietor of this
+  bakery, with which was also connected a flour mill, is said to have
+  had his attention first drawn to this machine by the fact that its
+  inventor was his namesake, though no relative.
+
+  The Deliry-Desboves dough kneader, also of French origin, and in
+  general use in France, consists essentially of a cast iron trough,
+  shaped somewhat like a basin, and turning on a vertical axis. The
+  kneading arms inside the trough are shaped after the pattern of a
+  lyre, and have the effect of first working up and then dividing the
+  dough right through the kneading process. Two helical blades, which
+  also form part of the mechanism, serve to draw out and aerate the
+  dough, as effectively, it is claimed, as can be done by the most
+  skilled operative. The force of the kneading operations can be
+  regulated without stopping the machine. A thoroughly kneaded dough
+  can, it is said, be made in this machine in twelve to fifteen minutes.
+
+  In Great Britain the type of machine that used to be most in favour
+  was the trough within which the kneading arms worked on horizontal
+  axis. The trough was either open or provided with a lid. The kneading
+  blades were variously shaped, but generally were more or less
+  straight, and were designed to both mix and aerate the dough. In some
+  cases the kneading blades were worked on a single axis, in others two
+  different sets of arms worked on two axes running parallel to one
+  another. Generally the kneader was geared to two speeds, the fast
+  motion being most suitable for sponge setting, and the earlier stages
+  of dough-making, while the slower motion was intended to draw out and
+  thoroughly aerate the dough. To discharge the dough, the trough was
+  tilted by means of a worm and worm wheel, the latter being secured to
+  the trough. Several variations of this type of kneader are still in
+  use. The machine known as the "Universal" kneader consists of a trough
+  set horizontally, within which rotate on horizontal axes a pair of
+  blades lying in the same plane. These blades are curved and are geared
+  together by means of differential spur wheels, with the object of
+  running the two spindles at unequal speeds. The bottom of the trough
+  is divided into two semi-cylindrical cavities, separated by a ridge.
+  Each blade plunges into its own cavity, and the action of these arms
+  tends, while pressing the dough against the sides and base of the
+  trough, to bring it quickly back towards the centre. The differential
+  speed has the advantage of effecting a more thorough mixing of the
+  dough, as it brings together pieces of dough which have not yet been
+  mingled, the blades pushing the dough from one cavity to the other. To
+  hasten the kneading process it is desirable occasionally to reverse
+  the motion by a turn of a hand wheel on the same shaft as the two
+  pulleys. This wheel governs all the motions of the blades. The trough,
+  which is set low, is tilted over, when the dough is ready, by an
+  endless chain operated by a hand winch. The effort required for this
+  operation is very slight, as the trough is balanced by two weights.
+  The action of tilting does not interfere with the blades, which
+  continue rotating until stopped by the hand wheel. The Universal
+  kneader was designed to imitate as closely as possible the action of a
+  pair of skilled human arms and hands, but of course works at a much
+  greater speed.
+
+  Another form of dough mixer which is extensively used consists simply
+  of a drum made of sheet steel supported by two A-shaped standards at a
+  sufficient height from the floor to allow a trough to be run
+  underneath to receive the dough when ready for the moulding board. In
+  this drum are two tight-fitting doors. The interior is fitted with no
+  blades or knives, but presents a free cylindrical space, with the sole
+  exception that, set not very far from the circumference, there are
+  several fixed rods passing from one side of the drum to the other.
+  These act as mixers of the dough. The door is opened and the flour and
+  water poured in, whereupon the door is again fastened and the drum is
+  made to rotate. As the rotation proceeds, the dough begins to form,
+  and being lifted up by the revolving drum falls by its own weight. In
+  this process, which is repeated again and again, the dough is caught
+  by and tumbled over by the rods, which act as mixers and take the
+  place of the revolving arms of the trough kneader. The kneading action
+  of the rotating arms is absent, but the steady tumbling over these
+  rods appears to have a thorough mixing effect, and the dough is
+  discharged from the drum in good condition for moulding. The time
+  occupied for making a dough by this apparatus varies from four to six
+  minutes. The advantages claimed for this machine are that it consumes
+  comparatively little power, and that there is not so much danger of
+  "felling" or over-kneading dough as in some of the machines with
+  revolving blades. The compactness of this rotating drum mixer, often
+  known as the Rotary mixer, recommends it on shipboard and in other
+  places where space is limited.
+
+
+    Dough dividers and moulders.
+
+  In the earlier days of machine bakeries the accurate dividing of
+  dough, and still more the moulding of loaves by mechanical means, was
+  considered an unattainable ideal. The first step in this direction was
+  made by the Lewis-Pointon dough divider and weigher, which was
+  intended for dividing and weighing out dough ready for the moulding
+  table. In an ordinary way a baker who wishes to bake a batch of
+  half-quartern or 2-lb. loaves scales off 2 lb. 2 oz. of dough for each
+  loaf. The 2 oz. are a sort of insurance against light weight. The
+  evaporation of moisture from dough in the oven is bound to reduce to
+  some extent the weight of the baked loaf, but with normally baked
+  bread, 2 lb. 2 oz. in the case of half-quarterns, and 4 lb. 4 oz. in
+  the case of quartern loaves, is sufficient to ensure full weight. As
+  the accurate scaling of dough requires some pains and trouble, it
+  would be surprising if hand scaling were always accurate. The
+  Lewis-Pointon machine can, it is claimed, be set to turn out lumps of
+  dough of the exact weight required either for 1-lb., 2-lb., or 4-lb.
+  loaves. The apparatus does not measure the dough by weight but by
+  volume by an ingenious piston arrangement. The machine when first put
+  on the market was a little complicated, but its mechanism has since
+  been simplified. It has been successfully worked on doughs of all
+  descriptions, ranging from the tightest to those made with 20 gallons
+  of water to the sack. The same firm which brought out this dough
+  divider has also produced a dough-moulding machine, which has a wide
+  range of work. In this apparatus the dough is introduced between a
+  trough and a revolving table at a point on the outer periphery of the
+  latter. The order of things observed in hand moulding is here
+  reversed, as the trough, unlike the hand, is fixed, while the table
+  revolves around a vertical axis. This table is sharply coned, and can
+  be made to work the dough as much or as little as may be required. In
+  working dough for tin or Coburg loaves only one trough is used, but
+  for cottage loaves two parallel troughs are fitted, one taking the
+  lower and the other the upper half of the loaf. In the latter case, a
+  single piece of dough is fed into the machine and passed through an
+  automatic splitter, the two portions being automatically carried into
+  the troughs and simultaneously delivered at the other side of the
+  machine ready to be put together. With doughs which require
+  "handing-up," two machines may be used for moulding, the dough being
+  automatically fed from the divider to the handing-up machine, and
+  after a short proof passed through the finisher. But the moulding
+  machine may also be used as a "hander-up."
+
+  Another ingenious dough moulder, known as the Baker-Callow, works on a
+  rather different principle. Here the pieces of dough coming from the
+  divider are fed into the moulder by a canvas band, and are worked
+  between a large cylindrical roller and a vertically running canvas and
+  leather belt. To prevent pieces from dropping through, and to assist
+  the moulding process, a smaller roller is placed under and between the
+  cylindrical roller and canvas belt. A wooden puncher also assists in
+  working the loaves, which are finished by being rolled between a band
+  and a special shaped wooden moulding. This machine delivers the dough
+  in spherical shaped pieces. If intended for cottage bread they are at
+  once placed on the dough table at the side, and one piece is put on
+  the top of the other ready for the oven. It is claimed the machine
+  will deal equally well with large and small pieces at the same time,
+  so that the tops and bottoms can be made together. Should the machine
+  be intended for tinned bread, a special attachment is used, into which
+  the spherical pieces are delivered from the machine and rolled into
+  cylindrical shapes, ready to be dropped into the pan. A capacity of
+  sixty loaves per minute is claimed for this moulder.
+
+  _Ovens._--The ordinary baker's oven is a vaulted chamber, about 10 ft.
+  in length, by 8 ft. in width and 30 in. in height; it is constructed
+  of brick or stone, and has a small door in front through which the
+  oven is charged (by means of a "peel" or long wooden shovel) and the
+  batch withdrawn. The furnace and fire-grate are often placed at the
+  side of the oven door, but with the oldest ovens, which were heated by
+  wood, there generally was only one door for the fuel and for the
+  bread. Whether the furnace is heated by coal, as is usual in England,
+  or by coke, as is often the case in Scotland, the oven mouth remains
+  in the bakehouse itself; hence the stoking and scuffling must be
+  carried out within the bakehouse. This is in many ways objectionable.
+  For one thing, the fuel must almost of necessity be kept in the
+  bakehouse itself, and it is obvious that the products of combustion
+  are liable to get into the oven. In the old type of oven a flue was
+  frequently placed on the other side of the furnace door, both furnace
+  and flue being on the front of the oven. After firing the furnace, the
+  oven is allowed to "lie down" for a certain time, and secure an even
+  distribution of heat. The furnace and flue are then shut, and the oven
+  charged, the batch being baked by the heat stored within the oven
+  chamber. With ovens of this type, each batch of bread requires a
+  separate firing. This kind of oven has undergone several improvements
+  of detail, but the principle of internal heating, that is, of firing
+  the furnace inside the bakehouse, has remained unchanged.
+
+  A new era in bakers' ovens began about the middle of the 19th century
+  with the introduction of the "Perkins" oven, a system which, with
+  slight modifications, has persisted till to-day. In this oven the
+  baking chamber is heated by steam pipes. The latter consist of tubes
+  of iron or mild steel which are partly filled with water and are
+  hermetically sealed by welded ends. The pipes are arranged in two
+  parallel rows, the one at the crown and the other at the sole of the
+  oven. The pipes project at one end into the furnace, which is set at
+  the back of the oven and is usually outside the bakehouse. This is
+  termed an externally heated oven. As the ends of the pipes get red hot
+  the water is converted into superheated steam, which being under high
+  pressure soon raises the chamber to baking heat, say 450° to 500° F.
+  In an oven of this description the heat can be continuously
+  maintained, and batch after batch can be baked without refiring. The
+  only drawback is that a flash heat cannot be raised. In another type
+  of externally fired oven the heat is conveyed by flues placed at the
+  bottom and top of the oven, which discharge into a chimney. Excellent
+  results have been attained with ovens of this kind. The distribution
+  of the heat can be well regulated; for instance, it is quite possible
+  to build ovens to be cooler at the back than front, an arrangement
+  which is useful when the bread is withdrawn by means of a hand peel.
+  As the baker has to withdraw each loaf one at a time, it is clear that
+  the withdrawal of the batch through the oven door must take time,
+  probably not less than half-an-hour. Hence the bread drawn from near
+  the oven's mouth may be underbaked as compared with that at the back
+  of the chamber. The latter, on the other hand, may be overbaked and
+  deficient in weight.
+
+  By means of a draw-plate, however, an oven can be expeditiously
+  charged. This appliance consists of a sliding plate or tray, mounted
+  on wheels running on rails, which is drawn out of the oven loaded with
+  bread, and then returned. The plate itself is often made of iron, but
+  one well-known oven is fitted with a withdrawable iron frame, in which
+  are laid, edge to edge, tiles of a special make, which are cemented in
+  place, and form a continuous baking surface. This seems an excellent
+  arrangement, as the baker has all the advantages of a brick oven, that
+  is to say, his bread is baked both on top and bottom by heat evolved
+  from tiled surfaces, and the undoubted drawbacks incidental to baking
+  bread on an iron surface are avoided. A draw-plate fitted to an oven
+  capable of baking a batch made from a sack (280 lb) of flour can be
+  run out, charged and run in again, in about two minutes. The
+  draw-plate has the incidental advantage, by expediting the loading and
+  discharge of the oven, of ensuring a more uniform baking of the batch,
+  and therefore of minimizing the loss of weight. Some bakers have gone
+  so far as to estimate the saving in this respect from the use of a
+  draw-plate at half an ounce per 2-lb. loaf. With decker ovens a double
+  draw-plate may be used, the feet of the pedestal supporting the upper
+  draw-plate running on a rail outside, but parallel to the rail on
+  which the lower draw-plate runs. This arrangement, however, is more
+  applicable to small than large ovens. Or the lower oven may be fitted
+  with a draw-plate while the upper oven is served with a peel. The
+  draw-plate being at a lower level than the sole of an ordinary oven,
+  the upper deck may be worked with a peel without much difficulty.
+
+  The _decker_ oven is, as its name implies, an oven built over another
+  oven: in fact, sometimes a tier of three ovens is employed, placed one
+  above the other. The object is to secure a double or treble baking
+  surface without a very much larger outlay on fuel than would be
+  necessary for one oven. It is easy to understand that a double or
+  three decker oven might be constructed under conditions where it would
+  be impossible to place two or three ordinary ovens side by side.
+  Practical bakers are somewhat divided as to the actual economy of the
+  decker system; possibly it is a question of management. The upper oven
+  is heated by the gases which have passed under the oven beneath. A
+  double-decker oven on the flue principle could be heated by three
+  flues, one beneath the lower oven, another passing between the crown
+  of the lower and the sole of the top oven, and the third over the
+  crown of the upper oven. If a third oven were built over the second,
+  then a fourth flue would pass over the crown of the third and top
+  oven. In such an arrangement of flues the distribution of heat to the
+  ovens would be fairly equal, but no doubt the lower oven would be the
+  hottest. In addition to the flues, which should be straight and
+  accessible for cleaning, there ought also to be auxiliary flues by
+  which heat may be allowed to pass dampers to the upper portions of the
+  series of ovens. In this way the heat of the upper oven or ovens can
+  be regulated independently to a great extent of the bottom oven. The
+  power of regulating the heat of the ovens is very necessary, because a
+  baker doing what is called a mixed trade, that is to say, producing
+  cakes and pastry in addition to bread, must work his ovens at varying
+  temperatures. Cakes cannot be baked at the heat (about 450° F.)
+  required by a batch of household bread. The richest fancy goods, such
+  as wedding and Christmas cakes, require the coolest ovens. Flue ovens
+  are best worked with coke, as coal is apt to choke the flues; retort
+  coke is recommended in place of oven coke. An oven should be fitted
+  with some kind of thermal register, and both high-temperature
+  thermometers and pyrometers are used for this purpose.     (G. F. Z.)
+
+
+
+
+BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1636-1717), son of Sir John
+Campbell of Glenorchy, Bart., and of the Lady Mary Graham, daughter of
+William, earl of Airth and Menteith, was born about 1636. He took part
+in the abortive royalist rising under Glencairn in 1654, and was one of
+those who urged Monk to declare a free parliament in England to
+facilitate the restoration. He sat in the Scottish parliament as member
+for Argyllshire from 1669 to 1674. As principal creditor he obtained in
+October 1672, from George, 6th earl of Caithness, a conveyance of his
+dignities, lands and heritable jurisdictions; and after the latter's
+death he was created on the 28th of June 1677 earl of Caithness and
+viscount of Breadalbane. In 1678 he married the widowed countess of
+Caithness, an economical step which saved him the alimentary provision
+of 12,000 merks a year he had covenanted to pay. In 1680 he invaded
+Caithness with a band of 700 men and defeated and dispossessed the
+earl's heir male. The latter, however, was subsequently confirmed in his
+lands and titles, and Campbell on the 13th of August 1681 obtained a new
+patent with the precedency of the former one, creating him earl of
+Breadalbane and Holland, viscount of Tay and Paintland, Lord Glenorchy,
+Benederaloch, Ormelie and Weick in the peerage of Scotland, with special
+power to nominate his successor from among the sons of his first wife.
+In 1685 he was a member of the Scottish privy council. Though nominally
+a Presbyterian he had assisted the intolerant and despotic government
+of Lauderdale in 1678 with 1700 men. He is described as having "neither
+honour nor religion but where they are mixed with interest," as of "fair
+complexion, of the gravity of the Spaniard, cunning as a Fox, wise as a
+Serpent and supple as an Eel."[1] He was reputed the best headpiece in
+Scotland.[2] His influence, owing to his position and abilities, was
+greater than that of any man in Scotland after Argyll, and it was of
+high moment to King William to gain him and obtain his services in
+conciliating the Highlanders. Breadalbane at first carried on
+communications with Dundee and was implicated in the royalist intrigue
+called the "Montgomery plot," but after the battle of Killiecrankie in
+July 1689 he made overtures to the government, subsequently took the
+oath of allegiance, and was entrusted with a large sum of money by the
+government to secure the submission of the clans. On the 30th of June
+1691 he met the Jacobite chiefs and concluded with them secret articles
+by which they undertook to refrain from acts of hostility till October,
+gaining their consent by threats and promises rather than by the
+distribution of the money entrusted to him, the greater part of which,
+it was believed, he retained himself. When asked to give an account of
+the expenditure he replied: "The money is spent, the Highlands are
+quiet, and this is the only way of accounting between friends."[3]
+
+On the 27th of August a proclamation was issued offering indemnity to
+all those who should submit and take the oath of allegiance before the
+1st of January 1692, and threatening all those who should refuse with a
+military execution and the penalties of treason. All the chiefs took the
+oath except MacIan, the chief of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, who
+postponed his submission till the 31st of December, and was then
+prevented from taking the oath till the 6th of January 1692 through the
+absence of a magistrate at Fort William, whither he had repaired for the
+purpose. This irregularity gave Breadalbane an immediate opportunity of
+destroying the clan of thieves which had for generations lived by
+plundering his lands and those of his neighbours. Accordingly, together
+with Argyll and Sir John Dalrymple (afterwards Lord Stair), Breadalbane
+organized the atrocious crime known as the "Massacre of Glencoe," when
+the unfortunate MacDonalds, deceived by assurances of friendship, and at
+the moment when they were lavishing their hospitality upon their
+murderers, were butchered in cold blood on the 13th of February 1692.
+Breadalbane's astuteness, however, prevented the disclosure of any
+evidence against him in the inquiry afterwards instituted in 1695,
+beyond the deposition of a person who professed to have been sent on
+Breadalbane's behalf to obtain a declaration of his innocence from
+MacIan's sons, who had escaped. The discovery of his former negotiations
+with the Jacobite chiefs caused his imprisonment in Edinburgh Castle in
+September, but he was released when it was known that he had been acting
+with William's knowledge.
+
+Breadalbane did not vote for the Union in 1707, but was chosen a
+representative peer in the parliament of Great Britain of 1713-1715. His
+co-operation with the English government in securing the temporary
+submission of the Highlands was inspired by no real loyalty or
+allegiance, and he encouraged the attempted French descent in 1708,
+refusing, however, to commit himself to paper. On the occasion of the
+Jacobite rising in 1715 he excused himself on the 19th of September from
+obeying the summons to appear at Edinburgh on the ground of his age and
+infirmities; but nevertheless the next day visited Mar's camp at
+Logierait and afterwards the camp at Perth, his real business being,
+according to the Master of Sinclair, "to trick others, not to be
+trickt," and to obtain a share of the French subsidies. He had taken
+money for the whole 1200 men he had promised and only sent 300. His 300
+men were withdrawn after the battle of Sheriffmuir, and his death, which
+took place on the 19th of March 1717, rendered unnecessary any inquiry
+into his conduct. He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry Rich, 1st earl
+of Holland, by whom he had two sons, Duncan, styled Lord Ormelie, who
+was passed over in the succession, and John, and earl of Breadalbane;
+(2) Mary, daughter of Archibald, marquis of Argyll, and widow of George,
+6th earl of Caithness, by whom he had one son, Colin. By Mrs Mildred
+Littler, who has sometimes but probably in error been named as his third
+wife, he had a daughter, Mary.
+
+JOHN CAMPBELL, 2nd earl of Breadalbane (1662-1752), an eccentric
+nobleman, who was known as "Old Rag," was succeeded by his only son,
+John (c. 1696-1782). This earl was a diplomatist, being British
+ambassador to Denmark and to Russia, and a politician, being for a long
+time a member of the House of Commons and a supporter of Sir Robert
+Walpole, in addition to holding several official positions. All his sons
+having predeceased their father, the title passed on his death, on the
+26th of January 1782, to a cousin, John (1762-1834), who became 4th earl
+and was created a British peer as marquess of Breadalbane in 1831. His
+son John, the 2nd marquess (1796-1862), a prominent leader of the Free
+Church during the ecclesiastical disputes in Scotland, died without sons
+in November 1862. The marquessate now became extinct, but the Scottish
+earldom passed to a cousin John Alexander (1824-1871), whose son and
+successor, Gavin (b. 1851), was created marquess of Breadalbane in 1885.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Memoirs_ of John Macky (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 121.
+
+  [2] _Corr. of Col. N. Hooke_ (Roxburghe, Club, 1870), i. 49.
+
+  [3] Note by Sir W. Scott in Sinclair's _Mem. of Insurrection in
+    Scotland_ (Abbotsford Club, 1858), 185.
+
+
+
+
+BREADALBANE, a large district of Perthshire, Scotland, bordered N. by
+Atholl, E. by Strathtay, S. by Strathearn and W. by the districts of
+Argyll and Lorne, and occupying some 1020 sq. m. Most of the surface is
+mountainous, Ben Lawers (3984 ft.), Ben More (3843), and Ben Lui (3708),
+being the principal hills. Loch Tay is the chief lake, and among the
+rivers are the Orchy, Dochart, Lochay, Lyon, Almond and the Tay (during
+the early part of its course). Population mostly centres in Aberfeldy,
+Fortingal, Kenmore and Killin. The soil is not cultivable excepting in
+some of the glens and straths. Game is plentiful, the lakes and rivers
+afford good sport, and the deer forests and shootings are valuable. The
+district has given the titles of earl and marquess to the Campbells of
+Glenorchy.
+
+
+
+
+BREAD-FRUIT. This most important food staple of the tropical islands in
+the Pacific Ocean is the fruit of _Artocarpus incisa_ (nat. ord.
+Moraceae). The tree attains a moderate height, has very large, acutely
+lobed, glossy leaves, the male flowers in spikes, and the female flowers
+in a dense head, which by consolidation of their fleshy carpels and
+receptacles form the fruit. The fruit is globular in shape, about the
+size of a melon, with a tuberculated or (in some varieties) nearly
+smooth surface. Many varieties of the tree are cultivated, the fruits of
+some ripening numerous seeds, which are eaten as chestnuts; but in the
+best kinds the seeds are aborted, and it is only these that are highly
+prized as vegetables. The tree is a native of the South Sea Islands,
+where its fruit occupies the important position that is held by cereals
+in temperate latitudes. The fruit, which on distinct varieties ripens at
+different periods, affording a nearly constant supply throughout the
+year, is gathered for use just before it ripens, when it is found to be
+gorged with starchy matter, to which its esculent value is due. It may
+be cooked and prepared for use in a great variety of ways, the common
+practice in the South Sea Islands being to bake it entire in hot embers,
+and scoop out the interior, which when properly cooked should have a
+soft smooth consistence, fibrous only towards the heart, with a taste
+which has been compared to that of boiled potatoes and sweet milk. Of
+this fruit A.R. Wallace, in his _Malay Archipelago_, says: "With meat
+and gravy it is a vegetable superior to anything I know either in
+temperate or tropical countries. With sugar, milk, butter or treacle it
+is a delicious pudding, having a very slight and delicate but
+characteristic flavour, which, like that of good bread and potatoes, one
+never gets tired of." In the Pacific Islands the fruit is preserved for
+use by storing in pits, where the fruits ferment and resolve themselves
+into a mass similar in consistency to new cheese, in which state they
+emit an offensive odour; but after baking under hot stones they yield a
+pleasant and nutritious food. Another and more common method of
+preserving the fruit for use consists in cutting it into thin slices,
+which are dried in the sun. From such dried slices a flour is prepared
+which is useful for the preparation of puddings, bread and biscuits, or
+the slices are baked and eaten without grinding. The tree yields other
+products of economic value, such as native cloth from the fibrous inner
+bark of young trees; the wood is used for canoes and articles of
+furniture; and a kind of glue and caulking material are obtained from
+the viscid milky juice which exudes from incisions made in the stem.
+
+[Illustration: _Artocarpus incisa_, the Bread-fruit tree.
+
+  Fig. 1. Branch reduced about a 6th natural size, with cuneate-ovate
+    pinnatifid leaves, male flowers in a club-shaped deciduous catkin,
+    and female flowers in rounded clusters.
+  Fig. 2. Transverse section of the male spike with numerous flowers.
+  Fig. 3. Male flowers.
+  Fig. 4. Single male flower separated, with a perianth in 2 segments
+    and a single stamen.
+  Fig. 5. Female flowers.
+  Fig. 6. Single female flower separated, with ovary, style and bifid
+    stigma.
+  Fig. 7. Ovary.
+  Fig. 8. Ovary laid open to show the ovule.
+  Fig. 9. A variety of the ovary with 2 loculaments.
+  Fig. 10. Transverse section of a bilocular ovary.]
+
+The bread-fruit is found throughout the tropical regions of both
+hemispheres, and its first introduction into the West Indies is
+connected with the famous mutiny of the "Bounty," and the remarkable
+history of a small company of the mutineers at Pitcairn Island.
+Attention was directed to the fruit in 1688 by Captain Dampier, and
+later by Captain Cook, who recommended its transplantation to the West
+Indian colonies. In 1787 the "Bounty" was fitted out under command of
+Lieutenant William Bligh (q.v.) to proceed to Tahiti to carry plants
+thence to the West Indian Islands; and it was after the cargo had been
+secured and the vessel was on her way that the mutiny broke out, and
+Lieutenant Bligh and some of his crew were turned adrift in a small boat
+in the open sea. The mutineers returned with the vessel to Tahiti,
+whence a number of them, with a few native men and women, sailed to the
+desolate and lone islet of Pitcairn. Lieutenant Bligh ultimately reached
+England, and was again commissioned to undertake the work of
+transplanting the plants, which in the year 1792-1793 he successfully
+accomplished.
+
+A somewhat similar but inferior fruit is produced by an allied species,
+the Jack or Jak, _Artocarpus integrifolia_, growing in India, Ceylon and
+the Eastern Archipelago. The large fruit is from 12 to 18 in. long by 6
+to 8 in. in diameter, and is much eaten by the natives in India. This
+tree is chiefly valuable on account of its timber, which has a grain
+very similar to mahogany, and although at first light-coloured it
+gradually assumes much of the appearance of that wood.
+
+
+
+
+BREAKING BULK, a nautical term for the taking out of a portion of the
+cargo of a ship, or the beginning to unload; and used in a legal sense
+for taking anything out of a package or parcel, or in any way destroying
+its entirety. It was thus important in connexion with the subject of
+bailment, involving as it did the curious distinction that where a
+bailee received possession of goods in a box or package, and then sold
+them as a whole, he was guilty only of a breach of trust, but if he
+"broke bulk" or caused a separation of the goods, and sold a part or
+all, he was guilty of felony. This distinction was abolished by the
+Larceny Act 1861, which enacted that whoever, being a bailee of any
+chattel, money or valuable security, should fraudulently take or convert
+the same to his own use, or the use of any person other than the owner,
+although he should not break bulk or otherwise determine the bailment,
+should be guilty of larceny (s. 3).
+
+
+
+
+BREAKWATER. When a harbour (q.v.) is proposed to be established on an
+exposed coast, whether for naval or commercial purposes, to provide a
+protected approach to a port or river, or to serve as a refuge for
+vessels from storms, the necessary shelter, so far as it is not
+naturally furnished by a bay or projecting headlands, has to be secured
+by the construction of one or more "breakwaters." These breakwaters,
+having to prevent the waves that beat upon the coast from reaching the
+site which they are designed to protect, must be made sufficiently
+strong to withstand the shocks of the waves during the worst storms to
+which they are exposed. It is therefore essential, before constructing a
+breakwater, to investigate most carefully the force, periods and
+duration of the winds from the quarters to which the work will be
+exposed, the distance of any sheltering land from the site in the most
+stormy direction, the slope of the beach and the depth of the sea in the
+neighbourhood of the shore, and the protection, if any, afforded by
+outlying shoals or sandbanks. In a tidal sea, the height required for a
+breakwater is affected by the amount of tidal range; and the extent of
+breakwater exposed to breaking waves depends upon the difference in
+level between low and high water. The existence, also, of any drift of
+sand or shingle along the shore must be ascertained, and its extent; for
+the projection of a solid breakwater out from the shore is certain to
+affect this littoral drift, which, if large in amount, may necessitate
+important modifications in the design for the harbour.
+
+
+  Winds.
+
+Observations of the force and prevalence of the winds from the different
+quarters at the various periods of the year, and the instruments by
+which they are recorded, belong to the science of meteorology; but such
+records are very valuable to the maritime engineer in indicating from
+which directions, open to the sea, the worst storms, and, consequently,
+the greatest waves, may be expected, and against which the most
+efficient shelter has to be provided. Moreover, it is necessary, for
+constructing or repairing a breakwater, to know the period of the year
+when the calmest weather may be safely anticipated, and also the stormy
+season during which no work should be attempted, and in preparation for
+which unfinished works have to be guarded by protective measures. In the
+parts of the world subject to periodical winds, such as the monsoons,
+the direction and force of the winds vary with remarkable regularity
+according to the seasons; and even such uncertain occurrences as
+hurricanes and cyclones generally visit the regions in their track at
+definite periods of the year, according to the locality. Even in western
+Europe, where the winds are extremely variable, violent gales are much
+more liable to beat upon the western and northern coasts in the winter
+months than at any other period of the year; whilst the calmest weather
+may be expected between May and August.
+
+
+  Waves.
+
+The size of waves depends upon the force of the wind, and the distance
+along which it blows continuously, in approximately the same direction,
+over a large expanse of ocean. The greatest waves are, accordingly,
+encountered where the maximum distance in a certain direction from the
+nearest land, or, as it is termed, the "fetch," coincides with the line
+travelled by the strongest gales. The dimensions, indeed, of waves in
+the worst storms depend primarily on the extent of the sea in which they
+are raised; though in certain seas they are occasionally greatly
+increased by the exceptional velocities attained by hurricanes and
+typhoons, which, however, are fortunately restricted to fairly well
+defined and limited regions. Waves have been found to attain a maximum
+height of about 10 ft. in the Lake of Geneva, 17 ft. in the
+Mediterranean Sea, 23 ft. in the Bay of Biscay, and 40 ft. in the
+Atlantic Ocean; whilst waves of 50 to 60 ft. in height have been
+observed in the Pacific Ocean off the Cape of Good Hope, where the
+expanse of sea reaches a maximum, and the exposure to gales is complete.
+The length of large waves bears no definite relation to their height,
+and is apparently due, in the long waves often observed in exposed
+situations, to the combination of several shorter waves in their onward
+course, which is naturally dependent on the extent of the exposure. Thus
+waves about 560 ft. in length have been met with during severe gales in
+the Atlantic Ocean; whilst waves from 600 to 1000 ft. long are regarded
+as of common occurrence in the Pacific Ocean during storms.
+
+The rate of transmission of the undulation also varies with the
+exposure; for the ordinary velocity of the apparent travel of waves in
+storms has been found to amount to about 22 m. an hour in the Atlantic
+Ocean, and to attain about 27 m. an hour off Cape Horn. The large waves,
+however, observed in mid-ocean do not reach the coast, because their
+progress is checked, and their height and length reduced, by
+encountering the shelving sea-bottom, which diminishes the depth of
+water on approaching the shore; and the actual waves which have to be
+arrested by breakwaters depend on the exposure of the site, the
+existence of continuous deep water close up to the shore, and the depth
+in which the breakwater is situated. On the other hand, the height, and,
+consequently, the destructive force of waves, is increased on running up
+a funnel-shaped bay, by the increasing concentration of the waves in the
+narrowing width, just as the tidal range of a moderate tidal current is
+much augmented by its passage up the Bay of Fundy, or up the Bristol
+Channel into the Severn estuary, or by filling the shallow enclosed bay
+of St Malo. This effect is intensified when the bay faces the direction
+of the strongest winds. Thus at Wick a mass of masonry weighing 1350
+tons, placed at the head of the breakwater projecting half-way across
+the bay and facing the entrance, was moved by the waves during a violent
+storm; and a portion of Peterhead breakwater, weighing 3300 tons, was
+shifted 2 in. in 1898, indicating a wave-stroke of 2 tons per sq. ft.
+Southwesterly gales, blowing up the Gulf of Genoa, cause large waves to
+roll into the bay, reaching a height of about 21 ft. in the worst
+storms.
+
+Where outlying sandbanks stretch in front of a coast, as for instance
+the Stroombank in front of Ostend and the adjacent shore, and the
+sandbanks opposite Yarmouth sheltering Yarmouth Roads, large waves
+cannot approach the land, for they break on the sandbanks outside.
+Waves, indeed, always break when, on running up a shoaling beach, they
+reach a depth approximately equal to their height; and the largest waves
+which can reach a shore protected by intervening sandbanks, are those
+which are low enough to pass over the banks without breaking.
+
+The force of the wind, as transmitted by degrees to the sea, is
+manifested as a series of progressing undulations without any material
+displacement of the body of water, each undulation transmitting its
+accumulated force to the next in the direction the wind is blowing, till
+at last, on encountering an obstacle to its onward course, each wave, no
+longer finding any water to which to communicate its energy, deals a
+blow against the obstacle proportionate to its size and rate of
+transmission; or on reaching shoal water near the shore, the undulation
+is finally transformed into a breaking wave rushing up the sloping
+beach. till, on its energy being spent, it recoils back to the sea down
+the beach. A breaking wave concentrates its transmitted force on a
+portion of the water forming the undulation, which, consequently,
+strikes a more powerful blow over a limited area against any structure
+than the more distributed shock of a simple undulation beating against a
+vertical wall. Moreover, the recoil of broken waves down a sloping beach
+or rubble mound produces a greater scour than the simple reflection of
+an undulation from a vertical wall, especially where the depth is
+sufficient to provide a cushion of water below the undulation,
+protecting the toe of the wall from the wash of recoil.
+
+_Types of Breakwaters_.--There are three distinct types of
+breakwaters:--(1) A simple rubble or concrete-block mound; (2) a mound
+for the bottom portion, surmounted on the top by a solid superstructure
+of masonry or concrete; and (3) an upright-wall breakwater, built up
+solid from the sea-bottom to the top. The second type forms a sort of
+combination of the first and third types; and each type presents several
+varieties. In a few harbours, two different types have been adopted for
+different situations at the same place; but generally the choice of type
+is determined by the materials available at the site for the
+construction of the breakwater, the nature of the sea-bottom and the
+depth into which the breakwater has to be carried.
+
+
+    Rubble mound.
+
+  1. _Rubble and Concrete-Block Mound Breakwaters._--A rubble mound
+  consists merely of a mass of rubble stone, just as it is obtained from
+  a neighbouring quarry, tipped into the sea along a predetermined line,
+  till the mound emerges out of water. The rubble stone is deposited,
+  either from barges, as adopted for the construction of the detached
+  breakwater sheltering Plymouth Bay, or from wagons, having hinged
+  opening flaps at the bottom for dropping their load, run out from the
+  shore along staging erected in the proposed line, according to the
+  method employed for the outer breakwater enclosing Portland Harbour,
+  and the north-east breakwater at Colombo Harbour. The mound thus
+  deposited is gradually consolidated under the action of the sea; and a
+  tolerably stable form is by degrees attained by continued deposits of
+  stone. This system of construction is very wasteful of materials, and
+  can only be resorted to where extensive quarries close at hand are
+  able to furnish readily and cheaply very large quantities of stone,
+  especially where, as at Portland and Table Bay, convict labour has
+  been advantageously utilized in quarrying. When the site is very
+  exposed, the large waves in storms, dashing over a rubble-mound
+  breakwater, carry the stones on the top, if unprotected, over on to
+  the harbour slope, and in recoiling down the outer slope, draw down
+  the stones on the face, so that the top and sea slope of the mound
+  need replenishing with a fresh deposit of stones after severe storms.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Table Bay Breakwater]
+
+  Under the action of the breaking and recoiling waves, the mound
+  assumes a very flat slope on the sea side, from a few feet above
+  high-water down to several feet below low-wafer level (fig. 1). The
+  flatness of the sea slope depends on the exposure of the site, and the
+  limited size of the stones covering the outer portion of the mound;
+  and its extent increases with the range of tide, as a large tidal rise
+  exposes a greater length of slope to the action of the waves. This
+  flattening of the sea slope greatly increases the amount of stone
+  required for a rubble-mound breakwater, in proportion to the exposure
+  and the range of tide; and the amount is also affected, but in a
+  proportionately minor degree, by the depth in which the breakwater is
+  situated. In order to avoid the injuries to which an ordinary rubble
+  mound is subjected by waves, certain methods have been devised for
+  protecting the top and sea slope of the mound. For instance, the upper
+  portion of Plymouth breakwater has been covered over by granite paving
+  set in cement, to diminish the displacement of the stones by the
+  waves. Frequently, on the continent of Europe, rubble mounds have been
+  formed of materials so sorted that the smallest stones are placed in
+  the centre of the lower part of the mound, and covered over along the
+  slopes and top by layers of larger stones, increasing in size towards
+  the outer part of the mound, so that the largest stones obtainable are
+  deposited on the outside, and especially on the top and sea slope of
+  the mound. This is, no doubt, theoretically the correct method of
+  construction of rubble mounds exposed to the sea; but it involves a
+  considerable amount of trouble and expense.
+
+
+    Concrete blocks with rubble mound.
+
+  Practically the chief point of importance is to cover the outer slope
+  and the top of the mound with the largest stones that can be procured,
+  and where large stones are not readily obtainable concrete blocks
+  furnish a very convenient substitute. These blocks are generally
+  deposited as the outer covering on the top and sea slope of a rubble
+  mound, as for example at the mound breakwaters in deep water
+  sheltering Algiers harbour, and at the French parts of Cette and Bona
+  on the Mediterranean; whilst they furnish the protection of the top
+  and upper part of the sea slope of the rubble-mound extension of
+  Marseilles breakwater down to 20 ft. below sea-level. At Alexandria,
+  concrete blocks compose the outer half of the mound, sheltering the
+  inner half consisting of small rubble (fig. 2); at Biarritz the mound
+  breakwater is formed mainly of concrete blocks, with rubble stone
+  filling the interstices and on the top; whereas at the outer end of
+  the western breakwater at Port Said, protecting the entrance to the
+  Suez Canal, a bottom layer of rubble is surmounted by concrete blocks.
+  These blocks are generally deposited at random; but at Cette (fig. 3),
+  and at the breakwater in deep water at Civita Vecchia, the concrete
+  blocks covering the rubble have been laid in stepped, horizontal
+  courses. This arrangement necessitates more care and better appliances
+  in construction; but, in compensation, the blocks so placed are less
+  exposed to disturbance and injury by the waves.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Alexandria Breakwater.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Cette Breakwater.]
+
+  Concrete blocks possess the great advantages for breakwaters that they
+  can be made wherever sand and shingle can be procured, and of a size
+  only limited by the appliances which are available for handling them.
+  In fact, in places where stone of any kind is difficult to procure at
+  a reasonable cost, as for instance at Port Said, concrete blocks are
+  indispensable for the construction of breakwaters. Large concrete
+  blocks, moreover, by enabling a comparatively steep slope to be formed
+  with them on the sea side of a mound breakwater, reduce considerably
+  the amount of materials required, especially at exposed sites, and
+  also for breakwaters extended into deep water, such as those of
+  Algiers and Marseilles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG.4.--Port Said Western Breakwater.]
+
+
+    Concrete block mound.
+
+  Occasionally, in the absence of suitable rubble stone, a mound
+  breakwater has been formed entirely with concrete blocks; and of this
+  the main portion of the western breakwater at Port Said furnishes a
+  notable example (fig. 4). Sometimes, in exposed situations, the mounds
+  of the composite type of breakwaters have been constructed exclusively
+  with concrete blocks, such, for instance, as in the curved breakwater
+  protecting the outer harbour at Leghorn, and in the central breakwater
+  in deep water sheltering the harbour of St Jean de Luz, and directly
+  facing the Bay of Biscay. These large concrete blocks are deposited by
+  cranes from staging, tipped into the sea from a sloping platform on
+  barges, or floated out between pontoons, or slung out from floating
+  derricks. This last method proved so expeditious for the upper blocks
+  at Alexandria, that, in conjunction with the tipping of the lower
+  blocks from the inclined planes on the decks of barges and the deposit
+  of the rubble from hopper barges, provided also with side flaps for
+  the higher portions, the detached breakwater, nearly 2 m. long,
+  sheltering a very spacious harbour, was constructed in two years
+  (1870-1872). Sometimes, when a mound breakwater has been raised out of
+  water, advantage is taken of a calm period of the year and a low tide
+  to form large blocks of concrete within timber framing on the top of
+  the mound, so as to provide a very efficient protection.
+
+  The large masses composing mound breakwaters give them great stability
+  against the attacks of the sea; and, moreover, the wide base of the
+  mounds enables them to be deposited on a sandy or silty sea-bottom,
+  without any fear of settlement or undermining. A mound breakwater,
+  however, has the disadvantages of requiring a large amount of
+  material, and of occupying a wide space on the bed of the sea, more
+  especially where the mound consists of rubble stone and is in deep
+  water, so that the system, though simple, is costly, and is unsuited
+  for harbours where the available space to be sheltered is limited.
+  Nevertheless, a mound breakwater can be rapidly constructed by the
+  employment of a large number of barges; and by the adoption of large
+  concrete blocks, the quantity of materials and the space occupied by
+  the mound can be considerably reduced. This form of breakwater, with
+  its long outer slope exposed to breaking waves, particularly where the
+  tidal range is considerable, is, indeed, more subject to frequent
+  small injuries than the other types, but they are readily repaired;
+  and a mound is not generally liable to the serious breaches which
+  occasionally are formed in solid superstructures and upright walls in
+  exceptional storms.
+
+  2. _Breakwaters formed of a Mound surmounted by a Superstructure._--The
+  second type of breakwater consists of a mound, composed of rubble or
+  concrete blocks, or generally a combination of the two, carried up from
+  the sea-bottom, on the top of which some form of solid superstructure
+  is erected. This superstructure reduces considerably the amount of
+  materials required (which, on account of the slopes of the mound,
+  increases rapidly with the height) in proportion to the depth at which
+  the superstructure is founded; and the solid capping on the mound
+  serves also to protect the top of the mound from the action of the
+  waves. In the case, however, of a mound breakwater, portions of the
+  highest waves generally pass over the top of the mound, and also to
+  some extent expend their force in passing through the interstices
+  between the blocks; whereas a superstructure presents a solid face to
+  the impact of the waves. A superstructure, accordingly, must be very
+  strongly built in proportion to the exposure, and also to the size of
+  the waves liable to reach it, which depends upon the height and
+  flatness of the slope of the mound just in front of it on the sea side.
+  Special care, moreover, has to be taken to prevent the superstructure
+  from being undermined; for the waves in storms, dashing up against this
+  nearly vertical, solid obstacle, tend in their recoil down the face to
+  scour out the materials of the mound at the outer toe of the
+  superstructure, and thereby undermine it, especially where the
+  superstructure is founded on the mound near low-water level, and there
+  is, therefore, no adequate cushion of water above the mound to diminish
+  the effect of the recoil on the foundation.
+
+  The mound constituting the lower portion of the composite type of
+  breakwater has been formed in the same varied way as simple mound
+  breakwaters, namely, of rubble, sorted rubble, rubble protected by
+  concrete blocks, and wholly of concrete blocks. The only differences
+  introduced in the mound in this case are, that it is not carried up so
+  high, that the top portion covered by the superstructure needs no
+  further protection, and that special protection has to be provided on
+  the slope of the mound adjacent to the outer toe of the
+  superstructure.
+
+
+    Superstructures.
+
+  The forms of the superstructures exhibit considerable variations,
+  ranging from a few concrete blocks laid in courses on the top of the
+  mound, or a paving furnishing a quay protected by a narrow parapet
+  wall on the sea side, up to a large, solid structure, only differing
+  from an upright-wall breakwater in being founded upon a mound, instead
+  of on the sea-bottom. Notwithstanding, however, this great variety in
+  design, these breakwaters may be divided into two distinct classes,
+  namely, breakwaters having their superstructures founded at or near
+  low-water level, and breakwaters with superstructures founded some
+  depth below low water. The object in the first case is to lay the
+  foundations of the superstructure on the mound at the lowest level
+  consistent with building a solid structure with blocks set in mortar,
+  out of water, in the ordinary manner; and, in the second case, to stop
+  the raising of the mound at such a depth under water as to secure it
+  from displacement by the waves. In fact, the solidity and facility of
+  construction of the superstructure were the primary considerations in
+  the older form of breakwater; whereas the stability of the mound and
+  the avoidance of the undermining of the superstructure have been
+  regarded as the most important provisions in the more modern form.
+
+
+    Superstructures at low-water level.
+
+  Well-known examples of breakwaters formed of a rubble mound surmounted
+  by a superstructure founded at or near low water or sea-level, are
+  furnished by Cherbourg and Holyhead breakwaters, the inner breakwater
+  at Portland, and the breakwaters at Marseilles, Genoa, Civita Vecchia,
+  Naples, Trieste and other Mediterranean ports. The very exposed
+  breakwater at Alderney was commenced on this principle about the
+  middle of the 19th century; and the outer breakwaters at Leghorn and
+  St Jean de Luz have superstructures founded at low water on
+  concrete-block mounds.
+
+  The long, detached breakwater sheltering the series of basins formed
+  by wide projecting jetties along the sea coast at Marseilles (see
+  DOCK), is a typical instance of a breakwater where a quay has been
+  formed on the top of a sorted rubble mound, sheltered on the sea side
+  by a high wall, or narrow superstructure, founded at sea-level, and
+  protected on the sea slope of the mound from undermining by large
+  concrete blocks deposited at random (fig. 5). In this case the quay
+  has been rendered accessible for vessels on the harbour side by a quay
+  wall, formed of concrete blocks deposited one above the other,
+  providing a vertical face to a depth of about 22¾ ft. below sea-level;
+  and a similar arrangement has been adopted at Trieste, and in a less
+  effective manner at Civita Vecchia and Naples. At Marseilles, however,
+  when the breakwater reached great depths, the quay was abandoned on
+  account of the increased exposure, and the extension made of a simple
+  rubble mound, protected on the sea side, from the top down to 20 ft.
+  below sea-level, by large concrete blocks deposited at random.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Marseilles Breakwater, central portion.]
+
+  The superstructures at Holyhead and Portland, being built on the old
+  weak system of a sea wall and a harbour wall, with rubble filling
+  between, are protected on the sea side by raising the rubble against
+  them from low water up to high water of spring tides; whereas the
+  superstructure of Cherbourg breakwater, being built solid and less
+  exposed, is only protected on the sea side by large rubble and some
+  concrete blocks, forming an apron raised slightly above low water.
+  These three breakwaters are provided with a quay sheltered by a raised
+  wall or promenade on the sea side; but as the mound on the harbour
+  side is raised up to, or a little above low water, the quay is only
+  accessible for vessels near high water. This, however, is of
+  comparatively little importance, since these quays, though very useful
+  for access to the end of the breakwater in fairly calm weather, are
+  inaccessible in exposed situations with a rough sea; and quays for the
+  accommodation of vessels are better provided well within the sheltered
+  harbour.
+
+  The outer portions of the main breakwaters at Genoa and at Naples
+  (fig. 6), extending into depths of about 75 ft. and 110 ft.
+  respectively, have been provided with superstructures, similar in
+  type, but more solid than the superstructure at Marseilles; and the
+  sorted rubble mounds upon which the superstructures rest are protected
+  on the sea slope by stepped courses of concrete blocks from a depth of
+  26 ft. below sea-level, covered over at the top by a masonry apron
+  forming a prolongation of the superstructure. The outer extension of
+  the main breakwater at Civita Vecchia furnishes an interesting example
+  of a composite form of breakwater, in which the rubble mound has been
+  protected, and greatly reduced in volume and extent in deep water, by
+  stepped courses of concrete blocks carried up from near the bottom of
+  the mound (fig. 7).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--San Vincenzo Breakwater, Naples.]
+
+  The breakwaters in front of Havre, constructed in 1896-1907, for
+  sheltering the altered entrance to the port, were formed of a sorted
+  rubble mound, protected on the sea slope by concrete blocks, and
+  raised a little above low water of spring tides, upon which large
+  blocks of masonry, built on land, were deposited with their upper
+  surfaces about 18 in. above low water of neap tides. As soon as
+  settlement of the mound under the action of the sea appeared to have
+  ceased, these masonry blocks were connected together by filling the
+  spaces between them with masonry; and a solid masonry superstructure
+  was built during low tide on this foundation layer, as shown in fig.
+  8.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Civita Vecchia Outer Breakwater.]
+
+  The breakwaters constructed for forming harbours on the sea coast of
+  the United States are almost all rubble-mound breakwaters. The two old
+  detached breakwaters sheltering Delaware Harbour near the
+  south-eastern extremity of Delaware Bay, were formed of simple rubble
+  mounds raised about 13 ft. above low water; but in closing the gap
+  between them towards the close of the 19th century, the rubble mound
+  was stopped at low water, and a sort of superstructure, consisting of
+  stepped courses of large rectangular blocks of stone on the sea and
+  harbour sides, with tightly packed rubble between them and capped
+  across the top for a width of 20 ft. with a course of large blocks,
+  was raised to 14 ft. above low water, resembling, on a small scale,
+  the upper part of the Civita Vecchia mound (fig. 7). A similar
+  construction was adopted for the new breakwater formed in 1897-1901
+  for providing a harbour of refuge at the mouth of Delaware Bay; but in
+  this instance the mound was made considerably wider at the top, and
+  had to be protected along the toe of the superstructure on the sea
+  side by large stones. The same form of superstructure, also, on a
+  narrower base, was resorted to for a breakwater in deeper water at San
+  Pedro in California with satisfactory results. When, however, a
+  breakwater of the Delaware type was in progress for forming a harbour
+  of refuge in Sandy Bay, Massachusetts, in front of Rockport to the
+  north of Boston, the upper 13 ft. of the 600 ft. of completed
+  superstructure were carried away during a severe storm in 1898 leaving
+  only a portion about 5 ft. in height above low water, the average rise
+  of tide there being 8-3/5 ft. The design was, accordingly, modified in
+  1902, by commencing the stepped courses of large stones at 12 ft.
+  below mean low water on each slope, instead of at low water raising
+  this kind of superstructure to 22 ft. above low water in place of 18
+  ft., and capping the stepped courses at the top by large blocks of
+  stone, 20 ft. long and 5 ft. deep, laid across the breakwater, which
+  thus presented a marked resemblance to the upper section of the mound
+  at Civita Vecchia.
+
+
+    Superstructure below low-water level.
+
+  The breakwater at Sandy Bay just referred to, and the one at Civita
+  Vecchia, which it somewhat resembles, approximate to that class of
+  breakwater which has a superstructure founded below low-water level,
+  so far as stepped courses of blocks can be regarded as forming part of
+  a superstructure; but as the protection afforded by these courses
+  differs only in the arrangement of the blocks from that obtained by
+  blocks deposited at random, it appears expedient to restrict this
+  class to the more solid structures, resembling upright-wall
+  breakwaters, founded on a mound at some depth below low water As the
+  main object of this class of breakwater is to keep the mound below the
+  zone of disturbance by waves in severe storms, it is evident that the
+  depth at which the superstructure is founded should vary directly with
+  the exposure of the site, and inversely with the size of the materials
+  forming the mound.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Havre Breakwater.]
+
+  The depth at which waves striking against a superstructure may affect
+  a rubble mound near its toe by the recoil, has been only very
+  gradually realized. Thus, in 1847, the Alderney breakwater, though
+  fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, was begun with a superstructure
+  founded at low water of spring tides upon a rubble mound; but within
+  two years the foundations had to be carried down 12 it. below low
+  water, and this was adhered to till close to the head, though the
+  breakwater, completed in 1864, extended 4700 ft. from the shore into a
+  depth of 130 ft. at low tide, the rise of springs being 17 ft. The
+  great recoil of the waves in storms from the promenade wall on the sea
+  side of the superstructure, raised 33 ft. above low water, disturbed
+  the sea slope of the mound along the outer portion, situated in depths
+  of 80 to 130 ft. at low water, out to a distance of 90 ft. from the
+  superstructure and to a depth of 20 ft.; whilst the outer toe of the
+  superstructure was only preserved from being undermined by frequent
+  deposits of stone along the sea face.
+
+  The south-west breakwater at Colombo Harbour, constructed in
+  1876-1884, facing the seas raised by the south-west monsoon, extends
+  into a depth of 39 ft. at low water, where the rise of tide is only 2
+  ft. at springs, and was built with a superstructure founded upon a
+  rubble mound at a depth of 20 ft. below low water, but raised only 12
+  ft. above this level without any parapet, and protected along its sea
+  face by an apron of concrete in bags. In this case, not only was the
+  depth of the sea much less than at Alderney, but the small elevation
+  of the superstructure above low water enabled a portion of the waves
+  in storms to pass over it without materially impairing the shelter
+  inside. These circumstances reduced the shock and recoil of the waves;
+  and the greater depth of the foundations and the protection of the toe
+  of the superstructure greatly diminished the danger of undermining.
+  Consequently, the Colombo breakwater has been preserved from the
+  injuries to which the outer part of the Alderney breakwater succumbed.
+  Nevertheless, in subsequently constructing the north-west detached
+  breakwater, less exposed to the south-west monsoon, but in somewhat
+  deeper water (see COLOMBO), the experience of the action of the sea on
+  the south-west breakwater led to the laying of the foundations of the
+  superstructure on the rubble mound at 30¾ ft. below low water (fig.
+  9).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Colombo North-West Breakwater.]
+
+  The breakwater for sheltering Peterhead Bay, where the rise of springs
+  is 11¼ ft., was begun in 1888, and designed to extend into a depth of
+  9½ fathoms at low water (see HARBOUR). It was built as an upright wall
+  upon the rocky bottom for 1000 ft. from the shore; but owing to the
+  increase in depth it was decided to construct the outer portion with a
+  rubble base, surmounted by a superstructure originally designed to be
+  founded 30 ft. below low water. As, however, during a storm in October
+  1898, the recoil of the waves from the breakwater, which is provided
+  with a promenade wall rising about 35 ft. above low water, disturbed
+  rubble to a depth of 36½ ft., the superstructure has been founded 43
+  ft. below low water on the rubble base; and its outer toe is protected
+  from being undermined by two rows of concrete blocks on the rubble
+  mound.
+
+
+    Construction of the superstructure.
+
+  Formerly, in constructing a large superstructure upon a rubble mound,
+  it was a common practice to build a sea wall and a harbour wall
+  several feet apart, and to fill up the intermediate,. space between
+  them with rubble, so as economically to form a wide structure on the
+  top of the mound, and provide an adequate width for a quay along the
+  top. A sheltering wall was also generally erected on the sea side.
+  This, for instance, was the system of construction adopted for the
+  superstructures, founded at low water, of Holyhead breakwater,
+  Portland inner breakwater, and St Catherine's, Jersey, breakwater.
+  Alderney breakwater, the Tyne breakwaters and Colombo south-west
+  breakwater were also commenced with a precisely similar method of
+  construction. The system, however, possesses a Very serious defect for
+  exposed situations, namely, that if once the sea can force a small
+  opening through the sea wall, the scooping out of the rubble filling,
+  and the overthrow of the thinner harbour wall are rapidly accomplished
+  if the storm continues or recurs before repairs can be effected.
+  Experience soon proved at Alderney and Tynemouth the unsuitability of
+  the system for very exposed situations; and the intermediate rubble
+  filling was replaced by solid hearting down to a certain depth. At
+  Colombo, after the first 1326 ft. of the south-west breakwater had
+  been built with two walls and intermediate rubble for the
+  superstructure, as the exposure proved greater than had been
+  anticipated, and a slight displacement of part of the sea wall, 24 ft.
+  wide, had occurred, the rubble filling was discontinued, and the two
+  walls were united into a solid superstructure 34 ft. in width.
+
+
+    sloping block system.
+
+  A difficulty experienced in constructing a solid superstructure on the
+  top of a rubble mound consists in the settlement of the mound which
+  takes place when the weight of the superstructure comes on it, in
+  spite of the consolidation of the rubble under the action of the sea
+  for one or two years before the erection of the superstructure on it
+  is undertaken. When the superstructure is carried out in long
+  stepped-forward courses, irregular settlement is particularly liable
+  to occur, as the weight is progressively imposed in an uneven manner
+  on the yielding rubble, in proportion to the height of the rubble base
+  and its deficiency in compactness. The open joints between the blocks
+  laid below low water enable the air to penetrate, on the recoil of the
+  waves at low tide, into any internal fissures resulting from
+  settlement; and the following wave, on striking the superstructure,
+  compresses the air inside, which, on its expansion when the wave
+  recedes, forces out any unconnected face stones. The hole thus formed
+  is rapidly enlarged by the sea if the storm continues; and a breach is
+  eventually formed. The sloping-block system was, accordingly devised
+  to provide against the dislocation of superstructures by the
+  inevitable irregular settlement, by forming them of a series of
+  sloping sections, composed of concrete blocks laid at an angle, free
+  to settle independently on the mound, as shown in fig. 10. In the
+  first superstructure thus constructed, in 1869-1874, at the entrance
+  to Karachi harbour, founded 15 ft. below low water on a rubble mound
+  and 24 ft. high, the blocks in each section, consisting of two rows of
+  three superposed blocks laid at an inclination of 76° shorewards, were
+  entirely unconnected; and, consequently, though the superstructure
+  offered as little opposition as practicable to the waves by having its
+  top slightly below high water, the waves in a storm forcing their way
+  into the vertical joint between the two rows, threw some of the top
+  27-ton blocks of the inner row down on the harbour slope of the mound.
+  This cause of damage was obviated in effecting the repairs, by
+  connecting the top blocks with the next ones by stone dowels. The
+  superstructures of the breakwaters forming Madras harbour, commenced
+  in 1876, were similarly constructed in sloping, independent sections,
+  4½ ft. thick, composed of two distinct rows of four tiers of blocks
+  founded upon a rubble mound 22 ft. below low water (the rise of tide
+  at springs being 3-1/3 ft.), and raised 3½ ft. above high water. The
+  blocks in each row were connected by a tenon, projecting at the top of
+  each block, fitting into a mortise in the block above it. The
+  retention of the vertical joint however, between the two rows led to
+  the overthrow of the greater part of the superstructures of the outer
+  arms at Madras, situated in a depth of 45 ft. and facing the Indian
+  Ocean, during a cyclone of 1881. In the reconstruction of these
+  superstructures, bond was introduced in the successive tiers of each
+  sloping section; and the blocks of the two upper tiers were cramped
+  together. Alter settlement on the mound had ceased, a thick capping of
+  mass concrete was laid all along the top of the superstructure; and,
+  finally, a mound of concrete blocks was deposited at random on the
+  mound in front of the sea face of the superstructure to break the
+  force of the waves and prevent undermining. A similar wave-breaker,
+  with blocks somewhat specially arranged, was deposited in front of the
+  sloping concrete-block superstructure of the breakwater sheltering the
+  Portuguese harbour of Marmagao on the west coast of India, more
+  particularly with the object of preventing the undermining of the
+  superstructure founded only 18 ft. below low water of spring tides, on
+  a layer of rubble spread on the muddy sea-bottom, the settlement in
+  this case being occasioned by the yielding of the soft clay bed. This
+  breakwater having been commenced in 1884, subsequently to the failure
+  at Madras, the superstructure, formed of concrete blocks weighing 28½
+  to 37½ tons was built in accordance with the design adopted for the
+  reconstructed outer arms at Madras, with the exceptions that the
+  separate sections were given a slope of 70° instead of 76° shorewards
+  to ensure greater stability, that the superstructure was made 30 ft in
+  width instead of 24 ft., that the top tier of blocks in each section
+  was secured to the next tier by two dowels, each formed of a bundle of
+  four rails, penetrating 3½ ft. into each tier, so as to enable the top
+  courses to be more correctly aligned than with tenons and mortises,
+  and that the outer side of the continuous concrete-in-mass capping was
+  raised about 22 ft. above low water (fig. 11). The rise of spring
+  tides at Marmagao is 6 ft.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Colombo North-West Breakwater with Titan
+  Crane.]
+
+  At Colombo the superstructures of both the south-west and north-west
+  breakwaters were built on the sloping-block system in sections 5½ ft.
+  thick, and built at an angle of 68° shorewards (fig. 10); and the
+  blocks, from 16½ to 31 tons in weight, were laid in bonded courses
+  across each section, with four tiers of blocks in the south-west
+  breakwater founded 20 ft. below low water on the rubble mound, and six
+  tiers of blocks in the north-west breakwater, founded 30¾ ft below low
+  water. Five oblong grooves, moreover, were formed in moulding the
+  blocks, in the adjacent faces of each sloping section, extending from
+  top to bottom of the sections. These, when settlement on the mound had
+  ceased, were filled with concrete in bags which not only connected the
+  tiers of blocks in each section together, but also joined the several
+  sections to one another, and effectually closed the transverse joints
+  between the successive sections, which were further connected together
+  by a continuous capping of concrete-in-mass along the whole length of
+  the breakwater.
+
+  These sloping blocks are laid by powerful overhanging, block-setting
+  cranes, called Titans (see CRANES), which travel along the completed
+  portion of the breakwater, and lay the blocks in advance on the mound
+  levelled by divers, as shown in fig. 10. The earlier Titans, employed
+  for the sloping-block superstructures at Karachi and Madras, were
+  constructed to travel only backwards and forwards on the completed
+  work, with sufficient sideways movement of the little trolley
+  travelling along the overhanging arm, from which the block is
+  suspended at the proper angle, to lay the blocks for each side of the
+  superstructure. In later forms, however, such for instance as the
+  Titan laying the 14-ton blocks at Peterhead breakwater in horizontal
+  courses, the overhanging arm is supported centrally on a ring of
+  rollers, placed on the top of the truck on which the Titan travels, so
+  that it can revolve and deposit blocks at the side of the
+  superstructure for protecting the mound, as well as in advance of the
+  finished work. These Titans possess the important advantage over the
+  timber staging formerly employed for such breakwaters, that, in
+  exposed situations, they can be moved back into shelter on the
+  approach of a storm, or for the winter or stormy months, instead of,
+  as in the case of staging, remaining out exposed to the danger of
+  being carried away during stormy weather, or necessitating loss of
+  time in erection at the beginning of the working season.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Marmagao Breakwater.]
+
+  Though composite breakwaters are still occasionally constructed with a
+  superstructure founded on a rubble mound at, or above, low-water
+  level, these breakwaters are now almost always constructed with the
+  superstructure founded at some depth below low water, even at harbours
+  on the continent of Europe, where formerly broad quays founded at
+  sea-level, protected by a parapet wall and outer concrete blocks, were
+  the regular form of superstructure adopted. The breakwater for the
+  extension of the harbour at Naples provides an interesting example of
+  this change of design. A solid superstructure, formed of large
+  concrete blocks capped with masonry, about 50 ft. wide at the base, is
+  laid on a high rubble mound at a depth of 31 ft. below mean sea-level,
+  and provides a quay on the top, 24½ ft. wide, protected on the sea
+  side by a promenade wall, 10 ft. high and 12½ ft. wide at the top,
+  raised 19-2/3 ft. above sea-level (fig. 12). In view of the increased
+  depth at which superstructures are now founded upon rubble mounds,
+  causing the breakwaters to approximate more and more to the
+  upright-wall type, it might seem at first sight that the rubble base
+  might be dispensed with, and the superstructure founded directly on
+  the bed of the sea. Two circumstances, however, still render the
+  composite form of breakwater indispensable in certain cases: (1) the
+  great depth into which breakwaters have sometimes to extend, reaching
+  about 56 ft. below low water at Peterhead, and 102 ft. below mean
+  sea-level at Naples; and (2) the necessity, where the sea-bottom is
+  soft or liable: to be eroded by scour, of interposing a wide base
+  between the upright superstructure and the bed of the sea.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Naples Harbor Extension Breakwater.]
+
+  The injuries to which composite breakwaters appear to have been
+  specially subject must be attributed to the greater exposure and depth
+  of the sites in which they have been frequently constructed, as
+  compared with rubble mounds or upright walls. The latter types,
+  indeed, are not well suited for erection in deep water, in the first
+  case, on account of the very large quantity of materials required for
+  a high mound with flat slopes, and in the second, owing to the
+  increased pressure of air under which divers have to work in laying
+  blocks for an upright wall in deep water. The ample depth in which
+  superstructures are founded, the due protection afforded to their
+  outer toe, the adoption of the sloping-block system for their
+  construction, and the dispensing in most cases with a high sheltering
+  wall on the sea side of the superstructure, render modern
+  superstructures as stable as upright-wall breakwaters of similar
+  height. Nevertheless, superstructures require to be given a greater
+  thickness than similar upright walls, because the greater depth of
+  water in which such composite breakwaters are built causes them to be
+  exposed to larger waves under similar conditions.
+
+  The superstructures of composite breakwaters erected by the United
+  States for harbours on the shores of Lake Superior were formerly in
+  some cases composed of timber cribs floated into position and sunk by
+  filling them with rubble stone. On account of the cheapness of timber
+  several years ago in those regions, this simple mode of construction
+  was also economical, even though the rapid decay of the timber in the
+  portions of the cribs where it was alternately wet and dry involved
+  its renewal about every fifteen years on the average. Owing, however,
+  to the fact that the price of timber has increased considerably,
+  whilst that of Portland cement has been reduced, durable concrete
+  superstructures are beginning to be substituted for the rapidly
+  decaying cribwork structures.
+
+  With the exception perhaps of the Alderney breakwater, which, owing to
+  its exceptional exposure and the unparalleled depth into which it
+  extended, had its superstructure so often breached by the sea that,
+  owing to the cost of maintenance, the inner portion only has been kept
+  in repair, the composite breakwater of Bilbao harbour has probably
+  proved the most difficult to construct on account of its great
+  exposure. The original design consisted of a wide rubble mound up to
+  about 16½ ft. below low water, a mound of large concrete blocks up to
+  low water of equinoctial spring tides, and a solid masonry
+  superstructure well protected at its outer toe by a projection of
+  masonry, and raised several feet above high water, forming a quay
+  sheltered by a promenade wall. The rise of equinoctial spring tides at
+  the mouth of the river Nervion is 14¾ ft. In carrying out the work,
+  however, the superstructure built in the summer months was for the
+  most part destroyed by the following winter storms; and, accordingly,
+  the superstructure was eventually constructed on a widened rubble
+  base, so as to be sheltered to some extent by the outlying
+  concrete-block mound already deposited, a system subsequently adopted
+  in rebuilding the damaged portion of the North Pier at Tynemouth under
+  shelter of the ruins of the previous work. The modified superstructure
+  of the Bilbao breakwater was founded on the extended rubble mound at a
+  depth of 16¼ ft. below low water, and formed of iron caissons
+  partially filled with concrete and floated out, sunk in position, and
+  filled up with concrete blocks and concrete. It thus consists of a
+  continuous row of concrete blocks, each of them being 42-2/3 ft. in
+  width across the breakwater, 23 ft. in length along the line of the
+  breakwater, 23 ft. high, and weighing 1400 tons. These caisson blocks,
+  raised 6¾ ft. above low water, form the base of the superstructure,
+  upon which the upper part was built of concrete blocks on each face
+  with mass concrete filling between them, forming a continuous quay, 24
+  ft. wide, raised 8 ft. above high tide, and slightly sheltered by a
+  curved parapet block only 5 ft. high. The outer toe of the caisson
+  blocks is protected from being undermined by two tiers of large
+  concrete blocks laid flat on the rubble mound. This superstructure has
+  successfully resisted the attacks of the Atlantic waves rolling into
+  the bay. At this breakwater and at Tynemouth advantage has been taken
+  of the protection unintentionally provided by previous failures, by
+  which the waves are broken before reaching the superstructure and pier
+  respectively; but instead of introducing a wave-breaker of concrete
+  blocks, for a protection to the superstructure, as arranged at
+  Marmagao (fig. 11) and the outer arms at Madras, it would appear
+  preferable to increase the width of the solid superstructure, if
+  necessary, as carried out at Naples (fig. 12). and to dispense with a
+  parapet and keep the superstructure low, as being unsuitable for a
+  quay in exposed situations, according to the plan adopted at Colombo
+  (fig. 9).
+
+  3. _Upright-Wall Breakwaters._--The third type of breakwater consists
+  of a solid structure founded directly on the sea-bottom, in the form
+  of an upright wall, with only a moderate batter on each face. This
+  form of breakwater is strictly limited to sites where the bed of the
+  sea consists of rock, chalk, boulders, or other hard bottom not
+  subject to erosion by scour, and where the depth does not exceed about
+  40 to 50 ft. If a solid breakwater were erected on a soft yielding
+  bottom, it would be exposed to dislocation from irregular settlement;
+  and such a structure, by obstructing or diverting the existing
+  currents, tends to create a scour along its base; whilst the waves in
+  recoiling from its sea face are very liable to produce erosion of the
+  sea-bottom along its outer toe. Moreover, when the foundations for an
+  upright-wall breakwater have to be levelled by divers, and the blocks
+  laid under water by their help, the extension of such a breakwater
+  into a considerable depth is undesirable on account of the increased
+  pressure imposed upon diving operations.
+
+  The Admiralty pier at Dover was begun about the middle of the 19th
+  century, and furnishes an early and notable example of an upright-wall
+  breakwater resting upon a hard chalk bottom; and it was subsequently
+  extended to a depth of about 42 ft. at low tide, in connexion with
+  the works for forming a closed naval harbour at Dover. This
+  breakwater, the Prince of Wales pier of the commercial harbour, and
+  the eastern breakwater and detached south breakwater for the naval
+  harbour, were all founded on a levelled bottom, carried down to the
+  hard chalk underlying the surface layer, by means of men in
+  diving-bells. The extension of the Admiralty pier and the other
+  breakwaters of Dover harbour consist of bonded courses of concrete
+  blocks, from 26 to 40 tons in weight, as shown in figs. 13 and 14, the
+  outer blocks above low water being formed on their exposed side with a
+  facing of granite rubble. The blocks, composed of six parts of sand
+  and stones to one part of Portland cement, moulded in frames, and left
+  to set thoroughly in the block-yard before being used, are all joggled
+  together, and above low-water level are bedded in cement and the
+  joints filled with cement grout. The blocks were laid by Goliath
+  travelling cranes running on temporary staging supported at intervals
+  of 50¼ ft. by clusters of iron piles carried down into the chalk
+  bottom. On each line of staging there were four Goliaths, preceded by
+  a stage-erecting machine. The front Goliath was used for working a
+  grab for excavating the surface layer of chalk, which was finally
+  levelled by divers, the second for carrying the diving-bell, the third
+  for laying the blocks below low water, and the fourth for setting the
+  blocks above low water. This succession of Goliaths enabled more rapid
+  progress to be made than with a single Titan at the end of a
+  breakwater; but it involved a considerable increase in the cost of the
+  plant, owing to the temporary staging required. The foundations were
+  carried down from 4 to 6 ft. into the chalk bottom, the deepest being
+  53 ft. below low water of spring tides, and the average 47 ft. With a
+  rise of tide at springs of 18¾ ft., the average depth is thus
+  approximately 66 ft. at high tide, necessitating a pressure of 29 lb.
+  on the square inch, which is the limit at which men can work without
+  inconvenience in the diving-bells. The breakwaters are raised about 11
+  ft. above high water of springs. The detached southern breakwater was
+  finished off at this level; but the extended western breakwater, or
+  Admiralty pier, is provided with a promenade parapet on its exposed
+  side, rising 13 ft. above the quay; and the eastern breakwater also
+  has a parapet on its exposed eastern side, raised, however, only 9 ft.
+  above its quay. The breakwaters are protected from scour along their
+  outer toe by an apron of concrete blocks, extending 25 ft. out from
+  their sea face.
+
+  [Illustration: Dover Breakwater.
+
+  FIG. 13. South Breakwater.
+
+  FIG. 14. Admiralty Pier Extension.]
+
+
+    Concrete bag foundations.
+
+  The levelling of the foundations for laying the courses of an
+  upright-wall breakwater is costly and tedious, even in chalk; and the
+  expense and delay are considerably enhanced where the bottom is hard
+  rock. Accordingly, in constructing two breakwaters at the entrance to
+  Aberdeen harbour on a bottom of granite in 1870-1877, concrete bags
+  were laid on the sea-bed; and these bags, by adapting themselves to
+  the rocky irregularities, obviated levelling the bottom. They formed
+  the foundation for the concrete blocks in the south breakwater; and by
+  the deposit of successive layers of 50-ton concrete bags till they
+  rose above low water, they constituted the whole of the submerged
+  portion of the north breakwater. The 50-ton bags were deposited from
+  hopper barges towed out to the site; and the portions of both
+  breakwaters above low water were carried up with mass concrete.
+  Subsequently, the breakwater at Newhaven was constructed on a
+  foundation of chalk, with lop-ton concrete bags up to low water, and
+  mass concrete above. Still later, the two breakwaters sheltering the
+  approach to the river Wear (see HARBOUR) and the Sunderland docks were
+  built with a foundation mound of concrete in bags, 56 to 116 tons in
+  weight, on the uneven sea-bottom, raised slightly above low water of
+  spring tides, on which a solid upright wall was erected, formed of
+  concrete blocks on each side faced with granite, filled in the centre
+  and capped on the top with mass concrete. The most exposed northern
+  Roker breakwater, raised about 11 ft. above high water of springs
+  where the rise is 14 ft. 5 in., is devoid of a parapet; but a subway
+  formed near the top in each breakwater gives access to the light on
+  the pierhead in stormy weather (fig. 15). These concrete bags are made
+  by lining the hopper of the barge with jute canvas, which receives the
+  concrete and is sewn up to form a bag whilst the barge is being towed
+  to the site. The concrete is thus deposited unset, and readily
+  accommodates itself to the irregularities of the bottom or of the
+  mound of bags; and sufficient liquid grout oozes out of the canvas
+  when the bag is compressed, to unite the bags into a solid mass, so
+  that with the mass concrete on the top, the breakwater forms a
+  monolith. This system has been extended to the portion of the
+  superstructure of the eastern, little-exposed breakwater of Bilbao
+  harbour below low water, where the rubble mound is of moderate height;
+  but this application of the system appears less satisfactory, as
+  settlement of the superstructure on the mound would produce cracks in
+  the set concrete in the bags.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Sunderland Southern Breakwater.]
+
+
+    Foundations with large blocks.
+
+  Foundation blocks of 2500 to 3000 tons have been deposited for raising
+  the walls on each side of the wide portion of the Zeebrugge breakwater
+  (fig. 16) from the sea-bottom to above low water, and also 4400-ton
+  blocks along the narrow outer portion (see HARBOUR), by building iron
+  caissons, open at the top, in the dry bed of the Bruges ship-canal,
+  lining them with concrete, and after the canal was filled with water,
+  floating them out one by one in calm weather, sinking them in position
+  by admitting water, and then filling them with concrete under water
+  from closed skips which open at the bottom directly they begin to be
+  raised. The firm sea-bed is levelled by small rubble for receiving the
+  large blocks, whose outer toe is protected from undermining by a layer
+  of big blocks of stone extending out for a width of 50 ft.; and then
+  the breakwater walls are raised above high water by 55-ton concrete
+  blocks, set in cement at low tide; and the upper portions are
+  completed by concrete-in-mass within framing.
+
+
+    Concrete monoliths.
+
+  Sometimes funds are not available for a large plant; and in such cases
+  small upright-wall breakwaters may be constructed in a moderate depth
+  of water on a hard bottom of rock, chalk or boulders, by erecting
+  timber framing in suitable lengths, lining it inside with jute cloth,
+  and then depositing concrete below low water in closed hopper skips
+  lowered to the bottom before releasing the concrete, which must be
+  effected with great care to avoid allowing the concrete to fall
+  through the water. The portion of the breakwater above low water is
+  then raised by tide-work with mass concrete within frames, in which
+  large blocks of stone may be bedded, provided they do not touch one
+  another and are kept away from the face, which should be formed with
+  concrete containing a larger proportion of cement. As long continuous
+  lengths of concrete crack across under variations in temperature, it
+  is advisable to form fine straight divisions across the upper part of
+  a concrete breakwater in construction, as substitutes for irregular
+  cracks.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Zeebrugge Harbour Breakwater with Quay.]
+
+  Upright-wall breakwaters should not be formed with two narrow walls
+  and intermediate filling, as the safety of such a breakwater depends
+  entirely on the sea-wall being maintained intact. A warning of the
+  danger of this system of construction, combined with a high parapet,
+  was furnished by the south breakwater of Newcastle harbour in Dundrum
+  Bay, Ireland, which was breached by a storm in 1868, and eventually
+  almost wholly destroyed; whilst its ruins for many years filled up the
+  harbour which it had been erected to protect. In designing its
+  reconstruction in 1897, it was found possible to provide a solid
+  upright wall of suitable strength with the materials scattered over
+  the harbour, together with an extension needed for providing proper
+  protection at the entrance. This work was completed in 1906.
+
+  Upright-wall breakwaters and superstructures are generally made of the
+  same thickness throughout, irrespective of the differences in depth
+  and exposure which are often met with in different parts of the same
+  breakwater. This may be accounted for by the general custom of
+  regarding the top of an upright wall or superstructure as a quay,
+  which should naturally be given a uniform width; and this view has
+  also led to the very general practice of sheltering the top of these
+  structures with a parapet. Generally the width is proportioned to the
+  most exposed part, so that the only result is an excess of
+  expenditure in the inner portion to secure uniformity. When, however,
+  as at Madras, the width of the structure is reduced to a minimum, the
+  action of the sea demonstrates that the strength of the structure must
+  be proportioned to the depth and exposure. In small fishery piers,
+  where great economy is essential to obtain the maximum shelter at
+  limited expense, it appears expedient to make the width of the
+  breakwater proportionate to the depth. This was done in Babbacombe
+  Bay; and in reconstructing the southern breakwater at Newcastle,
+  Ireland, advantage was taken of a change in direction of the outer
+  half to introduce an addition to the width, so as to make the strength
+  of the breakwater proportionate to the increase in depth and exposure.
+  In large structures, however, uniformity of design may be desirable
+  for each straight length of breakwater; though where two or more
+  breakwaters or outer arms enclose a harbour, the design should
+  obviously be modified to suit the depth and exposure. At Colombo
+  harbour, the superstructure of the less exposed north-west breakwater
+  has been made slightly narrower than that of the south-west
+  breakwater; and a simple rubble mound shelters the harbour from the
+  moderate north-east monsoon. In special cases, where a breakwater has
+  to serve as a quay, like the Admiralty pier at Dover, a high parapet
+  wall is essential; but in most cases, where a parapet merely enables
+  the breakwater to be more readily accessible in moderate weather, it
+  would be advisable to keep it very low, or to dispense with it
+  altogether, as at the southern Dover breakwater, the northern
+  breakwater at Sunderland, and the Colombo western breakwaters. This
+  course is particularly expedient in very exposed sites, as a high
+  parapet intensifies the shock of the waves against a breakwater and
+  their erosive recoil. Moreover, when a light has to be attended to at
+  the end of a breakwater, sheltered access can be provided by a subway,
+  as at Sunderland.
+
+  Structures in the sea almost always require works of maintenance; and
+  when a severe storm has caused any injury, it is most important to
+  carry out the repairs at the earliest available moment, as the waves
+  rapidly enlarge any holes that they may have formed in weak places.
+      (L. F. V.-H.)
+
+
+
+
+BRÉAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED (1832-   ), French philologist, was born on
+the 26th of March 1832, at Landau in Rhenish Bavaria, of French parents.
+After studying at Weissenburg, Metz and Paris, he entered the École
+Normale in 1852. In 1857 he went to Berlin, where he studied Sanskrit
+under Bopp and Weber. On his return to France he obtained an appointment
+in the department of oriental MSS. at the Bibliothèque Impériale. In
+1864 he became professor of comparative grammar at the Collège de
+France, in 1875 member of the Académie des Inscriptions et
+Belles-lettres, in 1879 _inspecteur-général_ of public instruction for
+higher schools until the abolition of the office in 1888. In 1890 he was
+made commander of the Legion of Honour. Among his works, which deal
+mainly with mythological and philological subjects, may be mentioned:
+_L'Étude des origines de la religion Zoroastrienne_ (1862), for which a
+prize was awarded him by the Académie des Inscriptions; _Hercule et
+Cacus_ (1863), in which he disputes the principles of the symbolic
+school in the interpretation of myths; _Le Mythe d'Oedipe_ (1864); _Les
+Tables Eugubines_ (1875); _Mélanges de mythologie et de linguistique_
+(2nd. ed., 1882); _Leçons de mots_ (1882,1886), _Dictionnaire
+étymologique latin_ (1885) and _Grammaire latine_ (1890). His _Essai de
+Sémantique_ (1897), on the signification of words, has been translated
+into English by Mrs H. Cust with preface by J.P. Postgate. His
+translation of Bopp's _Comparative Grammar_ (1866-1874), with
+introductions, is highly valued. He has also written pamphlets on
+education in France, the teaching of ancient languages, and the reform
+of French orthography. In 1906 he published _Pour mieux connaître
+Homère_.
+
+
+
+
+BREAM (_Abramis_), a fish of the Cyprinid family, characterized by a
+deep, strongly compressed body, with short dorsal and long anal fins,
+the latter with more than sixteen branched rays, and the small inferior
+mouth. There are two species in the British Isles, the common bream, _A.
+brama_, reaching a length of 2 ft. and a weight of 12 lb., and the white
+bream or bream flat, _A. blicca_, a smaller and, in most places, rarer
+species. Both occur in slow-running rivers, canals, ponds and
+reservoirs. Bream are usually despised for the table in England, but
+fish from large lakes, if well prepared, are by no means deserving of
+ostracism. In the days of medieval abbeys, when the provident Cistercian
+monks attached great importance to pond culture, they gave the first
+place to the tench and bream, the carp still being unknown in the
+greater part of Europe. At the present day, the poorer Jews in large
+English cities make a great consumption of bream--and other Cyprinids,
+most of them being imported alive from Holland and sold in the Jewish
+fish markets. In America the name bream is commonly given to the golden
+shiner minnow (_Abramis chrysoleucus_), to the pumpkin-seed sunfish
+(_Eupomotis gibbosus_), and to some kinds of porgy (_Sparidae_).
+
+
+
+
+BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, of the Ger. _Brust_,
+possibly connected with an O. Sax. _brustian_, to bud), the term
+properly confined to the external projecting parts of the thorax in
+females, which contain the mammary glands (for anatomy, and diseases,
+see MAMMARY GLAND); more generally it is used of the external part of
+the thorax in animals, including man, lying between the neck and the
+abdomen.
+
+
+
+
+BREAUTÉ, FALKES DE (d. 1226), one of the foreign mercenaries of King
+John of England, from whom he received in marriage the heiress of the
+earldom of Devon. On the outbreak of the Barons' War (1215) the king
+gave him the sheriffdoms of six midland shires and the custody of many
+castles. He fulfilled his military duties with as much skill as cruelty.
+The royalists owed to his daring the decisive victory of Lincoln (1217).
+But after the death of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, Falkes joined
+the feudal opposition in conspiring against Hubert de Burgh. Deprived in
+1223 of most of his honours, he was drawn into a rebellion by the
+imprudence of his brother, who captured a royal justice and threw him
+into prison (1224). Falkes was allowed to go into exile after his
+submission, and endeavoured to obtain a pardon through the mediation of
+Pope Honorius III. But this was refused, and Falkes died at St Cyriac in
+1226.
+
+  See Shirley, _Royal Letters_, vol. i.; the _Patent_ and _Close Rolls_;
+  Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, vol. i. pp. 540-545.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BRECCIA, in petrology, the name given to rocks consisting of angular
+fragments embedded in a matrix. They may be composed of volcanic rocks,
+limestones, siliceous charts, sandstones, in fact of any kind of
+material, and the matrix, which usually corresponds to some extent to
+the fragments it encloses, may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous,
+&c. The distinctive character of the group is the sharp-edged and unworn
+shapes of the fragments; in conglomerates the pebbles are rounded and
+water-worn, having been transported by waves and currents from some
+distance. There are many ways in which breccias may originate. Some are
+formed by ordinary processes of atmospheric erosion; frost, rain and
+gravity break up exposed surfaces of rock and detach pieces of all
+sizes; in this way screes are formed at the bases of cliffs, and barren
+mountain-tops are covered with broken debris. If such accumulations
+gather and are changed into hard rock by pressure and other indurating
+agencies they make typical breccias. Conglomerates often pass into rocks
+of this type, the difference being merely that the fragments are of
+purely local origin, and are unworn because they have not been
+transported. In caves breccias of limestone are produced by the collapse
+of part of the roof, covering the floor with broken masses. Coral reefs
+often contain extensive areas of limestone breccia, formed of detached
+pieces of rock which have been dislodged from the surface and have been
+carried down the steep external slopes of the reef. Volcanic breccias
+are very common near active or extinct craters, as sudden outbursts of
+steam bear fragments from the older rocks and scatter them over the
+ground.
+
+Another group of breccias is due to crushing; these are produced in
+fissures, faults and veins, below the surface, and maybe described as
+"crush-breccias" and "friction-breccias." Very important and well-known
+examples of this class occur as veinstones, which may be metalliferous
+or not. A fissure is formed, probably by slight crustal movements, and
+is subsequently filled with material deposited from solution (quartz,
+calcite, barytes, &c.). Very often displacement of the walls again takes
+place, and the infilling or "veinstone" is torn apart and brecciated. It
+may then be cemented together by a further introduction of mineral
+matter, which may be the same as that first deposited or quite
+different. In important veins this process is often repeated several
+times: detached pieces of the country rock are mingled with the
+shattered veinstone, and generally experience alteration by the
+percolating mineral solutions. Other crush-breccias occurring on a much
+larger scale are due to the folding of strata which have unequal
+plasticities. If, for example, shales and sandstones are bent into a
+series of arches, the sandstones being harder and more resistant will
+tend to crack, while the shales, which are soft and flow under great
+pressures, are injected into the crevices and separate the broken pieces
+from one another. Continued movement will give the brecciated fragments
+of sandstone a rounded form by rubbing them against one another, and, in
+this way, a crush-conglomerate is produced. Great masses of limestone in
+the Alps, Scottish Highlands, and all regions of intense folding are
+thus converted into breccias. Cherts frequently also show this
+structure; igneous rocks less commonly do so; but it is perhaps most
+common where there have been thin bedded alternations of rocks of
+different character, such as limestone and dolerite, limestone and
+quartzite, shale or phyllite and sandstone. Fault-breccias closely
+resemble vein-breccias, except that usually their fragments consist
+principally of the rocks which adjoin the fault and not of mineral
+deposits introduced in solution; but many veins occupy faults, and hence
+no hard and fast line can be drawn between these types of breccia.
+
+A third group of breccias is due to movement in a partly consolidated
+igneous rock, and may be called "fluxion-breccias." Lava streams,
+especially when they consist of rhyolite, dacite and some kinds of
+andesite, may rapidly solidify, and then become exceedingly brittle. If
+any part of the mass is still liquid, it may break up the solid crust by
+pressure from within and the angular fragments are enveloped by the
+fluid lava. When the whole comes to rest and cools, it forms a typical
+"volcanic-fluxion-breccia." The same phenomena are sometimes exemplified
+in intrusive sills and sheets. The fissures which are occupied by
+igneous dikes may be the seat of repeated injections following one
+another at longer or shorter intervals; and the latter may shatter the
+earlier dike rocks, catching up the fragments. Among the older
+formations, especially when decomposition has gone on extensively, these
+fluxion and injection-breccias are often very hard to distinguish from
+the commoner volcanic-breccias and ash-beds, which have been produced by
+weathering, or by the explosive power of superheated steam.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+BRECHIN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 8941. It lies on the left bank of the South Esk, 7¾ m. west
+of Montrose, and has a station on the loop line of the Caledonian
+railway from Forfar to Bridge of Dun. Brechin is a prosperous town, of
+great antiquity, having been the site of a Culdee abbey. The Danes are
+said to have burned the town in 1012. David I. erected it into a
+bishopric in 1150, and it is still a see of the Episcopal Church of
+Scotland. In 1452 the earl of Huntly crushed the insurrection led by the
+earl of Crawford at the battle of Brechin Muir, and in 1645 the town and
+castle were harried by the marquis of Montrose. James VI. gave a grant
+for founding a hospital in the burgh, which yet supplies the council
+with funds for charity. No trace remains of the old walls and gates of
+the town, but the river is crossed by a two-arched stone bridge of very
+early date. The cathedral church of the Holy Trinity belongs to the 13th
+century. It is in the Pointed style, but suffered maltreatment in 1806
+at the hands of restorers, whose work, however, disappeared during the
+restoration completed in 1902. The western gable with its flamboyant
+window and Gothic door and the massive square tower are all that is left
+of the original edifice. The modern stained glass in the chancel is
+reckoned amongst the finest in Scotland. Immediately adjoining the
+cathedral to the south-west stands the Round Tower, built about 1000. It
+is 86¾ ft. high, has at the base a circumference of 50 ft. and a
+diameter of 16 ft., and is capped with a hexagonal spire of 18 ft.,
+which was added in the 15th century. This type of structure is somewhat
+common in Ireland, but the only Scottish examples are those at Brechin,
+Abernethy in Perthshire, and Egilshay in the Orkneys. Brechin Castle
+played a prominent part in the Scottish War of Independence. In 1303 it
+withstood for twenty days a siege in force by the English under Edward
+I., surrendering only when its governor, Sir Thomas Maule, had been
+slain. From the Maule family it descended to the Dalhousies. Its library
+contains many important MSS., among them Burns's correspondence with
+George Thomson, and several cartularies including those of St Andrews
+and Brechin. In the Vennel (alley or small street) some ruins remain of
+the _maison dieu_, or _hospitium_, founded in 1256 by William of
+Brechin. Besides these historical buildings the principal public
+structures include Smith's school, the municipal buildings, the free
+library, the episcopal library (founded by Bishop Forbes, who, as well
+as Bishop Abernethy-Drummond, presented a large number of volumes). The
+principal industries include manufactures of linen and sailcloth,
+bleaching, rope-making, brewing, distilling, paper-making, in addition
+to nurseries and freestone quarries. Brechin--which is controlled by a
+provost, bailies and council--unites with Arbroath, Forfar, Inverbervie
+and Montrose to return one member to parliament.
+
+Edzell (pronounced Edyell, and, locally, Aigle) lies about 6 m. north of
+Brechin, with which it is connected by rail. It is situated on the North
+Esk and near the West Water, which falls into the Esk 2 m. south-west.
+Edzell is on the threshold of romantic Highland scenery. The picturesque
+ruins of Edzell Castle lie a mile to the west of the town. Once the seat
+of the Lindsays the estate now belongs to the earl of Dalhousie. The
+church of the parish of Farnell, 3½ m. south-east of Brechin, was
+erected in 1806 after the model, so it is stated, of the famous Holy
+House (Casa Santa) of Loreto in Italy. It was here that the old
+sculptured stone giving a version of the Fall was found. Between Farnell
+and Brechin lies Kinnaird Castle, the seat of the earl of Southesk.
+
+
+
+
+BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL (1821-1875), American soldier and political
+leader, was born near Lexington, Kentucky, on the 21st of January 1821.
+He was a member of a family prominent in the public life of Kentucky and
+the nation. His grandfather, John Breckinridge (1760-1806), who revised
+Jefferson's draft of the "Kentucky Resolutions" of 1798, was a United
+States senator from Kentucky in 1801-1805 and attorney-general in
+President Jefferson's cabinet in 1805-1806. His uncles, John
+Breckinridge (1797-1841), professor of pastoral theology in the
+Princeton Theological Seminary in 1836-1838 and for many years after
+secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, and Robert
+Jefferson Breckinridge (1800-1871), for several years superintendent of
+public instruction in Kentucky, an important factor in the organization
+of the public school system of the state, a professor from 1853 to 1871
+in the Danville Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Danville, Kentucky,
+and the temporary chairman of the national Republican convention of
+1864, were both prominent clergymen of the Presbyterian Church. His
+cousin, William Campbell Preston Breckinridge (1837-1904), was a
+Democratic representative in Congress from 1885 to 1893. Another cousin,
+Joseph Cabell Breckinridge (1842- ), served on the Union side in the
+Civil War, was a major-general of volunteers during the Spanish-American
+War (1898), became a major-general in the regular United States army in
+1903, and was inspector-general of the United States army from 1899
+until his retirement from active service in 1904.
+
+John Cabell Breckinridge graduated in 1838 at Centre College, Danville,
+Kentucky, continued his studies at Princeton, and then studied law at
+Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky. He practised law in
+Frankfort, Kentucky, in 1840-1841 and in Burlington, Iowa, from 1841 to
+1843, and then returned to Kentucky and followed his profession at
+Lexington. In 1847 he went to Mexico as major in a volunteer regiment,
+but arrived too late for service in the field. In 1849 he was elected a
+Democratic member of the Kentucky legislature, and in 1851-1855 he
+served in the national House of Representatives. President Pierce
+offered him the position of minister to Spain, but he declined it. In
+1856 he was chosen vice-president of the United States on the Buchanan
+ticket, and although a strong pro-slavery and states rights man, he
+presided over the Senate with conspicuous fairness and impartiality
+during the trying years before the Civil War. In 1860 he was nominated
+for the presidency by the pro-slavery seceders from the Democratic
+national convention, and received a total of 72 electoral votes,
+including those of every Southern state except Virginia, Kentucky,
+Tennessee and Missouri. As vice-president and presiding officer of the
+Senate, it was his duty to make the official announcement of the
+election of his opponent, Lincoln. He succeeded John J. Crittenden as
+United States senator from Kentucky in March 1861, but having
+subsequently entered the Confederate service he was expelled from the
+Senate in December 1861. As brigadier-general he commanded the
+Confederate reserve at Shiloh, and in August 1862 he became
+major-general. On the 5th of this month he was repulsed in his attack on
+Baton Rouge, but he won distinction at Stone River (December 31,
+1862-January 2, 1863), where his division lost nearly a third of its
+number. He took part in the battle of Chickamauga, defeated General
+Franz Sigel at Newmarket, Virginia, on the 15th of May 1864, and then,
+joined Lee and took part in the battles of Cold Harbor on the 1st and on
+the 3rd of June. In the autumn he operated in the Shenandoah Valley, and
+with Early was defeated by Sheridan at Winchester on the 19th of
+September. Being transferred to the department of South-west Virginia,
+he fought a number of minor engagements in eastern Tennessee, and in
+January 1865 became secretary of war for the Confederate States. At the
+close of the war he escaped to Cuba, and from there went to Europe. In
+1868 he returned to the United States and resumed the practice of law at
+Lexington, Kentucky, where he died on the 17th of May 1875.
+
+
+
+
+BRECON, or BRECKNOCK, a market town and municipal borough, the capital
+of Breconshire, Wales, 183 m. from London by rail, picturesquely
+situated nearly in the centre of the county, at the confluence of the
+Honddu with the Usk. Half a mile higher up the Tarell also falls into
+the Usk from the south. The ecclesiastical parish of Brecon consists of
+the two civil parishes of St John the Evangelist and St Mary, both on
+the left bank of the Usk, while St David's in Llanfaes is on the other
+side of the river, and was wholly outside the town walls. Pop. (1901)
+5875. There is only one line of railway, over which several companies,
+however, have running powers, so that the town may be reached by the
+Brecon & Merthyr railway from Merthyr, Cardiff and Newport, by the
+Cambrian from Builth Wells, or by the Midland from Hereford and Swansea
+respectively. The Great Western railway has also a service of road
+motors between Abergavenny and Brecon. A canal running past Abergavenny
+connects Brecon with Merthyr.
+
+The Priory church of St John, a massive cruciform building, originally
+Norman with Early English and Decorated additions, is the finest parish
+church in Wales, and even taking into account the cathedrals it is
+according to E.A. Freeman "indisputably the third church not in a state
+of ruin in the principality," its choir furnishing "one of the choicest
+examples of the Early English style." Previous to the dissolution, a
+rood-screen bearing a gigantic rood, the object of many pilgrimages,
+stood to the west of the tower. The church was restored under Sir
+Gilbert Scott between 1861 and 1875. St Mary's, in the centre of the
+town, and St David's, beyond the Usk, are now mainly modern, though the
+former has some of the Norman arches of the original church. There is
+also a Roman Catholic church (St Michael's) opened in 1851, and chapels
+belonging to the Baptists, Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists, and to
+the Congregationalists. In Llanfaes there was formerly a Dominican
+priory, but in 1542 Henry VIII. granted it with all its possessions to a
+collegiate church, which was transferred thither from Abergwili, and was
+given the name of Christ College. Many of the bishops of St David's
+during the 17th century occasionally resided here, and several are also
+buried here. A small part of the revenues went to the maintenance of a
+grammar-school, but in 1841 the collegiate body was dissolved, and its
+revenues, then amounting to about £8000 a year, were transferred to the
+ecclesiastical commissioners. In 1853 Henry VIII.'s charter was
+repealed, and under a chancery scheme adopted two years later, £1200 a
+year was appropriated for the school. New school buildings were erected
+at a cost of about £10,000 in 1862, and these were enlarged at a cost of
+about £5000 in 1880. The chancel of the old Dominican chapel, dating
+from the 13th century, was restored in 1864, and is now the school
+chapel. There is also a Congregationalist theological college, built in
+1869 at a cost of £12,000, and now affiliated with the university of
+Wales. The other chief buildings of the town are the shire hall built in
+1842 in the Doric style from designs by T.H. Wyatt; the Guildhall; the
+barracks, which are the headquarters of two battalions of the South
+Wales Borderers; the county infirmary founded in 1832; and the prison
+(in Llanfaes) for the counties of Brecon and Radnor. There is a bronze
+statue of the duke of Wellington (erected in 1854) by John Evan Thomas,
+a native of the town. The town commands a magnificent view of the
+Brecknock Beacons, and is noted for its promenades on the banks of the
+Usk, and in the priory groves. Brecon is favourably known as a fishing
+centre, and there is also boating on the Usk and the canal. There are
+several houses of interest, notably the Priory and Dr Awbrey's residence
+(now called Buckingham House), both built about the middle of the 16th
+century, but the finest specimen is Newton (about a mile out, near
+Llanfaes) built in 1582 by Sir John Games (a descendant of Sir David
+Gam), but now a farmhouse. The "Shoulder of Mutton" Inn, now known as
+the "Siddons Wine Vaults," was the birthplace in 1755 of Mrs Siddons.
+
+The name Brecknock is an anglicized form of Brycheiniog, the Welsh name
+of the territory of Brychan (whence the alternative form of Brecon), a
+Goidelic chieftain, who gained possession of the Usk valley in the 5th
+century. The Welsh name of the town, on the other hand, has always been
+Aber-Honddu (the estuary of the Honddu). There is no evidence of any
+settlement on the site of the present town prior to about 1092, when
+Bernard Newmarch, after defeating Bleddin ab Maenarch, built here a
+castle which he made his residence and the chief stronghold of his new
+lordship. For this purpose he utilized what remained of the materials of
+the Roman fort, 3 m. to the west, at Y Gaer, which some identify as
+Bannium. He subsequently founded, near the castle, the Benedictine
+priory of St John, which he endowed and constituted a cell of Battle
+Abbey. In time a town grew up outside the castle, and its inhabitants
+received a series of charters from the de Bohuns, into which family the
+castle and lordship passed, the earliest recorded charter being granted
+by Humphrey, 3rd earl of Hereford. Under the patronage of his
+great-grandson, the last earl of Hereford (who lived in great splendour
+at the castle), the town became one of the chief centres of trade in
+South Wales, and a sixteen days' fair, which he granted, still survives
+as a hiring fair held in November. Further charters were granted by
+Henry IV. (who married Hereford's co-heiress), by Henry V., who gave the
+town two more fairs, and by the Stafford family, to which the castle and
+lordship were allotted on the partition of the Bohun estates in 1421.
+Henry Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham, resided a good deal at the
+castle, and Morton, bishop of Ely, whose custody as a prisoner was
+entrusted to him, plotted with him there for the dethronement of Richard
+III., for which Stafford was executed in 1483. His son, Edward, the 3rd
+duke, who was born in the castle in 1478, had the estates restored to
+him, but, in 1521, suffered a like fate with his father, and the
+lordship and castle then vested in the crown. Both were acquired in the
+next century by the ancestors of Viscount Tredegar, to whom they now
+belong. By a statute of 1535 Brecon was made the county town of the new
+shire of Brecknock, and was granted the right of electing one burgess to
+represent it in parliament, a right which it retained till it was merged
+in the county representation in 1885. A chancery and exchequer for the
+counties of Brecknock and Radnor were also established at Brecon Castle,
+and from 1542 till 1830 the great sessions, and since then the assizes,
+and at all times the quarter sessions for the county, have been held at
+Brecon. The borough had also a separate court of quarter sessions till
+1835. The town was incorporated by a charter granted by Philip and Mary
+in 1556 and confirmed by Elizabeth in the nineteenth year of her reign.
+A charter granted by James II. was never acted upon. The borough was
+placed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and until then the
+town of Llywel, which is 10 m. off, formed a ward of the borough. There
+were formerly five trade gilds in the town, the chief industries being
+cloth and leather manufactures. There are five ancient fairs for stock,
+and formerly each of them was preceded by a leather fair. The fairs held
+in May and November were also for hiring, much of the hiring being now
+done at the Guildhall, and not in the streets as used to be the case.
+
+During the Civil War the greater part of the castle and of the town
+walls (which with their four gates were until then well preserved) were
+demolished by the inhabitants in order to prevent the town being either
+garrisoned or besieged. Charles I., however, stayed a night at the
+priory house shortly after the battle of Naseby. The chief ruins of the
+castle are now enclosed in the grounds of the Castle Hotel, the
+principal object being Ely tower, where Bishop Morton was imprisoned.
+
+Besides those already mentioned the persons of note born in the town
+include Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham; Dr Hugh Price, founder of
+Jesus College, Oxford; Dr Thomas Coke, the first Wesleyan missionary
+bishop in America; and Theophilus Jones, the historian of the county.
+Henry Vaughan, the Silurist, at one time practised here as a doctor of
+medicine.     (D. Ll. T.)
+
+
+
+
+BRECONSHIRE, or BRECKNOCKSHIRE, an inland county in South Wales, and the
+fourth largest in all Wales, bounded N.W. by Cardigan, N. and N.E. by
+Radnor, E. and S.E. by Monmouth, S. by Glamorgan and W. by Carmarthen.
+The general aspect of the county is mountainous, and the scenery is
+marked by beauty and grandeur. The climate is moist but temperate and
+healthy, and the soil of the valleys, often consisting of rich alluvial
+deposits, is very fertile. The loftiest mountains in South Wales,
+extending from Herefordshire and Monmouthshire (where their eastern
+spurs form the Hatteral Hills) in a south-easterly direction into
+Carmarthenshire, completely encircle the county on the east and south
+except for the break formed by the Vale of Usk at Crickhowell. Their
+highest summit north of the Usk, on the eastern side, where they are
+known as the Black Mountains, or sometimes the Black Forest Mountains,
+is Pen y Gader (2624 ft.) between Talgarth and Llanthony, and on the
+south-west the twin peaks of the Mynydd Du ("Black Mountain") or the
+so-called Carmarthenshire Vans or Beacons, only the higher of which, Fan
+Brycheiniog (2632 ft.), is, however, in Breconshire; while the centre of
+the crescent is occupied by the masses of the Brecknockshire Beacons or
+Vans (often called the Beacons simply), the highest point of which, Pen
+y Fan, formerly also known as Cadair Arthur, or Arthur's Chair, attains
+an altitude of 2910 ft. In the north, a range of barren hills, which
+goes by the general designation of Mynydd Eppynt (a name more properly
+limited to its central portion), stretches right across the county in a
+north-easterly direction, beginning with Mynydd Bwlch-y-Groes on the
+boundary to the east of Llandovery, and terminating near Builth. In the
+dreary country still farther north there is a series of rounded hills
+covered with peat and mosses, the chief feature being Drygarn Fawr (2115
+ft.) on the confines of Cardiganshire.
+
+Of the valleys, the most distinguished for beauty is that of the Usk,
+stretching from east to west and dividing the county into two nearly
+equal portions. The Wye is the chief river, and forms the boundary
+between the county and Radnorshire on the north and north-east, from
+Rhayader to Hay, a distance of upwards of 20 m.; its tributary, the
+Elan, till it receives the Claerwen, and then the latter river, continue
+the boundary between the two counties on the north, while the Towy
+separates the county from Cardigan on the north-west. The hilly country
+to the north of the Eppynt is mainly drained by the Irfon, which falls
+into the Wye near Builth. The Usk rises in the Carmarthenshire Van on
+the west, and flowing in a direction nearly due east through the centre
+of the county, collects the water from the range of the Beacons in the
+south, and from the Eppynt range in the north by means of numerous
+smaller streams, of which the Tarell and the Honddu (which join it at
+Brecon) are the most important, and it enters Monmouthshire near
+Abergavenny. The Taff, the Nêdd (with its tributaries the Hepste and
+the Mellte) and the Tawe, all rise on the south of the Beacon range and
+passing through Glamorganshire, flow into the Bristol Channel, the upper
+reaches of the Nêdd and its tributaries in the Vale of Neath being
+deservedly famous for its scenery. The mountains of the county
+constitute one of the best water-producing areas in Wales. Recognizing
+this, the corporation of Birmingham, under an act of 1892, acquired the
+watershed of the Elan and Claerwen, and constructed on the Elan three
+impounding reservoirs whence the water is conducted through an aqueduct
+to Birmingham (q.v.). Swansea obtains its chief supply from a reservoir
+of one thousand million gallons constructed in 1898-1906 on the Cray, a
+tributary of the Usk. A large industrial area around Neath is supplied
+from Ystradfellte. Merthyr Tydfil draws its supply from the lesser Taff,
+while Cardiff's main supply comes from the Great Taff valley, where,
+under acts of 1884 and 1894, two reservoirs with a capacity of 668
+million gallons have been constructed and a third authorized.
+
+In the east of the county, at the foot of the Black Forest Mountains, is
+Llyn Safaddan, or Brecknock Mere, now more generally known as Llangorse
+Lake (from being partly situated in the parish of that name). It is
+about 3 m. long by 1 m. broad, being the largest lake in South Wales.
+Upon an artificial island in the lake traces of lake-dwellings were
+discovered in 1869, together with the bones of red deer, wild boar and
+_Bos longifrons_.
+
+  _Geology._--The oldest rocks in Brecknockshire are the Llandeilo
+  shales and intrusive diabases of pre-Llandovery age which near Builth
+  extend across the Wye from Radnorshire; another patch with volcanic
+  outflows comes up at Llanwrtyd, and at both places they give rise to
+  mineral springs. Next follow the Bala Beds, which, with the succeeding
+  Lower and Upper Llandovery shales, sandstones and conglomerates, form
+  the sparsely populated sheepwalks and valleys which occupy most of the
+  north-western part of the county. These rocks are much folded and the
+  shales are locally cleaved into slates, while the sandstones and
+  conglomerates form scarps and ridges. To the south-east of this region
+  a narrow outcrop of Upper Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow sandstones
+  and mudstones follows, uncomformably overlying the Llandeilo and Bala
+  rocks, and dipping conformably under the Old Red Sandstone; they
+  extend from Newbridge-on-Wye and Builth through Llangammarch (where
+  there are mineral springs) towards Llandovery, while a tongue of
+  Ludlow rocks brought up by faulting extends from Erwood on the Wye for
+  8 m. south-westwards into the Old Red Sandstone. The remainder and
+  greater part of the county is occupied chiefly by the gently inclined
+  Old Red Sandstone; in the dissected plateau of the Black Mountains
+  north of Crickhowell the lower marls and cornstones are laid open,
+  while south of Brecon the conglomeratic upper beds form the escarpment
+  and plateaus of the Beacons. The southern edge of the county is formed
+  by the scarps and moorlands of the Carboniferous Limestone and
+  Millstone Grit (both of which form also the outlier of Pen-ceryg-calch
+  north of Crickhowell), while the lowest beds of the Coal Measures of
+  the South Wales coalfield are reached in the Tawe and Neath valleys
+  (where the beds are much folded) and near Tredegar and Brynmawr.
+  Glacial deposits spread over the lower grounds and striae occur at
+  great heights on the Black Mountains.
+
+_Industries._--Agriculture is the chief industry, and the Agricultural
+Society of the county, dating from 1755, is the oldest in Wales. About
+one-fourth only of the area of the county is under cultivation, and the
+chief crops grown are wheat and barley, but above all, turnips and oats.
+The acreage devoted to any other crop is practically infinitesimal,
+though in the eastern part more attention is paid to fruit-growing than
+perhaps in any other part of South Wales. The farming is, however,
+chiefly pastoral, nearly one-third of the county is common or waste
+land, and its number of sheep (mainly of the Radnor Forest breed) far
+exceeds that of any other county in Wales. The breeding of cobs and
+ponies comes next in importance, and thirdly that of cattle, now mostly
+Herefords, though Speed mentions a native breed, long since extinct, all
+white with red ears. These, together with pigs, wool, butter, and (in
+small quantities) cheese, form the staple of a considerable trade with
+the Midlands and the industrial districts to the south and southwest.
+The farms are of comparatively small size, the average cultivated area
+of the holdings in 1894 being 63 acres, and the hired labour averages
+about two men for each farm. A large share of the work, especially on
+the highland farms, is done by the occupiers and members of their own
+families, with the aid, where required, of an indoor servant or two.
+Few hands are employed in manufactures, but the mining industry is more
+important, coal being extensively worked--chiefly anthracite in the
+upper reaches of the Swansea and Neath valleys, and bituminous in the
+south-eastern corner of the county. There are also limestone and
+fireclay, firebrick and cement works, chiefly on the northern outcrop of
+the carboniferous limestone, as at Abernant in the Vale of Neath and at
+Penwyllt.
+
+The Central Wales section of the London & North-Western railway from
+Craven Arms to Swansea crosses the north-west corner of the county, and
+is intersected at Builth Road by a branch of the Cambrian, which,
+running for the most part on the Radnorshire side of the Wye, follows
+that river from Rhayader to Three Cocks; the Midland railway from
+Hereford to Swansea runs through the centre of the county, effecting
+junctions at Three Cocks with the Cambrian, at Talyllyn with the Brecon
+& Merthyr railway (which connects the county with the industrial areas
+of East Glamorgan and West Monmouthshire), and at Capel Colbren with the
+Neath and Brecon line. The North-Western and Rhymney joint line skirts
+the south-eastern boundary of the county. Brecon is also connected with
+Newport by means of the Brecknock and Abergavenny Canal, which was
+completed in 1801 and is 35 m. in length. The Swansea Canal and that of
+the Vale of Neath have also their northern terminal within the county,
+at Ystradgynlais and Abernant respectively. The main roads of the county
+are probably the best in South Wales.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+475,224 acres, with a population in 1891 of 57,031 and in 1901 of
+59,907. The area of the administrative county is 469,301 acres. The only
+municipal borough is Brecon, which is the county town, and had in 1901 a
+population of 5741. The other urban districts are Brynmawr, Builth Wells
+and Hay, with populations of 6833, of 1805 and of 1680 respectively in
+1901. Crickhowell and Talgarth are market towns, while Llanwrtyd Wells
+is a rapidly developing health resort. The county forms part of the
+South Wales circuit, and the assizes are held at Brecon. It had one
+court of quarter sessions, and is divided into ten petty sessional
+divisions. The borough of Brecon has a separate commission of the peace,
+but no separate court of quarter sessions. There are 94 civil parishes,
+while the ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within
+the county number 70, of which 67 are in the diocese of St David's and
+the archdeaconry of Brecon, the remaining 3 being in the diocese of
+Llandaff. The county is not divided for parliamentary purposes, and
+returns one member to parliament. It contains a small part of the
+parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil.
+
+In the eastern parts and along the Wye valley, English has become the
+predominant language, but in the rest of the county, especially north of
+the Eppynt range, Welsh occupies that position. In 1901 about 51% of the
+population above three years could speak both English and Welsh, 38%
+could speak English only and 11% Welsh only. The majority of the
+population is Nonconformist in religion, the chief denominations being
+the Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists and Congregationalists. Besides an
+endowed grammar-school (Christ College) at Brecon, there are in the
+county four secondary schools, established under the Welsh Intermediate
+Education Act 1899, viz. separate schools for boys and girls at Brecon,
+and dual schools at Builth and Brynmawr. Most of the county institutions
+are in the town of Brecon, but the joint asylum for the counties of
+Brecon and Radnor is at Talgarth. It was opened in February 1903. At
+Trevecca, near the same town, was a theological college for ministerial
+students attached to the Calvinistic Methodist body, but in October 1906
+the institution was removed to Aberystwyth, and the buildings have since
+been utilized for a preparatory school belonging to the same body.
+
+_History._--There are no traces or record of Breconshire being inhabited
+before the Neolithic period, but to that period may be ascribed a number
+of cairns, menhirs and one cromlech (near Glanusk). In Roman times the
+eastern half of the county formed part of the territory of the Silures,
+a pre-Celtic race, whose governing class at that time probably consisted
+of Brythonic Celts. But an earlier wave of Celtic invasion represented
+by the Goidels had passed westwards along the valleys of the Usk and
+Wye, leaving traces in place-names (_e.g. llwch_, lake), and in the
+Ogham inscribed stones found at Glanusk, Trallwng and Trecastle, and
+probably surviving into historic times around the Beacon range and
+farther south even to Gower and Kidwelly. The conquest of the district
+by the Romans was effected between about A.D. 75 and 80, and they
+established a frontier fort (which some have called Caer Bannau,
+identifying it as Bannium) some 3 m. out of the present town of Brecon,
+with smaller stations on roads leading thereto at Y Gaer near
+Crickhowell, and at Capel Colbren in the direction of Neath. On the
+departure of the Romans, the Goidelic hill-tribes, probably with help
+from Gower and Ireland, seem to have regained possession of the Usk
+valley under the leadership of a chieftain of their own race, Brychan,
+who became the ancestor of one of the three chief tribes of hereditary
+Welsh saints. His territory (named after him Brycheiniog, whence
+Brecknock) lay wholly east of the Eppynt range, for the lordship of
+Buallt, corresponding to the modern hundred of Builth, to the west,
+remained independent, probably till the Norman invasion. Most of the
+older churches of central Brecknockshire and east Carmarthenshire were
+founded by or dedicated to members of Brychan's family.
+
+From the middle of the 8th century to the 10th, Brycheiniog proper often
+bore the brunt of Mercian attacks, and many of the castles on its
+eastern border had their origin in that period. Subsequently, when
+Bernard de Newmarch and his Norman followers obtained possession of the
+country in the last quarter of the 11th century, these were converted
+into regular fortresses. Bernard himself initiated this policy by
+building a castle at Talgarth on the Upper Wye, but in 1091 he moved
+southwards, defeated the regulus of Brycheiniog, Bleddyn ab Maenarch,
+and his brother-in-law Rhys ap Tewdwr, the prince of south-west Wales,
+and with materials obtained from the Roman fort of Caer Bannau, built a
+castle at Brecon, which he made his _caput baroniae_. Brycheiniog was
+then converted into a lordship marcher and passed to the Fitzwalter, de
+Breos, the Bohun and the Stafford families in succession, remaining
+unaffected by the Statute of Rhuddlan (1282), as it formed part of the
+marches, and not of the principality of Wales.
+
+The Irfon valley, near Builth, was, however, the scene of the last
+struggle between the English and Llewelyn, who in 1282 fell in a petty
+skirmish in that district. The old spirit of independence flickered once
+again when Owen Glendower marched to Brecon in 1403. Upon the attainder
+of Edward, duke of Buckingham, in 1521, the lordship of Brecon with its
+dependencies became vested in the crown. In 1536 it was grouped with a
+whole series of petty lordships marcher and the lordship of Builth to
+form the county of Brecknock with Brecon as the county town, and the
+place for holding the county court. The county returns one member to
+parliament, and has done so since 1536; the borough of Brecon, with the
+town of Llywel, had also a separate representative from the same date
+till 1885, when it became merged in the county.
+
+
+
+
+BREDA, a fortified town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, at
+the confluence of the canalized rivers Merk and Aa, 15 m. by rail E.N.E.
+of Roozendaal. Pop. (1900) 26,296. It is connected by steam tramway with
+Antwerp (30 m. S.S.W.), and with Geertruidenberg in the north, and the
+island of Duiveland on the west. The fortress of Breda, which was once
+considered impregnable, has been dismantled, but the town is still
+protected by extensive lines of fortification and lies in the midst of a
+district which can be readily laid under water. It has a fine quay,
+town-hall and park. There are several Roman Catholic and Protestant
+churches. The principal Protestant church is a Gothic building dating
+from the end of the 13th century, with a fine tower, and a choir of
+later date (1410). Among the many interesting monuments is the imposing
+tomb of the stadtholder Count Engelbert II. of Nassau and his wife. This
+is the work of Tomasino Vincenz of Bologna, who, though a pupil of
+Raphael in painting, in sculpture followed Michelangelo, to whom the
+work is sometimes ascribed. Since 1828 Breda has been the seat of a
+royal military academy for all arms of the service. It also possesses a
+Latin school, an arsenal, and a modern prison built on the isolated-cell
+principle. The prison is in the form of a rotunda, 58 yds. in diameter,
+and covered by a high dome. In the middle is the office of the
+administration, and on the top of this a small watch-tower. Round the
+walls of the rotunda are the cells, 208 in number, and arranged in four
+tiers with balconies reached by iron staircases. Each cell measures 35
+cub. yds., is provided with an electric bell communicating with the
+warder in the tower, heated by hot-air pipes, and lighted by day through
+a window on the outer wall of the rotunda, and from sunset till ten
+o'clock by electric light. The industries of Breda comprise the
+manufacture of linen and woollen goods, carpets, hats, beer and musical
+instruments. In the neighbourhood of the town are the villages of
+Ginneken and Prinsenhage, situated in the midst of pretty pine woods.
+They form favourite places of excursion, and in the woods at Ginneken is
+a Kneipp sanatorium.
+
+_History._--Breda was in the 11th century a direct fief of the Holy
+Roman Empire, its earliest known lord being Henry I. (1098-1125), in
+whose family it continued, though, from the latter part of the 13th
+century, in the female line, until Alix, heiress of Philip (d. 1323),
+sold it to Brabant. In 1350 the fief was resold to John (Jan) of Polanen
+(d. 1377), the heiress of whose line, Joanna (d. 1445), married
+Engelbert of Nassau-Dillenburg (d. 1442). Henceforth it remained in the
+house of Nassau, passing ultimately to William I. (1533-1584), the first
+stadtholder of the Netherlands. Breda obtained municipal rights in 1252,
+but was first surrounded with walls in 1534 by Count Henry of Nassau,
+who also restored the old castle, originally built by John of Polanen in
+1350. From this period until late in the 19th century it remained the
+most important of the line of fortresses along the Meuse. Breda was
+captured by surprise by the Spaniards in 1581; but in 1590 it fell again
+into the hands of Maurice of Nassau, 68 picked men contriving to get
+into the town concealed under the turf in a peat-boat. The so-called
+"Spaniard's Hole" still marks the spot where the peat-boat lay. Its
+surrender in 1625, after a ten months' siege, to the Spaniards under
+Spinola is the subject of the famous picture by Velasquez in the Museo
+del Prado in Madrid. In 1637 Breda was recaptured by Frederick Henry of
+Orange after a four months' siege, and in 1648 it was finally ceded to
+Holland by the treaty of Westphalia. During the wars of the French
+Revolution, it was taken by Dumouriez in 1793, evacuated soon after and
+retaken by Pichegru in 1795, after the whole of Holland had already
+succumbed to the French. In 1813, a sally being made by the French
+garrison on an advance-guard of the Russians under Benckendorff, the
+citizens of Breda again made themselves masters of the town.
+
+Breda was the residence, during his exile, of Charles II., who, by the
+declaration of Breda (1660), made known the conditions of his acceptance
+of the crown of England. In 1696 William, prince of Orange and king of
+England, built the new castle, one of the finest buildings of the
+period, which now serves as the military academy. Breda also derives
+some celebrity from the various political congresses of which it has
+been the scene. In 1575 a conference was held here between the
+ambassadors of Spain and those of the United Provinces; in 1667 a peace
+was signed between England, Holland, France and Denmark; and in
+1746-1747 the representatives of the same powers met in the town to
+discuss the terms of another treaty.
+
+
+
+
+BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN (1683-1750), Flemish painter, son of Alexander
+van Bredael (d. 1720), who was also an artist, was born in Antwerp. He
+imitated the style of Wouverman and Breughel with such dexterity that
+even connoisseurs are often unable to distinguish his copies of their
+pictures from the originals. He visited England, where he was so well
+employed that in a few years he was able to retire to his native country
+with a competency. The earl of Derwentwater was one of his chief
+patrons. There were several other van Bredaels, who won honour as
+artists--notably PIETER (1622-1719), Alexander's father, and JOZEF
+(1688-1739). They were formerly known as "Breda," but this apparently is
+incorrect, though it occurs as a signature on a picture by Jan Frans in
+the Amsterdam gallery.
+
+
+
+
+BREDERODE, HENRY, COUNT OF (1531-1568), was born at Brussels in 1531. He
+was the descendant of an ancient race, which had for some centuries been
+settled in Holland, and had taken an active part in the affairs of war
+and peace. Count Henry became a convert to the Reformed faith and placed
+himself at the side of the prince of Orange and Count Egmont in
+resisting the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition and Spanish
+despotism into the Netherlands. In 1566 he was one of the founders of
+the confederacy of nobles who bound themselves to maintain the rights
+and liberties of the country by signing a document known as "the
+Compromise." On the 5th of April of that year Brederode accompanied to
+the palace a body of 250 confederates, of whom he acted as the
+spokesman, to present to the regent, Margaret of Parma, a petition
+setting forth their grievances, called "the Request." It was at a
+banquet at the Hotel Culemburg on the 8th of April, presided over by
+Brederode, that the sobriquet of _les Gueux_, or "the Beggars," was
+first given to the opponents of Spanish rule. Brederode was banished
+from the Netherlands by Alva, and died in exile shortly afterwards at
+the early age of thirty-six.
+
+
+
+
+BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL (1773-1814), German historian, was born at
+Berlin on the 14th of December 1773, and became successively professor
+at the universities of Helmstadt, Frankfort-on-Oder and Breslau. He died
+at Breslau on the 5th of September 1814. Bredow's principal works are
+_Handbuch der alien Geschichte, Geographic und Chronologie_ (Eutin,
+1799; English trans., London, 1827); _Chronik des 19. Jahrhunderts_
+(Altona, 1801); _Entwurf der Weltkunde der Alten_ (Altona, 1816);
+_Weltgeschichte in Tabellen_ (Altona, 1801; English trans, by J. Bell,
+London, 1820); _Grundriss einer Geschichte der merkwürdigsten Welthändel
+von 1796-1810_ (Hamburg, 1810).
+
+  Bredow's posthumous writings were edited by J.G. Kunisch (Breslau,
+  1823), who added a biography of the author.
+
+
+
+
+BREDOW, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, immediately
+north of Stettin, of which it forms a suburb. Here are the Vulcan
+iron-works and shipbuilding yards, where the liners "Deutschland"
+(1900), the "Kaiserin Augusta Victoria" (1906), and the "George
+Washington" (1908), the largest vessel (722 ft. long, 27,000 tons) in
+the German mercantile marine, were built; and also sugar, cement and
+other factories.
+
+
+
+
+BREECH (common in early forms to Teutonic languages), a covering for the
+lower part of the body and legs. The Latin _braca_ or _bracca_ is a
+Celtic word, probably cognate with the Teutonic. The word in its proper
+meaning is used in the plural, and, strictly, is confined to a garment
+reaching to the knees only. The meaning of "the hinder part of the body"
+is later than, and derived from, its first meaning; this sense appears
+in the "breech" or hinder part of a gun. The word is also found in
+"breeches buoy," a sling life-saving apparatus, consisting of a support
+of canvas breeches. The "Breeches Bible," a name for the Geneva Bible of
+1560, is so called because "breeches" is used for the aprons of
+fig-leaves made by Adam and Eve. On the stage the phrase a "breeches"
+part is used when a woman plays in male costume. "Breeching" is a strap
+passed round the breech of a harnessed horse and joined to the shafts to
+allow a vehicle to be backed.
+
+
+
+
+BREEDS AND BREEDING. Breeds may be defined as domestic varieties of
+animals or plants which man has been able to bring into existence and to
+maintain in existence. The process of breeding includes all the
+modifying influences which man may bring to bear on a wild stock for the
+purpose, conscious or unconscious, of establishing and maintaining
+breeds. Charles Darwin's _Variation of Animals and Plants under
+Domestication_ (1868) was the starting-point of exact knowledge on this
+subject; when it appeared, it contained not only the best collection of
+empirical facts, but the only rational theory of the facts. The first
+relations between man and domesticated animals and plants were due to
+unconscious or accidental selection of wild stocks that tolerated the
+vicinity of man and that were useful or attractive to him. The new
+conditions must have produced modifications in these stocks, whether
+these were caused by a survival in each generation of individuals with
+the power of response to the new environment, or were due to a
+conscious selection of individuals capable of such favourable response.
+The essence of the process, however, came to be a conscious selection in
+each generation of the best individuals, that is to say, of those
+individuals that seemed to man to be most adapted to his wants. The
+possibility of establishing a breed depended, therefore, in the first
+place on the natural variability of wild animals and plants, then on the
+variations induced in animals and plants under subjection to the new
+conditions brought about by man's interference, next on the extent to
+which these variations, natural or artificial, persisted through the
+series of generations, and finally on man's intelligence in altering or
+maintaining the conditions of the environment, and in selective mating.
+The theory of breeds and breeding depends, in fact, on knowledge of
+variation, of modification by the environment, and of heredity. Any
+attempt to give an account of what actually has been done by man in
+establishing breeds would be little more than an imperfect summary of
+Darwin's work. The articles HEREDITY, MENDELISM and VARIATION AND
+SELECTION show that what may be called the theoretical and experimental
+knowledge of variation and heredity is far in advance of the practical
+art of breeding. Even horticulturists, who have been much more
+successful than those who deal with animals, are still far from being
+able to predict the result of their selections and crossings. None the
+less it may be stated definitely that such prediction is already so
+nearly within the power of the practical breeder that it would be a
+waste of time to give a summary of the existing rule-of-thumb methods.
+The art of breeding is so immediately destined to become a science of
+breeding that existing knowledge and conceptions must be dismissed as of
+no more than historical interest.     (P. C. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BREEZE, (1) A current of air generally taken as somewhat less than a
+"wind," which in turn is less than a "gale." The term is particularly
+applied to the light wind blowing landwards by day, "sea-breeze," and
+the counter wind, blowing off the land at night, "land-breeze." The word
+appears in Fr. _brise_ (admitted by the Academy in 1762). The Span,
+_brisa_, Port. _briza_, and Ital. _brezza_ are used for a wind blowing
+from the north or north-east. According to Cotgrave, Rabelais uses
+_brize_ in the sense of _bise_, the name of a dry north or north-east
+wind prevalent in Switzerland and the bordering parts of France, Italy
+and Germany. The word is first used in English as applied to the cool
+sea-breeze blowing usually from the east or north-east in the West
+Indies and Atlantic sea-coast of Central America. It was then applied to
+sea-breezes from any quarter, and also to the land-breeze, and so to any
+light wind or current of air. (2) Fine ashes or cinders, the refuse of
+coal, coke and charcoal burning. This is probably from the O. Fr.
+_brese_, modern _braise_, a word connected with _braser_, whence Eng.
+_brazier_, a pan for burning coals, charcoal, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BREGENZ (anc. _Brigantium_), the capital of the Austrian, province of
+Vorarlberg, as well as of the administrative district of Bregenz. In
+1900 its population was 7595, German-speaking and Roman Catholic. It is
+situated at the south-east angle of the Lake of Constance, and, besides
+communications by water with the other towns on the shores of that lake,
+is connected by: rail with Feldkirch on the Arlberg line (24 m.) and
+with Munich. The old town is on a hillock, crowned by the ancient
+castle, while the new town is built on the level ground at the foot of
+the hill. The fine parish church (dedicated to St Gall) stands on
+another mound more to the south. In the local museum are collections of
+various kinds, especially of the Roman antiquities which have been dug
+up on the site of the old town. The position of the town on the lake has
+always made it an important port and commercial centre. Nowadays the
+main trade is in grain, but much is done also in cattle and in the
+products of the cotton-spinning factories of Vorarlberg.
+
+We hear of counts of Bregenz as early as the 10th century, their heirs
+in the early 13th century being the counts of Montfort (a castle north
+of Feldkirch), who gradually acquired most of the surrounding country
+(including Feldkirch and Bludenz). But little by little the Habsburgers,
+counts of Tirol since 1363 bought from them most of their
+domains--first Feldkirch in 1375, next Bludenz and the Montafon valley
+in 1394, finally the county of Bregenz in two parts, acquired in 1451
+and 1523. In 1408 the Appenzellers were defeated before Bregenz, while
+in 1647, during the Thirty Years' War, the town was sacked by the Swedes
+under Wrangel.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BREHON LAWS, the English but incorrect appellation of the ancient laws
+of Ireland, the proper name for which is _Feineachas_, meaning the laws
+of the Feine or Feini (fainyeh), who were the free Gaelic farmers.
+_Dlighthe Feine_ is another name for the laws, with the same meaning.
+Laws of universal application which could be administered only by duly
+qualified judges were called _Câin_ law, while minor laws administered
+by nobles and magistrates were called _Urradhus_ law. Regular courts and
+judges existed in Ireland from prehistoric times. The Anglo-Irish word
+"Brehon" is derived from the Gaelic word _Brethem_ (= judge).
+
+The extant remains of these laws are manuscript transcripts from earlier
+copies made on vellum from the 8th to the 13th century, now preserved
+with other Gaelic manuscripts in Trinity College and the Royal Irish
+Academy, Dublin, the British Museum, Oxford University, some private
+collections and several libraries on the continent of Europe. The
+largest and most important of these documents is the _Senchus Mór_ or
+"Great Old Law Book." No copy of it now existing is complete, and some
+portions are missing from all. What remains of it occupies the first,
+second, and a portion of the third of the volumes produced by the Brehon
+Law Commission, which was appointed in 1852.
+
+In the _Annals of the Four Masters_ it is said: "The age of Christ 438,
+the tenth year of King Laeghaire (Lairy), the _Senchus Mór_ and
+_Feineachas_ of Ireland were purified and written." This entry has ample
+historical corroboration. Of many separate treatises dealing with
+special branches of the law, the _Book of Aicill_, composed of opinions
+or placita of King Cormac Mac Art, otherwise Cormac ua Quim, Ard-Rig of
+Erinn from A.D. 227 until 266, and Cennfaeladh the Learned, who lived in
+the first part of the 7th century, is the most important.
+
+The text and earlier commentaries are in the _Bearla Feini_--the most
+archaic form of the Celtic or Gaelic language. From gradual changes in
+the living tongue through a long expanse of time many words, phrases and
+idioms in the _Bearla Feini_ became obsolete, and are so difficult to
+translate that the official translations are to some extent confessedly
+conjectural. In many cases only opening words of the original text
+remain. Wherever the text is whole, it is curt, elliptical, and yet
+rhythmical to a degree attainable only through long use. The rigorously
+authentic character of these laws, relating to, and dealing with, the
+actual realities of life, and with institutions and a state of society
+nowhere else revealed to the same extent, the extreme antiquity both of
+the provisions and of the language, and the meagreness of continental
+material illustrative of the same things, endow them with exceptional
+archaic, archaeological and philological interest.
+
+In the earliest times all learned men, whether specially learned in law
+or not, appear to have acted as judges. Gradually as literature and
+learning increased, judgments delivered by men without special legal
+training fell into disfavour. In the 1st century of the Christian era,
+when Conchobhar or Conor Mac Nessa was king of Ulster, a crisis was
+reached, the result of which was that no man was allowed to act as
+Brehon until he had studied the full law course, which occupied twenty
+years, and had passed a rigorous public examination. The course of study
+for Brehon and Ollamh, advocate and law-agent respectively, is carefully
+laid down in the law itself. The Brehonship was not an office of state
+like that of the modern judge, but a profession in which success
+depended upon ability and judgment. The Brehon was an arbitrator,
+umpire, and expounder of the law, rather than a judge in the modern
+acceptation. It appears, without being expressly stated, that the facts
+of a case were investigated and ascertained by laymen, probably by the
+_Aireachtas_--a local assembly or jury--before submission to a Breton
+for legal decision. A Brehon whose decision was reversed upon appeal
+was liable to damages, loss of position and of free lands, if any,
+disgrace, and a consequent loss of his profession. No Brehon had any
+fixed territorial jurisdiction. A party initiating proceedings could
+select any Brehon he pleased, if there were more than one in his
+district. Every king or chief of sufficient territory retained an
+official Brehon, who was provided with free land for his maintenance. In
+ordinary cases the Brehon's fee was said to have been one-twelfth of the
+amount at stake.
+
+Assemblies, national, provincial and local, were a marked characteristic
+of ancient Irish life. They all, without exception, discharged some
+legal functions, legislative or administrative, and even in those in
+which amusement predominated, the _Cáin_ law was publicly rehearsed.
+Most of the assemblies were annual, some triennial, some lasted only a
+day or two, others a week and occasionally longer. All originated in
+pagan funeral or commemorative rites, and continued to be held, even in
+Christian times, in very ancient cemeteries. They were called by
+different names--_Feis, Aenach, Aireachtas, Dál, &c._
+
+The Feis of Tara, in Meath, was from its origin seven centuries before
+Christ down to A.D. 560, mainly national and political, being convened
+by the Ard-Rig, held at his residence, presided over by him, and
+consisting of the provincial kings, tanists, flaiths, Brehons, warriors,
+historians, poets and other distinguished men from the whole of Ireland.
+It was due to be held every third year for the purpose of "preserving
+the laws and rules," and it might be called specially on any urgent
+occasion. After the statesmen had consulted, the laws were proclaimed,
+with any modifications agreed upon. Then the proceedings became festive,
+queens and great ladies taking part. The Feis of A.D. 560 was the last
+regular one held at Tara because the monarch ceased to reside there. One
+national assembly of an exceptional character was held at Tara in A.D.
+697, by a decree of which women were emancipated from liability to
+military service.
+
+The Aenach held annually at Tailltenn, also in Meath, was a general
+assembly of the people without restriction of rank, clan or country, and
+became the most celebrated for athletic sports, games and contests. Yet
+even here the laws were read aloud, and it is not without significance
+that the last national assembly held at Tailltenn under King Rhoderic
+O'Connor in 1168 was a political one.
+
+The _Dál-Criche_ (= territorial assembly), held at Uisneach in
+Westmeath, was a gathering for political and quasi-legislative purposes.
+At one assembly there about a century before Christ, a uniform law of
+distraint for the whole of Ireland was adopted on the motion of Sen, son
+of Aigé. This did not prevent the gatherings at Uisneach from being for
+ages celebrated for gaiety and amusement.
+
+Each provincial kingdom and each tuath had assemblies of its own. Every
+_flaith_ and _flaith-fine_ was a member of a local assembly, the clan
+system conferring the qualification, and there being no other election.
+
+An assembly when convened by the _Bruigh-fer_ for the special purpose of
+electing a tanist or successor to the king was called a _Tocomra_.
+
+Very careful provision is made for the preparation of the sites of great
+assemblies, and the preservation of peace and order at them is
+sanctioned by the severest penalties of the law. The operation of every
+legal process calculated to occasion friction, such as seizure of
+property, was suspended during the time the assemblies lasted.
+
+The term _Rig_ (reeh = _rex_, king) was applied to four classes or
+grades of rulers, the lower grades being grouped, each group being
+subject to one of their number, and all being subject to, and owing
+tribute and allegiance to the Ard-Rig (= supreme king of Erinn). The
+Ard-Rig had an official residence at Tara and the kingdom of Meath for
+his special use. The provincial king, Rig Cuicidh, also had an official
+residence and kingdom of his own, together with allegiance and tribute
+from each Rig-mor-Tuatha in his province, who in his turn received
+tribute and allegiance from each Rig-Tuatha under subjection to him. The
+Rig-Tuatha received tribute and allegiance from the flaiths or nobles
+in his tuath. The tuath was the political unit, and the ruler of it was
+the lowest to whom the term "king" was applied. For each payment of
+tribute a king always made some return. Every king was obliged, on his
+inauguration, to swear that he would govern justly and according to law,
+to which he remained always subject. The Ard-Rig was selected by the
+sub-kings and other leading men who legally constituted the Feis of
+Tara, the sub-kings by those under them in their respective spheres. No
+person not of full age, imperfectly educated, stupid, blind, deaf,
+deformed or otherwise defective in mind or body, or for any reason
+whatsoever unfit to discharge the duties or unworthy to represent the
+manhood of the nation, could be king, even though he were the eldest son
+of the preceding king. "It is a forbidden thing for one with a blemish
+to be king at Tara."
+
+_Tuath, Cinel_ and _Clann_ were synonyms meaning a small tribe or nation
+descended from a common ancestor. A king and clan being able, subject to
+certain limitations, to adopt new members or families, or amalgamate
+with another clan, the theory of common origin was not rigidly adhered
+to. Kinship with the clan was an essential qualification for holding any
+office or property. The rules of kinship largely determined status with
+its correlative rights and obligations, supplied the place of contract
+and of laws affecting the ownership, disposition and devolution of
+property, constituting the clan an organic, self-contained entity, a
+political, social and mutual insurance co-partnership. The solidarity of
+the clan was its most important and all-pervading characteristic. The
+entire territory occupied by a clan was the common and absolute property
+of that clan. Subject to this permanent and fundamental ownership, part
+of the land was set apart for the maintenance of the king as such.
+Warriors, statesmen, Brehons, Ollamhs, physicians, poets, and even
+eminent workers in the more important arts, were, in different degrees,
+rewarded with free lands for their respective public services. On the
+death of any person so rewarded, the land in theory reverted to the
+clan; but if like services continued to be rendered by the son or other
+successor, and accepted by the clan, the land was not withdrawn. The
+successors of statesmen, for whom the largest provision was made, became
+a permanent nobility. Flaith (flah = noble chief) was a term applied to
+a man of this rank. Rank, with the accompanying privileges, jurisdiction
+and responsibility, was based upon a qualification of kinship and of
+property, held by a family for a specified number of generations,
+together with certain concurrent conditions; and it could be lost by
+loss of property, crime, cowardice or other disgraceful conduct. The
+flaiths in every tuath and all ranks of society were organized on the
+same hierarchical pattern as royalty. A portion of land called the
+_Cumhal Senorba_ was devoted to the support of widows, orphans and old
+childless people.
+
+_Fine_ (finna), originally meaning family, came in course of time to be
+applied to a group of kindred families or to a whole clan. From
+differences between incidental accounts written in different ages, it
+appears that the social system underwent some change. For the purpose of
+conveying some idea, one theory may be taken, according to which the
+_fine_ was made up of seventeen clansmen, with their families, viz. the
+_Geilfine_ consisting of the flaith-fine and four others in the same or
+nearest degree of kinship to the centre, and the _Deirbhfine, Tarfine_
+and _Innfine_, each consisting of four heads of families, forming
+widening concentric circles of kinship to which the rights and
+liabilities of the _fine_ extended with certainty, but in diminishing
+degrees.
+
+In course of time a large and increasing proportion of the good land
+became, under the titles so far described, limited private property. The
+area of arable land available for the common use of the clansmen was
+gradually diminished by these encroachments, but was still always
+substantial. A share of this was the birthright of every law-abiding
+member of the Feini who needed it. To satisfy this title and give a
+start in life to some young men who would otherwise have got none, this
+land was subject to _Gabhailcine_ (= clan-resumption), meaning that the
+clan resumed the whole area at intervals of a few years for a fresh
+distribution after some occupants had died, and young men by attaining
+manhood had become entitled. Hence the Anglo-Irish word _gavelkind_.
+Anciently this re-distribution extended throughout the clan at the same
+time. Later it extended only to the land of a _fine_, each _fine_ making
+its own distribution at its own time and in its own way as determined by
+the seventeen men above specified. In this distribution men might or
+might not receive again their former portions. In the latter case
+compensation was made for unexhausted improvements. This land could not
+be sold, nor even let except for a season in case of domestic necessity.
+The Feini who used it had no landlord and no rent to pay for this land,
+and could not be deprived of it except by the clan for a crime. They
+were subject only to public tributes and the ordinary obligations of
+free men. Presumably their homesteads were not on this land and were not
+subject to _Gabhailcine_. Neither were the unfenced and unappropriated
+common lands--waste, bog, forest and mountain--which all clansmen were
+free to use promiscuously at will.
+
+There was hardly any selling and little letting of land in ancient
+times. Flaiths and other persons holding large areas let to clansmen,
+who then became _Ceiles_, not land, but the privilege of feeding upon
+land a number of cattle specified by agreement. Flaiths and Bo-aires
+also let cattle to a _ceile_ who had none or not enough, and this was
+the most prevalent practice. There were two distinct methods of letting
+and hiring--_saer_ (= free) and _daer_ (= base), the conditions being
+fundamentally different. The conditions of _saer_-tenure were largely
+settled by the law, were comparatively easy, did not require any
+security to be given, left the _ceile_ free within the limits of justice
+to end the connexion, left him competent in case of dispute to give
+evidence against that of the flaith, and did not impose any liability on
+the _fine_ of the _ceile_. By continued user of the same land for some
+years and discharge of the public obligations in respect of it in
+addition to the _ciss_ or payment as tenant, a _ceile_ became a
+sub-owner or permanent tenant and could not be evicted. There is no
+provision in these laws for evicting any one. For the hire of cattle a
+usual payment was one beast in seven per annum for seven years; after
+which the cattle that remained became the property of the hirer. A
+_saer-ceile_ on growing wealthy might become a _bo-aire_. _Daer-tenure_,
+whether of cattle or of the right to graze cattle upon land, was subject
+to a _ciss-ninsciss_ (= wearisome tribute), for the payment of which
+security had to be given. A man not in the enjoyment of full civil
+rights, if able to find security, could become a _daer-ceile_. A free
+clansman by becoming a _daer-ceile_ lowered his own status and that of
+his _fine_, became incompetent to give evidence against that of a
+flaith, and could not end the connexion until the end of the term except
+by a large payment. The members of his _fine_ were liable, in the degree
+of their relationship, to make good out of their own property any
+default in the payments. Hence this tenure could not be legally entered
+into by a free clansman without the permission of his fine.
+_Daer-ceiles_ were also exposed to casual burdens, like that of lodging
+and feeding soldiers when in their district. All payments were made in
+kind. When the particular kind was not specified by the law or by
+agreement, the payments were made according to convenience in horses,
+cattle, sheep, pigs, wool, butter, bacon, corn, vegetables, yarn,
+dye-plants, leather, cloth, articles of use or ornament, &c. As the clan
+system relaxed, and the fine lost its legal power of fixing the amounts
+of public tributes, which were similarly payable to the _flaith_, and
+neglected its duty of seeing that those tributes were duly applied, the
+_flaith_ became able to increase these tributes with little check, to
+confuse them with rent, to confuse jurisdiction with ownership, and to
+exalt himself at the expense of his fellow-clansmen. A _flaith_ by
+arranging that his tenants should make their payments at different
+periods of the year, secured a constant and copious supply without an
+inconvenient surplus.
+
+People who did not belong to the clan and were not citizens were in a
+base condition and incompetent to appear in court in suit or defence
+except through a freeman. The _Bothach_ (= cottier) and the
+_Sen-clèithe_ (= old dependent) were people who, though living for
+successive generations attached to the families of flaiths, did not
+belong to the clan and had no rights of citizenship. _Fuidhirs_, or
+manual labourers without property, were the lowest section of the
+population. Some were born in this condition, some clansmen were
+depressed into it by crime, consequences of war or other misfortune; and
+strangers of a low class coming into the territory found their level in
+it. The _fuidhirs_ also were divided into _saer_ and _daer_; the former
+being free by industry and thrift to acquire some property, after which
+five of them could club together to acquire rights corresponding to
+those of one freeman. The _daer-fuidhirs_ were tramps, fugitives,
+captives, &c.
+
+Fosterage, the custom of sending children to be reared and educated in
+the families of fellow-clansmen, was so prevalent, especially among the
+wealthy classes, and the laws governing it are so elaborate and occupied
+such a large space, that some mention of it here is inevitable. Beyond
+mention, there is little to be said, owing to the absence of general
+principles in an infinity of specific details, mostly domestic and
+apparently trivial. A child in fosterage was reared and educated
+suitably for the position it was destined to fill in life. There was
+fosterage for affection, for payment and for a literary education.
+Fosterage began when the child was a year old and ended when the
+marriageable age was reached, unless previously terminated by death or
+crime. Every fostered person was under an obligation to provide, if
+necessary, for the old age of foster-parents. The affection arising from
+this relationship was usually greater, and was regarded as more sacred
+than that of blood relationship.
+
+The solidarity of clan and _fine_ in their respective spheres, the
+provisions of the system, the simple rural life, and the prevalence of
+barter and payments in kind, left comparatively little occasion for
+contracts between individuals. Consequently the rules relating to
+contract are not very numerous. They are, however, sufficiently solemn.
+No contract affecting land was valid unless made with the consent of the
+_fine_ and in the presence of the _Aire-Forgaill_. Contracts relating to
+other kinds of property are more numerous. When important or involving a
+considerable amount, they had to be made in the presence of a _flaith_
+or magistrate. The _Aire-Coisring_ presided over most of the contracts
+of the common people. The parties to a contract should be free citizens,
+of full age, sound mind, free to contract or not, and under no legal
+disability. "The world would be in a state of confusion if express
+contracts were not binding." From the repeated correlative dicta that
+"nothing is due without deserving," and that a thing done "for God's
+sake," i.e. gratis, imposed little obligation, it is clear that the
+importance of valuable consideration was fully recognized. So also was
+the importance of time. "To be asleep avails no one"; "Sloth takes away
+a man's welfare." Contracts made by the following persons were invalid:
+(1) a servant without his master's authority; (2) a monk without
+authority from his abbot or manager of temporalities; (3) a son subject
+to his father without the father's authority; (4) an infant, lunatic, or
+"one who had not the full vigilance of reason"; (5) a wife in relation
+to her husband's property without his authority. She was free to hold
+and deal with property of her own and bind it by contract. If a son
+living with his father entered into a contract with his father's
+knowledge, the father was held to have ratified the contract unless he
+promptly repudiated it. "One is held to adopt what he does not repudiate
+after knowledge, having the power." Contract of sale or barter with
+warranty could be dissolved for fraud, provided action was taken within
+a limited time after the fraud had become known. Treaties and occasional
+very important contracts were made "blood-covenants" and inviolable by
+drawing a drop of blood from the little finger of each of the
+contracting parties, blending this with water, and both drinking the
+mixture out of the same cup. The forms of legal evidence were pledges,
+documents, witnesses and oaths. In cases of special importance the
+pledges were human beings, "hostage sureties." These were treated as in
+their own homes according to the rank to which they belonged, and were
+discharged on the performance of the contract. If the contract was
+broken, they became prisoners and might be fettered or made to work as
+slaves until the obligation was satisfied. Authentic documents were
+considered good evidence. A witness was in all cases important, and in
+some essential to the validity of a contract. His status affected the
+force of the contract as well as the value of his evidence; and the laws
+appear to imply that by becoming a witness, a man incurred liabilities
+as a surety. The pre-Christian oath might be by one or more of the
+elements, powers or phenomena of nature, as the sun, moon, water, night,
+day, sea, land. The Christian oath might be on a copy of the Gospels, a
+saint's crozier, relic or other holy thing.
+
+These laws recognized crime, but in the same calm and deliberate way in
+which they recognized contract and other things seriously affecting the
+people. Although we find in the poems of Dubhthach, written in the 5th
+century and prefixed to the _Senchus Mór_, the sentences, "Let every one
+die who kills a human being," and "Every living person that inflicts
+death shall suffer death," capital punishment did not prevail in Ireland
+before or after. The laws uniformly discountenanced revenge,
+retaliation, the punishment of one crime by another, and permitted
+capital punishment only in the last resort and in ultimate default of
+every other form of redress. They contain elaborate provision for
+dealing with crime, but the standpoint from which it is regarded and
+treated is essentially different from ours. The state, for all its
+elaborate structure, did not assume jurisdiction in relation to any
+crimes except political ones, such as treason or the disturbance of a
+large assembly. For these it inflicted the severest penalties known to
+the law--banishment, confiscation of property, death or putting out of
+eyes. A crime against the person, character or property of an individual
+or family was regarded as a thing for which reparation should be made,
+but the individual or family had to seek the reparation by a personal
+action. This differed from a civil action only in the terms employed and
+the elements used in calculating the amount of the reparation. The
+function of a judge in a criminal as in a civil action was to see that
+the facts, with modifying circumstances, were fully and truly submitted
+to him, and then by applying the law to these facts to ascertain and
+declare the amount of compensation that would make a legal adjustment.
+For this amount the guilty person, and in his default his kindred,
+became legally debtor, and the injured person or family became entitled
+to recover the amount like a civil debt by distraint, if not paid
+voluntarily. There were no police, sheriffs or public prisons. The
+decisions of the law were executed by the persons concerned, supported
+by a highly organized and disciplined public opinion springing from
+honour and interest and inherent in the solidarity of the clan. There is
+good reason to believe that the system was as effectual in the
+prevention and punishment of crime and in the redress of wrongs as any
+other human contrivance has ever been.
+
+In calculating the amount of compensation the most characteristic and
+important element was _Einechlan_ (= honour-price, honour-value), a
+value attaching to every free person, varying in amount from one cow to
+thirty cows according to rank. It was the assessed value of _status_ or
+_caput_. It was frequently of consequence in relation to contracts and
+other clan affairs; but it emerges most clearly in connexion with crime.
+By the commission of crime, breach of contract, or other disgraceful or
+injurious conduct, Einechlan was diminished or destroyed, a _capitis
+diminutio_ occurred, apart from any other punishment. Though existing
+apart from fine, Einechlan was the first element in almost every fine.
+_Dire_ was the commonest word for fine, whether great or small. _Eric_
+(= reparation, redemption) was the fine for "separating body from soul";
+but the term was used in lighter cases also. In capital cases the word
+sometimes meant Einechlan, sometimes _coirp-dire_ (= body-fine), but
+most correctly the sum of these two. It may be taken that, subject to
+modifying circumstances, a person guilty of homicide had to pay (i)
+_coirp-dire_ for the destruction of life, irrespective of rank; (2) the
+honour-value of the victim; (3) his own honour-value if the deed was
+unintentional; and (4) double his own honour-value if committed with
+malice aforethought. The sum of these was in all cases heavy; heaviest
+when the parties were wealthy. The amount was recoverable as a debt from
+the criminal to the extent of his property, and in his default from the
+members of his _fine_ in sums determined by the degree of relationship;
+and it was distributable among the members of the _fine_ of a murdered
+person in the same proportions, like a distribution among the next of
+kin. The _fine_ of a murderer could free themselves from liability by
+giving up the murderer and his goods, or if he escaped, by giving up any
+goods he had left, depriving him of clanship, and lodging a pledge
+against his future misdeeds. In these circumstances the law held the
+criminal's life forfeit, and he might be slain or taken as a prisoner or
+slave. He could escape only by becoming a _daer-fuidhir_ in some distant
+territory. When the effect of a crime did not go beyond an individual,
+if that individual's _fine_ did not make good their claim while the
+criminal lived, it lapsed on his death. "The crime dies with the
+criminal." If an unknown stranger or person without property caught
+red-handed in the commission of a crime refused to submit to arrest, it
+was lawful to maim or slay him according to the magnitude of the
+attempted crime. "A person who came to inflict a wound on the body may
+be safely killed when unknown and without a name, and when there is no
+power to arrest him at the time of committing the trespass." For crimes
+against property the usual penalty, as in breach of contract, was
+generic restitution, the quantity, subject to modifying circumstances,
+being twice the amount taken or destroyed.
+
+Distress of seizure of property being the universal mode of obtaining
+satisfaction, whether for crime, breach of contract, non-payment of
+debt, or any other cause, the law of distress came into operation as the
+solvent of almost every dispute. Hence it is the most extensive and
+important branch, if not more than a branch, of these ancient laws. Of
+several words meaning distress, _athgabail_ was the most frequently
+used. A person having a liquidated claim might either sue a debtor or
+proceed at his peril to seize without this preliminary. In the latter
+case the defendant could stop the progress of the seizure by paying the
+debt, giving a pledge, or demanding a trial; and he then could choose a
+Brehon. Distress was of two kinds--(1) _athgabal ar fut_ (= distress on
+length, i.e. with time, with delays); and (2) _athgabail tulla_ (=
+immediate distress). Which method was pursued depended partly upon the
+facts of the case and partly upon the respective ranks of the parties. A
+person entitled to seize property had to do it himself, accompanied, if
+the amount was large, by a law agent and witnesses. No man was entitled
+to seize unless he owned, or had a surety who owned, sufficient property
+for indemnity or adjustment in case the seizure should be found to have
+been wrongful. The formalities varied in different circumstances and
+also at different times in the long ages in which these laws prevailed.
+Some forms may, in the Irish as in other legal systems, have become
+merely ceremonial and fictitious.
+
+_Tellach_ (= seizure of immovable property) was made in three periods or
+delays of ten days each (= 30 days). The first step was a notice that
+unless the debt was paid immediately seizure would be made. Ten days
+later, the plaintiff crossed the fence in upon the land, with a law
+agent, a witness and a pair of horses yoked or harnessed, and in a loud
+voice stated the amount of the debt and called upon the defendant to pay
+it according to law. On receiving no answer, or an unsatisfactory one,
+he withdrew. After an interval of ten days more, the creditor entered
+with his law agent, two witnesses and four horses, went farther in upon
+the land, repeated his demand, and if refused withdrew. Finally, after a
+further interval of ten days, he entered once more with his law agent,
+three witnesses and eight horses, drove up to the debtor's house,
+repeated his demand, and if not satisfied drove a herd of cattle or a
+flock of sheep in upon the farm and left men to care for them.
+
+_Athgabail_ ordinarily meant the seizure of movable property. The
+following technical terms will indicate the procedure in distress with
+time:--_Aurfocre_ (= demand of payment, stating the amount in presence
+of witnesses); _apad_ (= delay); _athgabail_ (= the actual seizure);
+_anad_ (= delay after seizure, the thing remaining in the debtor's
+possession); _toxal_ (= the taking away of the thing seized); _fasc_ (=
+notice to the debtor of the amount due, the _mainder_ or pound in which
+the thing seized is impounded, and the name of the law agent); _dithim_
+(= delay during which the thing is in pound); _lobad_ (= destruction or
+forfeiture of the debtor's ownership and substitution of the creditor's
+ownership). There was no sale, because sale for money was little known.
+The property in the thing seized, to the amount of the debt and
+expenses, became legally transferred from the debtor to the creditor,
+not all at once but in stages fixed by law. A creditor was not at
+liberty to seize household goods, farming utensils, or any goods the
+loss of which would prevent the debtor recovering from embarrassment, so
+long as there was other property which could be seized. A seizure could
+be made only between sunrise and sunset. "If a man who is sued evades
+justice, knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable
+by him and a fine of five seds." When a large debt was clearly due, and
+there was no property to seize, the debtor himself could be seized and
+compelled to work as a prisoner or slave until the debt was paid.
+
+When a defendant was of rank superior to that of the plaintiff, distress
+had to be preceded by _troscad_ (= fasting). This is a legal process
+unknown elsewhere except in parts of India. The plaintiff having made
+his demand and waited a certain time without result, went and sat
+without food before the door of the defendant. To refuse to submit to
+fasting was considered indelibly disgraceful, and was one of the things
+which legally degraded a man by reducing or destroying his honour-value.
+The law said "he who does not give a pledge to fasting is an evader of
+all; he who disregards all things shall not be paid by God or man." If a
+plaintiff having duly fasted did not receive within a certain time the
+satisfaction of his claim, he was entitled to distrain as in the case of
+an ordinary defendant, and to seize double the amount that would have
+satisfied him in the first instance. If a person fasting in accordance
+with law died during or in consequence of the fast, the person fasted
+upon was held guilty of murder. Fasting could be stopped by paying the
+debt, giving a pledge, or submitting to the decision of a Brehon. A
+creditor fasting after a reasonable offer of settlement had been made to
+him forfeited his claim. "He who fasts notwithstanding the offer of what
+should be accorded to him, forfeits his legal right according to the
+decision of the Feini."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Since Sir Samuel Ferguson wrote his article on "Brehon
+  Laws" in the 9th edition of this _Encyclopaedia_, much research has
+  been done on the subject, and Ferguson's account is no longer accepted
+  by scholars, either as regards the language or the substance of the
+  laws. Pending the work of a second Brehon Law Commission, the Laws are
+  best studied in the six imperfect volumes (_Ancient Laws of Ireland_,
+  1865-1901) produced by the first Commission (ignoring their long and
+  worthless introductions), together with, Dr. Whitley Stokes's
+  _Criticism_ (London, Nutt, 1903) of Atkinson's _Glossary_ (Dublin,
+  1901). The following are important references (kindly supplied by Dr
+  Whitley Stokes) for detailed research:--R. Dareste, _Études d'histoire
+  de droit_, pp. 356-381 (Paris, 1889); Arbois de Jubainville and Paul
+  Collinet, _Études sur le droit celtique_ (2 vols., Paris, 1895);
+  Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, vol. i. pp. 168-214 (2
+  vols., London, 1903); _Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie_, iv. 221,
+  the Copenhagen fragments of the Laws (Halle, 1903); important letters
+  in _The Academy_, Nos. 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 706, 707
+  (substantially covered by Stokes's _Criticism_); _Revue Celtique_,
+  xxv. 344; _Erin_, i. 209-315 (collation by Kuno Meyer of the Law-tract
+  Crith Gablach); Maine's _Early Hist, of Institutions_ (1875) and
+  _Early Law and Custom_, pp. 162, 180 (1883); Hearn's _Aryan Household_
+  (1879), and Maclennan's _Studies in Ancient History_, pp. 453-507
+  (1876), contain interesting general reference, but the writers were
+  not themselves original students of the laws. L. Ginnell's _Brehon
+  Laws_ (1894) may also be consulted. See further the article CELT,
+  sections _Language_ and _Literature_.     (L. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BREISACH, or ALTBREISACH, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
+Baden, on the left bank of the Rhine, standing on a basalt rock 250 ft.
+above the river, 10 m. W. of Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and on the railway
+connecting that city with Colmar. Pop. (1900) 3537. It has a fine
+minster, partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, dating from the 10th to the
+15th centuries; of its two principal towers one is 13th century Gothic,
+the other Romanesque. The interior is remarkable for its rich
+decorations, especially the wood-carving of the high altar, and for many
+interesting tombs and pictures. There is little industry, but a
+considerable trade is done in wines and other agricultural produce. On
+the opposite bank of the Rhine, here crossed by a railway bridge, lies
+the little town of Neubreisach and the fort Mortier.
+
+Breisach (_Brisiacum_), formerly an imperial city and until the middle
+of the 18th century one of the chief fortresses of the Empire, is of
+great antiquity. A stronghold of the _Sequani_ (a Gallic tribe, which
+occupied the country of the Doubs and Burgundy), it was captured in the
+time of Julius Caesar by Ariovistus and became known as the _Mons
+Brisiacus_. Fortified by the emperor Valentian in 369 to defend the
+Rhine against the Germans, it retained its position throughout the
+middle ages as one of the chief bulwarks of Germany and was called the
+"cushion and key (_Kissen und Schlussel_) of the German empire." Its
+importance was such that it gave its name to the district Breisgau, in
+which it is situated. In 939 it was taken by the emperor Otto I., and
+after remaining in the exclusive possession of the emperors for two
+centuries, was strengthened and shared for a while between them and the
+bishops of Basel. In 1254 and 1262 the bishops obtained full control
+over it; but in 1275 it was made an imperial city by King Rudolph I.,
+and at the beginning of the 14th century his son brought it definitively
+into the possession of the Habsburg monarchs, leaving the bishops but
+few privileges. In the Thirty Years' War Breisach successfully resisted
+the Swedes, but after a memorable siege and a defence by General von
+Reisach, one of the most famous in military annals, it was forced to
+capitulate to Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar on the 18th of December 1638.
+The endeavours of the emperor Ferdinand III. to retake it were
+fruitless, and by the peace of Westphalia (1648) Breisach was annexed to
+France. By the peace of Ryswick (1697) it was restored to Austria, when
+Louis XIV. built the town and fortress of Neubreisach on the left bank
+of the Rhine. Again in 1703 it fell into the hands of the French, owing
+to treachery, but was ceded to Austria by the peace of Rastatt
+(1714)--Yet again, in the War of the Austrian Succession, it was
+captured (1744) by the French, who dismantled the fortifications. They
+refortified it in 1796, and after passing, by the peace of Lunéville
+(1801), together with the Breisgau to the duke of Modena, Breisach was
+by the peace of Pressburg (1805) finally incorporated with Baden, when
+the fortifications were razed. During the Franco-German War (1870)
+Breisach suffered severely from bombardment directed against it from
+Neubreisach.
+
+
+
+
+BREISGAU, a district of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden. It extends
+along the right bank of the Rhine from Basel to Kehl, and includes the
+principal peaks of the southern Black Forest and the Freiburg valley.
+The Breisgau, originally a _pagus_ or _gau_ of the Frankish empire, was
+ruled during the middle ages by hereditary counts. Of these the earliest
+recorded is Birtilo (962-995), ancestor of the counts and dukes of
+Zähringen. On the death of Berchthold V. of Zähringen in 1218, his
+coheiresses brought parts of the Breisgau to the counts of Urach and
+Kyburg, while part went to the margraves of Baden. At the close of the
+13th century the Kyburg part of the Breisgau passed to the Habsburgs,
+who in 1368 acquired also the town and countship of Freiburg, which had
+been sold by the counts of Urach to the Freiburgers and given in pledge
+by them to the house of Austria in exchange for a loan of the purchase
+price, which they were unable to repay. The male Urach line becoming
+extinct in 1457, an heiress carried what remained of their possessions
+in the Breisgau to the house of Baden. In the struggle between France
+and Austria from the 17th century onwards the Breisgau frequently
+changed masters. In 1801 Austria was forced to cede it to Ercole III.,
+duke of Modena, in compensation for the duchy of which Napoleon had
+deprived him. His successor Ferdinand took the title of duke of
+Modena-Breisgau, but on his death in 1805 the Breisgau was divided
+between Baden and Württemberg. The latter ceded its portion to Baden in
+1810.
+
+  See Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire, &c._ (Leiden, 1890-1893).
+
+
+
+
+BREISLAK, SCIPIONE (1748-1826), Italian geologist of German parentage,
+was born at Rome in 1748. He early distinguished himself as professor of
+mathematical and mechanical philosophy in the college of Ragusa; but
+after residing there for several years he returned to his native city,
+where he became a professor in the Collegio Nazareno, and began to form
+the fine mineralogical cabinet in that institution. His leisure was
+dedicated to geological researches in the papal states. His account of
+the aluminous district of Tolfa and adjacent hills, published in 1786,
+gained for him the notice of the king of Naples, who invited him to
+inspect the mines and similar works in that kingdom, and appointed him
+professor of mineralogy to the royal artillery. The vast works for the
+refining of sulphur in the volcanic district of Solfatara were erected
+under his direction. He afterwards made many journeys through the
+ancient Campania to illustrate its geology, and published in 1798 his
+_Topografia fisica della Campania_, which contains the results of much
+accurate observation. Breislak also published an essay on the physical
+condition of the seven hills of Rome, which he regarded as the remains
+of a local volcano,--an opinion shown to be erroneous by the later
+researches of G.B. Brocchi. The political convulsions of Italy in 1799
+brought Breislak to Paris, where he remained until 1802, when, being
+appointed inspector of the saltpetre and powder manufactories near
+Milan, he removed to that city. The mineral Breislakite was named after
+him. He died on the 15th of February 1826. His other publications
+include:--_Introduzione alla geologia_ (1811, French ed. 1819); _Traité
+sur la structure extérieure du globe_, 3 vols. and atlas (Milan, 1818,
+1822); _Descrizione geologica della provincia di Milano_ (1822).
+
+
+
+
+BREITENFELD, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, 5½ m. N.N.W.
+of Leipzig, noted in military history. The first battle of Breitenfeld
+was fought on the 17th of September 1631, between the allied Swedish and
+Saxon armies under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperial forces under Count
+Tilly. The battlefield is a low ridge running east and west between the
+villages of Göbschelwitz and Breitenfeld, the position of the
+Imperialists lying along the crest from Göbschelwitz on the right to a
+point about 1 m. short of Breitenfeld on the left; opposite this
+position, and behind a group of villages on the Loberbach stream, lay
+the Swedish forces, flanked on their left by the Saxon contingent under
+the elector, who was assisted by Arnim. The villages formed the only
+obstacle on the gentle slope lying between the Loberbach and Tilly's
+line; through these villages the Swedes defiled slowly, and formed up on
+the open ground beyond them. Tilly's army was drawn up in a continuous
+line, the infantry ranged in heavy battalions in the centre, the cavalry
+on the wings, and the heavy artillery in a mass in front of the
+infantry. Gustavus arrayed the Swedes in two lines and a reserve,
+infantry in the centre, cavalry on the flanks, and the Saxons were drawn
+up in a similar formation on the left of the Swedish left-wing cavalry.
+So far as can be gauged the respective numbers were at least 32,000
+Imperialists, 22,000 Swedes and 15,000 Saxons. The Swedish infantry was
+drawn up on an entirely novel system; each brigade of infantry, composed
+of several battalions, was formed in many small and handy corps of
+pikemen and musketeers, and parties of musketeers were also detached to
+support the cavalry. The guns were scattered along the front. The Saxons
+were ranged, like Tilly's army, in heavy masses of foot and horse
+preceded by a great battery of guns. At 2 P.M. Pappenheim, commanding
+Tilly's left wing, led forward the whole of his cavalry in a furious
+charge. Feeling the fire of the musketeers who were intercalated amongst
+the Swedish horse, Pappenheim swung round to his left and charged the
+Swedish right wing in flank. The Swedes of both lines promptly wheeled
+up, and after a prolonged conflict the Imperial horse were driven
+completely off the field. The attack of Tilly's right wing under
+Fürstenberg directed against the Saxons was more successful. The Saxons
+were at once broken and routed, only a handful under Arnim maintaining
+the ground. Fürstenberg pursued the fugitives for many miles, and Tilly
+with the centre of infantry (which, considering the depth of its
+formations, must have possessed great manoeuvring power) rapidly
+followed him and formed up opposite the now exposed left of the Swedes.
+Thereupon the Swedes, in their light and handy formation, changed
+position rapidly and easily to meet him. Tilly's attack was strenuously
+opposed, and at this moment the decisive stroke of the battle was
+delivered by the Swedish right wing, which, having disposed of
+Pappenheim, swung round and occupied the ground originally held by the
+Imperial infantry, seized Tilly's guns, and with them enfiladed the
+enemy's new line. This put an end to the attack of the Imperial foot,
+and before sunset Tilly was in full retreat, hotly pursued and losing
+heavily in prisoners. His losses on the field have been estimated at
+7000 killed and wounded and almost as many prisoners; the Swedes lost
+about 2000 and the Saxons over 4000 men.
+
+The village of Breitenfeld also gives its name to another great battle
+in the Thirty Years' War (November 2, 1642), in which the Swedes under
+Torstensson defeated the Imperialists under the archduke Leopold and
+Prince Piccolomini, who were seeking to relieve Leipzig. The Swedish
+cavalry decided the day on this occasion also.
+
+
+
+
+BREMEN, a free state in the German empire, bearing the title _Freie
+Hansestadt Bremen_. It falls into three distinct parts: (1) the largest
+portion, with the city of Bremen, lying on both banks, but chiefly on
+the right, of the lower course of the Weser, surrounded by the Prussian
+province of Hanover and the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, and consisting in
+the main of lowland country intersected by canals and dykes; (2) the
+town and district of Vegesack, lying separate from, but immediately
+north of the main portion, on the right bank of the river; (3) the port
+of Bremerhaven, 46 m. down the Weser, at its mouth. Of the whole
+territory, which has an area of 99 sq. m., about one-half is meadow and
+grazing land, one-quarter under tillage, and the remainder occupied by a
+little woodland, some unprofitable sandy wastes, the bed of the Weser
+and the towns. Market gardening, the rearing of cattle, for which the
+district is widely famed, and fishing, form the chief occupations of the
+rural population. The climate is mild, but the rainfall (26.9 in.
+annually on the average) is relatively considerable. The population is
+shown as follows:--
+
+  +-----------------+-----------+----------+
+  |                 |   1900    |   1905   |
+  +-----------------+-----------+----------+
+  | Bremen, city    |  186,822  |  214,953 |
+  | Vegesack        |    3,943  |    4,130 |
+  | Bremerhaven     |   20,315  |   24,159 |
+  | Rural districts |   37,327  |   20,431 |
+  +-----------------+-----------+----------+
+  | Total           |  248,407  |  263,673 |
+  +-----------------+-----------+----------+
+
+Of the inhabitants, who belong to the Lower Saxon (_Nieder-Sachsen_)
+race and in daily intercourse mostly speak the Low German
+(_Plattdeutsch_) dialect, about two-thirds are natives of the state and
+one-third immigrants from other parts of Germany, chiefly from Hanover
+and Oldenburg. About 93% are Protestants, 6% Roman Catholics, and only
+½% Jews. The form of government is that of a republic, under a
+constitution proclaimed on the 8th of March 1849, revised on the 21st of
+February 1854, the 17th of November 1875, and the 1st of January 1894.
+The sovereignty resides jointly in the senate and the Bürgerschaft, or
+Convent of Burgesses. The senate, which is the executive power, is
+composed of sixteen life members, elected by the convent, on
+presentation by the senate. Of these ten at least must be lawyers and
+three merchants. Two of the number are nominated by their colleagues as
+burgomasters, who preside in succession for a year at a time and hold
+office four years, one retiring every two years. The Bürgerschaft
+consists of 150 (formerly 300) representatives, chosen by the citizens
+for six years, and forms the legislative body. Fourteen members are
+elected by such citizens of Bremen (city) as have enjoyed a university
+education, forty by the merchants, twenty by the manufacturers and
+artisans, and forty-eight by the other citizens. Of the remaining
+representatives, twelve are furnished by Bremerhaven and Vegesack and
+sixteen by the rural districts. As a member of the German empire, the
+state of Bremen has one voice in the Bundesrat and returns one member to
+the Imperial diet (Reichstag). Formerly Bremen was a free port, but from
+the 1st of October 1888 the whole of the state, with the exception of
+two small free districts in Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively, joined
+the German customs union. The state has two Amtsgerichte (courts of
+first instance) at Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively, and a superior
+court, Landgericht, at Bremen, whence appeals lie to the
+Oberlandesgericht for the Hanseatic towns in Hamburg. The judges of the
+Bremen courts are appointed by a committee of members of the senate, the
+Bürgerschaft and the bench of judges. By the convention with Prussia of
+the 27th of June 1867, the free state surrendered its right to furnish
+its own contingent to the army, the recruits being after that time
+drafted into the Hanseatic infantry regiment, forming a portion of the
+Prussian IX. army corps.
+
+
+
+
+BREMEN, a city of Germany, capital of the free state of Bremen, and one
+of the Hanseatic towns. It lies on a sandy plain on both banks of the
+Weser, 46 m. from the North Sea and 71 m. S.W. from Hamburg by rail, on
+the mainline to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 214,953. It has also direct railway
+communication with Berlin via Uelzen, Hanover and Bremerhaven. The city
+consists of four quarters,--the old town (Altstadt) and its suburban
+extensions (Vorstadt) being on the right bank of the river, and the new
+town (Neustadt) with its southern suburb (Südervorstadt) on the left
+bank. The river is crossed by three bridges, the old, the new
+(1872-1875) Kaiserbrücke, and the railway bridge, with a gangway for
+foot passengers. The ramparts of the old town have long been converted
+into beautiful promenades and gardens, the moats forming a chain of
+lakes.
+
+The romantic old town, with its winding streets and lanes, flanked by
+massive gabled houses, dates from the medieval days of Hanseatic
+prosperity. On the market square stands the fine town hall (Rathaus),
+dating from the 15th century, with a handsome Renaissance _façade_ of a
+somewhat later date, and before it a stone statue of Roland, the emblem
+of civic power. Its celebrated underground wine cellar has been
+immortalized by Wilhelm Hauff in his _Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller_.
+The town hall is internally richly embellished and has a gallery of
+interesting paintings. In an upper hall a model of an old Hanseatic
+frigate, with the device _Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse_,
+hangs from the ceiling. Among other ancient buildings, situated chiefly
+in the old town, are the following:--the cathedral of St Peter (formerly
+the archiepiscopal and now the Lutheran parish church), erected in the
+12th century on the site of Charlemagne's wooden church, and famous for
+its Bleikeller, or lead vault, in which bodies can be preserved for a
+long time without suffering decomposition; the church of St Ansgarius,
+built about 1243, with a spire 400 ft. high; the church of Our Lady,
+dating from the 12th and 13th centuries; the 12th century Romanesque
+church of St Stephen; the Schütting, or merchants' hall, originally
+built in 1619 for the cloth-traders' gild; the Stadthaus (town house),
+formerly the archiepiscopal palace, and converted to its present uses
+only in 1819. The most important and imposing among the more modern
+architectural additions to the city are the handsome Gothic exchange,
+completed in 1867, the municipal theatre, the municipal library, the
+post office (1878), the law courts (1891-1895), the wool exchange, the
+German bank, the municipal museum for natural science, ethnology and
+commerce, and the fine railway station (1888). The principal memorials
+embrace, besides the Roland, the Willehad fountain (1883), the monument
+of the Franco-German War (erected 1875), the centaur fountain (1891), an
+equestrian statue of the emperor William I. (1893), and a statue of the
+poet Theodor Körner. A beautiful park, Bürgerpark, has been laid out in
+the Bürgerweide, or meadows, lying beyond the railway station to the
+north-east of the city. It is a peculiarity of the domestic
+accommodation of Bremen that the majority of the houses, unlike the
+custom in most other German towns, where flats prevail, are occupied by
+a single family only.
+
+The industries and manufactures of Bremen are of considerable variety
+and extent, but are more particularly developed in such branches as are
+closely allied to navigation, such as shipbuilding, founding,
+engine-building and rope-making. Next in importance come those of
+tobacco, snuff, cigars, the making of cigar boxes, jute-spinning,
+distilling, sugar refining and the shelling of rice. Bremen owes its
+fame almost exclusively to its transmaritime trade, mainly imports. By
+the completion of the engineering works on the Weser in 1887-1899,
+whereby, among other improvements, the river was straightened and
+deepened, to 18 ft., large ocean-going vessels are able to steam right
+up to the city itself. It has excellent railway connexions with the
+chief industrial districts of Germany. Like Hamburg, it does
+predominantly a transit trade; it is especially important as the
+importer of raw products from America. In two articles, tobacco and
+rice, Bremen is the greatest market in the world; in cotton and indigo
+it takes the first place on the continent, and it is a serious rival of
+Hamburg and Antwerp in the import of wool and petroleum. The value of
+the total imports (both sea-borne and by river and rail) increased from
+£22,721,700 in 1883 to about £60,000,000 in 1905; the imports from the
+United States, from £9,755,000 in 1883 to about £25,000,000 in 1905. The
+countries from which imports principally come are the United States,
+England, Germany, Russia, the republics of South America, the Far East
+and Australia. The exports rose from a total of £26,096,500 in 1883 to
+£62,000,000 in 1905. The number of vessels which entered the ports of
+the free state (i.e. Bremen city, Bremerhaven and Vegesack) increased
+from 2869 of 1,258,529 aggregate tonnage in 1883, to 4024 of 2,716,633
+tons in 1900. Bremen is the centre for some of the more important of the
+German shipping companies, especially of the North German Lloyd (founded
+in 1856), which, on the 1st of January 1905, possessed a fleet of 382
+steamers of 693,892 tons, besides lighters and similar craft. Bremen
+also shares with Hamburg the position of being one of the two chief
+emigration ports of Germany. There are three docks, all to the
+north-west of the city--namely, the free harbour (which was opened in
+1888), the winter harbour, and the timber and industrial harbour.
+Internal communication is served by an excellent system of electric
+tramways, and there is also a local steamboat service with neighbouring
+villages on the Weser.
+
+_History._--According to Brandes, quoting Martin Luther in the _Lexicon
+Philologicum_, the name is derived from _Bram, Bräm, i.e. hem_ = the
+river-bank, or confine of the land on which it was built. In 787 Bremen
+was chosen by St Willehad, whom Charlemagne had established as bishop in
+the _pagi_ of the lower Weser, as his see. In 848 the destruction of
+Hamburg by the Normans led to the transference of the archiepiscopal see
+of Hamburg to Bremen, which became the seat of the archbishops of
+Hamburg-Bremen. In 965 the emperor Otto I. granted to Archbishop Adaldag
+"in the place called Bremen" (_in loco Bremun nuncupato_) the right to
+establish a market, and the full administrative, fiscal and judicial
+powers of a count, no one but the bishop or his _advocatus_ being
+allowed to exercise authority in the city. This privilege, by which the
+archbishop was lord of the city and his _Vogt_ its judge, was frequently
+confirmed by subsequent emperors, ending under Frederick I. in 1158.
+Though, however, there is no direct evidence of the existence of any
+communal organization during this period, it is clear from the vigorous
+part taken by the burghers in the struggle of the emperor Frederick with
+Henry the Lion of Saxony that some such organization very early existed.
+Yet in the _privilegium_ granted to the townspeople by Frederick I. in
+1186 the emperor had done no more than guarantee them their personal
+liberties. The earliest recognition of any civic organization they may
+have possessed they owed to Archbishop Hartwig II. (1184-1207), who had
+succeeded in uniting against him his chapter, the nobles and the
+citizens; and the first mention of the city council occurs in a charter
+of Archbishop Gerhard II. in 1225, though the _consules_ here named
+doubtless represented a considerably older institution. In the 13th
+century, however, whatever the civic organization of the townsfolk may
+have been, it was still strictly subordinate to the archbishop and his
+_Vogt_; the council could issue regulations only with the consent of the
+former, while in the judicial work of the latter, save in small
+questions of commercial dishonesty, its sole function was advisory. By
+the middle of the 14th century this situation was exactly reversed; the
+elected town council was the supreme legislative power in all criminal
+and civil causes, and in the court of the _advocatus_ two _Ratsmänner_
+sat as assessors. The victory had been won over the archbishop; but a
+fresh peril had developed in the course of the 13th century in the
+growth of a patrician class, which, as in so many other cities,
+threatened to absorb all power into the hands of a close oligarchy. In
+1304 the commonalty rose against the patricians and drove them from the
+city, and in the following year gained a victory over the exiles and
+their allies, the knights, which was long celebrated by an annual
+service of thanksgiving. This was the beginning of troubles that lasted
+intermittently throughout the century. Bremen had been admitted to the
+Hanseatic league in 1283, but was excluded in 1285, and not readmitted
+until 1358. Owing to the continued civic unrest it was again excluded in
+1427, and only readmitted in 1433 when the old aristocratic constitution
+was definitively restored. But though in Bremen the efforts of the
+craftsmen's "arts" to secure a share of power had been held in check and
+the gilds never gained any importance, the city government did not, as
+at Cologne and elsewhere, develop into a close patrician oligarchy.
+Power was in the hands of the wealthy, but the avenues to power were
+open to those who knew how to acquire the necessary qualification. There
+was thus no artificial restraint put upon individual enterprise, and the
+question of the government having been settled, Bremen rapidly developed
+in wealth and influence.
+
+The Reformation was introduced into Bremen in 1522 by Heinrich von
+Zütphen. Archbishop Christopher of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1487-1558), a
+brutal libertine, hated for his lusts and avarice, looked on the
+reforming movement as a revolt against himself. He succeeded in getting
+the reformer burned; but found himself involved in a life and death
+struggle with the city. In 1532 Bremen joined the league of
+Schmalkalden, and twice endured a siege by the imperial forces. In 1547
+it was only saved by Mansfeld's victory at Drakenburg. Archbishop
+Christopher was succeeded in 1558 by his brother Georg, bishop of Minden
+(d. 1566), who, though he himself was instrumental in introducing the
+reformed model into his other diocese of Verden, is reckoned as the last
+Roman Catholic archbishop of Bremen. His successor, Henry III.
+(1550-1585), a son of Duke Francis I. of Lauenburg, who had been bishop
+of Osnabrück and Paderborn, was a Lutheran and married. Protestantism
+was not, however, definitively proclaimed as the state religion in
+Bremen until 1618. The last archbishop, Frederick II. (of Denmark), was
+deposed by the Swedes in 1644. In 1646 Bremen received the privileges of
+a free imperial city from the emperor Ferdinand III.; but Sweden, whose
+possession of the archbishopric was recognized two years later, refused
+to consent to this, and in 1666 attempted vainly to assert her claims
+over the city by arms--in the so-called Bremen War. When, however, in
+1720 the elector of Hanover (George I. of Great Britain) acquired the
+archbishopric, he recognized Bremen as a free city. In 1803 this was
+again recognized and the territory of the city was even extended. In
+1806 it was taken by the French, was subsequently annexed by Napoleon to
+his empire, and from 1810 to 1813 was the capital of the department of
+the Mouths of the Weser. Restored to independence by the congress of
+Vienna in 1815, it subsequently became a member of the German
+Confederation, and in 1867 joined the new North German Confederation,
+with which it was merged in the new German empire.
+
+  See Buchenau, _Die freie Hansestadt Bremen_ (3rd ed., Bremen, 1900, 5
+  vols.); _Bremisches Urkundenbuch_, edited by R. Ehmck and W. von
+  Bippen (1863, fol.); W. von Bippen, _Geschichte der Stadt Bremen_
+  (Bremen, 1892-1898); F. Donandt, _Versuch einer Geschichte des
+  bremischen Stadtrechts_ (Bremen, 1830, 2 vols.); _Bremisches Jahrbuch_
+  (historical, 19 vols., 1864-1900); and Karl Hegel, _Städte und
+  Gilden_, vol. ii. p. 461 (Leipzig, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+BREMER, FREDRIKA (1801-1865), Swedish novelist, was born near Åbo, in
+Finland, on the 17th of August 1801. Her father, a descendant of an old
+German family, a wealthy iron master and merchant, left Finland when
+Fredrika was three years old, and after a year's residence in Stockholm,
+purchased an estate at Årsta, about 20 m. from the capital. There, with
+occasional visits to Stockholm and to a neighbouring estate, which
+belonged for a time to her father, Fredrika passed her time till 1820.
+The education to which she and her sisters were subjected was unusually
+strict; Fredrika's health began to give way; and in 1821 the family set
+out for the south of France. They travelled slowly by way of Germany and
+Switzerland, and returned by Paris and the Netherlands. It was shortly
+after this time that Miss Bremer became acquainted with Schiller's
+works, which made a very deep impression on her. She had begun to write
+verses from the age of eight, and in 1828 she succeeded in finding a
+publisher for the first volume of her _Teckningar ur hvardagslifvet_
+(1828), which at once attracted attention. The second volume (1831),
+containing one of her best tales, _Familjen H._, gave decisive evidence
+that a real novelist had been found in Sweden. The Swedish Academy
+awarded her their smaller gold medal, and she increased her reputation
+by _Presidentens döttrar_ (1834), _Grannarne_ (1837) and others. Her
+father had died in 1830, and her life was thereafter regulated in
+accordance with her own wishes and tastes. She lived for some years in
+Norway with a friend, after whose death she travelled in the autumn of
+1849 to America, and after spending nearly two years there returned
+through England. The admirable translations (1846, &c.) of her works by
+Mary Howitt, which had been received with even greater eagerness in
+America and England than in Sweden, secured for her a warm and kindly
+reception. Her impressions of America, _Hemmen i nya verlden_, were
+published in 1853-1854, and at once translated into English. After her
+return Miss Bremer devoted herself to her scheme for the advancement and
+emancipation of women. Her views on these questions were expounded in
+her later novels--_Hertha_ (1856) and _Far och dotter_ (1858). Miss
+Bremer organized a society of ladies in Stockholm for the purpose of
+visiting the prisons, and during the cholera started a society, the
+object of which was the care of children left orphans by the epidemic.
+She devoted herself to other philanthropic and social schemes, and
+gradually abandoned her earlier simple and charming type of story for
+novels directed to the furtherance of her views. In these she was less
+successful. In 1856 she again travelled, and spent five years on the
+continent and in Palestine. Her reminiscences of these countries have
+all been translated into English. On her return she settled at Årsta,
+where, with the exception of a visit to Germany, she spent the remaining
+years of her life. She died on the 31st of December 1865.
+
+  See _Life, Letters and Posthumous Works of F. Bremer_, by her sister,
+  Charlotte Bremer, translated by F. Milow, London, 1868. A selection of
+  her works in 6 vols. appeared at Örebro, 1868-1872.
+
+
+
+
+BREMERHAVEN, a seaport town of Germany, in the free state of Bremen, on
+the right bank and estuary of the Weser, at the confluence of the
+Geeste, 38 m. N. of the city of Bremen by rail. Pop. (1895) 18,366;
+(1905) 24,159. It is built on a tract of territory ceded to Bremen by
+Hanover in 1826, and further increased by treaty with Prussia in 1869.
+It forms practically a single town with Geestemünde (Prussia), which
+lies across the Geeste and with which it is connected by a drawbridge.
+The port was opened in 1830, and besides an excellent harbour, there are
+three large wet docks, including the Kaiserhafen, enlarged in 1897-1899
+at a cost of £900,000. This, together with the north portion of the
+Neuerhafen, constitutes the free harbour. Here are the workshops and dry
+docks of the North German Lloyd steamship company. The whole internal
+harbour system is furnished with powerful hydraulic cranes and lines of
+railway running alongside the quays. The entrance to the port is free
+from ice nearly all the year round, is excellently buoyed, and lighted
+by two lightships and eight lighthouses, among the latter the remarkable
+Rothesand Leuchtturm, erected 1884-1885. The Hanoverian fort and
+batteries, which formerly protected the town, have been removed, and
+their place is supplied by four modern forts, with revolving turtleback
+turrets, lower down. The town possesses two Protestant and a Roman
+Catholic church, a technical institute, a natural history museum, a
+library, a theatre, a monument to the emperor William I. and one to
+Johann Smidt (1773-1859), the burgomaster of Bremen to whose enterprise
+the harbour of Bremerhaven is due. Shipbuilding and kindred industries
+are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+BRENDAN, BRANDON, or BRANDAN (c. 484-578), Irish saint and hero of a
+legendary voyage in the Atlantic, is said to have been born at Tralee
+in Kerry in A.D. 484. The Irish form of his name is _Brennain_, the
+Latin _Brendanus_. Medieval historians usually call him Brendan of
+Clonfert, or Brendan son of Finnloga, to distinguish him from his
+contemporary, St Brendan of Birr (573). Little is known of the
+historical Brendan, who died in 578 as abbot of a Benedictine monastery
+which he had founded twenty years previously at Clonfert in eastern
+Galway. The story of his voyage across the Atlantic to the "Promised
+Land of the Saints," afterwards designated "St Brendan's Island,"[1]
+ranks among the most celebrated of the medieval sagas of western Europe.
+Its traditional date is 565-573. The legend is found, in prose or verse
+and with many variations, in Latin, French, English, Saxon, Flemish,
+Irish, Welsh, Breton and Scottish Gaelic. Although it does not occur in
+the writings of any Arabian geographer, several of its incidents--such
+as the landing on a whale in mistake for an island--belong also to
+Arabic folk-literature. Many of Brendan's fabulous adventures seem to be
+borrowed from the half-pagan Irish saga of Maelduin or Maeldune, and
+others belong also to Scandinavian mythology. The oldest extant version
+of the legend is the 11th century _Navigatio Brendani_.
+
+St Brendan's island was long accepted as a reality by geographers. In a
+Venetian map dated 1367, in the anonymous Weimar map of 1424, and in B.
+Beccario's map of 1435, it is identified with Madeira. Columbus, in his
+journal for the 9th of August 1492, states that the inhabitants of
+Hierro, Gomera and Madeira had seen the island in the west; and Martin
+Behaim, in the globe he made at Nuremberg in the same year, places it
+west of the Canaries and near the equator. During the 16th century the
+progress of exploration in these latitudes compelled many cartographers
+to locate the island elsewhere; and it was marked about 100 m. west of
+Ireland, or afterwards among the West Indies. But in Spain and Portugal
+the older belief as to its situation was maintained. In 1526 an
+expedition under Fernando Alvarez left Grand Canary in search of St
+Brendan's island, which had again been reported as seen by many
+trustworthy witnesses. In 1570 an official inquiry was held, and a
+second expedition undertaken, by Fernando de Villalobos, governor of
+Palma. Similar voyages of discovery were made by the Canarians in 1604
+and 1721; and only in 1759 was the apparition of St Brendan's island
+explained as an effect of mirage.
+
+  Among the numerous books which deal with the legend, the following are
+  important: _Die altfranzösische Prosaübersetzung von Brendans
+  Meerfahrt_, by C. Wahlund (Upsala, 1900); _La "Navigatio Sancti
+  Brendani" in antico Veneziano_, by F. Novati (Bergamo, 1892); _Zur
+  Brendanus-Legende_, &c., by G. Schirmer (Leipzig, 1888); _Les Voyages
+  merveilleux de St. Brendan_, &c., by F. Michel (Paris, 1878); and
+  _Acta Sancti Brendani.... Original Latin Documents connected with the
+  Life of St Brendan_, by P.F. Moran (Dublin, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+BRENHAM, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+situated in the S.E. part of the state, about 68 m. N.W. of Houston.
+Pop. (1890) 5209; (1900) 5968, including 2701 negroes and 531
+foreign-born; (1910) 4718. Brenham is served by the Gulf, Colorado &
+Santa Fé (controlled by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé) and the Houston
+& Texas Central railways. It is the seat of Blinn Memorial College
+(German Methodist Episcopal), opened as "Mission Institute" in 1883, and
+renamed in 1889 in honour of the Rev. Christian Blinn, of New York, a
+liberal benefactor; of Brenham Evangelical Lutheran College, and of a
+German-American institute (1898). The municipality owns and operates the
+waterworks. The city is situated in an agricultural and cotton-raising
+region, and has cotton compresses and gins, cotton mills, cotton-seed
+oil refineries, foundries and machine shops, and furniture and wagon
+factories. Brenham was settled about 1844, was incorporated in 1866, and
+was chartered as a city in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+BRENNER PASS, the lowest (4495 ft.) and one of the most frequented
+passes across the Alps in all ages, though the name itself rarely occurs
+in the middle ages, the route over it being said to lie through "the
+valley of Trent." It may be described as the great gate of Italy, and by
+it most of the Teutonic tribes made their way to Italy. One reason of
+its importance is that many side passes in the end join this great
+thoroughfare. It was crossed no fewer than 66 times by various emperors,
+between 793 and 1402. A carriage road was constructed over it as far
+back as 1772, while the railway over it was built in 1864-1867. From
+Innsbruck to the summit of the pass is a distance by rail of 25 m. The
+line then descends through the Eisack valley past Brixen (34 m.) to
+Botzen (24 m.). Thence it follows the valley of the Adige to Trent (35
+m.) and on to Verona (56½ m.)--in all 174½ m. by rail from Innsbruck to
+Verona.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BRENNUS, the name, or perhaps the official title, of two chiefs of the
+Celtic Gauls.
+
+(1) The first Brennus crossed the Apennines in 391 B.C., ravaged
+Etruria, and annihilated a Roman army of about 40,000 men on the Allia
+some 12 m. from Clusium (July 16, 390). Rome thus lay at his mercy, but
+he wasted time, and the Romans were able to occupy and provision the
+Capitol (though they had not sufficient forces to defend their walls)
+and to send their women and children to Veii. When on the third day the
+Gauls took possession, they found the city occupied only by those aged
+patricians who had held high office in the state. For a while the Gauls
+withheld their hands out of awe and reverence, but the ruder passions
+soon prevailed. The city was sacked and burnt; but the Capitol itself
+withstood a siege of more than six months, saved from surprise on one
+occasion only by the wakefulness of the sacred geese and the courage of
+Marcus Manlius. At last the Gauls consented to accept a ransom of a
+thousand pounds of gold. As it was being weighed out, the Roman tribune
+complained of some unfairness. Brennus at once threw his heavy sword
+into the scale; and when asked the meaning of the act, replied that it
+meant _Vae victis_ ("woe to the conquered"). The Gauls returned home
+with their plunder, leaving Rome in a condition from which she took long
+to recover. A later legend, probably an invention, represents M. Furius
+Camillus as suddenly appearing with an avenging army at the moment when
+the gold was being weighed, and defeating Brennus and all his host.
+
+  See null v. 33-49; Plutarch, _Camillus_, 17, 22, 28; Polybius i. 6,
+  ii. 18; Dion. Halic. xiii. 7.
+
+(2) The second Brennus is said to have been one of the leaders of an
+inroad made by the Gauls from the east of the Adriatic into Thrace and
+Macedonia (280), when they defeated and slew Ptolemy Ceraunus, then king
+of Macedonia. Whether Brennus took part in this first invasion or not is
+uncertain; but its success led him to urge his countrymen to a second
+expedition, when he marched with a large army through Macedonia and
+Thessaly until he reached Thermopylae. To this point the united forces
+of the northern Greeks--Athenians, Phocians, Boeotians and
+Aetolians--had fallen back; and here the Greeks a second time held their
+foreign invaders in check for many days, and a second time had their
+rear turned, owing to the treachery of some of the natives, by the same
+path which had been discovered to the Persians two hundred years before.
+Brennus and his Gauls marched on to Delphi, of whose sacred treasures
+they had heard much. But the little force which the Delphians and their
+neighbours had collected--about 4000 men--favoured by the strength of
+their position, made a successful defence. They rolled down rocks upon
+their enemies as they crowded into the defile, and showered missiles on
+them from above. A thunderstorm, with hail and intense cold, increased
+their confusion, and on Brennus himself being wounded they took to
+flight, pursued by the Greeks all the way back to Thermopylae. Brennus
+killed himself, "unable to endure the pain of his wounds," says Justin;
+more probably determined not to return home defeated.
+
+  See Justin xxiv. 6; Diod. Sic. xxii. 11; Pausanias x. 19-23; L.
+  Contzen, _Die Wanderungen der Kelten_ (Leipzig, 1861).
+
+
+
+
+BRENTANO, KLEMENS (1778-1842), German poet and novelist, was born at
+Ehrenbreitstein on the 8th of September 1778. His sister was the
+well-known Bettina von Arnim (q.v.), Goethe's correspondent. He studied
+at Jena, and afterwards resided at Heidelberg, Vienna and Berlin. In
+1818, weary of his somewhat restless and unsettled life, he joined the
+Roman Catholic Church and withdrew to the monastery of Dülmen where he
+lived for some years in strict seclusion. The latter part of his life he
+spent in Regensburg, Frankfort and Munich, actively engaged in Catholic
+propaganda. He died at Aschaffenburg on the 28th of July 1842. Brentano,
+whose early writings were published under the pseudonym Maria, belonged
+to the Heidelberg group of German romantic writers, and his works are
+marked by excess of fantastic imagery and by abrupt, bizarre modes of
+expression. His first published writings were _Satiren und poetische
+Spiele_ (1800), and a romance _Godwi_ (1801-1802); of his dramas the
+best are _Ponce de Leon_ (1804), _Victoria_ (1817) and _Die Gründung
+Prags_ (1815). On the whole his finest work is the collection of
+_Romanzen vom Rosenkranz_ (published posthumously in 1852); his short
+stories, and more especially the charming _Geschichte vom braven Kasperl
+und dem schönen Annerl_ (1838), which has been translated into English,
+are still popular. Brentano also assisted Ludwig Achim von Arnim, his
+brother-in-law, in the collection of folk-songs forming _Des Knaben
+Wunderhorn_ (1806-1808).
+
+  Brentano's collected works, edited by his brother Christian, appeared
+  at Frankfort in 9 vols. (1851-1855). Selections have been edited by
+  J.B. Diel (1873), M. Koch (1892), and J. Dohmke (1893). See J.B. Diel
+  and W. Kreiten, _Klemens Brentano_ (2 vols., 1877-1878), the
+  introduction to Koch's edition, and R. Steig, _A. von Arnim und K.
+  Brentano_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH [called LUJO] (1844- ), German economist, a
+member of the same family as the preceding, was born at Aschaffenburg on
+the 18th of December 1844. He received some of his academical education
+in Dublin. In 1868 he made a thorough study of trade-unionism in
+England, which resulted in his principal work, _Die Arbeitergilden der
+Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1871-1872; Eng. trans, by L.T. Smith). The book was
+assailed by Bamberger and other economists, but is important not only as
+an authority on modern associations of workmen, but for having given an
+impetus to the study of the gilds of the middle ages, and the
+examination of the great stores of neglected information bearing upon
+the condition of the people in olden days. Brentano's other works are of
+a more theoretical character, and chiefly relate to political economy,
+of which he was professor at Breslau from 1872 to 1882, at Strassburg
+from 1882 to 1888, at Vienna 1888-1889, at Leipzig 1889-1891, and at
+Munich since 1891. We may mention _Das Arbeitsverhältnis gemäss dem
+heutigen Recht_ (1877); _Die christlich-soziale Bewegung in England_
+(1883); _Über das Verhältnis von Arbeitslohn und Arbeitszeit zur
+Arbeitsleistung_ (1893); _Agrarpolitik_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+BRENTFORD, a market town in the Brentford parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, 10½ m. W. of Waterloo terminus, London, by the
+London & South-Western railway, at the junction of the river Brent with
+the Thames. Pop. of urban district (1901) 15,171. The Grand Junction
+Canal joins the Brent, affording ample water-communications to the town,
+which has considerable industries in brewing, soap-making, saw-milling,
+market-gardening, &c. The Grand Junction waterworks are situated here.
+Brentford has been the county-town for elections since 1701.
+
+In 1016 Brentford, or, as it was often called Braynford, was the scene
+of a great defeat inflicted on the Danes by Edmund Ironside. In 1280 a
+toll was granted by Edward I., who granted the town a market, for the
+construction of a bridge across the river, and in the reign of Henry VI.
+a hospital of the Nine Orders of Angels was founded near its western
+side. In 1642 a battle was fought here in which the royalists defeated
+the parliamentary forces. For his services on this occasion the Scotsman
+Ruthven, earl of Forth, was made earl of Brentford, a title afterwards
+conferred by William III. on Marshal Schomberg. Brentford was during the
+16th and 17th centuries a favourite resort of London citizens; and its
+inn of the Three Pigeons, which was kept for a time by John Lowin, one
+of the first actors of Shakespeare's plays, is frequently alluded to by
+the dramatists of the period. Falstaff is disguised as the "Fat Woman of
+Brentford" in Shakespeare's _Merry Wives of Windsor_, and numerous other
+references to the town in literature point, in most cases, to its
+reputation for excessive dirt. The "two kings of Brentford" mentioned in
+Cowper's _Task_, and elsewhere, seem to owe their mythical existence to
+the play, _The Rehearsal_, by George Villiers, second duke of
+Buckingham, produced in 1671.
+
+South of Brentford, towards Isleworth, is Sion House, a mansion founded
+by Lord Protector Somerset in 1547, and rebuilt and enlarged by the 10th
+earl of Northumberland and Sir Hugh Smithson, afterwards duke of
+Northumberland, the architects being Inigo Jones and Robert Adam. The
+gardens are very beautiful. The site of Sion or Syon House was
+previously occupied by a convent of Bridgetine nuns established at
+Twickenham by Henry V. in 1415 and removed here in 1431.
+
+
+
+
+BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL (1770-1844), British admiral, was born in Rhode
+Island, U.S.A., on the 22nd of August 1770. He was the son of
+Rear-Admiral Jahleel Brenton (1729-1802), who belonged to a loyalist
+family which suffered the loss of most of its property in the
+insurrection of the American colonies. He was a lieutenant in the
+British navy when the war began, and emigrated with his family to the
+mother country. Three of the sons entered the navy--Jahleel (the
+eldest), Captain Edward Pelham Brenton (1774-1839), and James Wallace
+Brenton, who was killed young in 1799 when attacking a Spanish privateer
+near Barcelona in the boats of the "Petrel," of which he was lieutenant.
+Jahleel went to sea first with his father in 1781, and on the return of
+peace was sent to the "maritime school" at Chelsea. He served in the
+peace before the beginning of the war in 1793, and passed his
+examination as lieutenant, but seeing no chance of employment went with
+other English naval officers to serve in the Swedish navy against the
+Russians. In 1790 he received his commission and returned home. Till
+1799 he served as lieutenant, or acting commander, mostly under Earl St
+Vincent, and was present in the battle from which the admiral received
+his title. As commander of the "Speedy" brig he won much distinction in
+actions with Spanish gunboats in the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1800 he
+reached the rank of post-captain, and had the good fortune to serve as
+flag-captain to Sir James (afterwards Lord) Saumarez in the action at
+Algeciras, and in the Straits in 1801. During the peace of Amiens he
+married Miss Stewart, a lady belonging to a loyalist family of Nova
+Scotia. After the renewal of the war he commanded a succession of
+frigates. In 1803 he had the misfortune to be wrecked on the coast of
+France, and remained for a time in prison, where his wife joined him.
+Having been exchanged he was named to another ship. His most brilliant
+action was fought with a flotilla of Franco-Neapolitan vessels outside
+of Naples in May 1801. He was severely wounded, and Murat, then king of
+Naples, praised him effusively. He was made a baronet in 1812 and K.C.B.
+in 1815. After his recovery from his wound he was unable to bear sea
+service, but was made commissioner of the dockyard at Port Mahon, and
+then at the Cape, and was afterwards lieutenant-governor of Greenwich
+hospital till 1840. He reached flag rank in 1830. In his later years he
+took an active part in philanthropic work, in association with his
+brother, Captain E.P. Brenton, who had seen much service but is best
+remembered by his writings on naval and military history,--_Naval
+History of Great Britain from the Year 1783 to 1822_ (1823), and _The
+Life and Correspondence of John, Earl of St Vincent_ (1838).
+
+  A _Memoir of the Life and Services of Vice-Admiral Sir Jahleel
+  Brenton_, based on his own papers, was published in 1846 by the Rev.
+  Henry Raikes, and reissued by the admiral's son, Sir L.C.L. Brenton,
+  in 1855.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BRENTWOOD, a market town in the mid or Chelmsford parliamentary division
+of Essex, England; 18 m. E.N.E. of London by the Great Eastern railway
+(Brentwood and Worley station). Pop. of urban district (1901) 4932. The
+neighbouring country is pleasantly undulating and well wooded. The
+church of St Thomas the Martyr, with several chapels, is modern. The old
+assize house, an Elizabethan structure, remains. A free grammar school
+was founded in 1557. The county asylum is in the vicinity. There are
+breweries and brick works. To the south lies the fine upland of Worley
+Common, with large barracks. Adjoining Brentwood to the north-east is
+Shenfield, with the church of St Mary the Virgin, Early English and
+later. Brentwood was formerly an important posting station on the main
+road to the eastern counties, which follows the line of the railway to
+Colchester. The name (_Burntwood_) is supposed to record an original
+settlement made in a clearing of the forest. The district is largely
+residential.
+
+
+
+
+BRENZ, JOHANN (1499-1570), Lutheran divine, eldest son of Martin Brenz,
+was born at Weil, Württemberg, on the 24th of June 1499. In 1514 he
+entered the university of Heidelberg, where Oecolampadius was one of his
+teachers, and where in 1518 he heard Luther discuss. Ordained priest in
+1520, and appointed preacher (1522) at Hall in Swabia, he gave himself
+to biblical exposition. He ceased to celebrate mass in 1523, and
+reorganized his church in 1524. Successful in resisting the peasant
+insurrection (1525), his fortunes were affected by the Schmalkaldic War.
+From Hall, when taken by the imperial forces, he fled on his birthday in
+1548. Protected by Duke Ulrich of Württemberg, he was appointed (January
+1553) provost of the collegiate church of Stuttgart. As organizer of the
+reformation in Württemberg he did much fruitful work. A strong advocate
+of Lutheran doctrine, and author of the _Syngramma Suevicum_ (October
+21, 1525), which set forth Luther's doctrine of the Eucharist, he was
+free from the persecuting tendencies of the age. He is praised and
+quoted (as Joannes Witlingius) for his judgment against applying the
+death penalty to anabaptists or other heretics in the _De Haereticis, an
+sint persequendi_ (1554), issued by Sebastian Castellio under the
+pseudonym of Martinus Bellius. An incomplete edition of his works
+(largely expository) appeared at Tübingen, 1576-1590. Several of his
+sermons were reproduced in contemporary English versions. A volume of
+_Anecdota Brentiana_ was edited by Pressel in 1868. He died on the 11th
+of September 1570, and was buried in his church at Stuttgart; his grave
+was subsequently violated. He was twice married, and his eldest son,
+Johann Brenz, was appointed (1562) professor of theology in Tübingen at
+the early age of twenty-two.
+
+  See Hartmann and Jäger, _Johann Brenz_ (1840-1842); Bossert, in
+  Hauck's _Realencyklop_. (1897).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+BRÉQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD FEUDRIX DE (1714-1795), French scholar,
+was born at Gainneville near Havre, on the 22nd of February 1714, and
+died at Paris on the 3rd of July 1795. His first publications were
+anonymous: an _Histoire des révolutions de Gènes jusqu'à la paix de
+1748_ (1750), and a series of _Vies des orateurs grecs_ (1752). Elected
+a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres in 1759, he
+contributed an _Histoire de Posthume empereur des Gaules_ (vol. xxx.,
+1760) to the collected works of that illustrious society, and also a
+_Mémoire sur l'établissement de la religion et de l'empire de Mahomet_
+(vol. xxxii., 1761-1763). After the close of the Seven Years' War he was
+sent to search in the archives of England for documents bearing upon the
+history of France, more particularly upon that of the French provinces
+which once belonged to England. This mission (1764-1766) was very
+fruitful in results; Bréquigny brought back from it copies of about 7000
+documents, which are now in the Bibliothèque Nationale. A useful
+selection of these documents was published (unfortunately without
+adequate critical treatment) by Jean Jacques Champollion-Figeac, under
+the title _Lettres de rois, reines et autres personnages des cours de
+France et d'Angleterre, depuis Louis VII. jusqu'à Henri IV., tirées des
+archives de Londres par Bréquigny_ (collection of _Documents inédits
+relatifs a l'histoire de France_, 2 vols., 1839, 1847). Bréquigny
+himself drew the material for many important studies from the rich mine
+which he had thus exploited. These were included in the collection of
+the Académie des Inscriptions: _Mémoire sur les différends entre la
+France et l'Angleterre sous le règne de Charles le Bel_ (vol. xli.);
+_Mémoire sur la vie de Marie, reine de France, soeur de Henri VIII., roi
+d'Angleterre_ (vol. xlii.); four _Mémoires pour senir à l'histoire de
+Calais_ (vols. xliii. and l.); and _Mémoire sur les négotiations
+touchant les projets de mariage d'Elizabeth, reine d'Angleterre, d'abord
+avec le duc d'Anjou, ensuite avec le due d'Alençon, tons deux frères de
+Charles IX._ (vol. l.). This last was read to the Academy on the 22nd of
+January 1793, the morrow of Louis XVI.'s execution. Meanwhile, Bréquigny
+had taken part in three great and erudite works. For the _Recueil des
+ordonnances des rois de France_ he had prepared volumes x.-xiv., the
+preface to vol. xi. containing important researches into the French
+communes. To the _Table chronologique des diplômes, chartes, lettres, et
+actes imprimés concernant l'histoire de France_ he contributed three
+volumes in collaboration with Mouchet (1769-1783). Charged with the
+supervision of a large collection of documents bearing on French
+history, analogous to Rymer's _Foedera_, he published the first volume
+(_Diplomatat. Chartae_, &c., 1791). The Revolution interrupted him in
+his collection of _Mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les
+lettres, et les arts des Chinois_, begun in 1776 at the instance of the
+minister Bertin, when fifteen volumes had appeared.
+
+  See the note on Bréquigny at the end of vol. i. of the _Mémoires de
+  l'Académie des Inscriptions_ (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv. of
+  the _Table chronologique des diplômes_ (1836); Champollion-Figeac's
+  preface to the _Lettres des rois et reines_; the _Comité des travaux
+  historiques_, by X. Charmes, vol. i. _passim_; N. Oursel, _Nouvelle
+  biographie normande_ (1886); and the _Catalogue des manuscrits des
+  collections Duchesne et Bréquigny_ (in the Bibliothèque Nationale), by
+  René Poupardin (1905).     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4
+       "Bradford, William" to "Brequigny, Louis"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 17, 2010 [EBook #33750]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 4 SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A couple of typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME IV SLICE IV<br /><br />
+Bradford, William to Brequigny, Louis</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BRADFORD, WILLIAM</a> (American colonial governor)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BRADFORD, WILLIAM</a> (printer)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BRADFORD, WILLIAM</a> (painter)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BRAS D&rsquo;OR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BRADFORD</a> (England)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BRASDOR, PIERRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BRADFORD</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BRASIDAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BRADFORD CLAY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BRASS</a> (Nigeria)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BRADFORD-ON-AVON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BRASS</a> (alloy)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BRADLAUGH, CHARLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BRASSES, MONUMENTAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ÉTIENNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BRADLEY, JAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BRASSEY, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BRADSHAW, GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BRASSÓ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BRADSHAW, HENRY</a> (English poet)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BRATHWAIT, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BRADSHAW, HENRY</a> (British scholar)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BRATIANU, ION C.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BRADSHAW, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BRATLANDSDAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BRADWARDINE, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BRATTISHING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BRADY, NICHOLAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BRATTLEBORO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BRAUNAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BRAEMAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BRAUNSBERG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BRAG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BRAVO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BRAGA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BRAWLING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BRAGANZA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BRAY, SIR REGINALD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BRAGG, BRAXTON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BRAY, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BRAGI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BRAY</a> (England)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BRAHAM, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BRAY</a> (Ireland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BRAHE, PER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BRAHE, TYCHO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BRAZIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BRAHMAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BRAZIL</a> (legendary island)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BRAHMANA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BRAZIL</a> (republic)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BRAHMANISM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BRAZIL</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BRAHMAPUTRA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BRAZIL NUTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BRAHMA SAMAJ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BRAZIL WOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BRAHMS, JOHANNES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BRAZING AND SOLDERING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BRAHUI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL FRANÇOIS CAMILLE SAVORGNAN DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BRAID</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BRAZZA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BREACH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BRAILA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BREAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BRAIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BRAINERD, DAVID</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BREADALBANE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BRAINERD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BREAD-FRUIT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BRAINTREE</a> (Essex, England)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BREAKING BULK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BRAINTREE</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BREAKWATER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BRAKE</a> (town of Germany)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BRÉAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BRAKE</a> (engineering)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BREAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BREAST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BRAMAH, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BREAUTÉ, FALKES DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BRAMANTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BRECCIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BRECHIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BRAMPTON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BRECON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BRAN</a> (Welsh hero)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BRECONSHIRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BRAN</a> (husk of cereals)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BREDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BRANCH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BRANCO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BREDERODE, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BRANCOVAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BRAND, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BREDOW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BREECH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BREEDS AND BREEDING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BRANDENBURG</a> (electorate of Prussia)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BREEZE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BRANDENBURG</a> (province of Prussia)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BREGENZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BRANDENBURG</a> (town of Germany)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BREHON LAWS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BRANDER, GUSTAVUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BREISACH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BREISGAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BRANDING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BREISLAK, SCIPIONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BREITENFELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BRANDON</a> (Canada)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BREMEN</a> (German state)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BRANDON</a> (England)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BREMEN </a>(German city)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BRANDY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BREMER, FREDRIKA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BRANDYWINE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BREMERHAVEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BRANFORD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BRENDAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BRANGWYN, FRANK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BRENHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BRANKS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BRENNER PASS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BRANT, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BRENNUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BRANT, SEBASTIAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BRENTANO, KLEMENS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BRANTFORD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BRENTFORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BRANTÔME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BRANTÔME</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BRENTWOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BRANXHOLM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BRENZ, JOHANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BRANXTON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BRÉQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD FEUDRIX DE</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1590-1657), American colonial governor and historian,
+was born in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, probably in March 1590. He
+became somewhat estranged from his family, which was one of considerable
+importance in the locality, when in early youth he joined the Puritan
+sect known as Separatists, and united in membership with the
+congregation at Scrooby. He prepared in 1607, with other members of the
+church, to migrate to Holland, but the plan was discovered and several
+of the leaders, among them Bradford, were imprisoned. In the year
+following, however, he joined the English colony at Amsterdam, where he
+learned the trade of silk weaving. He subsequently sold his Yorkshire
+property and embarked in business on his own account at Leiden, where
+the English refugees had removed. He became an active advocate of the
+proposed emigration to America, was one of the party that sailed in the
+&ldquo;Mayflower&rdquo; in September 1620, and was one of the signers of the compact
+on shipboard in Cape Cod Bay. After the death of Governor John Carver in
+April 1621, Bradford was elected governor of Plymouth Colony, and served
+as such, with the exception of five years (1633, 1634, 1636, 1638 and
+1644) until shortly before his death. After 1624, at Bradford&rsquo;s
+suggestion, a board of five and later seven assistants was chosen
+annually to share the executive responsibility. Bradford&rsquo;s rule was firm
+and judicious, and to his guidance more than to that of any other man
+the prosperity of the Plymouth Colony was due. His tact and kindness in
+dealing with the Indians helped to relieve the colony from the conflicts
+with which almost every other settlement was afflicted. In 1630 the
+council for New England granted to &ldquo;William Bradford, his heires,
+associatts, and assignes,&rdquo; a new patent enlarging the original grant of
+territory made to the Plymouth settlers. This patent Bradford in the
+name of the trustees made over to the body corporate of the colony in
+1641. Bradford died in Plymouth on the 9th of May 1657. He was the
+author of a very important historical work, the <i>History of Plimouth
+Plantation</i> (until 1646), first published in the <i>Proceedings</i> of the
+Massachusetts Historical Society for 1856, and later by the state of
+Massachusetts (Boston, 1898), and in facsimile, with an introduction by
+John A. Doyle, in 1896. The manuscript disappeared from Boston during
+the War of Independence, was discovered in the Fulham library, London,
+in 1855, and was returned by the bishop of London to the state of
+Massachusetts in 1897. This work has been of inestimable value to
+writers on the history of the Pilgrims, and was freely used, in
+manuscript, by Morton, Hubbard, Mather, Prince and Hutchinson. Bradford
+was also undoubtedly part author, with Edward Winslow, of the &ldquo;Diary of
+Occurrences&rdquo; published in Mourts&rsquo; <i>Relation</i>, edited by Dr H.M. Dexter
+(Boston, 1865). He also wrote a series of <i>Dialogues</i>, on church
+government, published in the Massachusetts Historical Society&rsquo;s
+Publications (1870.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For Bradford&rsquo;s ancestry and early life see Joseph Hunter, <i>Collections
+concerning the Founders of New Plymouth</i>, in Massachusetts Historical
+Society&rsquo;s <i>Collections</i> (Boston, 1852); also the quaint sketch in Cotton
+Mather&rsquo;s <i>Magnalia</i> (London, 1702), and a chapter in Williston Walker&rsquo;s
+<i>Ten New England Leaders</i> (New York, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1663-1752), American colonial printer,
+was born in Leicestershire, England, on the 20th of May
+1663. He learned the printer&rsquo;s trade in London with Andrew
+Sowle, and in 1682 emigrated with William Penn to Pennsylvania,
+where in 1685 he introduced the &ldquo;art and mystery&rdquo; of printing
+into the Middle Colonies. His first imprint was an almanac,
+<i>Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense or America&rsquo;s Messenger</i> (1685).
+At the outset he was ordered &ldquo;not to print anything but what
+shall have lycence from ye council,&rdquo; and in 1692, the colony then
+being torn by schism, he issued a tract for the minority sect of
+Friends, whereupon his press was seized and he was arrested.
+He was released, however, and his press was restored on his
+appeal to Governor Benjamin Fletcher. In 1690, with William
+Rittenhouse (1644-1708) and others, he established in Roxboro,
+Pennsylvania, now a part of Philadelphia, the first paper mill
+in America. In the spring of 1693 he removed to New York,
+where he was appointed royal printer for the colony, a position
+which he held for more than fifty years; and on the 8th of
+November 1725 he issued the first number of the <i>New York
+Gazette</i>, the first paper established in New York and from 1725
+to 1733 the only paper in the colony. Bradford died in New
+York on the 23rd of May 1752.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Andrew Sowle Bradford</span> (1686-1742), removed
+from New York to Philadelphia in 1712, and there on the 22nd
+of December 1719 issued the first number of the <i>American
+Weekly Mercury</i>, the first newspaper in the Middle Colonies.
+Benjamin Franklin, for a time a compositor in the office,
+characterized the paper as &ldquo;a paltry thing, in no way interesting&rdquo;;
+but it was continued for many years and was edited by Bradford
+until his death.</p>
+
+<p>The latter&rsquo;s nephew, <span class="sc">William Bradford</span> (1722-1791),
+established in December 1742 the <i>Pennsylvania Journal and
+Weekly Advertiser</i>, which was for sixty years under his control
+or that of his son, and which in 1774-1775 bore the oft-reproduced
+device of a divided serpent with the motto &ldquo;Unite or Die.&rdquo;
+He served in the War of American Independence, rising to the
+rank of colonel. His son, <span class="sc">William Bradford</span> (1755-1795),
+also served in the War of Independence, and afterwards was
+attorney-general of Pennsylvania (1791), a judge of the supreme
+court of the state, and in 1794-1795 attorney-general of the
+United States.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1827-1892), American marine painter,
+was born at New Bedford, Massachusetts. He was a Quaker,
+and was self-taught, painting the ships and the marine
+views he saw along the coast of Massachusetts, Labrador and
+Nova Scotia; he went on several Arctic expeditions with Dr
+Hayes, and was the first American painter to portray the frozen
+regions of the north. His pictures attracted much attention by
+reason of their novelty and gorgeous colour effects. His &ldquo;Steamer
+&rsquo;Panther&rsquo; in Melville Bay, under the Light of the Midnight
+Sun&rdquo; was exhibited at the Royal Academy in London in 1875.
+Bradford was a member of the National Academy of Design,
+New York, and died in that city on the 25th of April 1892. His
+style was somewhat influenced by Albert van Beest, who worked
+with Bradford at Fairhaven for a time; but Bradford is minute
+and observant of detail where van Beest&rsquo;s aim is general effect.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a city, and municipal, county and parliamentary
+borough, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 192 m.
+N.N.W. of London and 8 m. W. of Leeds. Pop. (1891) 265,728;
+(1901) 279,767. It is served by the Midland and the North
+Eastern railways (Midland station), and by the Great Northern
+and the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire railways (Exchange station).
+It lies in a small valley opening southward from that of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span>
+Aire, and extends up the hills on either side. Most of the
+principal streets radiate from a centre between the Midland and
+Exchange stations and the town hall. This last is a handsome
+building, opened in 1873, surmounted by a bell tower. The
+exterior is ornamented with statues of English monarchs. The
+council-chamber contains excellent wood-carving. The extension
+of the building was undertaken in 1905. The parish church of
+St Peter is Perpendicular, dating from 1485, and occupies the
+site of a Norman church. Its most noteworthy feature is the
+fine original roof of oak. There was no other church in the town
+until 1815, but modern churches and chapels are numerous.
+Among educational institutions, the grammar school existed
+in the 16th century, and in 1663 received a charter of incorporation
+from Charles II. It occupies a building erected in 1873,
+and is largely endowed, possessing several scholarships founded
+by prominent citizens. The technical college, under the corporation
+since 1899, was opened in 1882. A mechanics&rsquo; institute
+was founded in 1832, and in 1871 the handsome mechanics&rsquo;
+hall, close to the town hall, was opened. Other establishments
+are the Airedale College of students for the Independent ministry,
+and the United Independent College (1888). The general
+infirmary is the principal of numerous charitable institutions.
+The most noteworthy public buildings beside the town hall are
+St George&rsquo;s hall (1853), used for concerts and public meetings,
+the exchange (1867), extensive market buildings, and two
+court-houses. The Cartwright memorial hall, principally the
+gift of Lord Masham, opened in 1904 and containing an art
+gallery and museum, commemorates Dr Edmund Cartwright
+(1743-1823) as the inventor of the power-loom and the
+combing-machine. The hall stands in Lister Park, and was opened
+immediately before, and used in connexion with, the industrial
+exhibition held here in 1904. The Temperance hall is of interest
+inasmuch as the first hall of this character in England was
+erected at Bradford in 1837. Some of the great warehouses
+are of considerable architectural merit. Statues commemorate
+several of those who have been foremost in the development of
+the city, such as Sir Titus Salt, Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham),
+and W.E. Forster. Of several parks the largest are Lister, Peel,
+and Bowling parks, each exceeding fifty acres. In the last is an
+ancient and picturesque mansion, which formerly belonged to
+the Bowling or Bolling family. A large acreage of high-lying
+moorland near the city is maintained by the corporation as a
+public recreation ground.</p>
+
+<p>As a commercial centre Bradford is advantageously placed
+with regard to both railway communication and connexion
+with the Humber and with Liverpool by canal, and through
+the presence in its immediate vicinity of valuable deposits
+of coal and iron. The principal textile manufactures in order
+of importance are worsted, employing some 36,000 hands,
+females considerably outnumbering males; woollens, employing
+some 8000, silk and cotton. The corporation maintains a
+conditioning-hall for testing textile materials. A new hall was
+opened in 1902. Engineering and iron works (as at Bowling and
+Low Moor) are extensive; and the freestone of the neighbourhood
+is largely quarried, and in Bradford itself its use is general for
+building. It blackens easily under the influence of smoke, and
+the town has consequently a somewhat gloomy appearance.
+The trade of Bradford, according to an official estimate, advanced
+between 1836 and 1884 from a total of five to at least thirty-five
+millions sterling, and from not more than six to at least fifty
+staple articles. The annual turn-over in the staple trade is
+estimated at about one hundred millions sterling.</p>
+
+<p>Bradford was created a city in 1897. The parliamentary
+borough returned two members from 1832 until 1885, when it
+was divided into three divisions, each returning one member.
+The county borough was created in 1888. Its boundaries include
+the suburbs, formerly separate urban districts, of Eccleshill,
+Idle and others. The corporation consists of a lord mayor
+(this dignity was conferred in 1907), 21 aldermen, and 63
+councillors. One feature of municipal activity in Bradford
+deserves special notice&mdash;there is a municipal railway, opened
+in 1907, extending from Pateley Bridge to Lofthouse (6 m.)
+and serving the Nidd valley, the district from which the main
+water-supply of the city is obtained. Area of the city, 22,879
+acres.</p>
+
+<p>Bradford, which is mentioned as having belonged before
+1066, with several other manors in Yorkshire, to one Gamel,
+appears to have been almost destroyed during the conquest
+of the north of England and was still waste in 1086. By that
+time it had been granted to Ilbert de Lacy, in whose family it
+continued until 1311. The inquisition taken after the death
+of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, in that year gives several
+interesting facts about the manor; the earl had there a hall or
+manor-house, a fulling mill, a market every Sunday, and a fair
+on the feast of St Andrew. There were also certain burgesses
+holding twenty-eight burgages. Alice, only daughter and
+heiress of Henry de Lacy, married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of
+Lancaster, and on the attainder of her husband she and Joan,
+widow of Henry, were obliged to release their rights in the manor
+to the king. The earl of Lancaster&rsquo;s attainder being reversed
+in 1327, Bradford, with his other property, was restored to his
+brother and heir, Henry Plantagenet, but again passed to the
+crown on the accession of Henry IV., through the marriage of
+John of Gaunt with Blanche, one of the daughters and heirs of
+Henry Plantagenet. Bradford was evidently a borough by
+prescription and was not incorporated until 1847. Previous to that
+date the chief officer in the town had been the chief constable,
+who was appointed annually at the court leet of the manor. Before
+the 19th century Bradford was never represented in parliament,
+but in 1832 it was created a parliamentary borough returning
+two members. A weekly market on Thursdays was granted
+to Edward de Lacy in 1251 and confirmed in 1294 to Henry de Lacy,
+earl of Lincoln, with the additional grant of a fair on the eve
+and day of St Peter ad Vincula and three days following. In
+1481 Edward IV. granted to certain feoffees in whom he had
+vested his manor of Bradford a market on Thursday every
+week and two yearly fairs, one on the feast of the Deposition
+of St William of York and two days preceding, the
+other on the feast of St Peter in Cathedra and two days
+preceding.</p>
+
+<p>From the mention of a fulling mill in 1311 it is possible that
+woollen manufacture had been begun at that time. By the reign
+of Henry VIII. it had become an important industry and added
+much to the status of the town. Towards the end of the 17th
+and beginning of the 18th century the woollen trade decreased
+and worsted manufacture began to take its place. Leland
+in his <i>Itinerary</i> says that Bradford is &ldquo;a praty quik Market
+Toune. It standith much by clothing.&rdquo; In 1773 a piece hall
+was erected and for many years served as a market-place for
+the manufacturers and merchants of the district. On the
+introduction of steam-power and machinery the worsted trade
+advanced with great rapidity. The first mill in Bradford was
+built in 1798; there were 20 mills in the town in 1820, 34 in 1833,
+and 70 in 1841; and at the present time there are over 300, of
+much greater magnitude than the earlier factories. In 1836 Mr
+(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt developed the alpaca manufacture
+in the town; mohair was shortly afterwards introduced; and
+the great works at Saltaire were opened (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shipley</a></span>). Later,
+Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham) introduced the silk and velvet
+manufacture, having invented a process of manipulating silk
+waste, whereby what was previously treated as refuse is made
+into goods that will compete with those manufactured from
+the perfect cocoon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See John James, <i>History of Bradford</i> (1844, new and enlarged
+ed., 1866); A. Holroyd, <i>Collectanea Bradfordiana</i> (1873); <i>Victoria
+County History&mdash;Yorkshire</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a city of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
+near the N. border of the state, about 80 m. E. by S. of Erie.
+Pop. (1890) 10,514; (1900) 15,029, of whom 2211 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 14,544. It is served by the Pennsylvania,
+the Erie, and the Buffalo, Rochester &amp; Pittsburg railways, and
+is connected with Olean, New York, by an electric line. Bradford
+is situated 1427 ft. above sea-level in the valley of the Tuna,
+and is shut in by hills on either side. Since 1876 it has been one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span>
+of the most important oil centres of the state, and it has been
+connected by pipe lines with cities along the Atlantic coast;
+petroleum refining is an important industry. Among the city&rsquo;s
+manufactures are boilers, machines, glass, chemicals, terra
+cotta, brick, iron pipes and couplings, gas engines, cutlery and
+silk. The place was first settled about 1827; in 1838 it was laid
+out as a town and named Littleton; in 1858 the present name,
+in honour of William Bradford (1755-1795), was substituted;
+and Bradford was incorporated as a borough in 1873, and was
+chartered as a city in 1879. Kendall borough was annexed
+to Bradford in 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD CLAY,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> in geology, a thin, rather inconstant bed
+of clay or marl situated in England at the base of the Forest
+Marble, the two together constituting the Bradfordian group
+in the Bathonian series of Jurassic rocks. The term &ldquo;Bradford Clay&rdquo;
+appears to have been first used by J. de. C. Sowerby in 1823
+(<i>Mineral Conchology</i>, vol. v.) as an alternative for W. Smith&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Clay on Upper Oolite.&rdquo; The clay came into notice late in the
+18th century on account of the local abundance of the crinoid
+<i>Apiocrinus Parkinsoni</i>. It takes its name from Bradford-on-Avon
+in Wiltshire, whence it is traceable southward to the
+Dorset coast and northward towards Cirencester. It may be
+regarded as a local phase of the basement beds of the Forest
+Marble, from which it cannot be separated upon either
+stratigraphical or palaeontological grounds. It is seldom more than
+10 ft. thick, and it contains as a rule a few irregular layers of
+limestone and calcareous sandstone. The lowest layer is often
+highly fossiliferous; some of the common forms being <i>Arca
+minuta, Ostrea gregaria, Waldheimia digona, Terebratula coarctata,
+Cidaris bradfordensis</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H.B. Woodward, &ldquo;Jurassic Rocks of Britain,&rdquo; <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>,
+vol. iv. (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD-ON-AVON,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a market town in the Westbury
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, on the rivers
+Avon and Kennet, and the Kennet &amp; Avon Canal, 98 m. W. by S.
+of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 4514. Its houses, all built of grey stone, rise in
+picturesque disorder up the steep sides of the Avon valley,
+here crossed by an ancient bridge of nine arches, with a chapel
+in the centre. Among many places of worship may be mentioned
+the restored parish church of Holy Trinity, which dates from the
+12th century and contains some interesting monuments and
+brasses; and the Perpendicular Hermitage or Tory chapel,
+with a 15th or 16th century chantry-house. But most notable
+is the Saxon church of St Lawrence, the foundation of which is
+generally attributed, according to William of Malmesbury (1125),
+to St Aldhelm, early in the 8th century. It consists of a chancel,
+nave and porch, in such unchanged condition that E.A. Freeman
+considered it &ldquo;the most perfect surviving church of its kind
+in England, if not in Europe.&rdquo; It has more lately, however,
+been held that the present building is not Aldhelm&rsquo;s, but a
+restoration, dating from about 975, and attributable to the
+influence of Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. Kingston House,
+long the seat of the dukes of Kingston, is a beautiful example
+of early 17th-century domestic architecture. The local industries
+include the manufacture of rubber goods, brewing, quarrying
+and iron-founding.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bradford (Bradauford, Bradeford) was the site of a battle in 652
+between Kenwal and his kinsman Cuthred. A monastery existed
+here in the 8th century, of which St Aldhelm was abbot at the time
+of his being made bishop of Sherborne in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 705. In 1001 Æthelred
+gave this monastery and the town of Bradford to the nunnery of
+Shaftesbury, in order that the nuns might have a safe refuge against
+the insults of the Danes. No mention of the monastery occurs after
+the Conquest, but the nunnery of Shaftesbury retained the lordship
+of the manor until the dissolution in the reign of Henry VIII.
+In a synod held here in 954, Dunstan was elected bishop of
+Winchester. Bradford appears as a borough in the Domesday survey,
+and is there assessed at 42 hides. No charter of incorporation is
+recorded, however, and after returning two members to the parliament
+of 1295 the town does not appear to have enjoyed any of the
+privileges of a borough. The market is of ancient origin, and was
+formerly held on Monday; in the survey the tolls are assessed at
+45 shillings. Bradford was at one time the centre of the clothing
+industry in the west of England, and was especially famous for its
+broadcloths and mixtures, the waters of the Avon being especially
+favourable to the production of good colours and superior dyes.
+The industry declined in the 18th century, and in 1740 we find the
+woollen merchants of Bradford petitioning for an act of parliament
+to improve their trade and so re-establish their credit in foreign
+markets.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADLAUGH, CHARLES<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1833-1891), English free-thinker
+and politician, was born at Hoxton, London, on the 26th of
+September 1833. His father was a poor solicitor&rsquo;s clerk, who also
+had a small business as a law stationer, and his mother had been
+a nursemaid. At twelve years old he became office-boy to his
+father&rsquo;s employer, and at fourteen wharf-clerk and cashier to
+a coal merchant in the City Road. He had been baptized and
+brought up in the Church of England, but he now came into contact
+with a group of free-thinkers who were disciples of Richard
+Carlile. He was hastily labelled an &ldquo;atheist,&rdquo; and was turned
+out of his situation. Thus driven into the arms of the secularists,
+he managed to earn a living by odd jobs, and became further
+immersed in the study of free-thought. At the end of 1850 he
+enlisted as a soldier, but in 1853 was bought out with money
+provided by his mother. He then found employment as a lawyer&rsquo;s
+clerk, and gradually became known as a free-thought lecturer,
+under the name of &ldquo;Iconoclast.&rdquo; From 1860 he conducted the
+<i>National Reformer</i> for several years, and displayed much resource
+in legal defence when the paper was prosecuted by the government
+on account of its alleged blasphemy and sedition in 1868-1869.
+Bradlaugh became notorious as a leading &ldquo;infidel,&rdquo; and
+was supported by the sympathy of those who were enthusiasts
+at that time for liberty of speech and thought. He was a
+constant figure in the law courts; and his competence to take
+the oath was continually being called in question, while his
+atheism and republican opinions were adduced as reasons why
+no jury should give damages for attacks on his character. In
+1874 he became acquainted with Mrs Annie Besant (b. 1847),
+who afterwards became famous for her gifts as a lecturer on
+socialism and theosophy. She began by writing for the <i>National
+Reformer</i> and soon became co-editor. In 1876 the Bristol
+publisher of an American pamphlet on the population question, called
+<i>Fruits of Philosophy</i>, was indicted for selling a work full
+of indecent physiological details, and, pleading guilty, was lightly
+sentenced; but Bradlaugh and Mrs Besant took the matter up,
+in order to vindicate their ideas of liberty, and aggressively
+republished and circulated the pamphlet. The prosecution
+which resulted created considerable scandal. They were convicted
+and sentenced to a heavy fine and imprisonment, but the
+sentence was stayed and the indictment ultimately quashed on
+a technical point. The affair, however, had several side issues
+in the courts and led to much prejudice against the defendants,
+the distinction being ignored between a protest against the
+suppression of opinion and the championship of the particular
+opinions in question. Mrs Besant&rsquo;s close alliance with Bradlaugh
+eventually terminated in 1886, when she drifted from secularism,
+first into socialistic and labour agitation and then into theosophy
+as a pupil of Mme Blavatsky. Bradlaugh himself took up
+politics with increasing fervour. He had been unsuccessful in
+standing for Northampton in 1868, but in 1880 he was returned
+by that constituency to parliament as an advanced Radical.
+A long and sensational parliamentary struggle now began.
+He claimed to be allowed to affirm under the Parliamentary
+Oaths Act, and the rejection of this pretension, and the refusal
+to allow him to take the oath on his professing his willingness
+to do so, terminated in Bradlaugh&rsquo;s victory in 1886. But this
+result was not obtained without protracted scenes in the House,
+in which Lord Randolph Churchill took a leading part. When the
+long struggle was over, the public had gradually got used to
+Bradlaugh, and his transparent honesty and courageous contempt
+for mere popularity gained him increasing respect. Experience
+of public life in the House of Commons appeared to give him a
+more balanced view of things; and before he died, on the 30th
+of January 1891, the progress of events was such that it was
+beginning to be said of him that he was in a fair way to end as
+a Conservative. Hard, arrogant and dogmatic, with a powerful
+physique and a real gift for popular oratory, he was a natural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span>
+leader in causes which had society against them, but his sincerity
+was as unquestionable as his combativeness.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life</i> was written, from a sympathetic point of view, with
+much interesting detail as to the history of secularism, by his
+daughter, Mrs Bradlaugh Bonner, and J.M. Robertson (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1821-1903), English
+divine and scholar, was born on the 11th of December 1821, his
+father, Charles Bradley, being at that time vicar of Glasbury,
+Brecon. He was educated at Rugby under Thomas Arnold,
+and at University College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow
+in 1844. He was an assistant master at Rugby from 1846 to
+1858, when he succeeded G.E.L. Cotton as headmaster at
+Marlborough. In 1870 he was elected master of his old college
+at Oxford, and in August 1881 he was made dean of Westminster
+in succession to A.P. Stanley, whose pupil and intimate friend
+he had been, and whose biographer he became. Besides his
+<i>Recollections of A.P. Stanley</i> (1883) and <i>Life of Dean Stanley</i>
+(1892), he published <i>Aids to writing Latin Prose Composition</i> and
+<i>Lectures on Job</i> (1884) and <i>Ecclesiastes</i> (1885). He took part in
+the coronation of Edward VII., resigned the deanery in 1902,
+and died on the 13th of March 1903.</p>
+
+<p>Dean Bradley&rsquo;s family produced various other members
+distinguished in literature. His half-brother, <span class="sc">Andrew Cecil
+Bradley</span> (b. 1851), fellow of Balliol, Oxford, became professor
+of modern literature and history (1881) at University College,
+Liverpool, and in 1889 regius professor of English language and
+literature at Glasgow University; and he was professor of
+poetry at Oxford (1901-1906). Of Dean Bradley&rsquo;s own children
+the most distinguished in literature were his son, <span class="sc">Arthur
+Granville Bradley</span> (b. 1850), author of various historical and
+topographical works; and especially his daughter, Mrs <span class="sc">Margaret
+Louisa Woods</span> (b. 1856), wife of the Rev. Henry George Woods,
+president of Trinity, Oxford (1887-1897), and master of the
+Temple (1904), London. Mrs Woods became well known for
+her accomplished verse (<i>Lyrics and Ballads</i>, 1889), largely
+influenced by Robert Bridges, and for her novels, of which her
+<i>Village Tragedy</i> (1887) was the earliest and strongest.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADLEY, JAMES<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1693-1762), English astronomer, was
+born at Sherborne in Gloucestershire in March 1693. He
+entered Balliol College, Oxford, on the 15th of March 1711, and
+took degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1714 and 1717 respectively.
+His early observations were made at the rectory of Wanstead
+in Essex, under the tutelage of his uncle, the Rev. James Pound
+(1669-1724), himself a skilled astronomer, and he was elected a
+fellow of the Royal Society on the 6th of November 1718. He
+took orders on his presentation to the vicarage of Bridstow
+in the following year, and a small sinecure living in Wales
+was besides procured for him by his friend Samuel Molyneux
+(1689-1728). He, however, resigned his ecclesiastical preferments
+in 1721, on his appointment to the Savilian professorship of
+astronomy at Oxford, while as reader on experimental philosophy
+(1729-1760) he delivered 79 courses of lectures in the Ashmolean
+museum. His memorable discovery of the aberration of light
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aberration</a></span>) was communicated to the Royal Society in
+January 1729 (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> xxxv. 637). The observations
+upon which it was founded were made at Molyneux&rsquo;s house on
+Kew Green. He refrained from announcing the supplementary
+detection of nutation (<i>q.v.</i>) until the 14th of February 1748
+(<i>Phil. Trans.</i> xlv. 1), when he had tested its reality by minute
+observations during an entire revolution (18.6 years) of the
+moon&rsquo;s nodes. He had meantime (in 1742) been appointed to
+succeed Edmund Halley as astronomer royal; his enhanced
+reputation enabled him to apply successfully for an instrumental
+outfit at a cost of £1000; and with an 8-foot quadrant completed
+for him in 1750 by John Bird (1700-1776), he accumulated at
+Greenwich in ten years materials of inestimable value for the
+reform of astronomy. A crown pension of £250 a year was
+conferred upon him in 1752. He retired in broken health, nine
+years later, to Chalford in Gloucestershire, and there died on
+the 13th of July 1762. The printing of his observations was
+delayed by disputes about their ownership; but they were
+finally issued from the Clarendon Press, Oxford, in two folio
+volumes (1798, 1805). The insight and industry of F.W. Bessel
+were, however, needed for the development of their fundamental
+importance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Rigaud&rsquo;s Memoir prefixed to <i>Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence
+of James Bradley, D.D.</i> (Oxford, 1832), is practically
+exhaustive. Other sources of information are: <i>New and General
+Biographical Dictionary</i>, xii. 54 (1767); <i>Biog. Brit.</i> (Kippis);
+Fouchy&rsquo;s &ldquo;Éloge,&rdquo; <i>Paris Memoirs</i> (1762), p. 231 (Histoire);
+Delambre&rsquo;s <i>Hist. de l&rsquo;astronomie au 18<span class="sp">me</span> siècle</i>, p. 413.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADSHAW, GEORGE<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1801-1853), English printer and
+publisher, was born at Windsor Bridge, Pendleton, Lancashire,
+on the 29th of July 1801. On leaving school he was apprenticed
+to an engraver at Manchester, eventually setting up on his own
+account in that city as an engraver and printer&mdash;principally of
+maps. His name was already known as the publisher of <i>Bradshaw&rsquo;s
+Maps of Inland Navigation</i>, when in 1839, soon after the
+introduction of railways, he published, at sixpence, <i>Bradshaw&rsquo;s
+Railway Time Tables</i>, the title being changed in 1840 to <i>Bradshaw&rsquo;s
+Railway Companion</i>, and the price raised to one shilling.
+A new volume was issued at occasional intervals, a supplementary
+monthly time-sheet serving to keep the book up to date. In
+December 1841, acting on a suggestion made by his London
+agent, Mr W.J. Adams, Bradshaw reduced the price of his
+time-tables to the original sixpence, and began to issue them
+monthly under the title <i>Bradshaw&rsquo;s Monthly Railway Guide.</i>
+In June 1847 was issued the first number of <i>Bradshaw&rsquo;s Continental
+Railway Guide</i>, giving the time-tables of the Continental
+railways just as <i>Bradshaw&rsquo;s Monthly Railway Guide</i> gave the
+time-tables of the railways of the United Kingdom. Bradshaw,
+who was a well-known member of the Society of Friends, and
+gave considerable time to philanthropic work, died in 1853.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADSHAW, HENRY<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1450-1513), English poet, was born
+at Chester. In his boyhood he was received into the Benedictine
+monastery of St Werburgh, and after studying with other novices
+of his order at Gloucester (afterwards Worcester) College, Oxford,
+he returned to his monastery at Chester. He wrote a Latin
+treatise <i>De antiquitate et magnificentia Urbis Cestriae</i>, which is
+lost, and a life of the patron saint of his monastery in English
+seven-lined stanza. This work was completed in the year of its
+author&rsquo;s death, 1513, mentioned in &ldquo;A balade to the auctour&rdquo;
+printed at the close of the work. A second ballad describes him
+as &ldquo;Harry Braddeshaa, of Chestre abbey monke.&rdquo; Bradshaw
+disclaims the merit of originality and quotes the authorities
+from which he translates&mdash;Bede, William of Malmesbury,
+Giraldus Cambrensis, Alfred of Beverley, Henry of Huntingdon,
+Ranulph Higden, and especially the &ldquo;Passionary&rdquo; or life of the
+saint preserved in the monastery. The poem, therefore, which
+is defined by its editor, Dr Carl Horstmann, as a &ldquo;legendary epic,&rdquo;
+is rather a compilation than a translation. It contains a good deal
+of history beside the actual life of the saint. St Werburgh was
+the daughter of Wulfere, king of Mercia, and Bradshaw gives a
+description of the kingdom of Mercia, with a full account of its
+royal house. He relates the history of St Ermenilde and St
+Sexburge, mother and grandmother of Werburgh, who were
+successively abbesses of Ely. He does not neglect the miraculous
+elements of the story, but he is more attracted by historical
+fact than legend, and the second book narrates the Danish invasion
+of 875, and describes the history and antiquities of Chester,
+from its foundation by the legendary giant Leon Gaur, from which
+he derives the British name of Caerleon, down to the great
+fire which devastated the city in 1180, but was suddenly extinguished
+when the shrine of St Werburgh was carried in procession
+through the streets. <i>The Holy Lyfe and History of
+saynt Werburge very frutefull for all Christen people to rede</i> (printed
+by Richard Pynson, 1521) has been very variously estimated.
+Thomas Warton, who deals with Bradshaw at some length,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+quotes as the most splendid passage of the poem the description
+of the feast preceding Werburgh&rsquo;s entry into the religious life.
+He considered Bradshaw&rsquo;s versification &ldquo;infinitely inferior to
+Lydgate&rsquo;s worst manner.&rdquo; Dr Horstmann, on the other hand,
+finds in the poem &ldquo;original genius, of a truly epic tone, with a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span>
+native simplicity of feeling which sometimes reminds the reader
+of Homer.&rdquo; Most readers will probably adopt a view between
+these extremes. Bradshaw expresses the humblest opinion of
+his own abilities, and he certainly had no delicate ear for rhythm.
+His sincerity is abundantly evident, and his piety is admitted
+even by John Bale<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a>, hostile as he was to monkish writers.
+W. Herbert<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> thought that a <i>Lyfe of Saynt Radegunde</i>, also
+printed by Pynson, was certainly by Bradshaw. The only
+extant copy is in the Britwell library.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Pynson&rsquo;s edition of the <i>Holy Lyfe</i> is very rare, only five copies
+being known. A reprint copying the original type was edited by
+Mr. Edward Hawkins for the Chetham Society in 1848, and by
+Dr Carl Hortsmann for the Early English Text Society in 1887.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>History of English Poetry</i> (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1871; iii. pp. 140-149).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Scriptorum Illustrium, cant. ix.</i> No. 17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ames, <i>Typographical Antiquities</i> (ed. W. Herbert, 1785; i. p. 294).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADSHAW, HENRY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1831-1886), British scholar and
+librarian, was born in London on the 2nd of February 1831, and
+educated at Eton. He became a fellow of King&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge, and after a short scholastic career in Ireland he accepted
+an appointment in the Cambridge university library as
+an extra assistant. When he found that his official duties
+absorbed all his leisure he resigned his post, but continued to
+give his time to the examination of the MSS. and early printed
+books in the library. There was then no complete catalogue
+of these sections, and Bradshaw soon showed a rare faculty
+for investigations respecting old books and curious MSS. In
+addition to his achievements in black-letter bibliography he
+threw great light on ancient Celtic language and literature by the
+discovery, in 1857, of the <i>Book of Deer</i>, a manuscript copy of
+the Gospel in the Vulgate version, in which were inscribed old
+Gaelic charters. This was published by the Spalding Club in
+1869. Bradshaw also discovered some Celtic glosses on the MS.
+of a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels by Juvencus. He made
+another find in the Cambridge library of considerable philological
+and historical importance. Cromwell&rsquo;s envoy, Sir Samuel
+Morland (1625-1695), had brought back from Piedmont MSS.
+containing the earliest known Waldensian records, consisting
+of translations from the Bible, religious treatises and poems.
+One of the poems referred the work to the beginning of the 11th
+century, though the MSS. did not appear to be of earlier date
+than the 15th century. On this Morland had based his theory
+of the antiquity of the Waldensian doctrine, and, in the absence
+of the MSS., which were supposed to be irretrievably lost, the
+conclusion was accepted. Bradshaw discovered the MSS. in the
+university library, and found in the passage indicated traces of
+erasure. The original date proved to be 1400. Incidentally
+the correct date was of great value in the study of the history of
+the language. He had a share in exposing the frauds of Constantine
+Simonides, who had asserted that the <i>Codex Sinaiticus</i>
+brought by Tischendorf from the Greek monastery of Mount
+Sinai was a modern forgery of which he was himself the author.
+Bradshaw exposed the absurdity of these claims in a letter to
+the <i>Guardian</i> (January 26, 1863). In 1866 he made a valuable
+contribution to the history of Scottish literature by the discovery
+of 2200 lines on the siege of Troy incorporated in a MS. of
+Lydgate&rsquo;s <i>Troye Booke</i>, and of the <i>Legends of the Saints</i>, an
+important work of some 40,000 lines. These poems he attributed,
+erroneously, as has since been proved, to Barbour (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Unfortunately Bradshaw allowed his attention to be distracted by
+a multiplicity of subjects, so that he has not left any literary
+work commensurate with his powers. The strain upon him
+was increased when he was elected (1867) university librarian,
+and as dean of his college (1857-1865) and praelector (1863-1868)
+he was involved in further routine duties. Besides his brilliant
+isolated discoveries in bibliography, he did much by his untiring
+zeal to improve the standard of library administration. He died
+very suddenly on the 10th of February 1886. His fugitive
+papers on antiquarian subjects were collected and edited by
+Mr F. Jenkinson in 1889.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An excellent <i>Memoir of Henry Bradshaw</i>, by Mr G.W. Prothero,
+appeared in 1888. See also C.F. Newcombe, <i>Some Aspects of the
+Work of Henry Bradshaw</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADSHAW, JOHN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1602-1659), president of the &ldquo;High
+Court of Justice&rdquo; which tried Charles I., was the second son of
+Henry Bradshaw, of Marple and Wibersley in Cheshire. He
+was baptized on the 10th of December 1602, was educated at
+Banbury in Cheshire and at Middleton in Lancashire, studied
+subsequently with an attorney at Congleton, was admitted into
+Gray&rsquo;s Inn in 1620, and was called to the bar in 1627, becoming
+a bencher in 1647. He was mayor of Congleton in 1637, and later
+high steward or recorder of the borough. According to Milton
+he was assiduous in his legal studies and acquired considerable
+reputation and practice at the bar. On the 21st of September 1643
+he was appointed judge of the sheriff&rsquo;s court in London. In
+October 1644 he was counsel with Prynne in the prosecution of
+Lord Maguire and Hugh Macmahon, implicated in the Irish
+rebellion, in 1645 for John Lilburne in his appeal to the Lords
+against the sentence of the Star Chamber, and in 1647 in the
+prosecution of Judge Jenkins. On the 8th of October 1646 he
+had been nominated by the Commons a commissioner of the
+great seal, but his appointment was not confirmed by the Lords.
+In 1647 he was made chief justice of Chester and a judge in Wales,
+and on the 12th of October 1648 he was presented to the degree
+of serjeant-at-law. On the 2nd of January 1649 the Lords
+threw out the ordinance for bringing the king to trial, and the
+small remnant of the House of Commons which survived Pride&rsquo;s
+Purge, consisting of 53 independents, determined to carry out
+the ordinance on their own authority. The leading members
+of the bar, on the parliamentary as well as on the royalist side,
+having refused to participate in proceedings not only illegal
+and unconstitutional, but opposed to the plainest principles of
+equity, Bradshaw was selected to preside, and, after some
+protestations of humility and unfitness, accepted the office. The
+king refused to plead before the tribunal, but Bradshaw silenced
+every legal objection and denied to Charles an opportunity to
+speak in his defence. He continued after the king&rsquo;s death to
+conduct, as lord president, the trials of the royalists, including
+the duke of Hamilton, Lord Capel, and Henry Rich, earl of
+Holland, all of whom he condemned to death, his behaviour
+being especially censured in the case of Eusebius Andrews,
+a royalist who had joined a conspiracy against the government.
+He received large rewards for his services. He was appointed
+in 1649 attorney-general of Cheshire and North Wales, and
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and was given a sum of
+£1000, together with confiscated estates worth £2000 a year. He
+had been nominated a member of the council of state on the 14th
+of February 1649, and on the 10th of March became president.
+He disapproved strongly of the expulsion of the Long Parliament,
+and on Cromwell&rsquo;s coming subsequently to dismiss the council
+Bradshaw is said, on the authority of Ludlow, to have confronted
+him boldly, and denied his power to dissolve the parliament.
+An ardent republican, he showed himself ever afterwards an
+uncompromising adversary of Cromwell. He was returned for
+Stafford in the parliament of 1654, and spoke strongly against
+vesting power in a single person. He refused to sign the
+&ldquo;engagement&rdquo; drawn up by Cromwell, and in consequence withdrew
+from parliament and was subsequently suspected of complicity in
+plots against the government. He failed to obtain a seat in
+the parliament of 1656, and in August of the same year Cromwell
+attempted to remove him from the chief-justiceship of Cheshire.
+After the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Bradshaw again
+entered parliament, became a member of the council of state, and
+on the 3rd of June 1659 was appointed a commissioner of the
+great seal. His health, however, was bad, and his last public
+effort was a vehement speech, in the council, when he declared
+his abhorrence of the arrest of Speaker Lenthall. He died on
+the 31st of October 1659, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+His body was disinterred at the Restoration, and exposed on a
+gibbet along with those of Cromwell and Ireton. Bradshaw
+married Mary, daughter of Thomas Marbury of Marbury, Cheshire,
+but left no children.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADWARDINE, THOMAS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1290-1349), English archbishop,
+called &ldquo;the Profound Doctor,&rdquo; was born either at Hartfield
+in Sussex or at Chichester. He was educated at Merton
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span>
+College, Oxford, where he took the degree of doctor of divinity,
+and acquired the reputation of a profound scholar, a skilful mathematician
+and an able divine. He was afterwards raised to the high
+offices of chancellor of the university and professor of divinity.
+From being chancellor of the diocese of London, he became chaplain
+and confessor to Edward III., whom he attended during his
+wars in France. On his return to England, he was successively
+appointed prebendary of Lincoln, archdeacon of Lincoln (1347),
+and in 1349 archbishop of Canterbury. He died of the plague
+at Lambeth on the 26th of August 1349, forty days after his
+consecration. Chaucer in his <i>Nun&rsquo;s Priest&rsquo;s Tale</i> ranks Bradwardine
+with St Augustine. His great work is a treatise against
+the Pelagians, entitled <i>De causa Dei contra Pelagium et de virtute
+causarum</i>, edited by Sir Henry Savile (London, 1618). He
+wrote also <i>De Geometria speculativa</i> (Paris, 1530); <i>De Arithmetica
+practica</i> (Paris, 1502); <i>De Proportionibus</i> (Paris, 1495; Venice,
+1505); <i>De Quadratura Circuli</i> (Paris, 1495); and an <i>Ars Memorativa</i>,
+Sloane MSS. No. 3974 in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Quétif-Échard, <i>Script. Praedic.</i> (1719), i. 744; W.F. Hook,
+<i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i>, vol. iv.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADY, NICHOLAS<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1659-1726), Anglican divine and poet,
+was born at Bandon, Co. Cork, on the 28th of October 1659.
+He received his education at Westminster school, and at Christ
+Church, Oxford; but he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin.
+He took orders, and in 1688 was made a prebendary of Cork.
+He was a zealous promoter of the Revolution and suffered in
+consequence. When the troubles broke out in Ireland in 1690,
+Brady, by his influence, thrice prevented the burning of the town
+of Bandon, after James II. had given orders for its destruction;
+and the same year he was employed by the people of Bandon
+to lay their grievances before the English parliament. He soon
+afterwards settled in London, where he obtained various preferments.
+At the time of his death, on the 20th of May 1726,
+he held the livings of Clapham and Richmond. Brady&rsquo;s best-known
+work is his metrical version of the Psalms, in which
+Nahum Tate collaborated with him. It was licensed in 1696,
+and largely ousted the old version of T. Sternhold and J. Hopkins.
+He also translated Virgil&rsquo;s <i>Aeneid</i>, and wrote several smaller
+poems and dramas, as well as sermons.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1840-1888),
+Belgian painter, was born at Antwerp. He was trained by his
+father, a <i>genre</i> painter, and his uncle, Baron Henri Leys, and
+devoted himself to scenes of everyday Antwerp life. The first
+pictures he exhibited, &ldquo;The Laundry&rdquo; (Van Cutsem collection,
+Brussels), and &ldquo;The Coppersmith&rsquo;s Workshop&rdquo; (Vleeshovwer
+collection, Antwerp), were shown at the Antwerp exhibition in
+1861. He received the gold medal at Brussels in 1872 for
+&ldquo;The Geographer&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Lesson&rdquo; (both in the Brussels
+gallery); the gold medal at Vienna in 1873 for &ldquo;The Painter&rsquo;s
+Studio&rdquo; and &ldquo;Grandmother&rsquo;s Birthday&rdquo;; and the medal
+of honour at the Exposition Universelle at Amsterdam for
+&ldquo;The Pilot House.&rdquo; Among his more notable works are
+&ldquo;A Shoemaker&rdquo; (1862), &ldquo;A Tailor&rsquo;s Workroom&rdquo; (1863),
+&ldquo;A Gardener&rdquo; (1864, Antwerp gallery), &ldquo;Interior of a Church&rdquo;
+(1866), &ldquo;Interior, Flanders&rdquo; (1867), &ldquo;Woman spinning&rdquo;
+(1869), &ldquo;Man reading&rdquo; (1871), &ldquo;The rue du Serment, Antwerp&rdquo;
+(1875), &ldquo;A Copperplate Printer,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Sailor&rsquo;s Return,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Man at the Window&rdquo; (Couteaux collection, Brussels),
+&ldquo;The Horn-blower&rdquo; (Couteaux collection), &ldquo;Man retouching a
+Picture&rdquo; (Couteaux collection), &ldquo;The Potters&rdquo; (Marlier collection,
+Brussels), &ldquo;Staircase in the Hydraulic House at Antwerp&rdquo;
+(Marlier collection), and &ldquo;The Brewer&rsquo;s House at Antwerp&rdquo;
+(Marlier collection). The last, better known as &ldquo;A Man sitting,&rdquo;
+is generally regarded as his masterpiece. As a lithographer
+and etcher, his work resembles that of Henri Leys. Towards the
+end of his life de Braekeleer did some dot painting (<i>pointillisme</i>),
+in which he achieved admirable effects of light.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAEMAR,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a district in S.W. Aberdeenshire, Scotland,
+extending from Ballater in the E. to Glen Dee in the W., a
+distance of 24 m. with a breadth varying from 3 to 6 m. It is
+drained throughout by the river Dee, both banks of which are
+bounded by hills varying from 1000 to nearly 3000 ft. in height.
+The whole area is distinguished by typical Highland scenery,
+and is a resort alike for sportsmen and tourists. The villages and
+clachans (Gaelic for hamlet) being situated at an altitude of from
+600 to more than 1000 ft. above the sea, the air is everywhere
+pure and bracing. The deer forests comprise the royal forests
+of Balmoral and Ballochbuie, Glen Ey Forest, Mar Forest and
+Invercauld Forest. At various points on either side of the Dee,
+granite castles, mansions and lodges have been built, mostly
+in the Scottish baronial style, and all effectively situated with
+reference to the wooded hills or the river. The chief of these are
+Balmoral and Abergeldie Castles belonging to the crown, Invercauld
+House, Braemar Castle, Mar Lodge and Old Mar Lodge.
+Castleton of Braemar is the foremost of the villages, being
+sometimes styled the capital of the Deeside Highlands. Its
+public buildings include halls erected by the duke of Fife and
+Colonel Farquharson of Invercauld to commemorate the Victorian
+jubilee of 1887. Not far from the spot where the brawling Clunie
+joins the Dee the earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt in
+1715. His seat, Braemar Castle, reputed to be a hunting-lodge
+of Malcolm Canmore, was forfeit along with the estates. The
+new castle built by the purchasers in 1720 was acquired at a later
+date by Farquharson of Invercauld, who gave government the use
+of it during the pacification of the Highlands after the battle of
+Culloden in 1746. Population of Crathie and Braemar (1901) 1452.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAG,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a very old game of cards, probably evolved from the
+ancient Spanish <i>primero</i>, played by five or six, or more players.
+It is the ancestor of poker. A full pack is used, the cards ranking
+as at whist, with certain exceptions. There are no trumps. Each
+player receives three cards and puts up three stakes. The last
+round is dealt face upwards: the holder of the highest card
+irrespective of suits wins the first stake from all the players.
+In the case of equality the elder hand wins, but the ace of diamonds
+is always a winning card. For the second stake the players
+<i>brag</i> or bet against each other, if they hold either a pair, or a
+pair-royal (three cards of the same rank). Pairs and pairs-royal
+take precedence according to the value of the cards composing
+them, but any pair-royal beats any pair. The knave of clubs
+may be counted as any card, <i>e.g.</i> two twos and the knave of clubs
+rank as a pair-royal in twos; two aces and the knave as a pair-royal
+in aces. Sometimes the knave of diamonds is allowed
+the same privilege, but is inferior to the club knave; <i>e.g.</i> two
+threes and the club would beat the other two threes and the
+diamond. Players who accept another&rsquo;s brag must cover his.
+bet and offer another. The third stake is won by the player
+whose cards make 31 or are nearest to 31 by their pips, aces
+and court counting ten; but the ace may by arrangement count
+as 1 or 11. Players may draw from the stock, losing if they
+over-draw. If one player wins all three stakes, he may receive
+the value of another stake, or of two or three stakes, all round,
+as arranged. The deal passes as at whist. Each player
+should have the same number of deals before the game is
+abandoned.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAGA,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a city of northern Portugal, formerly included in the
+province of Entre Minho e Douro, situated on the right-bank of
+the small river Deste near its source, and at the head of a railway
+from Oporto. Pop. (1900) 24,202. Braga, which ranks after
+Lisbon and Oporto as the third city of the kingdom, is the
+capital of an administrative district, and an archiepiscopal see.
+Its cathedral, founded in the 12th century, was rebuilt during
+the 16th century in the blend of Moorish and florid Gothic styles
+known as Manoellian. It contains several tombs of considerable
+historical interest, some fine woodwork carved in the 15th
+century, and a collection of ancient vestments, plate and other
+objects of art. Among the other churches Santa Cruz is noteworthy
+for its handsome façade, which dates from 1642. There
+are several convents, an archiepiscopal palace, a library, containing
+many rare books and manuscripts, an orphan asylum,
+and a large hospital; also the ruins of a theatre, a temple and
+an aqueduct of Roman workmanship, and a great variety of
+minor antiquities of different ages. The principal manufactures
+are firearms, jewelry, cutlery, cloth and felt hats. Large cattle
+fairs are held in June and September, for cattle-breeding and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span>
+dairy-farming are among the foremost local industries. On a
+hill about 3 m. E. by S. stands the celebrated sanctuary of Bom
+Jesus, or Bom Jesus do Monte, visited at Whitsuntide by many
+thousands of pilgrims, who do public penance as they ascend to
+the shrine; and about 1 m. beyond it is Mount Sameiro (2535
+ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the Virgin Mary, and commanding
+a magnificent view of the mountainous country which
+culminates in the Serra do Gerez, on the north-east.</p>
+
+<p>Braga is the Roman <i>Bracara Augusta</i>, capital of the <i>Callaici
+Bracarii</i>, or <i>Bracarenses</i>, a tribe who occupied what is now Galicia
+and northern Portugal. Early in the 5th century it was taken
+by the Suevi; but about 485 it passed into the hands of the
+Visigothic conquerors of Spain, whose renunciation of the Arian
+and Priscillianist heresies, at two synods held here in the 6th
+century, marks the origin of its ecclesiastical greatness. The
+archbishops of Braga retain the title of primate of Portugal,
+and long claimed supremacy over the Spanish church also; but
+their authority was never accepted throughout Spain. From the
+Moors, who captured Braga early in the 8th century, the city was
+retaken in 1040 by Ferdinand I., king of Castile and Leon; and
+from 1093 to 1147 it was the residence of the Portuguese court.</p>
+
+<p>The administrative district of Braga coincides with the central
+part of the province of Entre Minho e Douro (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1900)
+357,159. Area, 1040 sq. m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAGANZA<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (<i>Bragança</i>), the capital of an administrative
+district formerly included in the province of Traz-os-Montes,
+Portugal; situated in the north-eastern extremity of the
+kingdom, on a branch of the river Sabor, 8 m. S. of the Spanish
+frontier. Pop. (1900) 5535. Braganza is an episcopal city.
+It consists of a walled upper town, containing the cathedral
+college and hospital, and of a lower or modern town. Large
+tracts of the surrounding country are uncultivated, partly
+because railway communication is lacking and the roads are bad.
+Except farming, the chief local industry is silkworm-rearing
+and the manufacture of silk. The administrative district of
+Braganza coincides with the eastern part of Traz-os-Montes (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Pop. (1900) 185,162; area, 2513 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p>The city gave its name to the family of Braganza, members of
+which were rulers of Portugal from 1640 to 1853, and emperors
+of Brazil from 1822 to 1889. This family is descended from
+Alphonso (d. 1461), a natural son of John I., king of Portugal
+(d. 1433), who was a natural son of King Peter I., and consequently
+belonged to the Portuguese branch of the Capetian
+family. Alphonso was made duke of Braganza in 1442, and in
+1483 his grandson, Duke Ferdinand II., lost his life through
+heading an insurrection against King John II. In spite of this
+Ferdinand&rsquo;s descendants acquired great wealth, and several
+of them held high office under the kings of Portugal. Duke
+John I. (d. 1583) married into the royal family, and when King
+Henry II. died without direct heirs in 1580, he claimed the
+crown of Portugal in opposition to Philip II. of Spain. John,
+however, was unsuccessful, but, when the Portuguese threw off
+the Spanish dominion in 1640, his grandson, John II., duke of
+Braganza, became king as John IV. In 1807, when Napoleon
+declared the throne of Portugal vacant, King John VI. fled to
+Brazil; but he regained his inheritance after the fall of Napoleon
+in 1814, although he did not return to Europe until 1821, when
+he left his elder son Peter to govern Brazil. In 1822 a revolution
+established the independence of Brazil with Peter as emperor.
+In 1826 Peter became king of Portugal on the death of his
+father; but he at once resigned the crown to his young daughter
+Maria, and appointed his brother Miguel to act as regent. Miguel
+soon declared himself king, but after a stubborn struggle was
+driven from the country in 1833, after which Maria became
+queen. Maria married for her second husband Ferdinand (d.
+1851), son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg; and when she died
+in 1853 the main Portuguese branch of the family became
+extinct. Maria was succeeded by her son Louis I., father of
+Charles I., who ascended the throne of Portugal in 1889. The
+empire of Brazil descended on the death of Peter I. to his son
+Peter II., who was expelled from the country in 1889. When
+Peter died in 1891 this branch of the family also became extinct
+in the male line. His only child, Isabella, married Louis Gaston
+of Orleans, count of Eu. The exiled king, Miguel, founded a
+branch of the family of Braganza which settled in Bavaria,
+and various noble families in Portugal are descended from
+cadets of this house. The title of duke of Braganza is now borne
+by the eldest son of the king of Portugal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAGG, BRAXTON<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1817-1876), American soldier, was born
+in Warren county, North Carolina, on the 22nd of March 1817.
+He graduated at the United States military academy in 1837,
+and as an artillery officer served in the Seminole wars of 1837
+and 1841, and under General Taylor in Mexico. For gallant
+conduct at Fort Brown, Monterey and Buena Vista, he received
+the brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel. He
+resigned from the regular army on the 3rd of January 1856, and
+retired to his plantation in Louisiana. From 1859 to 1861 he
+was commissioner of the board of public works of the state. When
+in 1861 the Civil War began, Bragg was made a brigadier-general
+in the Confederate service, and assigned to command
+at Pensacola. In February 1862, having meanwhile become
+major-general, he took up a command in the Army of the
+Mississippi, and he was present at the battle of Shiloh (April).
+The vacancy created by the death of Sidney Johnston at that
+battle was filled by the promotion of Bragg to full general&rsquo;s
+rank, and he succeeded General Beauregard when that officer
+retired from the Western command. In the autumn of 1862 he led
+a bold advance from Eastern Tennessee across Kentucky to
+Louisville, but after temporary successes he was forced to retire
+before Buell, and after the battle of Perryville (8th October)
+retired into Tennessee. Though the material results of his
+campaign were considerable, he was bitterly censured, and his
+removal from his command was urged. But the personal favour
+of Jefferson Davis kept him, as it had placed him, at the head of
+the central army, and on the 31st of December 1862 and 2nd of
+January 1863 he fought the indecisive battle of Murfreesboro (or
+Stone river) against Rosecrans, Buell&rsquo;s successor. In the campaign
+of 1863 Rosecrans constantly outmanoeuvred the Confederates,
+and forced them back to the border of Georgia. Bragg, however,
+inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponent at Chickamauga
+(September 19-20) and for a time besieged the Union forces
+in Chattanooga. But enormous forces under Grant were concentrated
+upon the threatened spot, and the great battle of Chattanooga
+(November 23-25) ended in the rout of the Confederates.
+Bragg was now deprived of his command, but President Davis
+made him his military adviser, and in that capacity he served
+during 1864. In the autumn of that year he led an inferior
+force from North Carolina to Georgia to oppose Sherman&rsquo;s
+march. In February 1865 he joined Johnston, and he was
+thus included in the surrender of that officer to Sherman. After
+the war he became chief engineer to the state of Alabama, and
+supervised improvements in Mobile harbour. He died suddenly
+at Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of September 1876. General
+Bragg, in spite of his want of success, was unquestionably a
+brave and skilful officer. But he was a severe martinet, and
+rarely in full accord with the senior officers under his orders,
+the consequent friction often acting unfavourably on the conduct
+of the operations.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Thomas Bragg</span> (1810-1872), was governor of North
+Carolina 1855-1859, U.S. senator 1859-1861, and attorney-general
+in the Confederate cabinet from Nov. 1861 to March 1862.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAGI,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> in Scandinavian mythology, the son of Odin, and god
+of wisdom, poetry and eloquence. At the Scandinavian sacrificial
+feasts a horn consecrated to Bragi was used as a drinking-cup
+by the guests, who then vowed to do some great deed
+which would be worthy of being immortalized in verse.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHAM, JOHN<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1774-1856), English vocalist, was born
+in London about 1774, of Jewish parentage, his real name being
+Abraham. His father and mother died when he was quite young.
+Having received lessons in singing from an Italian artist named
+Leoni, he made his first appearance in public at Covent Garden
+theatre on the 21st of April 1787, when he sang &ldquo;The soldier
+tired of war&rsquo;s alarms&rdquo; and &ldquo;<i>Ma chère arrive</i>.&rdquo; On the
+breaking of his voice, he had to support himself by teaching the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span>
+pianoforte. In a few years, however, he recovered his voice,
+which proved to be a tenor of exceptionally pure and
+rich quality. His second début was made in 1794 at the
+Bath concerts, to the conductor of which, Rauzzini, he was
+indebted for careful training extending over a period of more
+than two years. In 1796 he reappeared in London at Drury
+Lane in Storace&rsquo;s opera of <i>Mahmoud</i>. Such was his success that
+he obtained an engagement the next year to appear in the Italian
+opera house in Grétry&rsquo;s <i>Azor et Zémire</i>. He also sang in oratorios
+and was engaged for the Three Choir festival at Gloucester.
+With the view of perfecting himself in his art he set out for Italy
+in the autumn of 1797. On the way he gave some concerts at
+Paris, which proved so successful that he was induced to remain
+there for eight months. His career in Italy was one of continuous
+triumph; he appeared in all the principal opera-houses, singing
+in Milan, Genoa, Leghorn and Venice. His compass embraced
+about nineteen notes, his management of the falsetto being
+perfect. In 1801 he returned to his native country, and appeared
+once more at Covent Garden in the opera <i>Chains of the
+Heart</i>, by Mazzinghi and Reeve. So great was his popularity that
+an engagement he had made when abroad to return after a year to
+Vienna was renounced, and he remained henceforward in England.
+In 1824 he sang the part of Max in the English version of Weber&rsquo;s
+<i>Der Freischütz</i>, and he was the original Sir Huon in that
+composer&rsquo;s <i>Oberon</i> in 1826. Braham made two unfortunate
+speculations on a large scale, one being the purchase of the Colosseum
+in the Regent&rsquo;s Park in 1831 for £40,000, and the other the
+erection of the St James&rsquo;s theatre at a cost of £26,000 in 1836.
+In 1838 he sang the part of William Tell at Drury Lane, and in
+1839 the part of Don Giovanni. His last public appearance
+was at a concert in March 1852. He died on the 17th of February
+1856. There is, perhaps, no other case upon record in which
+a singer of the first rank enjoyed the use of his voice so long;
+between Braham&rsquo;s first and last public appearances considerably
+more than sixty years intervened, during forty of which he held
+the undisputed supremacy alike in opera, oratorio and the
+concert-room. Braham was the composer of a number of vocal
+pieces, which being sung by himself had great temporary
+popularity, though they had little intrinsic merit, and are now
+deservedly forgotten. A partial exception must be made in
+favour of &ldquo;The Death of Nelson,&rdquo; originally written in 1811
+as a portion of the opera <i>The American</i>; this still keeps its
+place as a standard popular English song.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHE, PER,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1602-1680), Swedish soldier and statesman,
+was born on the island of Rydboholm, near Stockholm,
+on the 18th of February 1602. He was the grandson of Per
+Brahe (1520-1590), one of Gustavus I.&rsquo;s senators, created count
+of Visingsborg by Eric XIV., known also as the continuator of
+Peder Svart&rsquo;s chronicle of Gustavus I., and author of <i>Oeconomia</i>
+(1585), a manual for young noblemen. Per Brahe the younger,
+after completing his education by several years&rsquo; travel abroad,
+became in 1626 chamberlain to Gustavus Adolphus, whose
+lasting friendship he gained. He fought with distinction in
+Prussia during the last three years of the Polish War (1626-1629)
+and also, as colonel of a regiment of horse, in 1630 in Germany.
+After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 his military
+yielded to his political activity. He had been elected president
+(<i>Landsmarskalk</i>) of the diet of 1629, and in the following year
+was created a senator (<i>Riksråd</i>). In 1635 he conducted the
+negotiations for an armistice with Poland. In 1637-1640 and
+again in 1648-1654 he was governor-general in Finland, to which
+country he rendered inestimable services by his wise and provident
+rule. He reformed the whole administration, introduced a
+postal system, built ten new towns, improved and developed
+commerce and agriculture, and very greatly promoted education.
+In 1640 he opened the university of Åbo, of which he was the
+founder, and first chancellor. After the death of Charles X.
+in 1660, Brahe, as <i>rikskansler</i> or chancellor of Sweden, became
+one of the regents of Sweden for the second time (he had held a
+similar office during the minority of Christina, 1632-1644), and
+during the difficult year 1660 he had entire control of both
+foreign and domestic affairs. He died on the 2nd of September
+1680, at his castle at Visingsborg, where during his lifetime he
+had held more than regal pomp.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Nils Brahe</span> (1604-1632), also served with distinction
+under Gustavus Adolphus. He took part in the siege
+and capture of Riga in 1621, served with distinction in Poland
+(1626-1627) and assisted in the defence of Stralsund in 1628.
+In 1630 he accompanied Gustavus into Germany, and in 1631
+was appointed colonel of &ldquo;the yellow regiment,&rdquo; the king&rsquo;s
+world-renowned life-guards, at the head of which he captured
+the castle of Würzburg on the 8th of October 1631. He took
+part in the long duel between Gustavus and Wallenstein round
+Nuremberg as general of infantry, and commanded the left
+wing at Lützen (November 6, 1632), where he was the only
+Swedish general officer present. At the very beginning of the
+fight he was mortally wounded. The king regarded Brahe as
+the best general in the Swedish army after Lennart Torstensen.</p>
+
+<p>A direct descendant of Nils, <span class="sc">Magnus Brahe</span> (1790-1844),
+fought in the campaign of 1813-14, under the crown prince
+Bernadotte, with whom, after his accession to the throne as
+Charles XIV., he was in high favour. He became marshal of
+the kingdom, and, especially from 1828 onwards, exercised a
+preponderant influence in public affairs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Martin Veibull, <i>Sveriges Storhetstid</i>, vol. iv. (Stockholm, 1881);
+<i>Letters to Axel Oxenstjerna</i> (Swed.) 1832-1851 (Stockholm, 1890);
+Petrus Nordmann, <i>Per Brahe</i> (Helsingfors, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHE, TYCHO<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1546-1601), Danish astronomer, was born on
+the 14th of December 1546 at the family seat of Knudstrup in
+Scania, then a Danish province. Of noble family, he was early
+adopted by his uncle, Jörgen Brahe, who sent him, in April 1559,
+to study philosophy and rhetoric at Copenhagen. The punctual
+occurrence at the predicted time, August 21st, 1560, of a total
+solar eclipse led him to regard astronomy as &ldquo;something divine&rdquo;;
+he purchased the <i>Ephemerides</i> of Johann Stadius (3rd ed., 1570),
+and the works of Ptolemy in Latin, and gained some insight into
+the theory of the planets. Entered as a law-student at the
+university of Leipzig in 1562, he nevertheless secretly prosecuted
+celestial studies, and began continuous observations with a globe,
+a pair of compasses and a &ldquo;cross-staff.&rdquo; He quitted Leipzig on
+the 17th of May 1565, but his uncle dying a month later, he
+repaired to Wittenberg, and thence to Rostock, where, in 1566,
+he lost his nose in a duel, and substituted an artificial one made
+of a copper alloy. In 1569 he matriculated at Augsburg, and
+devoted himself to chemistry for two years (1570-1572). On his
+return to Denmark, in 1571, he was permitted by his maternal
+uncle, Steno Belle, to instal a laboratory at his castle of
+Herritzvad, near Knudstrup; and there, on the 11th of November
+1572, he caught sight of the famous &ldquo;new star&rdquo; in Cassiopeia.
+He diligently measured its position, and printed an account of
+his observations in a tract entitled <i>De Novâ Stellâ</i> (Copenhagen,
+1573), a facsimile of which was produced in 1901, as a tercentenary
+tribute to the author&rsquo;s memory.</p>
+
+<p>Tycho&rsquo;s marriage with a peasant-girl in 1573 somewhat
+strained his family relations. He delivered lectures in
+Copenhagen by royal command in 1574; and in 1575 travelled
+through Germany to Venice. The execution of his design to
+settle at Basel was, however, anticipated by the munificence of
+Frederick II., king of Denmark, who bestowed upon him for life
+the island of Hveen in the Sound, together with a pension of 500
+thalers, a canonry in the cathedral of Roskilde, and the income
+of an estate in Norway. The first stone of the magnificent
+observatory of Uraniborg was laid on the 8th of August 1576; it
+received the finest procurable instrumental outfit; and was the
+scene, during twenty-one years, of Tycho&rsquo;s labours in systematically
+collecting materials&mdash;the first made available since the
+Alexandrian epoch&mdash;for the correction of astronomical theories.
+James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. of England, visited
+him at Uraniborg on the 20th of March 1590. But by that time
+his fortunes were on the wane; for Frederick II. died in 1588,
+and his successor, Christian IV., was less tolerant of Tycho&rsquo;s
+arrogant and insubordinate behaviour. His pension and fief
+having been withdrawn, he sailed for Rostock in June 1597, and
+re-commenced observing before the close of the year, in the castle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span>
+of Wandsbeck near Hamburg. He spent the following winter at
+Wittenberg, and reached Prague in June 1599, well assured of
+favour and protection from the emperor Rudolph II. That
+monarch, accordingly, assigned him the castle of Benatky for
+his residence, with a pension of 3000 florins; his great
+instruments were moved thither from Hveen, and Johannes Kepler
+joined him there in January 1600. But this phase of renewed
+prosperity was brief. After eleven days&rsquo; illness, Tycho Brahe
+died on the 24th of October 1601, at Benatky, and was buried in
+the Teynkirche, Prague.</p>
+
+<p>Tycho&rsquo;s principal work, entitled <i>Astronomiae Instauratae
+Progymnasmata</i> (2 vols., Prague, 1602-1603) was edited by
+Kepler. The first volume treated of the motions of the sun and
+moon, and gave the places of 777 fixed stars (this number was
+increased to 1005 by Kepler in 1627 in the &ldquo;Rudolphine Tables&rdquo;).
+The second, which had been privately printed at Uraniborg in 1588
+with the heading <i>De Mundi Aetherei recentioribus Phaenomenis</i>,
+was mainly concerned with the comet of 1577, demonstrated
+by Tycho from its insensible parallax to be no terrestrial
+exhalation, as commonly supposed, but a body traversing
+planetary space. It included, besides, an account of the
+Tychonic plan of the cosmos, in which a <i>via media</i> was sought
+between the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems. The earth
+retained its immobility; but the five planets were made to revolve
+round the sun, which, with its entire cortège, annually
+circuited the earth, the sphere of the fixed stars performing
+meanwhile, as of old, its all-inclusive diurnal rotation (see
+ASTRONOMY: <i>History</i>). Under the heading <i>Astronomiae
+Instauratae Mechanica</i>, Tycho published at Wandsbeck, in 1598, a
+description of his instruments, together with an autobiographical
+account of his career and discoveries, including the memorable
+one of the moon&rsquo;s &ldquo;variation&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moon</a></span>). The book was reprinted
+at Nuremberg in 1602 (cf. Hasselberg, <i>Vierteljahrsschrift
+Astr. Ges.</i> xxxix. iii. 180). His <i>Epistolae Astronomicae</i>,
+printed at Uraniborg in 1596 with a portrait engraved by Geyn of
+Amsterdam in 1586, were embodied in a complete edition of his
+works issued at Frankfort in 1648. Tycho vastly improved the
+art of astronomical observation. He constructed a table of
+refractions, allowed for instrumental inaccuracies, and eliminated
+by averaging accidental errors. He, moreover, corrected the
+received value of nearly every astronomical quantity; but the
+theoretical purpose towards which his practical reform was
+directed, was foiled by his premature death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.L.E. Dreyer&rsquo;s <i>Tycho Brahe</i> (Edinburgh, 1890), which gives
+full and authentic information regarding his life and work.
+Also Gassendi&rsquo;s <i>Vita</i> (Paris, 1654);
+<i>Lebensbeschreibung</i>, collected from various Danish sources,
+and translated into German by Philander von der Weistritz
+(Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1756);
+<i>Tyge Brahe</i>, by F.R. Friis (Copenhagen, 1871);
+<i>Prager Tychoniana</i>, collected by Dr F.I. Studnicka
+(Prague, 1901), a description of the scanty Tychonian relics
+which survived the Thirty Years&rsquo; War and are still preserved
+at Prague.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHMAN,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a Sanskrit noun-stem which, differently accented, yields
+in the two nominatives <i>Brahm&#259;</i> (neut.) and <i>Brahm&#257;</i>
+(masc.), the names of two deities which occupy prominent places in the
+orthodox system of Hindu belief. Brahm&#259; (n.) is the designation
+generally applied to the Supreme Soul (<i>param&#257;tman</i>), or
+impersonal, all-embracing divine essence, the original source and
+ultimate goal of all that exists; Brahm&#257; (m.), on the other hand,
+is only one of the three hypostases of that divinity whose creative
+activity he represents, as distinguished from its preservative and
+destructive aspects, ever apparent in life and nature, and represented
+by the gods Vish&#7751;u and &#346;iva respectively. The history of
+the two cognate names reflects in some measure the development
+of Indian religious speculation generally.</p>
+
+<p>The neuter term <i>brahm&#259;</i> is used in the <i>Rigveda</i> both in
+the abstract sense of &ldquo;devotion, worship,&rdquo; and in the concrete sense
+of &ldquo;devotional rite, prayer, hymn.&rdquo; The spirit of Vedic worship
+is pervaded by a devout belief in the efficacy of invocation and
+sacrificial offering. The earnest and well-expressed prayer or
+hymn of praise cannot fail to draw the divine power to the
+worshipper and make it yield to his supplication; whilst offerings,
+so far from being mere acts of devotion calculated to give pleasure
+to the god, constitute the very food and drink which render him
+vigorous and capable of battling with the enemies of his mortal
+friend. It is this intrinsic power of fervent invocation and
+worship which found an early expression in the term <i>brahm&#259;</i>;
+and its independent existence as an active moral principle in shaping
+the destinies of man became recognized in the Vedic pantheon in the
+conception of a god <i>B&#7771;ihaspati</i> or <i>Brahma&#7751;aspati</i>,
+&ldquo;lord of prayer or devotion,&rdquo; the divine priest and the guardian
+of the pious worshipper. By a natural extension of the original
+meaning, the term <i>brahm&#259;</i>, in the sense of sacred utterance,
+was subsequently likewise applied to the whole body of sacred
+writ, the <i>tri-vidy&#257;</i> or &ldquo;triple lore&rdquo; of the Veda; whilst it
+also came to be commonly used as the abstract designation of the
+priestly function and the Br&#257;hmanical order generally, in the
+same way as the term <i>kshatra</i>, &ldquo;sway, rule,&rdquo; came to denote the
+aggregate of functions and individuals of the Kshatriyas or
+R&#257;janyas, the nobility or military class.</p>
+
+<p>The universal belief in the efficacy of invocation as an
+indispensable adjunct to sacrifices and religious rites generally,
+could not fail to engender and maintain in the minds of the
+people feelings of profound esteem and reverence towards those
+who possessed the divine gift of inspired utterance, as well as for
+those who had acquired an intimate knowledge of the approved
+forms of ritual worship. A common designation of the priest is
+brahman (nom. <i>brahma</i>), originally denoting, it would seem,
+&ldquo;one who prays, a worshipper,&rdquo; perhaps also &ldquo;the composer
+of a hymn&rdquo; (<i>brahman</i>, n.); and the same term came subsequently
+to be used not only for one of the sacerdotal order generally,
+but also, and more commonly, as the designation of a special
+class of priests who officiated as superintendents during sacrificial
+performances, the complicated nature of which required the
+co-operation of a whole staff of priests, and who accordingly
+were expected to possess a competent knowledge of the entire
+course of ritual procedure, including the correct form and
+mystic import of the sacred texts to be repeated or chanted
+by the several priests. The Brahman priest (<i>brahm&#257;</i>) being
+thus the recognized head of the sacerdotal order (<i>brahm&#259;</i>),
+which itself is the visible embodiment of sacred writ and the
+devotional spirit pervading it (<i>brahm&#259;</i>), the complete
+realization of theocratic aspirations required but a single step,
+which was indeed taken in the theosophic speculations of the later
+Vedic poets and the authors of the Br&#257;hmanas (<i>q.v.</i>), viz. the
+recognition of this abstract notion of the Brahma as the highest
+cosmic principle and its identification with the pantheistic
+conception of an all-pervading, self-existent spiritual substance,
+the primary source of the universe; and subsequently coupled
+therewith the personification of its creative energy in the form
+of Brahm&#257;, the divine representative of the earthly priest, who
+was made to take the place of the earlier conception of <i>Praj&#257;pati</i>,
+&ldquo;the lord of creatures&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brahmanism</a></span>). By this means the
+very name of this god expressed the essential oneness of his
+nature with that of the divine spirit as whose manifestation he
+was to be considered. In the later Vedic writings, especially
+the Br&#257;hmanas, however, Praj&#257;pati still maintains throughout
+his position as the paramount personal deity; and Brahma,
+in his divine capacity, is rather identified with B&#7771;ihaspati, the
+priest of the gods. Moreover, the exact relationship between
+Praj&#257;pati and the Brahm&#259; (n.) is hardly as yet defined with
+sufficient precision; it is rather one of simple identification:
+in the beginning the Brahma was the All, and Prajapati is the
+Brahma. It is only in the institutes of Manu, where we find the
+system of castes propounded in its complete development, that
+Brahm&#257; has his definite place assigned to him in the cosmogony.
+According to this work, the universe, before undiscerned, was
+made discernible in the beginning by the sole, self-existent lord
+Brahm&#259; (n.). He, desirous of producing different beings from his
+own self, created the waters by his own thought, and placed in
+them a seed which developed into a golden egg; therein was
+born Brahm&#257; (m.), the parent of all the worlds; and thus &ldquo;that
+which is the undiscrete Cause, eternal, which is and is not, from
+it issued that male who is called in the world Brahm&#257;.&rdquo; Having
+dwelt in that egg for a year, that lord spontaneously by his own
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span>
+thought split that egg in two; and from the two halves he
+fashioned the heaven and the earth, and in the middle, the sky, and
+the eight regions (the points of the compass), and the perpetual
+place of the waters. This theory of Brahm&#257; being born from a
+golden egg is, however, a mere adaptation of the Vedic conception
+of <i>Hiranya-garbha</i> (&ldquo;golden embryo&rdquo;), who is represented as
+the supreme god in a hymn of the tenth (and last) book of the
+<i>Rigveda</i>. Another still later myth, which occurs in the epic
+poems, makes Brahma be born from a lotus which grew out of
+the navel of the god Vish&#7751;u whilst floating on the primordial
+waters. In artistic representations, Brahm&#257; usually appears
+as a bearded man of red colour with four heads crowned with
+a pointed, tiara-like head-dress, and four hands holding his
+sceptre, or a sacrificial spoon, a bundle of leaves representing
+the Veda, a bottle of water of the Ganges, and a string of beads
+or his bow Pariv&#299;ta. His vehicle (<i>v&#257;hana</i>) is a goose or swan
+(<i>hamsa</i>), whence he is also called <i>Ha&#7747;s&#257;vhana</i>; and his consort
+is Sarasvat&#299;, the goddess of learning.</p>
+
+<p>One could hardly expect that a colourless deity of this description,
+so completely the product of priestly speculation, could
+ever have found a place in the hearts of the people generally,
+And indeed, whilst in theoretic theology Brahma has retained
+his traditional place and function down to our own days, his
+practical cult has at all times remained extremely limited, the
+only temple dedicated to the worship of this god being found at
+Pushkar (Pokhar) near Ajmir in R&#257;jput&#257;na. On the other
+hand, his divine substratum, the impersonal Brahma, the
+world-spirit, the one and only reality, remains to this day the
+ultimate element of the religious belief of intelligent India of
+whatever sect. Being devoid of all attributes, it can be the
+object only of meditation, not of practical devotional rites;
+and philosophy can only attempt to characterize it in general
+and vague terms, as in the favourite formula which makes it
+to be <i>sachchid&#257;nanda</i>, <i>i.e.</i> being (<i>sat</i>), thinking (<i>chit</i>), and bliss
+(<i>&#257;nanda</i>).</p>
+<div class="author">(J. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BR&#256;HMA&#7750;A,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> the Sanskrit term applied to a body of prose
+writings appended to the collections (<i>samhit&#257;</i>) of Vedic texts,
+the meaning and ritual application of which they are intended
+to elucidate, and like them regarded as divinely revealed. From
+a linguistic point of view, these treatises with their appendages,
+the more mystic and recondite &#256;ra&#7751;yakas and the speculative
+Upanishads, have to be considered as forming the connecting
+link between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit. The exact
+derivation and meaning of the name is somewhat uncertain.
+Whilst the masculine term <i>br&#257;hma&#7751;a</i> (nom. <i>br&#257;hma&#7751;as</i>), the
+ordinary Sanskrit designation of a man of the Brahmanical
+caste, is clearly a derivative of <i>brahman</i> (nom. <i>brahm&#257;</i>), a common
+Vedic term for a priest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brahman</a></span>), thus meaning the son
+or descendant of a Brahman, the neuter word <i>br&#257;hma&#7751;a</i> (nom.
+<i>br&#257;hma&#7751;am</i>) on the other hand, with which we are here concerned,
+admits of two derivations: either it is derived from the same
+word <i>brahman</i>, and would then seem to mean a <i>dictum</i> or observation
+ascribed to, or intended for the use of, a Brahman, or
+superintendent priest; or it has rather to be referred to the
+neuter noun <i>brahm&#257;n</i> (nom. <i>brahm&#259;</i>), in the sense of &ldquo;sacred
+utterance or rite,&rdquo; in which case it might mean a comment on a
+sacred text, or explanation of a devotional rite, calculated to
+bring out its spiritual or mystic significance and its bearing on
+the Brahma, the world-spirit embodied in the sacred writ and
+ritual. This latter definition seems on the whole the more
+probable one, and it certainly would fit exactly the character
+of the writings to which the term relates. It will thus be seen
+that the term <i>br&#257;hma&#7751;am</i> applies not only to complete treatises
+of an exegetic nature, but also to single comments on particular
+texts or rites of which such a work would be made up.</p>
+
+<p>The gradual elaboration of the sacrificial ceremonial, as the
+all-sufficient expression of religious devotion, and a constantly
+growing tendency towards theosophic and mystic speculation
+on the significance of every detail of the ritual, could not fail
+to create a demand for explanatory treatises of this kind, which,
+to enhance their practical utility, would naturally deal with the
+special texts and rites assigned in the ceremonial to the several
+classes of officiating priests. At a subsequent period the demand
+for instruction in the sacrificial science called into existence a
+still more practical set of manuals, the so-called <i>Kalpa-s&#363;tras</i>,
+or ceremonial rules, detailing, in succinct aphorisms, the approved
+course of sacrificial procedure, without reference to the supposed
+origin or import of the several rites. These manuals are also
+called <i>&#346;rauta-s&#363;tras</i>, treating as they do, like the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as, of
+the &#346;rauta rites&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> the rites based on the <i>&#347;ruti</i> or revelation&mdash;requiring
+at least three sacrificial fires and a number of priests,
+as distinguished from the <i>g&#7771;ihya</i> (domestic) or <i>sm&#257;rta</i> (traditional)
+rites, supposed to be based on the <i>smriti</i> or tradition, which are
+performed on the house-fire and dealt with in the <i>G&#7771;ihya-s&#363;tras</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The ritual recognizes four principal priests (<i>&#7771;itvij</i>), each of
+whom is assisted by three subordinates: viz. the <i>Brahman</i>
+or superintending priest; the <i>Hot&#7771;i</i> or reciter of hymns and
+verses; the <i>Udg&#257;tri</i> or chanter; and the <i>Adhvaryu</i> or offerer,
+who looks after the details of the ceremonial, including the
+preparation of the offering-ground, the construction of fire-places
+and altars, the making of oblations and muttering of the
+prescribed formulae. Whilst the two last priests have assigned
+to them special liturgical collections of the texts to be used by
+them, the <i>S&#257;maveda-sa&#7747;hit&#257;</i> and <i>Yajurveda-sa&#7747;hit&#257;</i> respectively,
+the Hot&#7771;i has to deal entirely with hymns and verses
+taken from the <i>&#7770;igveda-sa&#7747;hit&#257;</i>, of which they would, however,
+form only a comparatively small portion. As regards the
+Brahman, he would doubtless be chosen from one of those other
+three classes, but would be expected to have made himself
+thoroughly conversant with the texts and ritual details appertaining
+to all the officiating priests. It is, then, to one or other
+of those three collections of sacred texts and the respective class
+of priests, that the existing Br&#257;hma&#7751;as attach themselves. At
+a later period, when the Atharvan gained admission to the
+Vedic canon, a special connexion with the Brahman priest was
+sometimes claimed, though with scant success, for this fourth
+collection of hymns and spells, and the comparatively late and
+unimportant Gopatha-br&#257;hma&#7751;a attached to it.</p>
+
+<p>The Udg&#257;t&#7771;i&rsquo;s duties being mainly confined to the chanting
+of hymns made up of detached groups of verses of the <i>&#7770;igveda</i>,
+as collected in the S&#257;maveda-sa&#7747;hit&#257;, the more important
+Br&#257;hma&#7751;as of this sacerdotal class deal chiefly with the various
+modes of chanting, and the modifications which the verses have
+to undergo in their musical setting. Moreover, the performance
+of chants being almost entirely confined to the Soma-sacrifice,
+it is only a portion, though no doubt the most important portion,
+of the sacrificial ceremonial that enters into the subject matter
+of the S&#257;maveda Br&#257;hma&#7747;as.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as of the <i>&#7770;igveda</i>, two of such works
+have been handed down, the <i>Aitareya</i> and the <i>Kaush&#299;taki</i> (or
+<i>&#346;&#257;nkh&#257;yana</i>)<i>-Br&#257;hma&#7751;as</i>, which have a large amount of their
+material in common. But while the former work (transl. into
+English by M. Haug) is mainly taken up with the Soma-sacrifice,
+the latter has in addition thereto chapters on the other forms of
+sacrifice. Being intended for the Hot&#7771;i&rsquo;s use, both these works
+treat exclusively of the hymns and verses recited by that priest
+and his assistants, either in the form of connected litanies or
+in detached verses invoking the deities to whom oblations are
+made, or uttered in response to the solemn hymns chanted by
+the Udg&#257;t&#7771;is.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, to the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as and S&#363;tras of the <i>Yajurveda</i>,
+dealing with the ritual of the real offering-priest, the Adhvaryu,
+that we have to turn for a connected view of the sacrificial
+procedure in all its material details. Now, in considering the
+body of writings connected with this Veda, we are at once
+confronted by the fact that there are two different schools, an
+older and a younger one, in which the traditional body of ritualistic
+matter has been treated in a very different way. For
+while the younger school, the <i>V&#257;jasaneyins</i>, have made a clear
+severance between the sacred texts or mantras and the exegetic
+discussions thereon&mdash;as collected in the <i>V&#257;jasaneyi-sa&#7747;hit&#257;</i>
+and the <i>&#346;atapatha-Br&#257;hma&#7751;a</i> (trans. by J. Eggeling, in <i>Sacred
+Books of the East</i>) respectively&mdash;arranged systematically in
+accordance with the ritual divisions, the older school on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span>
+other hand present their materials in a hopelessly jumbled form;
+for not only is each type of sacrifice not dealt with continuously
+and in orderly fashion, but short textual sections of mantras
+are constantly followed immediately by their dogmatic exegesis;
+the term <i>br&#257;hma&#7751;a</i> thus applying in their case only to these
+detached comments and not to the connected series of them.
+Thus the most prominent subdivision of the older school, the
+<i>Taittir&#299;yas</i>, in their <i>Sa&#7747;hit&#257;</i>, have treated the main portion of
+the ceremonial in this promiscuous fashion, and to add to the
+confusion they have, by way of supplement, put forth a so-called
+<i>Taittir&#299;ya-br&#257;hma&#7751;a</i>, which, so far from being a real Br&#257;hma&#7751;a,
+merely deals with some additional rites in the same confused
+mixture of sacrificial formulae and dogmatic explanations.
+It is not without reason, therefore, that those two schools, the
+older and the younger, are commonly called the Black (<i>k&#7771;ish&#7751;a</i>)
+and the White (<i>sukla</i>) Yajus respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Although the ritualistic discussions of the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as are for
+the most part of a dry and uninteresting nature to an even
+greater degree than is often the case with exegetic theological
+treatises, these works are nevertheless of considerable importance
+both as regards the history of Indian institutions and as
+&ldquo;the oldest body of Indo-European prose, of a generally free,
+vigorous, simple form, affording valuable glimpses backwards
+at the primitive condition of unfettered Indo-European talk&rdquo;
+(Whitney). Of especial interest in this respect are the numerous
+myths and legends scattered through these works. From the
+archaic style in which these mythological tales are usually
+composed, as well as from the fact that not a few of them are
+found in Br&#257;hma&#7751;as of different schools and Vedas, though often
+with considerable variations, it seems pretty evident that the
+groundwork of them must go back to times preceding the composition
+or final redaction of the existing Br&#257;hma&#7751;as. In the
+case of some of these legends&mdash;as those of &#346;una&#7717;-&#346;epha, and
+the fetching of Soma from heaven&mdash;we can even see how they
+have grown out of germs contained in some of the Vedic hymns.
+If the literary style in which the exegetic discussion of the texts
+and rites is carried on in the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as is, as a rule, of a very
+bald and uninviting nature, it must be borne in mind that these
+treatises are of a strictly professional and esoteric character,
+and in no way lay claim to being considered as literary compositions
+in any sense of the word. And yet, notwithstanding
+the general emptiness of their ritualistic discussions and mystic
+speculations, &ldquo;there are passages in the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as full of
+genuine thought and feeling, and most valuable as pictures of
+life, and as records of early struggles, which have left no trace
+in the literature of other nations&rdquo; (M. Müller).</p>
+
+<p>The chief interest, however, attaching to the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as is
+doubtless their detailed description of the sacrificial system as
+practised in the later Vedic ages; and the information afforded
+by them in this respect should be all the more welcome to us,
+as the history of religious institutions knows of no other sacrificial
+ceremonial with the details of which we are acquainted
+to anything like the same extent. An even more complete and
+minutely detailed view of the sacrificial system is no doubt
+obtained from the ceremonial manuals, the Kalpa-s&#363;tras; but
+it is just by the speculative discussions of the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as&mdash;the
+mystic significance and symbolical colouring with which
+they invest single rites&mdash;that we gain a real insight into the
+nature and gradual development of this truly stupendous
+system of ritual worship.</p>
+
+<p>The sacrificial ritual recognizes two kinds of <i>&#347;rauta</i> sacrifices,
+viz. <i>haviryajnas</i> (meat-offerings), consisting of oblations (<i>ishti</i>)
+of milk, butter, cereals or flesh, and <i>somay&#257;gas</i> or oblations of the
+juice of the soma plant. The setting up, by a householder, of a
+set of three sacrificial fires of his own constitutes the first ceremony
+of the former class, the <i>Agny-&#257;dh&#257;na</i> (or (?) <i>Agny-&#257;dheya</i>).
+The first of the three fires laid down is the <i>g&#257;rhapatya</i>, or householder&rsquo;s
+fire, so called because, though not taken from his
+ordinary house-fire, but as a rule specially produced by friction,
+it serves for cooking the sacrificial food, and thus, as it were,
+represents the domestic fire. From it the other two fires, the
+<i>&#257;navan&#299;ya</i>, or offering fire, and the <i>dakshi&#7751;&#257;gni</i>, or southern fire,
+used for certain special purposes, are taken. The principal other
+ceremonies of this class are the new and full moon offerings, the
+oblations made at the commencement of the three seasons, the
+offering of first-fruits, the animal sacrifice, and the <i>Agnihotra</i>, or
+daily morning and evening oblation of milk, which, however, is
+also included amongst the <i>g&#7771;ihya</i>, or domestic rites, as having to
+be performed daily on the domestic fire by the householder who
+keeps no regular set of sacrificial fires.</p>
+
+<p>Of a far more complicated nature than these offerings are the
+Soma-sacrifices, which, besides the simpler ceremonies of this
+class, such as the <i>Agnishtoma</i> or &ldquo;Praise of Agni,&rdquo; also include
+great state functions, such as the <i>Räjas&#363;ya</i> or consecration of a
+king, and the <i>A&#347;vamedha</i> or horse-sacrifice, which, in addition to
+the sacrificial rites, have a considerable amount of extraneous,
+often highly interesting, ceremonial connected with them, which
+makes them seem to partake largely of the nature of public
+festivals. Whilst the oblations of Soma-juice, made thrice on
+each offering-day, amidst chants and recitations, constitute the
+central rites of those services, their ritual also requires numerous
+single oblations of the <i>ishti</i> kind, including at least three animal
+offerings, and in some cases the immolation of many hecatombs
+of victims. Moreover, a necessary preliminary to every Soma-sacrifice
+is the construction, in five layers, of a special fire-altar of
+large dimensions, consisting of thousands of bricks, formed and
+baked on the spot, to each, or each group, of which a special
+symbolic meaning is attached. The building of this altar is
+spread over a whole year, during which period the sacrificer has
+to carry about the sacrificial fire in an earthen pan for at least
+some time each day, until it is finally deposited on the completed
+altar to serve as the offering-fire for the Soma oblations. The
+altar itself is constructed in the form of a bird, because Soma was
+supposed to have been brought down from heaven by the metre
+G&#257;yatr&#299; which had assumed the form of an eagle. Whilst the
+Soma-sacrifice has been thus developed by the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as in
+an extraordinary degree, its essential identity with the Avestan
+Haoma-cult shows that its origin goes back at all events to the
+Indo-Iranian period.</p>
+
+<p>Among the symbolic conceits in which the authors of the
+Br&#257;hma&#7751;as so freely indulge, there is one overshadowing all
+others&mdash;if indeed they do not all more or less enter into it&mdash;which
+may be considered as the sum and substance of these
+speculations, and the esoteric doctrine of the sacrifice, involved
+by the Br&#257;hmanical ritualists. This is what may conveniently
+be called the Praj&#257;pati theory, by which the &ldquo;Lord of Creatures,&rdquo;
+the efficient cause of the universe, is identified with both the
+sacrifice (<i>yajna</i>) and the sacrificer (<i>yajam&#257;na</i>). The origin of this
+theory goes back to the later Vedic hymns. In the so-called
+Purusha-s&#363;kta (<i>&#7770;igv.</i> x. 90) in which the supreme spirit is conceived
+of as <i>the</i> person or man (<i>purusha</i>), born in the beginning,
+and consisting of &ldquo;whatever hath been and whatever shall be,&rdquo;
+the creation of the visible and invisible universe is represented as
+originating from an &ldquo;all-offered&rdquo; (holocaust) sacrifice in which
+the Purusha himself forms the offering-material (<i>havis</i>), or, as
+we might say, the victim. In this primeval, or rather timeless
+because ever-proceeding, sacrifice, time itself, in the shape of its
+unit the year, is made to take its part, inasmuch as the three
+seasons&mdash;spring, summer and autumn&mdash;of which it consists,
+constitute the ghee (clarified butter), the offering-fuel and the
+oblation respectively. These speculations may be said to have
+formed the foundation on which the theory of the sacrifice, as
+propounded in the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as, has been reared. Praj&#257;pati&mdash;who
+(probably for practical considerations, as better representing
+the sacrificer, the earthly ruler, or &ldquo;lord of the creatures&rdquo;)
+here takes the place of the Purusha, the world-man or all-embracing
+personality&mdash;is offered up anew in every sacrifice;
+and inasmuch as the very dismemberment of the lord of
+creatures, which took place at that archtypal sacrifice, was in
+itself the creation of the universe, so every sacrifice is also a
+repetition of that first creative act. Thus the periodical sacrifice
+is nothing else than a microcosmic representation of the ever-proceeding
+destruction and renewal of all cosmic life and matter.
+The ritualistic theologians, however, go an important step
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span>
+further by identifying Praj&#257;pati with the performer, or patron,
+of the sacrifice, the sacrificer; every sacrifice thus becoming
+invested&mdash;in addition to its cosmic significance&mdash;with the mystic
+power of regenerating the sacrificer by cleansing him of all guilt
+and securing for him a seat in the eternal abodes.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst forming the central feature of the ritualistic symbolism,
+this triad&mdash;Praj&#257;pati, sacrifice (oblation, victim), sacrificer&mdash;is
+extended in various ways. An important collateral identification
+is that of Praj&#257;pati (and the sacrificer) with Agni, the god of fire,
+embodied not only in the offering-fire, but also in the sacred
+Soma-altar, the technical name of which is <i>agni</i>. For this reason
+the altar, as representative of the universe, is built in five layers,
+representing earth, air and heaven, and the intermediate regions;
+and in the centre of the altar-site, below the first layer, on a
+circular gold plate (the sun), a small golden man (<i>purusha</i>) is laid
+down with his face looking upwards. This is Praj&#257;pati, and the
+sacrificer, who when regenerated will pass upwards through the
+three worlds to the realms of light, naturally perforated bricks
+being for this purpose placed in the middle of the three principal
+altar-layers. One of the fourteen sections of the &#346;atapatha-br&#257;hmana,
+the tenth, called <i>Agni-rahasya</i> or &ldquo;the mystery of
+Agni (the god and altar),&rdquo; is entirely devoted to this feature of
+the sacrificial symbolism. Similarly the sacrificer, as the human
+representatiye of the Lord of Creatures, is identified with Soma
+(as the supreme oblation), with Time, and finally with Death: by
+the sacrificer thus becoming Death himself, the fell god ceases to
+have power over him and he is assured of everlasting life. And
+now we get the Supreme Lord in his last aspect; nay, his one
+true and real aspect, in which the sacrificer, on shuffling off this
+mortal coil, will himself come to share&mdash;that of pure intellectuality,
+pure spirituality&mdash;he is Mind: such is the ultimate source
+of being, the one Self, the Purusha, the Brahman. As the sum
+total of the wisdom propounded in the mystery of Agni, the
+searcher after truth is exhorted to meditate on that Self, made up
+of intelligence, endowed with a body of spirit, a form of light,
+and of an ethereal nature; holding sway over all the regions and
+pervading this All, being itself speechless and devoid of mental
+states; and by so doing he shall gain the assurance that &ldquo;even
+as a grain of rice, or the smallest granule of millet, so is the
+golden Purusha in my heart; even as a smokeless light, it is
+greater than the sky, greater than the ether, greater than the
+earth, greater than all existing things;&mdash;that Self of the Spirit
+is my Self; on passing away from hence, I shall obtain that
+Self. And, verily, whosoever has this trust, for him there is no
+uncertainty.&rdquo;</p>
+<div class="author">(J. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHMANISM,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a term commonly used to denote a system of
+religious institutions originated and elaborated by the <i>Br&#257;hmans</i>,
+the sacerdotal and, from an early period, the dominant caste of
+the Hindu community (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar27">Brahman</a></span>). In like manner, as the
+language of the &#256;ryan Hind&#363;s has undergone continual processes
+of modification and dialectic division, so their religious belief
+has passed through various stages of development broadly
+distinguished from one another by certain prominent features.
+The earliest phases of religious thought in India of which a clear
+idea can now be formed are exhibited in a body of writings,
+looked upon by later generations in the light of sacred writ,
+under the collective name of <i>Veda</i> (&ldquo;knowledge&rdquo;) or <i>&#346;ruti</i>
+(&ldquo;revelation&rdquo;). The Hind&#363; scriptures consist of four separate
+collections, or <i>Samhit&#257;s</i>, of sacred texts, or <i>mantras</i>, including
+hymns, incantations and sacrificial forms of prayer,
+viz. the <i>&#7770;ich</i> (nom. sing. <i>&#7771;ik</i>) or <i>&#7770;igveda</i>, the <i>S&#257;man</i> or
+<i>S&#257;maveda</i>, the <i>Yajus</i> or <i>Yajurveda</i>, and the <i>Atharvan</i> or
+<i>Atharvaveda</i>. Each of these four text-books has attached
+to it a body of prose writings, called <i>Br&#257;hma&#7751;as</i> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#ar28">Br&#257;hma&#7751;a</a></span>), intended to explain the ceremonial application of
+the texts and the origin and import of the sacrificial rites for
+which these were supposed to have been composed. Usually
+attached to these works, and in some cases to the Sa&#7747;hit&#257;s,
+are two kinds of appendages, the &#256;ra&#7751;yakas and Upanishads,
+the former of which deal generally with the more recondite
+rites, while the latter are taken up chiefly with speculations on
+the problems of the universe and the religious aims of man&mdash;subjects
+often touched upon in the earlier writings, but here
+dealt with in a more mature and systematic way. Two of the
+<i>Sa&#7747;hit&#257;s</i>, the <i>S&#257;man</i> and the <i>Yajus</i>, owing their
+existence to purely ritual purposes, and being, besides, the one almost
+entirely, the other partly, composed of verses taken from the
+<i>&#7770;igveda</i>, are only of secondary importance for our present inquiry.
+The hymns of the <i>&#7770;igveda</i> constitute the earliest lyrical effusions
+of the &#256;ryan settlers in India which have been handed down
+to posterity. They are certainly not all equally old; on the
+contrary they evidently represent the literary activity of many
+generations of bards, though their relative age cannot as yet be
+determined with anything like certainty. The tenth (and last)
+book of the collection, however, at any rate has all the characteristics
+of a later appendage, and in language and spirit many of
+its hymns approach very nearly to the level of the contents of
+the <i>Atharvan</i>. Of the latter collection about one-sixth is found
+also in the <i>&#7770;igveda</i>, and especially in the tenth book; the
+larger portion peculiar to it, though including no doubt some
+older pieces, appears to owe its origin to an age not long anterior
+to the composition of the <i>Br&#257;hma&#7751;as</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The state of religious thought among the ancient bards, as reflected
+in the hymns of the <i>&#7770;igveda</i>, is that of a worship of the
+grand and striking phenomena of nature regarded in the light
+of personal conscious beings, endowed with a power beyond the
+control of man, though not insensible to his praises and actions.
+It is a nature worship purer than that met with in any other
+polytheistic form of belief we are acquainted with&mdash;a mythology
+still comparatively little affected by those systematizing
+tendencies which, in a less simple and primitive state of thought,
+lead to the construction of a well-ordered pantheon and a regular
+organization of divine government. To the mind of the early
+Vedic worshipper the various departments of the surrounding
+nature are not as yet clearly defined, and the functions which he
+assigns to their divine representatives continually flow into one
+another. Nor has he yet learned to care to determine the
+relative worth and position of the objects of his adoration;
+but the temporary influence of the phenomenon to which he
+addresses his praises bears too strongly upon his mind to allow
+him for the time to consider the claims of rival powers to which
+at other times he is wont to look up with equal feelings of awe
+and reverence. It is this immediateness of impulse under which
+the human mind in its infancy strives to give utterance to its
+emotions that imparts to many of its outpourings the ring of
+monotheistic fervour.</p>
+
+<p>The generic name given to these impersonations, viz. <i>deva</i>
+(&ldquo;the shining ones&rdquo;), points to the conclusion, sufficiently
+justified by the nature of the more prominent objects of Vedic
+adoration as well as by common natural occurrences, that it
+was the striking phenomena of light which first and most
+powerfully swayed the &#256;ryan mind. In the primitive worship of the
+manifold phenomena of nature it is not, of course, so much their
+physical aspect that impresses the human heart as the moral and
+intellectual forces which are supposed to move and animate
+them. The attributes and relations of some of the Vedic deities,
+in accordance with the nature of the objects they represent,
+partake in a high degree of this spiritual element; but it is not
+improbable that in an earlier phase of &#256;ryan worship the religious
+conceptions were pervaded by it to a still greater and more
+general extent, and that the Vedic belief, though retaining
+many of the primitive features, has on the whole assumed a
+more sensuous and anthropomorphic character. This latter
+element is especially predominant in the attributes and imagery
+applied by the Vedic poets to <i>Indra</i>, the god of the
+atmospheric region, the favourite figure in their pantheon.</p>
+
+<p>While the representatives of the prominent departments of
+nature appear to the Vedic bard as co-existing in a state of
+independence of one another, their relation to the mortal worshipper
+being the chief subject of his anxiety, a simple method of
+classification was already resorted to at an early time, consisting
+in a triple division of the deities into gods residing in the sky, in
+the air, and on earth. It is not, however, until a later stage,&mdash;the
+first clear indication being conveyed in a passage of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span>
+tenth book of the <i>&#7770;igveda</i>&mdash;that this attempt at a polytheistic
+system is followed up by the promotion of one particular god
+to the dignity of chief guardian for each of these three regions.
+On the other hand, a tendency is clearly traceable in some of
+the hymns towards identifying gods whose functions present a
+certain degree of similarity of nature; attempts which would
+seem to show a certain advance of religious reflection, the first
+steps from polytheism towards a comprehension of the unity
+of the divine essence. Another feature of the old Vedic worship
+tended to a similar result. The great problems of the origin and
+existence of man and the universe had early begun to engage
+the Hind&#363; mind; and in celebrating the praises of the gods the
+poet was frequently led by his religious, and not wholly
+disinterested, zeal to attribute to them cosmical functions of the
+very highest order. At a later stage of thought, chiefly exhibited
+in the tenth book of the <i>&#7770;igveda</i> and in the <i>Atharvaveda</i>,
+inquiring sages could not but perceive the inconsistency of such
+concessions of a supremacy among the divine rulers, and tried to solve the
+problem by conceptions of an independent power, endowed with
+all the attributes of a supreme deity, the creator of the universe,
+including the gods of the pantheon. The names under which
+this monotheistic idea is put forth are mostly of an attributive
+character, and indeed some of them, such as <i>Praj&#257;pati</i> (&ldquo;lord
+of creatures&rdquo;), <i>Vi&#347;vakarman</i> (&ldquo;all-worker&rdquo;), occur in the earlier
+hymns as mere epithets of particular gods. But to other minds
+this theory of a personal creator left many difficulties unsolved.
+They saw, as the poets of old had seen, that everything around
+them, that man himself, was directed by some inward agent;
+and it needed but one step to perceive the essential sameness of
+these spiritual units, and to recognize their being but so many
+individual manifestations of one universal principle or spiritual
+essence. Thus a pantheistic conception was arrived at, put
+forth under various names, such as <i>Purusha</i> (&ldquo;soul&rdquo;), <i>K&#257;ma</i>
+(&ldquo;desire&rdquo;), <i>Brahman</i> (neutr.; nom. sing. <i>bráhma</i>) (&ldquo;devotion,
+prayer&rdquo;). Metaphysical and theosophic speculations were thus
+fast undermining the simple belief in the old gods, until, at the
+time of the composition of the <i>Br&#257;hmanas</i> and <i>Upanishads</i>, we
+find them in complete possession of the minds of the theologians.
+Whilst the theories crudely suggested in the later hymns are now
+further matured and elaborated, the tendency towards catholicity
+of formula favours the combination of the conflicting monotheistic
+and pantheistic conceptions; this compromise, which makes
+<i>Praj&#257;pati</i>, the personal creator of the world, the manifestation
+of the impersonal <i>Brahma</i>, the universal self-existent soul, leads
+to the composite pantheistic system which forms the characteristic
+dogma of the Br&#257;hmanical period (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar27">Brahman</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the Vedic hymns two classes of society, the royal (or
+military) and the priestly classes, were evidently recognized as
+being raised above the level of the <i>Vi&#347;</i>, or bulk of the &#256;ryan
+community. These social grades seem to have been in existence
+even before the separation of the two Asiatic branches of the
+Indo-Germanic race, the &#256;ryans of Iran and India. It is true that,
+although the <i>Athrava, Ratha&#275;st&#257;o</i>, and <i>V&#257;&#347;trya</i>
+of the <i>Zend Avesta</i> correspond in position and occupation to the
+<i>Br&#257;hman, R&#257;jan</i> and <i>Vi&#347;</i> of the Veda, there is no
+similarity of names between them; but this fact only shows that the common
+vocabulary had not yet definitely fixed on any specific names
+for these classes. Even in the Veda their nomenclature is by no
+means limited to a single designation for each of them. Moreover,
+<i>Atharvan</i> occurs not infrequently in the hymns as the
+personification of the priestly profession, as the proto-priest who
+is supposed to have obtained fire from heaven and to have
+instituted the rite of sacrifice; and although <i>ratheshtha</i>
+(&ldquo;standing on a car&rdquo;) is not actually found in connexion with the
+<i>R&#257;jan</i> or <i>Kshatriya</i>, its synonym <i>rathin</i> is in later
+literature a not unusual epithet of men of the military caste. At the time
+of the hymns, and even during the common Indo-Persian
+period, the sacrificial ceremonial had already become sufficiently
+complicated to call for the creation of a certain number of
+distinct priestly offices with special duties attached to them.
+While this shows clearly that the position and occupation of the priest
+were those of a profession, the fact that the terms <i>br&#257;hma&#7751;a</i>
+and <i>brahmaputra</i>, both denoting &ldquo;the son of a brahman,&rdquo; are
+used in certain hymns as synonyms of <i>brahman</i>, seems to justify
+the assumption that the profession had already, to a certain
+degree, become hereditary at the time when these hymns were
+composed. There is, however, with the exception of a solitary
+passage in a hymn of the last book, no trace to be found in the
+<i>&#7770;igveda</i> of that rigid division into four castes separated from
+one another by insurmountable barriers, which in later times
+constitutes the distinctive feature of Hind&#363; society. The idea
+of caste is expressed by the Sanskrit term <i>varna</i>, originally
+denoting &ldquo;colour,&rdquo; thereby implying differences of complexion
+between the several classes. The word occurs in the Veda in the
+latter sense, but it is used there to mark the distinction, not
+between the three classes of the &#256;ryan community, but between
+them on the one hand and a dark-coloured hostile people on the
+other. The latter, called D&#257;sas or Dasyus, consisted, no doubt,
+of the indigenous tribes, with whom the &#256;ryans had to carry
+on a continual struggle for the possession of the land. The
+partial subjection of these comparatively uncivilized tribes as
+the rule of the superior race was gradually spreading eastward,
+and their submission to a state of serfdom under the name of
+<i>&#346;&#363;dras</i>, added to the &#256;ryan community an element, totally
+separated from it by colour, by habits, by language, and by
+occupation. Moreover, the religious belief of these tribes
+being entirely different from that of the conquering people, the
+pious &#256;ryas, and especially the class habitually engaged in acts
+of worship, could hardly fail to apprehend considerable danger
+to the purity of their own faith from too close and intimate a
+contact between the two races. What more natural, therefore,
+than that measures should have been early devised to limit the
+intercourse between them within as narrow bounds as possible?
+In course of time the difference of vocation, and the greater or
+less exposure to the scorching influence of the tropical sky,
+added, no doubt, to a certain admixture of &#346;&#363;dra blood, especially
+in the case of the common people, seem to have produced also
+in the &#256;ryan population different shades of complexion, which
+greatly favoured a tendency to rigid class-restrictions originally
+awakened and continually fed by the lot of the servile race.
+Meanwhile the power of the sacerdotal order having been
+gradually enlarged in proportion to the development of the
+minutiae of sacrificial ceremonial and the increase of sacred lore,
+they began to lay claim to supreme authority in regulating
+and controlling the religious and social life of the people. The
+author of the so-called <i>Purusha-s&#363;kta</i>, or hymn of Purusha,
+above referred to, represents the four castes&mdash;the <i>Br&#257;hma&#7751;a,
+Kshatriya, Vai&#347;ya</i> and <i>&#346;&#363;dra</i>&mdash;as having severally sprung
+respectively from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and the feet
+of Purusha, a primary being, here assumed to be the source of
+the universe. It is very doubtful, however, whether at the
+time when this hymn was composed the relative position of the
+two upper castes could already have been settled in so decided
+a way as this theory might lead one to suppose. There is, on
+the contrary, reason to believe that some time had yet to elapse,
+marked by fierce and bloody struggles for supremacy, of which
+only imperfect ideas can be formed from the legendary and
+frequently biased accounts of later generations, before the
+Kshatriyas finally submitted to the full measure of priestly authority.</p>
+
+<p>The definitive establishment of the Br&#257;hmanical hierarchy
+marks the beginning of the Br&#257;hmanical period properly so
+called. Though the origin and gradual rise of some of the
+leading institutions of this era can, as has been shown, be
+traced in the earlier writings, the chain of their development
+presents a break at this juncture which no satisfactory materials
+as yet enable us to fill up. A considerable portion of the literature
+of this time has apparently been lost; and several important works,
+the original composition of which has probably to be assigned to the
+early days of Br&#257;hmanism, such as the institutes of Manu and the
+two great epics, the <i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i> and <i>R&#257;m&#257;yana</i>,
+in the form in which they have been handed down to us, show
+manifest traces of a more modern redaction. Yet it is sufficiently
+clear from internal evidence that Manu&rsquo;s Code of Laws, though
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span>
+merely a metrical recast of older materials, reproduces on the
+whole pretty faithfully the state of Hind&#363; society depicted in
+the sources from which it was compiled. The final overthrow
+of the Kshatriya power was followed by a period of jealous
+legislation on the part of the Br&#257;hmans. For a time their chief
+aim would doubtless be to improve their newly gained vantage-ground
+by surrounding everything relating to their order with
+a halo of sanctity calculated to impress the lay community
+with feelings of awe. In the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as and even in the Purusha
+Hymn, and the Atharvan, divine origin had already been
+ascribed to the Vedic <i>Sa&#7747;hit&#257;s</i>, especially to the three older
+collections. The same privilege was now successfully claimed
+for the later Vedic literature, so imbued with Br&#257;hmanic aspirations
+and pretensions; and the authority implied in the designation
+of <i>&#346;ruti</i> or revelation removed henceforth the whole body of
+sacred writings from the sphere of doubt and criticism. This
+concession necessarily involved an acknowledgment of the new
+social order as a divine institution. Its stability was, however,
+rendered still more secure by the elaboration of a system of
+conventional precepts, partly forming the basis of Manu&rsquo;s Code,
+which clearly defined the relative position and the duties of the
+several castes, and determined the penalties to be inflicted on
+any transgressions of the limits assigned to each of them. These
+laws are conceived with no sentimental scruples on the part of
+their authors. On the contrary, the offences committed by
+Br&#257;hmans against other castes are treated with remarkable
+clemency, whilst the punishments inflicted for trespasses on the
+rights of higher classes are the more severe and inhuman the
+lower the offender stands in the social scale.</p>
+
+<p>The three first castes, however unequal to each other in
+privilege and social standing, are yet united by a common bond
+of sacramental rites (<i>sa&#7747;sk&#257;ras</i>), traditionally connected from
+ancient times with certain incidents and stages in the life of the
+&#256;ryan Hind&#363;, as conception, birth, name-giving, the first taking
+out of the child to see the sun, the first feeding with boiled rice,
+the rites of tonsure and hair-cutting, the youth&rsquo;s investiture
+with the sacrificial thread, and his return home on completing
+his studies, marriage, funeral, &amp;c. The modes of observing
+these family rites are laid down in a class of writings called
+<i>G&#7771;ihya-s&#363;tras</i>, or domestic rules. The most important of these
+observances is the <i>upanayana</i>, or rite of conducting the boy to a
+spiritual teacher. Connected with this act is the investiture
+with the sacred cord, ordinarily worn over the left shoulder and
+under the right arm, and varying in material according to the
+class of the wearer. This ceremony being the preliminary act
+to the youth&rsquo;s initiation into the study of the Veda, the management
+of the consecrated fire and the knowledge of the rites of purification,
+including the <i>s&#257;vitr&#299;</i>, a solemn invocation to <i>Savit&#7771;i</i>,
+the sun (probl. Saturnus),&mdash;as a rule the verse <i>&#7770;igv</i>. iii. 62. 10,
+also called <i>g&#257;yatr&#299;</i> from the metre in which it is composed&mdash;which
+has to be repeated every morning and evening before the rise
+and after the setting of that luminary, is supposed to constitute
+the second or spiritual birth of the &#256;rya. It is from their
+participation in this rite that the three upper classes are called
+the twice-born. The ceremony is enjoined to take place some
+time between the eighth and sixteenth year of age in the case
+of a Br&#257;hman, between the eleventh and twenty-second year of a
+Kshatriya, and between the twelfth and twenty-fourth year of a
+Vai&#347;ya. He who has not been invested with the mark of his
+class within this time is for ever excluded from uttering the
+sacred <i>s&#257;vitr&#299;</i> and becomes an outcast, unless he is absolved
+from his sin by a council of Br&#257;hmans, and after due performance
+of a purificatory rite resumes the badge of his caste. With one
+not duly initiated no righteous man is allowed to associate or
+to enter into connexions of affinity. The duty of the &#346;udra
+is to serve the twice-born classes, and above all the Br&#257;hmans.
+He is excluded from all sacred knowledge, and if he performs
+sacrificial ceremonies he must do so without using holy mantras.
+No Br&#257;hman must recite a Vedic text where a man of the servile
+caste might overhear him, nor must he even teach him the laws
+of expiating sin. The occupations of the Vai&#347;ya are those
+connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding
+of cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and
+defending the people, administering justice, and the duties of
+the military profession generally. Both share with the Br&#257;hman
+the privilege of reading the Veda, but only so far as it is taught
+and explained to them by their spiritual preceptor. To the
+Br&#257;hman belongs the right of teaching and expounding the
+sacred texts, and also that of interpreting and determining the
+law and the rules of caste. Only in exceptional cases, when no
+teacher of the sacerdotal class is within reach, the twice-born
+youth, rather than forego spiritual instruction altogether, may
+reside in the house of a non-Br&#257;hmanical preceptor; but
+it is specially enjoined that a pupil, who seeks the path to
+heaven, should not fail, as soon as circumstances permit,
+to resort to a Br&#257;hman well versed in the Vedas and their
+appendages.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the barriers placed between the four castes,
+the practice of intermarrying appears to have been too prevalent
+in early times to have admitted of measures of so stringent a
+nature as wholly to repress it. To marry a woman of a higher
+caste, and especially of a caste not immediately above one&rsquo;s
+own, is, however, decidedly prohibited, the offspring resulting
+from such a union being excluded from the performance of the
+<i>&#347;r&#257;ddha</i> or obsequies to the ancestors, and thereby rendered
+incapable of inheriting any portion of the parents&rsquo; property.
+On the other hand, a man is at liberty, according to the rules of
+Manu, to marry a girl of any or each of the castes below his own,
+provided he has besides a wife belonging to his own class, for
+only such a one should perform the duties of personal attendance
+and religious observance devolving upon a married woman.
+As regards the children born from unequal marriages of this
+description, they have the rights and duties of the twice-born,
+if their mother belong to a twice-born caste, otherwise they,
+like the offspring of the former class of intermarriages, share the
+lot of the &#346;&#363;dra, and are excluded from the investiture and the
+<i>s&#257;vitr&#299;</i>. For this last reason the marriage of a twice-born man
+with a &#346;&#363;dra woman is altogether discountenanced by some of
+the later law books. At the time of the code of Manu the intermixture
+of the classes had already produced a considerable
+number of intermediate or mixed castes, which were carefully
+defined, and each of which had a specific occupation assigned to it
+as its hereditary profession.</p>
+
+<p>The self-exaltation of the first class was not, it would seem,
+altogether due to priestly arrogance and ambition; but, like a
+prominent feature of the post-Vedic belief, the transmigration
+of souls, it was, if not the necessary, yet at least a natural
+consequence of the pantheistic doctrine. To the Br&#257;hmanical
+speculator who saw in the numberless individual existences of
+animate nature but so many manifestations of the one eternal
+spirit, to union with which they were all bound to tend as their
+final goal of supreme bliss, the greater or less imperfection of the
+material forms in which they were embodied naturally presented
+a continuous scale of spiritual units from the lowest degradation
+up to the absolute purity and perfection of the supreme spirit.
+To prevent one&rsquo;s sinking yet lower, and by degrees to raise one&rsquo;s
+self in this universal gradation, or, if possible, to attain the
+ultimate goal immediately from any state of corporeal existence,
+there was but one way&mdash;subjection of the senses, purity of life
+and knowledge of the deity. &ldquo;He&rdquo; (thus ends the code of Manu)
+&ldquo;who in his own soul perceives the supreme soul in all beings
+and acquires equanimity toward them all, attains the highest
+state of bliss.&rdquo; Was it not natural then that the men who,
+if true to their sacred duties, were habitually engaged in what
+was most conducive to these spiritual attainments, that the
+Br&#257;hmanical class early learnt to look upon themselves, even as
+a matter of faith, as being foremost among the human species
+in this universal race for final beatitude? The life marked out
+for them by that stern theory of class duties which they themselves
+had worked out, and which, no doubt, must have been
+practised in early times at least in some degree, was by no means
+one of ease and amenity. It was, on the contrary, singularly
+calculated to promote that complete mortification of the instincts
+of animal nature which they considered as indispensable to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span>
+final deliverance from <i>sa&#7747;s&#257;ra</i>, the revolution of bodily and
+personal existence.</p>
+
+<p>The pious Br&#257;hman, longing to attain the <i>summum bonum</i> on the
+dissolution of his frail body, was enjoined to pass through a succession
+of four orders or stages of life, viz. those of <i>brahmach&#257;rin</i>,
+or religious student; <i>g&#7771;ihastha</i> (or <i>g&#7771;ihamedhin</i>), or
+householder; <i>vanav&#257;sin</i> (or <i>v&#257;naprastha</i>), or anchorite;
+and <i>sanny&#257;sin</i> (or <i>bhikshu</i>), or religious mendicant.
+Theoretically this course of life was open and even recommended to every
+twice-born man, his distinctive class-occupations being in that
+case restricted to the second station, or that of married life.
+Practically, however, those belonging to the Kshatriya and
+Vai&#347;ya castes were, no doubt, contented, with few exceptions,
+to go through a term of studentship in order to obtain a certain
+amount of religious instruction before entering into the married
+state, and plying their professional duties. In the case of the
+sacerdotal class, the practice probably was all but universal in
+early times; but gradually a more and more limited proportion
+even of this caste seem to have carried their religious zeal to the
+length of self-mortification involved in the two final stages.
+On the youth having been invested with the badge of his caste,
+he was to reside for some time in the house of some religious
+teacher, well read in the Veda, to be instructed in the knowledge
+of the scriptures and the scientific or theoretic treatises attached
+to them, in the social duties of his caste, and in the complicated
+system of purificatory and sacrificial rites. According to the
+number of Vedas he intended to study, the duration of this
+period of instruction was to be, probably in the case of Br&#257;hmanical
+students chiefly, of from twelve to forty-eight years;
+during which time the virtues of modesty, duty, temperance
+and self-control were to be firmly implanted in the youth&rsquo;s
+mind by his unremitting observance of the most minute rules of
+conduct. During all this time the student had to subsist entirely
+on food obtained by begging from house to house; and his
+behaviour towards the preceptor and his family was to be that
+prompted by respectful attachment and implicit obedience. In
+the case of girls no investiture takes place, but for them the
+nuptial ceremony is considered as an equivalent to that rite.
+On quitting the teacher&rsquo;s abode, the young man returns to his
+family and takes a wife. To die without leaving legitimate offspring,
+and especially a son, capable of performing the periodical rite of
+obsequies (<i>&#347;r&#257;ddha</i>), consisting of offerings of water and
+balls of rice, to himself and his two immediate ancestors, is
+considered a great misfortune by the orthodox Hind&#363;. There
+are three sacred &ldquo;debts&rdquo; which a man has to discharge in life,
+viz. that which is due to the gods, and of which he acquits
+himself by daily worship and sacrificial rites; that due to the
+<i>&#7771;ishis</i>, or ancient sages and inspired seers of the Vedic texts,
+discharged by the daily study of the scripture; and the &ldquo;final
+debt&rdquo; which he owes to his <i>manes</i>, and of which he relieves
+himself by leaving a son. To these three some authorities add
+a fourth, viz. the debt owing to humankind, which demands
+his continually practising kindness and hospitality. Hence the
+necessity of a man&rsquo;s entering into the married state. When the
+bridegroom leads the bride from her father&rsquo;s house to his own
+home, and becomes a <i>g&#7771;iha-pa&#7789;i</i>, or householder, the fire which
+has been used for the marriage ceremony accompanies the
+couple to serve them as their <i>g&#257;rhapatya</i>, or domestic fire. It
+has to be kept up perpetually, day and night, either by themselves
+or their children, or, if the man be a teacher, by his pupils.
+If it should at any time become extinguished by neglect or
+otherwise, the guilt incurred thereby must be atoned for by an
+act of expiation. The domestic fire serves the family for preparing
+their food, for making the five necessary daily and other
+occasional offerings, and for performing the sacramental rites
+above alluded to. No food should ever be eaten that has not
+been duly consecrated by a portion of it being offered to the gods,
+the beings and the <i>manes</i>. These three daily offerings are also
+called by the collective name of <i>vai&#347;vadeva</i>, or sacrifice
+&ldquo;to all the deities.&rdquo; The remaining two are the offering to Brahm&#259;,
+<i>i.e.</i> the daily lecture of the scriptures, accompanied by certain
+rites, and that to men, consisting in the entertainment of guests.
+The domestic observances&mdash;many of them probably ancient
+&#256;ryan family customs, surrounded by the Hind&#363;s with a certain
+amount of adventitious ceremonial&mdash;were generally performed
+by the householder himself, with the assistance of his wife.
+There is, however, another class of sacrificial ceremonies of a
+more pretentious and expensive kind, called <i>&#347;rauta</i> rites, or rites
+based on <i>&#347;ritu</i>, or revelation, the performance of which, though
+not indispensable, were yet considered obligatory under certain
+circumstances (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar28">Br&#257;hma&#7751;a</a></span>). They formed a very powerful
+weapon in the hands of the priesthood, and were one of the chief
+sources of their subsistence. However great the religious merit
+accruing from these sacrificial rites, they were obviously a kind
+of luxury which only rich people could afford to indulge in.
+They constituted, as it were, a tax, voluntary perhaps, yet none
+the less compulsory, levied by the priesthood on the wealthy laity.</p>
+
+<p>When the householder is advanced in years, &ldquo;when he perceives
+his skin become wrinkled and his hair grey, when he sees
+the son of his son,&rdquo; the time is said to have come for him to
+enter the third stage of life. He should now disengage himself
+from all family ties&mdash;except that his wife may accompany him,
+if she chooses&mdash;and repair to a lonely wood, taking with him his
+sacred fires and the implements required for the daily and
+periodical offerings. Clad in a deer&rsquo;s skin, in a single piece of
+cloth, or in a bark garment, with his hair and nails uncut, the
+hermit is to subsist exclusively on food growing wild in the forest,
+such as roots, green herbs, and wild rice and grain. He must
+not accept gifts from any one, except of what may be absolutely
+necessary to maintain him; but with his own little hoard he
+should, on the contrary, honour, to the best of his ability, those
+who visit his hermitage. His time must be spent in reading the
+metaphysical treatises of the Veda, in making oblations, and in
+undergoing various kinds of privation and austerities, with a view
+to mortifying his passions and producing in his mind an entire
+indifference to worldly objects. Having by these means succeeded
+in overcoming all sensual affections and desires, and in
+acquiring perfect equanimity towards everything around him,
+the hermit has fitted himself for the final and most exalted order,
+that of devotee or religious mendicant. As such he has no further
+need of either mortifications or religious observances; but &ldquo;with
+the sacrificial fires reposited in his mind,&rdquo; he may devote the
+remainder of his days to meditating on the divinity. Taking up
+his abode at the foot of a tree in total solitude, &ldquo;with no
+companion but his own soul,&rdquo; clad in a coarse garment, he should
+carefully avoid injuring any creature or giving offence to any
+human being that may happen to come near him. Once a day,
+in the evening, &ldquo;when the charcoal fire is extinguished and the
+smoke no longer issues from the fire-places, when the pestle is
+at rest, when the people have taken their meals and the dishes
+are removed,&rdquo; he should go near the habitations of men, in
+order to beg what little food may suffice to sustain his feeble
+frame. Ever pure of mind he should thus bide his time, &ldquo;as a
+servant expects his wages,&rdquo; wishing neither for death nor for
+life, until at last his soul is freed from its fetters and absorbed
+in the eternal spirit, the impersonal self-existent Brahm&#259;.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency towards a comprehension of the unity of the
+divine essence had resulted in some minds, as has been remarked
+before, in a kind of monotheistic notion of the origin of the
+universe. In the literature of the Br&#257;hma&#7751;a period we meet
+with this conception as a common element of speculation;
+and so far from its being considered incompatible with the
+existence of a universal spirit, <i>Praj&#257;pati</i>, the personal
+creator of the world, is generally allowed a prominent place in the
+pantheistic theories. Yet the state of theological speculation,
+reflected in these writings, is one of transition. The general
+drift of thought is essentially pantheistic, but it is far from
+being reduced to a regular system, and the ancient form of belief
+still enters largely into it. The attributes of Praj&#257;pati, in the
+same way, have in them elements of a purely polytheistic nature,
+and some of the attempts at reconciling this new-fangled deity
+with the traditional belief are somewhat awkward. An ancient
+classification of the gods represented them as being thirty-three
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span>
+in number, eleven in each of the three worlds or regions of nature.
+These regions being associated each with the name of one principal
+deity, this division gave rise at a later time to the notion of a kind of
+triple divine government, consisting of <i>Agni</i> (fire), <i>Indra</i>
+sky) or <i>V&#257;yu</i> (wind), and <i>S&#363;rya</i> (sun), as presiding
+respectively over the gods on earth, in the atmosphere, and in the sky. Of
+this Vedic triad mention is frequently made in the Br&#257;hma&#7751;a writings.
+On the other hand the term <i>praj&#257;pati</i> (lord of creatures), which in
+the <i>&#7770;igveda</i> occurs as an epithet of the sun, is also once in the
+<i>Atharvaveda</i> applied jointly to Indra and Agni. In the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as
+Praj&#257;pati is several times mentioned as the thirty-fourth
+god; whilst in one passage he is called the fourth god, and made
+to rule over the three worlds. More frequently, however, the
+writings of this period represent him as the maker of the world
+and the father or creator of the gods. It is clear from this
+discordance of opinion on so important a point of doctrine, that at
+this time no authoritative system of belief had been agreed upon
+by the theologians. Yet there are unmistakable signs of a strong
+tendency towards constructing one, and it is possible that in
+yielding to it the Br&#257;hmans may have been partly prompted by
+political considerations. The definite settlement of the caste
+system and the Br&#257;hmanical supremacy must probably be assigned
+to somewhere about the close of the Br&#257;hma&#7751;a period.
+Division in their own ranks was hardly favourable to the aspirations
+of the priests at such a time; and the want of a distinct
+formula of belief adapted to the general drift of theological
+speculation, to which they could all rally, was probably felt the
+more acutely, the more determined a resistance the military
+class was likely to oppose to their claims. Side by side with the
+conception of the Brahm&#259;, the universal spiritual principle, with
+which speculative thought had already become deeply imbued,
+the notion of a supreme personal being, the author of the material
+creation, had come to be considered by many as a necessary
+complement of the pantheistic doctrine. But, owing perhaps to
+his polytheistic associations and the attributive nature of his
+name, the person of Praj&#257;pati seems to have been thought but
+insufficiently adapted to represent this abstract idea. The expedient
+resorted to for solving the difficulty was as ingenious as
+it was characteristic of the Br&#257;hmanical aspirations. In the
+same way as the abstract denomination of sacerdotalism, the
+neuter <i>brahm&#259;</i>, had come to express the divine essence, so the old
+designation of the individual priest, the masculine term <i>brahm&#257;</i>,
+was raised to denote the supreme personal deity which was to take
+the place and attributes of the Praj&#257;pati of the Br&#257;hma&#7751;as and
+Upanishads (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar27">Brahman</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>However the new dogma may have answered the purposes of
+speculative minds, it was not one in which the people generally
+were likely to have been much concerned; an abstract, colourless
+deity like Brahm&#257; could awake no sympathies in the hearts of
+those accustomed to worship gods of flesh and blood. Indeed,
+ever since the primitive symbolical worship of nature had undergone
+a process of disintegration under the influence of metaphysical
+speculation, the real belief of the great body of the
+people had probably become more and more distinct from
+that of the priesthood. In different localities the principal
+share of their affection may have been bestowed on one or another
+of the old gods who was thereby raised to the dignity of chief
+deity; or new forms and objects of belief may have sprung up
+with the intellectual growth of the people. In some cases even
+the worship of the indigenous population could hardly have
+remained without exercising some influence in modifying the
+belief of the &#256;ryan race. In this way a number of local deities
+would grow up, more or less distinct in name and characteristics
+from the gods of the Vedic pantheon. There is, indeed, sufficient
+evidence to show that, at a time when, after centuries of theological
+speculations, some little insight into the life and thought
+of the people is afforded by the literature handed down to us,
+such a diversity of worship did exist. Under these circumstances
+the policy which seems to have suggested itself to the priesthood,
+anxious to retain a firm hold on the minds of the people, was
+to recognize and incorporate into their system some of the most
+prominent objects of popular devotion, and thereby to establish
+a kind of catholic creed for the whole community subject to
+the Br&#257;hmanical law. At the time of the original composition of the
+great epics two such deities, <i>&#346;iva</i> or <i>Mah&#257;deva</i> (&ldquo;the
+great god&rdquo;) and <i>Vish&#7751;u</i>, seem to have been already admitted into
+the Br&#257;hmanical system, where they have ever since retained
+their place; and from the manner in which they are represented
+in those works, it would, indeed, appear that both, and especially
+the former, enjoyed an extensive worship. As several synonyms
+are attributed to each of them, it is not improbable that in some
+of these we have to recognize special names under which the
+people in different localities worshipped these gods, or deities
+of a similar nature which, by the agency of popular poetry,
+or in some other way, came to be combined with them. The
+places assigned to them in the pantheistic system were coordinate
+with that of Brahm&#257;; the three deities, <i>Brahm&#257;,
+Vishnu</i> and <i>&#346;iva</i>, were to represent a triple impersonation
+of the divinity, as manifesting itself respectively in the creation,
+preservation and destruction of the universe. &#346;iva does not occur
+in the Vedic hymns as the name of a god, but only as an adjective
+in the sense of &ldquo;kind, auspicious.&rdquo; One of his synonyms,
+however, is the name of a Vedic deity, the attributes and nature
+of which show a good deal of similarity to the post-Vedic god.
+This is <i>Rudra</i>, the god of the roaring storm, usually portrayed,
+in accordance with the element he represents, as a fierce, destructive
+deity, &ldquo;terrible as a wild beast,&rdquo; whose fearful arrows
+cause death and disease to men and cattle. He is also called
+<i>kapardin</i> (&ldquo;wearing his hair spirally braided like a shell&rdquo;),
+a word which in later times became one of the synonyms of
+&#346;iva. The <i>Atharvaveda</i> mentions several other names of the same
+god, some of which appear even placed together, as in one
+passage <i>Bhava, Sarva, Rudra</i> and <i>Pa&#347;upati</i>. Possibly some of
+them were the names under which one and the same deity was
+already worshipped in different parts of northern India. This
+was certainly the case in later times, since it is expressly stated
+in one of the later works of the Brahma&#7751;a period, that Sarva was
+used by the Eastern people and Bhava by a Western tribe.  It is also worthy
+of note that in the same work (the <i>&#346;atapatha-br&#257;hma&#7751;a</i>),
+composed at a time when the Vedic triad of Agni,
+Indra-V&#257;yu and S&#363;rya was still recognized, attempts are made
+to identify this god of many names with Agni; and that in one passage
+in the <i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i> it is stated that the Br&#257;hmans said
+that Agni was &#346;iva. Although such attempts at an identification
+of the two gods remained isolated, they would at least seem
+to point to the fact that, in adapting their speculations to the
+actual state of popular worship, the Br&#257;hmans kept the older
+triad distinctly in view, and by means of it endeavoured to bring
+their new structure into harmony with the ancient Vedic belief.
+It is in his character as destroyer that &#346;iva holds his place in the
+triad, and that he must, no doubt, be identified with the Vedic
+Rudra. Another very important function appears, however,
+to have been early assigned to him, on which much more stress
+is laid in his modern worship&mdash;that of destroyer being more
+especially exhibited in his consort&mdash;viz. the character of a
+generative power, symbolized in the phallic emblem (<i>linga</i>)
+and in the sacred bull (<i>Nandi</i>), the favourite attendant of the
+god. This feature being entirely alien from the nature of the
+Vedic god, it has been conjectured with some plausibility, that
+the <i>linga</i>-worship was originally prevalent among the
+non-&#256;ryan population, and was thence introduced into the worship
+of &#346;iva. On the other hand, there can, we think, be little doubt
+that &#346;iva, in his generative faculty, is the representative of
+another Vedic god whose nature and attributes go far to account
+for this particular feature of the modern deity, viz. <i>P&#363;shan</i>.
+This god, originally, no doubt, a solar deity, is frequently
+invoked, as the lord of nourishment, to bestow food, wealth
+and other blessings. He is once, jointly with Soma, called the
+progenitor of heaven and earth, and is connected with the
+marriage ceremony, where he is asked to lead the bride to the
+bridegroom and make her prosperous (<i>&#346;ivatam&#257;</i>). Moreover,
+he has the epithet <i>kapardin</i> (spirally braided), as have Rudra
+and the later &#346;iva, and is called <i>Pa&#347;upa</i>, or guardian of cattle,
+whence the latter derives his name <i>Pa&#347;upati</i>. But he is also a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span>
+strong, powerful, and even fierce and destructive god, who,
+with his goad or golden spear, smites the foes of his worshipper,
+and thus in this respect offers at least some points of similarity
+to Rudra, which may have favoured the fusion of the two gods.
+As regards <i>Vish&#7751;u</i>, this god occupies already a place in the
+Vedic mythology, though by no means one of such prominence
+as would entitle him to that degree of exaltation implied in his
+character as one of the three hypostases of the divinity. Moreover,
+although in his general nature, as a benevolent, genial
+being, the Vedic god corresponds on the whole to the later
+Vish&#7751;u, the preserver of the world, the latter exhibits many
+important features for which we look in vain in his prototype,
+and which most likely resulted from sectarian worship or from
+an amalgamation with local deities. In one or two of them,
+such as his names V&#257;sudeva and Vaikuntha, an attempt may
+again be traced to identify Vish&#7751;u with Indra, who, as we have
+seen, was one of the Vedic triad of gods. The characteristic
+feature of the elder Vish&#7751;u is his measuring the world with
+his three strides, which are explained as denoting either the
+three stations of the sun at the time of rising, culminating and
+setting, or the triple manifestation of the luminous element,
+as the fire on earth, the lightning in the atmosphere and the sun
+in the heavens.</p>
+
+<p>The male nature of the triad was supposed to require to be
+supplemented by each of the three gods being associated with a
+female energy (<i>&#346;akti</i>). Thus <i>V&#257;ch</i> or <i>Sarasvat&#299;</i>, the goddess of
+speech and learning, came to be regarded as the <i>&#347;akti</i>, or consort
+of Brahm&#257;; <i>&#346;r&#299;</i> or <i>Lakshm&#299;</i>, &ldquo;beauty, fortune,&rdquo; as that of
+Vish&#7751;u; and <i>Um&#257;</i> or <i>P&#257;rvat&#299;</i>, the daughter of <i>Himavat</i>, the god
+of the Him&#257;laya mountain, as that of &#346;iva. On the other hand,
+it is not improbable that <i>P&#257;rvat&#299;</i>&mdash;who has a variety of other
+names, such as <i>K&#257;l&#299;</i> (&ldquo;the black one&rdquo;), <i>Durg&#257;</i> (&ldquo;the inaccessible,
+terrible one&rdquo;), <i>M&#257;ha-dev&#299;</i> (&ldquo;the great goddess&rdquo;)&mdash;enjoyed
+already a somewhat extensive worship of her own, and that there
+may thus have been good reason for assigning to her a prominent
+place in the Br&#257;hmanical system.</p>
+
+<p>A compromise was thus effected between the esoteric doctrine
+of the metaphysician and some of the most prevalent forms of
+popular worship, resulting in what was henceforth to constitute
+the orthodox system of belief of the Br&#257;hmanical community.
+Yet the Vedic pantheon could not be altogether discarded,
+forming part and parcel, as it did, of that sacred revelation
+(<i>&#347;ruti</i>), which was looked upon as the divine source of all religious
+and social law (<i>sm&#7771;iti</i>, &ldquo;tradition&rdquo;), and being, moreover, the
+foundation of the sacrificial ceremonial on which the priestly
+authority so largely depended. The existence of the old gods is,
+therefore, likewise recognized, but recognized in a very different
+way from that of the triple divinity. For while the triad represents
+the immediate manifestation of the eternal, infinite soul&mdash;while
+it constitutes, in fact, the Brahm&#259; itself in its active relation
+to mundane and seemingly material occurrences, the old traditional
+gods are of this world, are individual spirits or portions of
+the Brahma like men and other creatures, only higher in degree.
+To them an intermediate sphere, the heaven of Indra (the
+<i>svarloka</i> or <i>svarga</i>), is assigned to which man may raise himself
+by fulfilling the holy ordinances; but they are subject to the same
+laws of being; they, like men, are liable to be born again in
+some lower state, and, therefore, like them, yearn for emancipation
+from the necessity of future individual existence. It is a
+sacred duty of man to worship these superior beings by invocations
+and sacrificial observances, as it is to honour the <i>pit&#7771;is</i>
+(&ldquo;the fathers&rdquo;), the spirits of the departed ancestors. The
+spirits of the dead, on being judged by <i>Yama</i>, the Pluto of Hind&#363;
+mythology, are supposed to be either passing through a term of
+enjoyment in a region midway between the earth and the heaven
+of the gods, or undergoing their measure of punishment in the
+nether world, situated somewhere in the southern region, before
+they return to the earth to animate new bodies. In Vedic
+mythology Yama was considered to have been the first mortal
+who died, and &ldquo;espied the way to&rdquo; the celestial abodes, and in
+virtue of precedence to have become the ruler of the departed;
+in some passages, however, he is already regarded as the god of
+death. Although the pantheistic system allowed only a subordinate
+rank to the old gods, and the actual religious belief of
+the people was probably but little affected by their existence,
+they continued to occupy an important place in the affections of
+the poet, and were still represented as exercising considerable
+influence on the destinies of man. The most prominent of them
+were regarded as the appointed <i>Lokap&#257;las</i>, or guardians of the
+world; and as such they were made to preside over the four
+cardinal and (according to some authorities) the intermediate
+points of the compass. Thus <i>Indra</i>, the chief of the gods, was
+regarded as the regent of the east; <i>Agni</i>, the fire (<i>ignis</i>), was in
+the same way associated with the south-east; <i>Yama</i> with the
+south; <i>&#346;urya</i>, the sun (<span class="grk" title="Haelios">&#7978;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>), with the south-west; <i>Var&#363;&#7751;a</i>,
+originally the representative of the all-embracing heaven (<span class="grk" title="Ouranos">&#927;&#8016;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>)
+or atmosphere, now the god of the ocean, with the west; <i>V&#257;yu</i>
+(or <i>Pavana</i>), the wind, with the north-west; <i>Kubera</i>, the god of
+wealth, with the north; and <i>Soma</i> (or <i>Cha&#7751;dra</i>) with the north-east.
+In the institutes of Manu the <i>Lokap&#257;las</i> are represented as
+standing in close relation to the ruling king, who is said to be
+composed of particles of these his tutelary deities. The retinue
+of Indra consists chiefly of the <i>Gandharvas</i> (probably etym.
+connected with <span class="grk" title="kentauros">&#954;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>), a class of genii, considered in the
+epics as the celestial musicians; and their wives, the <i>Apsaras</i>,
+lovely nymphs, who are frequently employed by the gods to
+make the pious devotee desist from carrying his austere practices
+to an extent that might render him dangerous to their power.
+<i>N&#257;rada</i>, an ancient sage (probably a personification of the cloud,
+the &ldquo;water-giver&rdquo;), is considered as the messenger between the
+gods and men, and as having sprung from the forehead of Brahm&#257;.
+The interesting office of the god of love is held by <i>K&#257;madeva</i>,
+also called <i>Ananga</i>, the bodyless, because, as the myth relates,
+having once tried by the power of his mischievous arrow to make
+&#346;iva fall in love with P&#257;rvat&#299;, whilst he was engaged in devotional
+practices, the urchin was reduced to ashes by a glance of the
+angry god. Two other mythological figures of some importance
+are considered as sons of &#346;iva and P&#257;rvat&#299;, viz. <i>K&#257;rttikeya</i> or
+<i>Skanda</i>, the leader of the heavenly armies, who was supposed
+to have been fostered by the six <i>K&#7771;ittik&#257;s</i> or Pleiades; and
+<i>Ga&#7751;e&#347;a</i> (&ldquo;lord of troops&rdquo;), the elephant-headed god of wisdom,
+and at the same time the leader of the <i>dii minorum gentium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Orthodox Br&#257;hmanical scholasticism makes the attainment of
+final emancipation (<i>mukti</i>, <i>moksha</i>) dependent on perfect knowledge
+of the divine essence. This knowledge can only be obtained
+by complete abstraction of the mind from external objects and
+intense meditation on the divinity, which again presupposes
+the total extinction of all sensual instincts by means of austere
+practices (<i>tapas</i>). The chosen few who succeed in gaining
+complete mastery over their senses and a full knowledge of the
+divine nature become absorbed into the universal soul immediately
+on the dissolution of the body. Those devotees, on the
+other hand, who have still a residuum, however slight, of ignorance
+and worldliness left in them at the time of their death,
+pass to the world of Brahm&#257;, where their souls, invested with
+subtile corporeal frames, await their reunion with the Eternal
+Being.</p>
+
+<p>The pantheistic doctrine which thus forms the foundation of
+the Brahmanical system of belief found its most complete
+exposition in one of the six orthodox <i>dar&#347;anas</i>, or philosophical
+systems, the <i>Ved&#257;nta</i> philosophy. These systems are considered
+as orthodox inasmuch as they recognize the Veda as the revealed
+source of religious belief, and never fail to claim the authority
+of the ancient seers for their own teachings, even though&mdash;as in
+the case of Kapila, the founder of the materialistic S&#257;nkhya
+system&mdash;they involve the denial of so essential a dogmatic point
+as the existence of a personal creator of the world. So much,
+indeed, had freedom of speculative thought become a matter of
+established habit and intellectual necessity, that no attempt
+seems ever to have been made by the leading theological party
+to put down such heretical doctrines, so long as the sacred
+character of the privileges of their caste was not openly called
+in question. Yet internal dissensions on such cardinal points of
+belief could not but weaken the authority of the hierarchical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span>
+body; and as they spread beyond the narrow bounds of the
+Br&#257;hmanical schools, it wanted but a man of moral and
+intellectual powers, and untrammelled by class prejudices, to
+render them fatal to priestly pretensions. Such a man arose in
+the person of a &#346;&#257;kya prince of Kapilavastu, Gotama, the founder
+of Buddhism (about the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Had it only been for
+the philosophical tenets of Buddha, they need scarcely have
+caused, and probably did not cause, any great uneasiness to
+the orthodox theologians. He did, indeed, go one step beyond
+Kapila, by altogether denying the existence of the soul as a
+substance, and admitting only certain intellectual faculties as
+attributes of the body, perishable with it. Yet the conception
+which Buddha substituted for the transmigratory soul, viz.
+that of <i>karma</i> (&ldquo;work&rdquo;), as the sum total of the individual&rsquo;s
+good and bad actions, being the determinative element of the
+form of his future existence, might have been treated like any
+other speculative theory, but for the practical conclusions he
+drew from it. Buddha recognized the institution of caste, and
+accounted for the social inequalities attendant thereon as being
+the effects of <i>karma</i> in former existences. But, on the other hand,
+he altogether denied the revealed character of the Veda and the
+efficacy of the Br&#257;hmanical ceremonies deduced from it, and
+rejected the claims of the sacerdotal class to be the repositaries
+and divinely appointed teachers of sacred knowledge. That
+Buddha never questioned the truth of the Br&#257;hmanical theory of
+transmigration shows that this early product of speculative
+thought had become firmly rooted in the Hind&#363; mind as a tenet
+of belief amounting to moral conviction. To the Hind&#363; philosopher
+this doctrine seemed alone to account satisfactorily for the
+apparent essential similarity of the vital element in all animate
+beings, no less than for what elsewhere has led honest and
+logical thinkers to the stern dogma of predestination. The
+belief in eternal bliss or punishment, as the just recompense
+of man&rsquo;s actions during this brief term of human life, which their
+less reflective forefathers had at one time held, appeared to
+them to involve a moral impossibility. The equality of all men,
+which Buddha preached with regard to the final goal, the <i>nirv&#257;na</i>,
+or extinction of <i>karma</i> and thereby of all future existence and
+pain, and that goal to be reached, not by the performance of
+penance and sacrificial worship, but by practising virtue, could
+not fail to be acceptable to many people. It would be out of
+place here to dwell on the rapid progress and internal development
+of the new doctrine. Suffice it to say that, owing no doubt
+greatly to the sympathizing patronage of ruling princes, Buddhism
+appears to have been the state religion in most parts of
+India during the early centuries of our era. To what extent it
+became the actual creed of the body of the people it will probably
+be impossible ever to ascertain. One of the chief effects it
+produced on the worship of the old gods was the rapid decline
+of the authority of the orthodox Br&#257;hmanical dogma, and a
+considerable development of sectarianism. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hinduism</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H.H. Wilson, <i>Essays on the Religion of the Hindus</i>;
+J. Muir, <i>Original Sanskrit Texts</i>;
+M. Müller, <i>History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature</i>;
+C. Lassen, <i>Indische Alterthumskunde</i>;
+Elphinstone, <i>History of India</i>, ed. by E.B. Cowell.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHMAPUTRA,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a great river of India, with a total length
+of 1800 m. Its main source is in a great glacier-mass of the
+northernmost chain of the Himalayas, called Kubigangri, about
+82° N., and receives various tributaries including one formerly
+regarded as the true source from the pass of Mariam La (15,500 ft.),
+which separates its basin from the eastern affluents of the
+Mansarowar lakes, at least 100 m. south-east of those of the
+Indus. It flows in a south-easterly direction for 170 m., and
+then adheres closely to a nearly easterly course for 500 m. more,
+being at the end of that distance in 29° 10&prime; N. lat. It then bends
+north-east for 150 m. before finally shaping itself southwards
+towards the plains of Assam. Roughly speaking, the river may
+be said so far to run parallel to the main chain of the Himalaya
+at a distance of 100 m. therefrom. Its early beginnings take
+their rise amidst a mighty mass of glaciers which cover the
+northern slopes of the watershed, separating them from the
+sources of the Gogra on the south; and there is evidence that
+two of its great southern tributaries, the Shorta Tsanpo (which
+joins about 150 m. from its source), and the Nyang Chu (the
+river of Shigatse and Gyantse), are both also of glacial origin.
+From the north it receives five great tributaries, namely, the
+Chu Nago, the Chachu Tsanpo and the Charta Tsanpo (all
+within the first 200 m. of its course), and the Raka Tsanpo and
+Kyi-chu (or river of Lhasa) below. The Chachu and the Charta
+are large clear streams, evidently draining from the great central
+lake district. Both of them measure more than 100 yds. in
+width at the point of junction, and they are clearly non-glacial.
+The Raka Tsanpo is a lateral affluent, flowing for 200 m. parallel
+to the main river course and some 20 to 30 m. north of it, draining
+the southern slopes of a high snowy range. It is an important
+feature as affording foothold for the Janglam (the great high
+road of southern Tibet connecting Ladakh with China), which
+is denied by the actual valley of the Brahmaputra. The great
+river itself is known in Tibet by many names, being generally
+called the Nari Chu, Maghang Tsanpo or Yaro Tsanpo, above
+Lhasa; the word &ldquo;tsanpo&rdquo; (tsang-po) meaning (according to
+Waddell) the &ldquo;pure one,&rdquo; and applying to all great rivers.
+Fifty miles from its source the river and the Janglam route touch
+each other, and from that point past Tadum (the first important
+place on its banks) for another 130 m., the road follows more
+or less closely the left bank of the river. Then it diverges northwards
+into the lateral valley of the Raka, until the Raka joins
+the Brahmaputra below Janglache. The upper reaches are
+nowhere fordable between Tadum and Lhasa, but there is a ferry
+at Likche (opposite Tadum on the southern bank), where wooden
+boats covered with hide effect the necessary connexion between
+the two banks and ensure the passage of the Nepal trade. From
+Janglache (13,800 ft.) to Shigatse the river is navigable, the
+channel being open and wide and the course straight. This is
+probably the most elevated system of navigation in the world.
+From Shigatse, which stands near the mouth of the Nyang Chu,
+to the Kyi-chu, or Lhasa river, there is no direct route, the
+river being unnavigable below Shigatse. The Janglam takes
+a circuitous course southwards to Gyantse and the Yamdok Cho
+before dropping again over the Khambala pass to the ferry at
+Khamba barje near Chushul. Thence the valley of the Kyi-chu
+(itself navigable for small boats for about 30 m.) leads to Lhasa
+northwards. At Chushul there is an iron chain-and-rope suspension
+bridge over the deepest part of the river, but it does not
+completely span the river, and it is too insecure for use. The
+remains of a similar bridge exist at Janglache; but there are no
+wooden or twig suspension bridges over the Tsanpo. At Tadum
+the river is about one half as wide again as the Ganges at Hardwar
+in December, <i>i.e.</i> about 250 to 300 yds. At Shigatse it flows in
+a wide extended bed with many channels, but contracts again at
+Chushul, where it is no wider than it is at Janglache, <i>i.e.</i> from
+600 to 700 yds. At Chushul (below the Kyi-chu) the discharge
+of the river is computed to be about 35,000 cub. ft. per second,
+or seven times that of the Ganges at Hardwar.</p>
+
+<p>For about 250 m. below Kyi-chu to a point about 20 m. below
+the great southerly bend (in 94° E. long.) the course of the
+Brahmaputra has been traced by native surveyors. Then it
+is lost amidst the jungle-covered hills of the wild Mishmi and
+Abor tribes to the east of Bhutan for another 100 m., until it is
+again found as the Dihong emerging into the plains of Assam.
+About the intervening reaches of the river very little is known
+except that it drops through 7000 ft. of altitude, and that in
+one place, at least, there exist some very remarkable falls.
+These are placed in 29° 40&prime; N. lat., between Kongbu and Pema-Koi.
+Here the river runs in a narrow precipitous defile along
+which no path is practicable. The falls can only be approached
+from below, where a monastery has been erected, the resort
+of countless pilgrims. Their height is estimated at 70 ft., and
+by Tibetan report the hills around are enveloped in perpetual
+mist, and the Sangdong (the &ldquo;lion&rsquo;s face&rdquo;), over which the
+waters rush, is demon-haunted and full of mystic import. Up
+to comparatively recent years it was matter for controversy
+whether the Tsanpo formed the upper reaches of the Dihong or
+of the Irrawaddy. From the north-eastern extremity of Assam
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span>
+where, near Sadya, the Lohit, the Dibong and the Dihong
+unite to form the wide placid Brahmaputra of the plains&mdash;one
+of the grandest rivers of the world&mdash;its south-westerly course
+to the Bay of Bengal is sufficiently well known. It still retains
+the proud distinction of being unbridged, and still the River
+Flotilla Company appoints its steamers at regular intervals to
+visit all the chief ports on its banks as far as Dibrugarh. Here,
+however, a new feature has been introduced in the local railway,
+which extends for some 80 m. to Sadya, with a branch to the
+Buri Dihing river at the foot of the Patkoi range. The Patkoi
+border the plains of Upper Assam to the south-east, and across
+these hills lies the most reasonable probability of railway
+extension to Burma.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the &ldquo;lowest level&rdquo; discharges of the principal
+affluents of the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam, estimated in
+cubic feet per second:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lohit river, 9 m. above Sadya</td> <td class="tcc">38,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dibong, 1 m. above junction with Dihong</td> <td class="tcc">27,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dihong &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; Dibong</td> <td class="tcc">55,400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Subansiri</td> <td class="tcc">16,900</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The basins of the Dibong and Subansiri are as yet very imperfectly
+known. That of the Lohit has been fairly well explored.
+Near Goalpara the discharge of the river in January 1828 was
+computed to be 140,000 cub. ft., or nearly double that of the
+Ganges. The length of the river is 700 m. to the Dihong
+junction, and about 1000 in Tibet and eastern Bhutan,
+above the Dihong. The Brahmaputra, therefore, exceeds the
+Ganges in length by about 400 m. The bed of the great
+river maintains a fairly constant position between its extreme
+banks, but the channels within that bed are so constantly shifting
+as to require close supervision on the part of the navigation
+authorities; so much detritus is carried down as to form a
+perpetually changing series of obstructions to steamer traffic.</p>
+
+<p>An enormous development of agricultural resources has taken
+place within the Brahmaputra basin of late years, chiefly in
+the direction of tea cultivation, as well as in the production
+of jute and silk. Gold is found in the sands of all its upper
+tributaries, and coal and petroleum are amongst the chief
+mineral products which have been brought into economic
+prominence. During the rains the Brahmaputra floods hundreds
+of square miles of country, reaching a height of 30 to 40 ft. above
+its usual level. This supersedes artificial irrigation, and the
+plains so watered yield abundantly in rice, jute and mustard.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Reports</i> of the native explorers of the Indian Survey, edited
+by Montgomery and Harman;
+<i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (1908);
+Sir T.H. Holdich, <i>India</i> (&ldquo;Regions of the World&rdquo; series, 1903);
+Ryder, <i>Geographical Journal</i>, 1905;
+Rawlings, <i>The Great Plateau</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHMA SAMAJ,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a religious association in India which
+owes its origin to (Raja) Ram Mohan Roy, who began teaching
+and writing in Calcutta soon after 1800. The name means
+literally the &ldquo;Church of the One God,&rdquo; and the word <i>Samaj</i>,
+like the word Church, bears both a local and a universal, or an
+individual and a collective meaning. Impressed with the
+perversions and corruptions of popular Hinduism, Ram Mohan
+Roy investigated the Hindu Shastras, the Koran and the Bible,
+repudiated the polytheistic worship of the Shastras as false,
+and inculcated the reformed principles of monotheism as found
+in the ancient Upanishads of the Vedas. In 1816 he established
+a society, consisting only of Hindus, in which texts from the
+Vedas were recited and theistic hymns chanted. This, however,
+soon died out through the opposition it received from the Hindu
+community. In 1830 he organized the society known as the Brahma Samaj.</p>
+
+<p>The following extract from the trust-deed of the building
+dedicated to it will show the religious belief and the purposes
+of its founder. The building was intended to be &ldquo;a place of
+public meeting for all sorts and descriptions of people, without
+distinction, who shall behave and conduct themselves in an
+orderly, sober, religious and devout manner, for the worship
+and adoration of the eternal, unsearchable and immutable Being,
+who is the author and preserver of the universe, but not under
+and by any other name, designation or title, peculiarly used
+for and applied to any particular being or beings by any
+man or set of men whatsoever; and that no graven image,
+statue or sculpture, carving, painting, picture, portrait or the
+likeness of anything shall be admitted within the said messuage,
+building, land, tenements, hereditament and premises; and
+that no sacrifice, offering or oblation of any kind or thing shall
+ever be permitted therein; and that no animal or living creature
+shall within or on the said messuage, &amp;c., be deprived of life
+either for religious purposes or food, and that no eating or drinking
+(except such as shall be necessary by any accident for the
+preservation of life), feasting or rioting be permitted therein or
+thereon; and that in conducting the said worship or adoration,
+no object, animate or inanimate, that has been or is or shall
+hereafter become or be recognized as an object of worship by any
+man or set of men, shall be reviled or slightingly or contemptuously
+spoken of or alluded to, either in preaching or in the hymns
+or other mode of worship that may be delivered or used in the
+said messuage or building; and that no sermon, preaching,
+discourse, prayer or hymns be delivered, made or used in such
+worship, but such as have a tendency to the contemplation
+of the Author and Preserver of the universe or to the promotion
+of charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and the
+strengthening of the bonds of union between men of all religious
+persuasions and creeds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The new faith at this period held to the Vedas as its basis.
+Ram Mohan Roy soon after left India for England, and took
+up his residence in Bristol, where he died in 1835. The Brahma
+Samaj maintained a bare existence till 1841, when Babu
+Debendra Nath Tagore, a member of a famous and wealthy
+Calcutta family, devoted himself to it. He gave a printing-press
+to the Samaj, and established a monthly journal called
+the <i>Tattwabodhin&#299; Patrik&#257;</i>, to which the Bengali language now
+owes much for its strength and elegance. About 1850 some of
+the followers of the new religion discovered that the greater
+part of the Vedas is polytheistic, and a schism took place,&mdash;the
+advanced party holding that nature and intuition form
+the basis of faith. Between 1847 and 1858 branch societies
+were formed in different parts of India, especially in Bengal, and
+the new society made rapid progress, for which it was largely
+indebted to the spread of English education and the work
+of Christian missionaries. In fact the whole Samaj movement
+is as distinct a product of the contest of Hinduism with Christianity
+in the 19th century, as the <i>Panth</i> movement was of its
+contest with Islam 300 years earlier.</p>
+
+<p>The Brahma creed was definitively formulated as follows:&mdash;(1) The
+book of nature and intuition supplies the basis of religious
+faith. (2) Although the Brahmas do not consider any book
+written by man the basis of their religion, yet they do accept
+with respect and pleasure any religious <i>truth</i> contained in any
+book. (3) The Brahmas believe that the religious condition of
+man is progressive, like the other departments of his condition
+in this world. (4) They believe that the fundamental doctrines
+of their religion are also the basis of every true religion. (5) They
+believe in the existence of one Supreme God&mdash;a God endowed
+with a distinct personality, moral attributes worthy of His
+nature and an intelligence befitting the Governor of the universe,
+and they worship Him alone. They do not believe in any of His
+incarnations. (6) They believe in the immortality and progressive
+state of the soul, and declare that there is a state of conscious
+existence succeeding life in this world and supplementary to it
+as respects the action of the universal moral government.
+(7) They believe that repentance is the only way to salvation. They
+do not recognize any other mode of reconcilement to the offended
+but loving Father. (8) They pray for <i>spiritual</i> welfare and believe
+in the <i>efficacy</i> of such prayers. (9) They believe in the
+providential care of the divine Father. (10) They avow that love
+towards Him and the performances of the works which He loves,
+constitute His worship. (11) They recognize the necessity of
+public worship, but do not believe that communion with the
+Father depends upon meeting in any fixed place at any fixed
+time. They maintain that they can adore Him at any time
+and at any place, provided that the time and the place are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span>
+calculated to compose and direct the mind towards Him.
+(12) They do not believe in pilgrimages and declare that holiness can
+only be attained by elevating and purifying the mind. (13) They
+put no faith in rites or ceremonies, nor do they believe in penances
+as instrumental in obtaining the grace of God. They declare
+that moral righteousness, the gaining of wisdom, divine
+contemplation, charity and the cultivation of devotional feelings
+are their rites and ceremonies. They further say, govern and
+regulate your feelings, discharge your duties to God and to man,
+and you will gain everlasting blessedness; purify your heart,
+cultivate devotional feelings and you will see Him who is unseen.
+(14) Theoretically there is no distinction of caste among the
+Brahmas. They declare that we are all the children of God,
+and therefore must consider ourselves as brothers and sisters.</p>
+
+<p>For long the Brahmas did not attempt any social reforms.
+But about 1865 the younger section, headed by Babu Keshub
+Chunder Sen, who joined the Samaj in 1857, tried to carry their
+religious theories into practice by demanding the abandonment
+of the external signs of caste distinction. This, however, the
+older members opposed, declaring such innovations to be premature.
+A schism resulted, Keshub Chunder Sen and his followers
+founding the Progressive Samaj, while the conservative stock
+remained as the Adi (<i>i.e.</i> original) Samaj, their aim being to
+&ldquo;fulfil&rdquo; rather than to abrogate the old religion. The vitality of
+the movement, however, had left it, and its inconsistencies, combined
+with the lack of strong leadership, landed it in a position
+scarcely distinguishable from orthodox Hinduism. Debendra
+Nath Tagore sought refuge from the difficulty by becoming
+an ascetic. The &ldquo;Brahma Samaj of India,&rdquo; as Chunder Sen&rsquo;s
+party styled itself, made considerable progress extensively and
+intensively until 1878, when a number of the most prominent
+adherents, led by Anand Mohan Bose, took umbrage at Chunder
+Sen&rsquo;s despotic rule and at his disregard of the society&rsquo;s regulations
+concerning child marriage. This led to the formation of the
+Sadharana (Universal) Brahma Samaj, now the most popular
+and progressive of the three sections of the movement and
+conspicuous for its work in the cause of literary culture, social
+reform and female education in India. But even when we add
+all sections of the Brahma Samaj together, the total number of
+adherents is only about 4000, mostly found in Calcutta and its
+neighbourhood. A small community (about 130) in Bombay,
+known as the Prarthna (Prayer) Samaj, was founded in 1867
+through Keshub Chunder&rsquo;s influence; they have a similar creed
+to that of the Brahma Samaj, but have broken less decisively
+with orthodox and ceremonial Hinduism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arya</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samaj</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Keshub Chunder Sen</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ram
+Mohan Roy</a></span>. Also John Robson, <i>Hinduism and Christianity</i>; and
+the <i>Theistic Quarterly Review</i> (the organ of the Society since 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHMS, JOHANNES<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1833-1897), German composer, was
+born in Hamburg on the 7th of May 1833. He was the son of a
+double-bass player in the Hamburg city theatre and received his
+first musical instruction from his father. After some lessons
+from O. Cossel, he went to Cossel&rsquo;s master, Eduard Marxsen of
+Altona, whose experience and artistic taste directed the young
+man&rsquo;s genius into the highest paths. A couple of public appearances
+as a pianist were hardly an interruption to the course of
+his musical studies, and these were continued nearly up to the
+time when Brahms accepted an engagement as accompanist to
+the Hungarian violinist, Remenyi, for a concert tour in 1853.
+At Göttingen there occurred a famous <i>contretemps</i> which had a
+most important though indirect influence on the whole after-life
+of the young player. A piano on which he was to play the
+&ldquo;Kreutzer&rdquo; sonata of Beethoven with Remenyi turned out to
+be a semitone below the required pitch; and Brahms played the
+part by heart, transposing it from A to B flat, in such a way that
+the great violinist, Joachim, who was present and discerned
+what the feat implied, introduced himself to Brahms, and laid
+the foundation of a life-long friendship. Joachim gave him
+introductions to Liszt at Weimar and to Schumann at Düsseldorf;
+the former hailed him for a time as a member of the advanced
+party in music, on the strength of his E flat minor scherzo, but
+the misapprehension was not of long continuance. The introduction
+to Schumann impelled that master, now drawing near
+the tragic close of his career, to write the famous article &ldquo;Neue
+Bahnen,&rdquo; in which the young Brahms was proclaimed to be the
+great composer of the future, &ldquo;he who was to come.&rdquo; The
+critical insight in Schumann&rsquo;s article is all the more surprising
+when it is remembered how small was the list of Brahms&rsquo;s works
+at the time. A string quartet, the first pianoforte sonata, the
+scherzo already mentioned, and the earliest group of songs,
+containing the dramatic &ldquo;Liebestreu,&rdquo; are the works which drew
+forth the warm commendations of Schumann. In December 1853
+Brahms gave a concert at Leipzig, as a result of which the
+firms of Breitkopf &amp; Haertel and of Senff undertook to publish
+his compositions. In 1854 he was given the post of choir-director
+and music-master to the prince of Lippe-Detmold, but
+he resigned it after a few years, going first to Hamburg, and
+then to Zürich, where he enjoyed the friendship and artistic
+counsel of Theodor Kirchner. The unfavourable verdict of the
+Leipzig Gewandhaus audience upon his pianoforte concerto in
+D minor op. 15, and several remarkably successful appearances
+in Vienna, where he was appointed director of Ihe Singakademie
+in 1863, were the most important external events of Brahms&rsquo;s
+life, but again he gave up the conductorship after a few months
+of valuable work, and for about three years had no fixed place
+of abode. Concert tours with Joachim or Stockhausen were
+undertaken, and it was not until 1867 that he returned to
+Vienna, or till 1872 that he chose it definitely as his home, his
+longest absence from the Austrian capital being between 1874 and
+1878, when he lived near Heidelberg. From 1871 to 1874
+he conducted the concerts of the &ldquo;Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde,&rdquo;
+but after the later date he occupied no official position
+of any kind. With the exception of journeys to Italy in the
+spring, or to Switzerland in the summer, he rarely left Vienna.
+He refused to come to England to take the honorary degree of
+Mus.D. offered by the university of Cambridge; the university
+of Breslau made him Ph.D. in 1881; in 1886 he was created a
+knight of the Prussian order <i>Pour le mérite</i>, and in 1889 was
+presented with the freedom of his native city. He died in Vienna
+on the 3rd of April 1897.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Brahms may be summarized as follows:&mdash;Various
+<i>sacred compositions for chorus</i>, op. 12, 13, 22, 27, 29, 30,
+37, leading up to op. 45, the &ldquo;German Requiem&rdquo; first performed at
+Bremen in 1868, and subsequently completed by a soprano solo with chorus;
+the &ldquo;Triumphlied&rdquo; in commemoration of the German victories of 1870-71;
+and some choral songs and motets, op. 74, 109 and 110.
+<i>Secular choral works</i>, op. 17, 41, 42, 44, 50 (&ldquo;Rinaldo&rdquo;
+for tenor solo and male choir), 53 (&ldquo;Rhapsodie,&rdquo; alto solo and male choir),
+54 (&ldquo;Schicksalslied&rdquo;), 62, 82 (Schiller&rsquo;s Nänie), 89 (&ldquo;Gesang der Parzen&rdquo;),
+93, 104, 113.
+<i>Concerted vocal-works</i>, op. 20, 28, 31, 52 (&ldquo;Liebeslieder-Walzer&rdquo;),
+61, 64, 65 (&ldquo;Neue Liebeslieder&rdquo;), 75, 92, 103, 112.
+<i>Solo songs</i>, nearly 300.
+<i>Orchestral works</i>: four symphonies, op. 68, 73, 90 and 98;
+two serenades, op. 11 and 16;
+two pianoforte concertos, op. 15 and 83, one violin concerto, op. 77;
+concerto for violin and violoncello, op. 102;
+variations on a theme by Haydn, op. 56;
+two overtures, &ldquo;Academische Festouvertüre,&rdquo; op. 80, and
+&ldquo;Tragic Overture,&rdquo; op. 81.
+<i>Chamber music</i>: two sextets, op. 18 and 36;
+quintet, piano and strings, op. 34, strings, op. 88 and 111,
+clarinet and strings, op. 115;
+three string quartets, op. 51 and 67,
+three quartets for piano and strings, op. 25, 26 and 60.
+Three trios for piano and strings, op. 8, 87 and 101;
+trio for piano, violin and horn, op. 40;
+piano, clarinet and violoncello, op. 114.
+Duet sonatas, three for piano and violin, op. 78, 100 and 108;
+two for piano and violoncello, op. 38 and 99;
+two for piano and clarinet, op. 120.
+<i>Pianoforte solos</i>:
+three sonatas, op. 1, 2 and 5;
+scherzo, op. 4;
+variations, op. 9, 21, 23, 24, 35;
+4 ballads, op. 10;
+waltzes, op. 39;
+two rhapsodies, op. 79;
+caprices and intermezzi, op. 76, 116, 117, 118 and 119.
+5 <i>studies</i> and 51 <i>Uebungen</i> without opus-number,
+and a <i>chorale-prelude and fugue</i> for organ,
+besides four books of <i>Hungarian Dances</i> arranged for pianoforte duet.</p>
+
+<p>Brahms has often been called the last of the great classical
+masters, in a sense wider than that of his place in the long line of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span>
+the great composers of Germany. Though only the most superficial
+observers could deny him the possession of qualities which
+distinguish the masters of the romantic school, it is as a classicist
+that he must be ranked among modern musicians. From the
+beginning of his career until its close, his ideas were clothed by
+preference in the forms which had sufficed for Beethoven, and
+the instances in which he departed from structural precedent are
+so rare that they might be disregarded, were they not of such
+high value that they must be considered as the signs of a logical
+development of musical form, and not as indicating a spirit of
+rebellion against existing modes of structure. His practice, more
+frequent in later than in earlier life, of welding together the
+&ldquo;working-out&rdquo; and the &ldquo;recapitulation&rdquo; sections of his movements
+in a closer union than any of his predecessors had attempted,
+is an innovation which cannot fail to have important
+results in the future; and if the skill of younger writers is not
+adequate to such a display of ingenuity as occurs in the finale of
+the fourth symphony, where the &ldquo;passacaglia&rdquo; form has been
+used with an effect that is almost bewildering to the ordinary
+listener, that at least stands as a monument of inventiveness
+finely subordinated to the emotional and intellectual purport of
+the thoughts expressed. His themes are always noble, and even
+from the point of view of emotional appeal their deep intensity of
+expression is of a kind which grows upon all who have once been
+awakened to their beauty, or have been at the pains to grasp
+the composer&rsquo;s characteristics of utterance. His vocal music,
+whether for one voice or many, is remarkable for its fidelity to
+natural inflection and accentuation of the words, and for its
+perfect reflection of the poet&rsquo;s mood. His songs, vocal quartets
+and choral works abound in passages that prove him a master of
+effects of sound; and throughout his chamber music, in his treatment
+of the piano, of the strings, or of the solo wind instruments
+he employs, there are numberless examples which sufficiently
+show the irrelevance of a charge sometimes brought against his
+music, that it is deficient in a sense of what is called &ldquo;tone-colour.&rdquo;
+It is perfectly true that the mere acoustic effect of a passage
+was of far less importance to him than its inherent beauty,
+poetic import, or logical fitness in a definite scheme of development;
+and that often in his orchestral music the casual hearer
+receives an impression of complexity rather than of clearness,
+and is apt to imagine that the &ldquo;thickness&rdquo; of instrumentation is
+the result of clumsiness or carelessness. Such instances as the
+introduction to the finale of the first symphony, the close of the
+first movement of the second, what may be called the epilogue of
+the third, or the whole of the variations on a theme of Haydn, are
+not only marvels of delicate workmanship in regard to structure,
+but are instinct with the sense of the peculiar beauty and
+characteristics of each instrument. The &ldquo;Academic Festival&rdquo;
+overture proves Brahms a master of musical humour, in his treatment
+of the student songs which serve as its themes; and the companion
+piece, the &ldquo;Tragic&rdquo; overture, reaches a height of sublimity
+which is in no way lessened because no particular tragedy
+has ever been named in conjunction with the work.</p>
+
+<p>As with all creative artists of supreme rank, the work of Brahms
+took a considerable time before it was very generally appreciated.
+The change in public opinion is strikingly illustrated in regard to
+the songs, which, once voted ineffective and unvocal, have now
+taken a place in every eminent singer&rsquo;s repertory. The outline in
+his greater works must be grasped with some definiteness before
+the separate ideas can be properly understood in their true
+relation to each other; and while it is his wonderful power of
+handling the recognized classical forms, so as to make them seem
+absolutely new, which stamps him as the greatest musical
+architect since Beethoven, the necessity for realizing in some
+degree what musical form signifies has undoubtedly been a bar to
+the rapid acceptance of his greater works by the uneducated
+lovers of music. These are of course far more easily moved by
+effects of colour than by the subtler beauties of organic structure,
+and Brahms&rsquo;s attitude towards tone-colour was scarcely such as
+would endear him to the large number of musicians in whose view
+tone-colour is pre-eminent. His mastery of form, again, has been
+attacked as formalism by superficial critics, blind to the real
+inspiration and distinction of his ideas, and to their perfection in
+regard to style and the appropriateness of every theme to the
+exact emotional state to be expressed. In his larger vocal works
+there are some which treat of emotional conditions far removed
+from the usual stock of subjects taken by the average composer;
+to compare the ideas in the &ldquo;German Requiem&rdquo; with those of
+the &ldquo;Schicksalslied&rdquo; or &ldquo;Nänie&rdquo; is to learn a lesson in artistic
+style which can never be forgotten. In the songs, too, it is
+scarcely too much to say that the whole range of human emotion
+finds expression in noble lyrics that yield to none in actual
+musical beauty. The four &ldquo;Ernste Gesänge,&rdquo; Brahms&rsquo;s last
+composition, must be considered as his supreme achievement
+in dignified utterance of noble thoughts in a style that perfectly
+fits them. The choice of words for these as well as for the
+&ldquo;Requiem&rdquo; and others of his serious works reveals a strong
+sense of the vanity and emptiness of human life, but at least as
+strong a confidence in the divine consolations.</p>
+
+<p>It has been the misfortune of the musical world in Germany
+that every prominent musician is ranged by critics and amateurs
+in one of two hostile camps, and it was probably due in the main
+to the misrepresentations of the followers of Wagner that the
+idea was so generally held that Brahms was a man of narrow
+sympathies and hard, not to say brutal manners. The latter
+impression was fostered, no doubt, by the master&rsquo;s natural
+detestation of the methods by which the average lionizer seeks to
+gain his object, and both alike are disproved in the <i>Recollections</i> of
+J.V. Widmann, an intimate friend for many years, which throw
+a new light on the master, revealing him as a man of the widest
+artistic sympathies, neither intolerant of excellence in a line
+opposed to his own, nor weakly enthusiastic over mediocre productions
+by composers whose views were in complete sympathy
+with him. His admiration for Verdi and Wagner is enough to
+show that the absence of any operatic work from his list of compositions
+was simply due to the difficulty of finding a libretto
+which appealed to him, not to any antagonism to the lyric stage
+in its modern developments. How far he stood from the prejudices
+of the typical pedant may be seen in the passionate love
+he showed throughout his life for national music, especially that
+of Hungary. Not only were his arrangements of Hungarian
+dances the first work by which his name was known outside his
+native land, but his first pianoforte quartet, op. 25 in G minor,
+incurred the wrath of the critics of the time by its introduction of
+some characteristics of Hungarian music into the finale. His
+arrangement of a number of children&rsquo;s traditional songs was
+published without his name, and dedicated to the children of
+Robert and Clara Schumann in the earliest years of his creative
+life; and among the last of his publications was a collection
+of forty-nine German Volkslieder, arranged with the utmost
+skill, taste and simplicity. He had a great admiration for the
+waltzes of Strauss, and in many passages of his own works
+the <i>entrain</i> that is characteristic of the Viennese dance-writers
+is present in a striking degree.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also W.H. Hadow, <i>Studies in Modern Music</i> (2nd series,
+1908); and the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Music</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Song</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. F. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAHUI,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a people of Baluchistan, inhabiting the Brahui
+mountains, which extend continuously from near the Bolan
+Pass to Cape Monze on the Arabian Sea. The khan of Kalat,
+the native ruler of Baluchistan, is himself a Brahui, and a
+lineal descendant of Kumbar, former chief of the Kumbarini,
+a Brahui tribe. The origin of the Brahuis is an ethnological
+mystery. Bishop Robert Caldwell and other authorities declare
+them Dravidians, and regard them as the western
+borderers of Dravidian India. Others believe them to be
+Scythians,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and others again connect them with Tatar
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span>
+mountaineers who early settled in southern parts of Asia. The
+origin of the word itself is in doubt. It is variously derived
+as a corruption of the Persian <i>Ba Rohi</i> (literally &ldquo;of the hills&rdquo;);
+as an eponym from Braho, otherwise Brahin or Ibrahim, a
+legendary hero of alleged Arab descent who led his people &ldquo;out
+of the west,&rdquo; while Dr Gustav Oppert believes that the name is
+in some way related to, if not identical with, that of the Baluchis.
+He recognizes in the name of the Paratas and Paradas, who
+dwelt in north-eastern Baluchistan, the origin of the modern
+Brahui. He gives reasons for regarding the <i>Bra</i> as a contraction
+of Bara and obtains &ldquo;thus in Barahui a name whose resemblance
+to that of the ancient Barrhai (the modern Bhars), as well as to
+that of the Paratas and Paravar and their kindred the Maratha
+Paravari and Dravidian Parheyas of Palaman, is striking.&rdquo;
+The Brahuis declare themselves to be the aborigines of the
+country they now occupy, their ancestors coming from Aleppo.
+For this there seems little foundation, and their language,
+which has no affinities with Persian, Pushtu or Baluchi, must be,
+according to the most eminent scholars, classed among the
+Dravidian tongues of southern India. Probably the Brahuis are
+of Dravidian stock, a branch long isolated from their kindred
+and much Arabized, and thus exhibiting a marked hybridism.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever their origin, the Brahuis are found in a position
+of considerable power in Baluchistan from earliest times. Their
+authentic history begins with Mir Ahmad, who was their chief
+in the 17th century. The title of &ldquo;khan&rdquo; was assumed by Nasir
+the Great in the middle of the 18th century. The Brahuis are
+a confederacy of tribes possessing common lands and uniting
+from time to time for purposes of offence or defence. At their
+head is the khan, who formerly seems to have been regarded as
+semi-divine, it being customary for the tribesmen on visiting
+Kalat to make offerings at the Ahmadzai gate before entering.
+The Brahuis are a nomadic race, who dwell in tents made of
+goats&rsquo; hair, black or striped, and live chiefly on the products
+of their herds. They are Sunnite Mahommedans, but are not
+fanatical. In physique they are very easily distinguished from
+their neighbours, the Baluchis and Pathans, being a smaller,
+sturdier people with rounder faces characterized by the flat,
+blunt and coarse features of the Dravidian races. They are of
+a dark brown colour, their hair and beards being often brown not
+black. They are an active, hardy race, and though as avaricious
+as the Pathans, are more trustworthy and less turbulent. Their
+ordinary dress is a tunic or shirt, trousers gathered in at the
+ankles and a cloak usually of brown felt. A few wear turbans,
+but generally their headgear is a round skullcap with tassel
+or button. Their women are not strictly veiled. Sandals of deer
+or goat skin are worn by all classes. Their weapons are rifles,
+swords and shields. They do not use the Afghan knife or any
+spears. Some few Brahuis are enlisted in the Bombay Native
+Infantry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dr Bellew, <i>Indus to Euphrates</i> (London, 1874); Gustav Oppert,
+<i>The Original Inhabitants of India</i> (1893); Dr Theodore Duka,
+<i>Essay on the Brahui Grammar</i> (after the German of Dr Trumpp of
+Munich University).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare Mountstuart Elphinstone&rsquo;s (<i>History of India</i>, 9th ed.,
+1905, p. 249) description of Scythians with physique of Brahuis. A
+relationship between the Jats (<i>q.v.</i>) and the Brahuis has been suggested,
+and it is generally held that the former were of Scythic stock.
+The Mengals, Bizanjos and Zehris, the three largest Brahui tribes,
+are called Jadgal or Jagdal, <i>i.e.</i> Jats, by some of their neighbours.
+The Zaghar Mengal, a superior division of the Mengal tribe, believe
+they themselves came from a district called Zughd, somewhere
+near Samarkand in central Asia. <i>Gal</i> appears to be a collective
+suffix in Baluchi, and <i>Men</i> or <i>Min</i> occurs on the lists of the Behistun
+inscriptions as the name of one of the Scythian tribes deported
+by Darius, the Achaemenian, for their turbulence (see <i>Kalat, A
+Memoir on the County and Family of the Ahmadzai Khans of Kalat</i>,
+by G.P. Tate). Sajdi, another Brahui tribal name, is Scythian,
+the principal clan of which tribe is the Saga, both names being
+identifiable with the Sagetae and Saki of ancient writers. Thus
+there seems some reason for believing that the former occupants
+of at least some portions of the Brahui domain were of Scythian blood.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAID<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>bregdan</i>, to move quickly to and
+fro, hence to weave), a plait, especially a plait of hair, also a
+plaited tape woven of wool, silk, gold thread, &amp;c., used for trimming
+or binding. A particular use is for the narrow bands,
+bordered with open work, used in making point lace.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1715-1806), British teacher of the
+deaf and dumb, was born in Scotland in 1715, and educated
+at Edinburgh University. He became a school teacher, and
+in 1760 opened in Edinburgh, with one pupil, the first school
+in Great Britain for the deaf and dumb, following the system
+of Dr John Wallis, described in <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>
+nearly a hundred years before. This school was the model for
+all of the early English institutions of the kind. Dr Johnson
+visited it in 1773, and describes it as &ldquo;a subject of philosophical
+curiosity ... which no other city has to show,&rdquo; and Braidwood&rsquo;s
+dozen pupils as able &ldquo;to hear with the eye.&rdquo; In 1783
+Braidwood moved to Hackney, where he died on the 24th of
+October 1806.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAILA<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (in Rumanian <i>Bra&#301;la</i>, formerly <span class="sc">Ibraila</span>), the capital
+of the department of Braila, Rumania; situated amid flat and
+dreary country on the left bank of the river Danube, about
+100 m. from its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 58,392, including
+10,811 Jews. Southward, the Danube encircles a vast fen,
+tenanted only by waterfowl and herds of half-wild swine, while
+the plain which extends to the north-east and east only grows
+fertile at some distance inland. Braila itself is plainly built on
+a bank rising about 50 ft. above sea-level; but partly on a narrow
+strip of ground which separates this bank from the water&rsquo;s edge.
+Along the crest of the bank a public park is laid out, commanding
+a view of the desolate Dobrudja hills, across the river.</p>
+
+<p>On the landward side, Braila has the shape of a crescent,
+the curve of its outer streets following the line of the old
+fortifications, dismantled in 1829. Few houses, among the older quarters,
+exceed two storeys in height, but the main streets are paved,
+and there is a regular supply of filtered water. A wide avenue,
+the <i>Strada Bulivardului</i>, divides the town proper from the
+suburbs. The principal church, among many, is the cathedral
+of St Michael, a large, ungainly building of grey sandstone.
+Electric tramways intersect the town, and are continued for 3 m.
+to Lacul S&#259;rat (Salt Lake), where there are mineral springs and
+mud-baths, owned by the state. The waters, which contain
+over 45% of salt, iodine and sulphur, are among the strongest
+of their kind in Europe; and are of high repute, being annually
+visited by more than a thousand patients. Braila is the seat
+of a chamber of commerce. It is the chief port of entry for
+Walachia, and the headquarters of the grain trade; for, besides
+its advantageous position on the river, it is connected with
+the central Walachian railways by a line to Buzeu, and with
+the Russian and Moldavian systems by a line to Galatz. Quays,
+where ships drawing 15 ft. of water can discharge, line the river
+front; and there are large docks, grain elevators and warehouses,
+besides paper mills, roperies, and soap and candle works.
+Over 20 steamers, maintained by the state, ply between Braila
+and Rotterdam. Among the vessels of all nations, the British
+are first in numbers and tonnage, the Greek second. Grain
+and timber form the chief articles of export; textiles, machinery,
+iron goods and coal being most largely imported.</p>
+
+<p>Many events connected with the history of Walachia took
+place in the neighbourhood of Braila. In 1475 Stephen the
+Great, having dethroned the voivode Radu, burned the town.
+In 1573 another Moldavian prince took the city by storm, and
+massacred the Turkish garrison. In 1659 it was again burned
+by the Walachian prince Mircea, and for the time the Turks
+were expelled, but afterwards returned. In the latter part of the
+18th century Braila was several times captured by the Russians,
+and in 1770 it was burned. By the peace of Bucharest (1812)
+the Turks retained the right of garrisoning Braila. In 1828 it
+was gallantly defended by Soliman Pasha, who, after holding out
+from the middle of May until the end of June, was allowed to
+march out with the honours of war. At the peace of Adrianople
+(1829) the place was definitely assigned to Walachia; but
+before giving it up, the grand-duke Michael of Russia razed the
+citadel, and in this ruinous condition it was handed over to the
+Walachians. Braila was the spot chosen by the Russian general
+Gorchakov for crossing the Danube with his division in 1854.
+On the banks of the Danube, a little above the city, are some
+remains of the piles of a bridge said by a very doubtful tradition
+to have been built by Darius (<i>c.</i> 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAIN<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (A.S. <i>braegen</i>), that part of the central nervous system
+which in vertebrate animals is contained within the cranium
+or skull; it is divided into the great brain or cerebrum, the
+hind brain or cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata, which is
+the transitional part between the spinal cord and the other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span>
+two parts already named. Except where stated, we deal here
+primarily with the brain in man.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center sc">1. Anatomy</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Membranes of the Human Brain.</i></p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:420px; height:364px" src="images/img392a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Dura Mater and Cranial Sinuses.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1. Falx cerebri.</p>
+<p>2. Tentorium.</p>
+<p>3,3. Superior longitudinal sinus.</p>
+<p>4. Lateral sinus.</p>
+<p>5. Internal jugular vein.</p>
+<p>6. Occipital sinus.</p>
+<p>6&prime;. Torcular Herophili.</p>
+<p>7. Inferior longitudinal sinus.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>8. Veins of Galen.</p>
+<p>9 and 10. Superior and inferior petrosal sinus.</p>
+<p>11. Cavernous sinus.</p>
+<p>12. Circular sinus which connects the two cavernous sinuses together.</p>
+<p>13. Ophthalmic vein, from 15, the eyeball.</p>
+<p>14. Crista galli of ethmoid bone.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Three membranes named the <i>dura mater, arachnoid</i> and <i>pia mater</i>
+cover the brain and lie between it and the cranial cavity. The most
+external of the three is the <i>dura mater</i>, which consists of a cranial and
+a spinal portion. The cranial part is in contact with the inner table
+of the skull, and is adherent along the lines of the sutures and to the
+margins of the foramina, which transmit the nerves, more especially
+to the foramen magnum. It forms, therefore, for these bones an
+internal periosteum, and the meningeal arteries which ramify in it
+are the nutrient arteries of the inner table. As the growth of bone
+is more active in infancy and youth than in the adult, the adhesion
+between the dura mater and the cranial bones is greater in early
+life than at maturity. From the inner surface of the dura mater
+strong bands pass into the cranial cavity, and form partitions
+between certain of the subdivisions of the brain. A vertical longitudinal
+mesial band, named, from its sickle shape, <i>falx cerebri</i>, dips
+between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. A smaller sickle-shaped
+vertical mesial band, the <i>falx cerebelli</i>, attached to the internal
+occipital crest, passes between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum.
+A large band arches forward in the horizontal plane of the cavity,
+from the transverse groove in the occipital bone to the clinoid
+processes of the sphenoid, and is attached laterally to the upper
+border of the petrous part of each temporal bone. It separates the
+cerebrum from the cerebellum, and, as it forms a tent-like covering
+for the latter, is named <i>tentorium cerebelli</i>. Along certain lines the
+cranial dura mater splits into two layers to form tubular passages
+for the transmission of venous blood. These passages are named the
+<i>venous blood sinuses</i> of the dura mater, and they are lodged in the
+grooves on the inner surface of the skull referred to in the description
+of the cranial bones. Opening into these sinuses are numerous veins
+which convey from the brain the blood that has been circulating
+through it; and two of these sinuses, called <i>cavernous</i>, which lie
+at the sides of the body of the sphenoid bone, receive the ophthalmic
+veins from the eyeballs situated in the orbital cavities. These blood
+sinuses pass usually from before backwards: a <i>superior longitudinal</i>
+along the upper border of the falx cerebri as far as the internal occipital
+protuberance; an <i>inferior longitudinal</i> along its lower border
+as far as the tentorium, where it joins the <i>straight sinus</i>, which
+passes back as far as the same protuberance. One or two small
+<i>occipital sinuses</i>, which lie in the falx cerebelli, also pass to join the
+straight and longitudinal sinuses opposite this protuberance; several
+currents of blood meet, therefore, at this spot, and as Herophilus
+supposed that a sort of whirlpool was formed in the blood, the name
+<i>torcular Herophili</i> has been used to express the meeting of these
+sinuses. From the torcular the blood is drained away by two large
+sinuses, named <i>lateral</i>, which curve forward and downward to the
+jugular foramina to terminate in the internal jugular veins. In
+its course each lateral sinus receives two <i>petrosal</i> sinuses, which pass
+from the cavernous sinus backwards along the upper and lower
+borders of the petrous part of the temporal bone. The dura mater
+consists of a tough, fibrous membrane, somewhat flocculent externally,
+but smooth, glistening, and free on its inner surface. The
+inner surface has the appearance of a serous membrane, and when
+examined microscopically is seen to consist of a layer of squamous
+endothelial cells. Hence the dura mater is sometimes called a fibro-serous
+membrane. The dura mater is well provided with lymph
+vessels, which in all probability open by stomata on the free inner
+surface. Between the dura mater and the subjacent arachnoid
+membrane is a fine space containing a minute quantity of limpid
+serum, which moistens the smooth inner surface of the dura and the
+corresponding smooth outer surface of the arachnoid. It is regarded
+as equivalent to the cavity of a serous membrane, and is named the
+<i>sub-dural space</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arachnoid Mater.</i>&mdash;The arachnoid is a membrane of great delicacy
+and transparency, which loosely envelops both the brain and spinal
+cord. It is separated from these organs by the pia mater; but
+between it and the latter membrane is a distinct space, called <i>sub-arachnoid</i>.
+The sub-arachnoid space is more distinctly marked
+beneath the spinal than beneath the cerebral parts of the membrane,
+which forms a looser investment for the cord than for the brain. At
+the base of the brain, and opposite the fissures between the convolutions
+of the cerebrum, the interval between the arachnoid and the pia
+mater can, however, always be seen, for the arachnoid does not, like
+the pia mater, clothe the sides of the fissures, but passes directly
+across between the summits of adjacent convolutions. The sub-arachnoid
+space is subdivided into numerous freely-communicating
+loculi by bundles of delicate areolar tissue, which bundles are invested,
+as Key and Retzius have shown, by a layer of squamous
+endothelium. The space contains a limpid cerebro-spinal fluid, which
+varies in quantity from 2 drachms to 2 oz., and is most plentiful
+in the dilatations at the base of the brain known as <i>cisternae</i>. It
+should be clearly understood that there is no communication between
+the subdural and sub-arachnoid spaces, but that the latter communicates
+with the ventricles through openings in the roof of the
+fourth, and in the descending cornua of the lateral ventricles.</p>
+
+<p>When the skull cap is removed, clusters of granular bodies are
+usually to be seen imbedded in the dura mater on each side of the
+superior longitudinal sinus; these are named the <i>Pacchionian bodies</i>.
+When traced through the dura mater they are found to spring from
+the arachnoid. The observations of Luschka and Cleland have
+proved that villous processes invariably grow from the free surface
+of that membrane, and that when these villi greatly increase in size
+they form the bodies in question. Sometimes the Pacchionian
+bodies greatly hypertrophy, occasioning absorption of the bones of the
+cranial vault and depressions on the upper surface of the brain.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:525px; height:442px" src="images/img392b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">After D.J. Cunningham&rsquo;s <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Front View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon
+of a full-time Human Foetus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Pia Mater.</i>&mdash;This membrane closely invests the whole outer surface
+of the brain. It dips into the fissures between the convolutions, and
+a wide prolongation, named <i>velum interpositum</i>, lies in the interior
+of the cerebrum. With a little care it can be stripped off the brain
+without causing injury to its substance. At the base of the brain
+the pia mater is prolonged on to the roots of the cranial nerves.
+This membrane consists of a delicate connective tissue, in which
+the arteries of the brain and spinal cord ramify and subdivide into
+small branches before they penetrate the nervous substance, and in
+which the veins conveying the blood from the nerve centres lie before
+they open into the blood sinuses of the cranial dura mater and the
+extradural venus plexus of the spinal canal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Medulla Oblongata.</i></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Medulla Oblongata</i> rests upon the basi-occipital. It is somewhat
+pyramidal in form, about 1¼ in. long, and 1 in. broad in its widest
+part. It is a bilateral organ, and is divided into a right
+and a left half by shallow anterior and posterior median
+fissures, continuous with the corresponding fissures in
+the spinal cord; the posterior fissure ends above in the
+fourth ventricle. Each half is subdivided into elongated
+tracts of nervous matter. Next to, and parallel with
+the anterior fissure is the <i>anterior pyramid</i> (see fig. 2).
+This pyramid is continuous below with the cord, and
+the place of continuity is marked by the passage across
+the fissure of three or four bundles of nerve fibres,
+from each half of the cord to the opposite anterior
+pyramid; this crossing is called the <i>decussation of the
+pyramids</i>. To the side of the pyramid, and separated
+from it by a faint fissure, is the <i>olivary fasciculus</i>,
+which at its upper end is elevated into the projecting
+oval-shaped <i>olivary body</i>. Behind the olivary body
+in the lower half of the medulla are three tracts
+named from before backward the <i>funiculus of
+Rolando</i>, the <i>funiculus cuneatus</i> and the <i>funiculus
+gracilis</i> (see fig. 3). The two <i>funiculi graciles</i> of
+opposite sides are in contact in the mid dorsal line
+and have between them the <i>postero median</i> fissure.
+When the fourth ventricle is reached they diverge to
+form the lower limit of that diamond-shaped space
+and are slightly swollen to form the <i>clavae</i>. All these
+three bundles appear to be continued up into the
+cerebellum as the restiform bodies or inferior cerebellar
+peduncles, but really the continuity is very
+slight, as the restiform bodies are formed from the
+direct cerebellar tracts of the spinal cord joining with
+the superficial arcuate fibres which curve back just
+below the olivary bodies. The upper part of the fourth
+ventricle is bounded by the superior cerebellar
+peduncles which meet just before the inferior quadrigeminal
+bodies are reached. Stretching across between
+them is the superior medullary velum or valve of
+Vieussens, forming the upper part of the roof, while the inferior
+velum forms the lower part, and has an opening called the <i>foramen</i>
+of Majendie, through which the sub-arachnoid space communicates
+with the ventricle. The floor (see fig. 3) has two triangular
+depressions on each side of a median furrow; these are the superior
+and inferior <i>fovea</i>, the significance of which will be noticed in the
+development of the rhombencephalon. Running horizontally across
+the middle of the floor are the <i>striae acusticae</i> which are continued
+into the auditory nerve. The floor of the fourth ventricle is of special
+interest because a little way from the surface are the deep origins of
+all the cranial nerves from the fifth to the twelfth. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nerve</a></span>,
+<i>cranial</i>). If a section is made transversely through the medulla
+about the apex of the fourth ventricle three important bundles of
+fibres are cut close to the mid line on each side (see fig. 4). The
+most anterior is the pyramid or motor tract, the decussation of
+which has been seen. Behind this is the mesial fillet or sensory tract,
+which has also decussated a little below the point of section, while
+farther back still is the posterior longitudinal bundle which is coming
+up from the anterior basis bundle of the cord. External to and
+behind the pyramid is the crenated section of the olivary nucleus,
+the surface bulging of which forms the olivary body.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:496px" src="images/img393a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy.</i></span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Back View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of
+a full-time Human Foetus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:638px; height:500px" src="images/img393b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy.</i></span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Transverse Section through the Human Medulla in the
+Lower Olivary Region.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The grey matter of the medulla oblongata, which contains numerous
+multipolar nerve cells, is in part continuous with the grey
+matter of the spinal cord, and in part consists of independent masses.
+As the grey matter of the cord enters the medulla it loses its crescentic
+arrangement. The posterior cornua are thrown outwards
+towards the surface, lose their pointed form, and dilate into rounded
+masses named the grey tubercles of Rolando. The grey matter of
+the anterior cornua is cut off from the rest by the decussating
+pyramids and finally disappears. The <i>formatio reticularis</i> which is
+feebly developed in the cord becomes well developed in the medulla.
+In the lower part of the medulla a central canal continuous with
+that of the cord exists, but when the clavae on the opposite sides of
+the medulla diverge from each other, the central canal loses its
+posterior boundary, and dilates into the cavity of the fourth ventricle.
+The grey matter in the interior of the medulla appears, therefore, on
+the floor of the ventricle and is continuous with the grey matter near
+the central canal of the cord. This grey matter forms collections
+of nerve cells, which are the centres of origin of several cranial
+nerves. Crossing the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata,
+immediately below the pons, in the majority of mammals is a transverse
+arrangement of fibres forming the <i>trapezium</i>, which contains
+a grey nucleus, named by van der Kolk the <i>superior olive</i>. In the
+human brain the trapezium is concealed by the lower transverse
+fibres of the pons, but when sections are made through it, as L. Clarke
+pointed out, the grey matter of the superior olive can be seen. These
+fibres of the <i>trapezium</i> come from the cochlear nucleus of the auditory
+nerve, and run up as the lateral fillet.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pons Varolii</i> or <span class="sc">Bridge</span> is cuboidal in form (see fig. 2): its
+anterior surface rests upon the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid, and is
+marked by a median longitudinal groove; its inferior surface receives
+the pyramidal and olivary tracts of the medulla oblongata; at its
+superior surface are the two crura cerebri; each lateral surface is
+in relation to a hemisphere of the cerebellum, and a peduncle passes
+from the pons into the interior of each hemisphere; the posterior
+surface forms in part the upper portion of the floor of the fourth
+ventricle, and in part is in contact with the corpora quadrigemina.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:733px; height:638px" src="images/img394a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Section through the Lower Part of the Human Pons Varolli immediately above
+the Medulla.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pons consists of white and grey matter: the nerve fibres of
+the white matter pass through the substance of the pons, in either
+a transverse or a longitudinal direction. The transverse fibres go
+from one hemisphere of the cerebellum to that of the opposite side;
+some are situated on the anterior surface of the pons, and form its
+superficial transverse fibres, whilst others pass through its substance
+and form the deep transverse fibres. The longitudinal fibres ascend
+from the medulla oblongata and leave the pons by emerging from
+its upper surface as fibres of the two crura cerebri. The pons possesses
+a median raphe continuous with that of the medulla oblongata,
+and formed like it by a decussation of fibres in the mesial plane.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span>
+In a horizontal section through the pons and upper part of the fourth
+ventricle the superficial transverse fibres are seen most anteriorly;
+then come the anterior pyramidal fibres, then the deep transverse
+pontine fibres, then the fillet, while most posteriorly and close to the
+floor of the fourth ventricle the posterior longitudinal bundle is
+seen (see fig. 5).</p>
+
+<p>The grey matter of the pons is scattered irregularly through its
+substance, and appears on its posterior surface; but not on the
+anterior surface, composed exclusively
+of the superficial transverse fibres.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Cerebellum.</i></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cerebellum</i>, <span class="sc">Little Brain</span>, or
+<span class="sc">After Brain</span> occupies the inferior pair
+of occipital fossae, and lies below the
+plane of the tentorium cerebelli. It
+consists of two hemispheres or lateral
+lobes, and of a median or central lobe,
+which in human anatomy is called the
+vermis. It is connected below with
+the medulla oblongata by the two
+restiform bodies which form its <i>inferior
+peduncles</i>, and above with the corpora
+quadrigemina of the cerebrum by two
+bands, which form its <i>superior peduncles</i>;
+whilst the two hemispheres
+are connected together by the transverse
+fibres of the pons, which form the
+<i>middle peduncles</i> of the cerebellum. On
+the superior or tentorial surface of the
+cerebellum the median or vermiform
+lobe is a mere elevation, but on its
+inferior or occipital surface this lobe
+forms a well-defined process, which lies
+at the bottom of a deep fossa or <i>vallecula</i>;
+this fossa is prolonged to the
+posterior border of the cerebellum,
+and forms there a deep notch which
+separates the two hemispheres from
+each other; in this notch the falx
+cerebelli is lodged. Extending horizontally
+backwards from the middle cerebellar peduncle, along the
+outer border of each hemisphere is the <i>great horizontal fissure</i>, which
+divides the hemisphere into its tentorial and occipital surfaces.
+Each of these surfaces is again subdivided by fissures into smaller
+lobes, of which the most important are the <i>amygdala</i> or <i>tonsil</i>, which
+forms the lateral boundary of the anterior part of the vallecula, and
+the <i>flocculus</i>, which is situated immediately behind the middle
+peduncle of the cerebellum. The inferior
+vermiform process is subdivided into a
+posterior part or <i>pyramid</i>; an elevation
+or <i>uvula</i>, situated between the two
+tonsils; and an anterior pointed process
+or <i>nodule</i>. Stretching between the two
+flocculi, and attached midway to the sides
+of the nodule, is a thin, white, semilunar-shaped
+plate of nervous matter, called
+the inferior <i>medullary velum</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:447px" src="images/img394b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;Mesial section through the Corpus Callosum, the Mesencephalon, the Pons, Medulla and
+Cerebellum. Showing the third and fourth ventricles joined by the aqueduct of Sylvius.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The whole outer surface of the cerebellum
+possesses a characteristic foliated
+or laminated appearance, due to its subdivision
+into multitudes of thin plates
+or lamellae by numerous fissures. The
+cerebellum consists of both grey and
+white matter. The grey matter forms
+the exterior or cortex of the lamellae,
+and passes from one to the other across
+the bottoms of the several fissures. The
+white matter lies in the interior of the
+organ, and extends into the core of each
+lamella. When a vertical section is made
+through the organ, the prolongations of
+white matter branching off into the interior
+of the several lamellae give to the
+section an arborescent appearance, known
+by the fanciful name of <i>arbor vitae</i> (see
+fig. 6). Independent masses of grey
+matter are, however, found in the interior
+of the cerebellum. If the hemisphere
+be cut through a little to the outer
+side of the median lobe, a zigzag arrangement
+of grey matter, similar in appearance
+and structure to the nucleus of the
+olivary body in the medulla oblongata,
+and known as the <i>corpus dentatum</i> of the
+cerebellum, is seen; it lies in the midst
+of the white core of the hemisphere, and
+encloses white fibres, which leave the
+interior of the corpus at its inner and
+lower side. On the mesial side of this
+<i>corpus dentatum</i> lie three smaller nuclei.
+The white matter is more abundant in the
+hemispheres than in the median lobe, and
+is for the most part directly continuous with the fibres of the peduncles
+of the cerebellum. Thus the restiform or inferior peduncles
+pass from below upward through the white core, to end in the
+grey matter of the tentorial surface of the cerebellum, more especially
+in that of the central lobe; on their way they are connected with the
+grey matter of the corpus dentatum. The superior peduncles, which
+descend from the corpora quadrigemina of the cerebrum, form
+connexions mainly with the corpus dentatum. The middle peduncles
+form a large proportion of the white core, and their fibres terminate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span>
+in the grey matter of the foliated cortex of the hemispheres. It
+has been noticed that those fibres which are lowest in the pons go
+to the upper surface of the cerebellum and vice versa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histology of the Cerebellum.</i>&mdash;The white centre of the cerebellum
+is composed of numbers of medullated nerve fibres coursing to and
+from the grey matter of the cortex. These fibres are supported in
+a groundwork of neuroglial tissue, their nutrition being supplied
+by a small number of blood vessels.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:491px; height:497px" src="images/img395.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Transverse Section through a Cerebellar Folium (after
+Kölliker). Treated by the Golgi method.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>P.    Axon of cell of Purkinje.</p>
+<p>F.    Moss fibres.</p>
+<p>K and K<span class="sp">1</span>. Fibres from white core
+      of folium ending in molecular
+      layer in connexion with the
+      dendrites of the cells of
+      Purkinje.</p>
+<p>M.    Small cell of the molecular
+      layer</p>
+<p>GR.   Granule cell.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>GR<span class="sp">1</span>.  Axons of granule cells in
+      molecular layer cut
+      transversely.</p>
+<p>M<span class="sp">1</span>.   Basket-cells.</p>
+<p>ZK.   Basket-work around the
+      cells of Purkinje.</p>
+<p>GL.   Neuroglial cell.</p>
+<p>N.    Axon of an association
+      cell.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The cortex (see fig. 7) consists of a thin layer of grey material
+forming an outer coat of somewhat varying thickness over the whole
+external surface of the laminae of the organ. When examined
+microscopically it is found to be made up of two layers, an outer
+&ldquo;molecular&rdquo; and an inner &ldquo;granular&rdquo; layer. Forming a layer
+lying at the junction of these two are a number of cells, the <i>cells
+of Purkinje</i>, which constitute the most characteristic feature of the
+cerebellum. The bodies of these cells are pear-shaped. Their inner
+ends taper and finally end in a nerve fibre which may be traced into
+the white centre. In their course through the granule layer they give
+off a number of branching collaterals, some turning back and passing
+between the cells of Purkinje into the molecular layer. Their inner
+ends terminate in one or sometimes two stout processes which
+repeatedly branch dichotomously, thus forming a very elaborate
+dendron in the molecular layer. The branchings of this dendron
+are also highly characteristic in that they are approximately restricted
+to a single plane like an espalier fruit tree, and those for
+neighbouring cells are all parallel to one another and at right angles
+to the general direction of the folium to which they belong. In
+the molecular layer are found two types of cells. The most abundant
+are the so-called <i>basket cells</i> which are distributed through the
+whole thickness of the layer. They have a rounded body giving
+off many branching dendrons to their immediate neighbourhood
+and one long neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface and to the
+long axis of the lamina. In its course, this gives off numerous
+collaterals which run downward to the bodies of Purkinje&rsquo;s cells.
+Their terminal branchings together with similar terminals of other
+collaterals form the basket-work around the bodies of these cells.</p>
+
+<p>The granular layer is sometimes termed the rust-coloured layer
+from its appearance to the naked eye. It contains two types of
+nerve cells, the small granule cells and the large granule cells. The
+former are the more numerous. They give off a number of short
+dendrites with claw-like endings, and a fine non-medullated neuraxon
+process. This runs upward to the cortex, where it divides into two
+branches in the form of a T. The branches run for some distance
+parallel to the axis of the folium and terminate in unbranched ends.
+The large granule cells are multipolar cells, many of the branchings
+penetrating well into the molecular layer. The neuraxon process
+turns into the opposite direction and forms a richly branching
+system through the entire thickness of the granular layer. There
+is also an abundant plexus of fine medullated fibres within the granule
+layer.</p>
+
+<p>The fibres of the white central matter are partly centrifugal, the
+neuraxons of the cells of Purkinje, and partly centripetal. The
+position of the cells of these latter fibres is not known. The fibres
+give rise to an abundant plexus of fibrils in the granular layer, and
+many reaching into the molecular layer ramify there, especially in
+the immediate neighbourhood of the dendrites of Purkinje&rsquo;s cells.
+From the appearance of their plexus of fibrils these are sometimes
+called <i>moss fibres</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Fourth Ventricle</i> is the dilated upper end of the central canal
+of the medulla oblongata. Its shape is like an heraldic lozenge. Its
+floor is formed by the grey matter of the posterior surfaces of the
+medulla oblongata and pons, already described (see figs. 3 and 6);
+its roof partly by the inferior vermis of the cerebellum, the <i>nodule</i>
+of which projects into its cavity, and partly by a thin layer, called
+<i>valve of Vieussens</i>, or superior <i>medullary velum</i>; its lower lateral
+boundaries by the divergent clavae and restiform bodies; its upper
+lateral boundaries by the superior peduncles of the cerebellum.
+The <i>inferior medullary velum</i>, a reflection of the pia mater and epithelium
+from the back of the medulla to the inferior vermis, closes
+it in below. Above, it communicates with the <i>aqueduct of Sylvius</i>,
+which is tunnelled below the substance of the corpora quadrigemina.
+Along the centre of the floor is the median furrow, which terminates
+below in a pen-shaped form, the so-called <i>calamus scriptorius.</i> Situated
+on its floor are the fasciculi teretes, striae acusticae, and
+deposits of grey matter described in connexion with the medulla
+oblongata. Its epithelial lining is continuous with that of the central
+canal.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Cerebrum.</i></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cerebrum</i> or <span class="sc">Great Brain</span> lies above the plane of the tentorium,
+and forms much the largest division of the encephalon. It
+is customary in human anatomy to include under the name of cerebrum,
+not only the convolutions, the corpora striata, and the optic
+thalami, developed in the anterior cerebral vesicle, but also the
+corpora quadrigemina and crura cerebri developed in the mesencephalon
+or middle cerebral vesicle. The cerebrum is ovoid in shape,
+and presents superiorly, anteriorly and posteriorly a deep <i>median
+longitudinal fissure</i>, which subdivides it into two hemispheres.
+Inferiorly there is a continuity of structure between the two hemispheres
+across the mesial plane, and if the two hemispheres be drawn
+asunder by opening out the longitudinal fissure, a broad white band,
+the <i>corpus callosum</i>, may be seen at the bottom of the fissure passing
+across the mesial plane from one hemisphere to the other. The
+outer surface of each hemisphere is convex, and adapted in shape
+to the concavity of the inner table of the cranial bones; its inner
+surface, which bounds the longitudinal fissure, is flat and is separated
+from the opposite hemisphere by the falx cerebri; its under surface,
+where it rests on the tentorium, is concave, and is separated by that
+membrane from the cerebellum and pons. From the front of the
+pons two strong white bands, the <i>crura cerebri</i> or <i>cerebral peduncles</i>,
+pass forward and upward (see fig. 2). Winding round the outer side
+of each crus is a flat white band, the <i>optic tract</i>. These tracts converge
+in front, and join to form the <i>optic commissure</i>, from which
+the two <i>optic nerves</i> arise. The crura cerebri, optic tracts, and optic
+commissure enclose a lozenge-shaped space, which includes&mdash;(<i>a</i>) a
+grey layer, which, from being perforated by several small arteries, is
+called <i>locus perforatus posticus</i>; (<i>b</i>) two white mammillae, the
+<i>corpora albicantia</i>; (<i>c</i>) a grey nodule, the <i>tuber cinereum</i>, from which
+(<i>d</i>) the <i>infundibulum</i> projects to join the <i>pituitary body</i>. Immediately
+in front of the optic commissure is a grey layer, the <i>lamina cinerea</i>
+of the third ventricle; and between the optic commissure and the
+inner end of each Sylvian fissure is a grey spot perforated by small
+arteries, the <i>locus perforatus anticus</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:717px; height:571px" src="images/img396a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Transverse Section through the Human Mesencephalon at the level of the
+superior Quadrigeminal Body.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If a transverse section is made at right angles to the surface of
+the crura cerebri it will pass right through the mesencephalon and
+come out on the dorsal side through the corpora quadrigemina (see
+fig. 8). The ventral part of each crus forms the crusta, which is the
+continuation forward of the anterior pyramidal fibres of the medulla
+and pons, and is the great motor path from the brain to the cord.
+Dorsal to this is a layer of pigmented grey matter, called the <i>substantia
+nigra</i>, and dorsal to this again is the tegmentum, which is a
+continuation upward of the formatio reticularis of the medulla,
+and passing through it are seen three important nerve bundles.
+The superior cerebellar peduncle is the most internal of these and
+decussates with its fellow of the opposite side so that the two tegmenta
+are continuous across the middle line. More externally the
+mesial fillet is seen, while dorsal to the cerebellar peduncle is the
+posterior longitudinal bundle. If the section happens to pass
+through the superior corpus quadrigeminum a characteristic circular
+area appears between the cerebellar peduncle and the fillet, which,
+from its tint, is called the red nucleus. More dorsally still the section
+will pass through the Sylvian aqueduct or passage from the third to
+the fourth ventricle, and this is surrounded by a mass of grey matter
+in the ventral part of which are the nuclei of the third and fourth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span>
+nerves. The third nerve is seen at the level of the superior corpus
+quadrigeminum running from its nucleus of origin, through the red
+nucleus, to a groove on the inner side of the crus called the <i>oculo-motor</i>
+groove, which marks the separation between the crusta and
+tegmentum. Dorsal to the Sylvian aqueduct is a layer called the
+<i>lamina quadrigemina</i> and on this the corpora quadrigemina rest.
+The superior pair of these bodies is overlapped
+by the pineal body and forms part of the lower
+visual centres. Connexions can be traced to the
+optic tract, the higher visual centre on the mesial
+surface of the occipital lobe, the deep origin of
+the third or oculo-motor nerve as well as to the
+mesial and lateral fillet. The inferior pair of
+quadrigeminal bodies are more closely in touch
+with the organs of hearing, and are connected by
+the lateral fillet with the cochlear nucleus of the
+auditory nerve.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Surface of the Brain</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The peripheral part of each hemisphere, which
+consists of grey matter, exhibits a characteristic
+folded appearance, known as gyri (or convolutions)
+of the cerebrum. These gyri are separated
+from each other by <i>fissures</i> and <i>sulci</i>, some of
+which are considered to subdivide the hemisphere
+into lobes, whilst others separate the gyri in
+each lobe from each other. In each hemisphere
+of the human brain five lobes are recognized: the
+temporo-sphenoidal, frontal, parietal, occipital,
+and the central lobe or Island of Reil; it should,
+however, be realized that these lobes do not
+exactly correspond to the outlines of the bones
+after which they are named. Passing obliquely
+on the outer face of the hemisphere from before,
+upward and backward, is the well marked <i>Sylvian
+fissure</i> (fig. 9, <i>s</i>), which is the first to appear in the
+development of the hemisphere. Below it lies the
+temporo-sphenoidal lobe, and above and in front of
+it, the parietal and frontal lobes. As soon as it
+appears on the external surface of the brain the
+fissure divides into three limbs, anterior horizontal
+(<i>s</i><span class="sp">1</span>), ascending (s<span class="sp">2</span>), and posterior horizontal
+(<i>s</i><span class="sp">3</span>), the latter being by far the longest. The place
+whence these diverge is the Sylvian point and
+corresponds to the pterion on the surface of the
+skull (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: <i>Superficial and Artistic</i>).
+Between these three limbs and the vallecula or
+main stem of the fissure are four triangular
+tongues or opercula; these are named, according
+to their position, orbital (fig. 9, C), frontal
+(pars triangularis) (B), fronto-parietal (pars
+basilaris) (A) and temporal. The frontal lobe
+is separated from the parietal by the <i>fissure
+of Rolando</i> (fig. 9, <i>r</i>) which extends on the
+outer face of the hemisphere from the
+longitudinal fissure obliquely downward
+and forward towards the Sylvian fissure.
+About 2 in. from the hinder end of the
+hemisphere is the <i>parieto-occipital fissure</i>,
+which, commencing at the longitudinal
+fissure, passes down the inner surface of the
+hemisphere, and transversely outwards for
+a short distance on the outer surface of the
+hemisphere; it separates the parietal and
+occipital lobes from each other.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:672px; height:412px" src="images/img396b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Gyri and Sulci, on the outer surface of the Cerebral Hemisphere.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>f</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Sulcus frontalis superior.</p>
+<p><i>f</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Sulcus frontalis inferior.</p>
+<p><i>f.m</i>, Sulcus frontalis medius.</p>
+<p><i>p.m</i>, Sulcus paramedialis.</p>
+<p>A, Pars basilaris.</p>
+<p>B, Pars triangularis.</p>
+<p>C, Pars orbitalis.</p>
+<p>S, Sylvian fissure.</p>
+<p><i>s</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Anterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure).</p>
+<p><i>s</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Ascending limb (Sylvian fissure).</p>
+<p><i>s</i><span class="sp">3</span>. Posterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure).</p>
+<p><i>s.asc</i>, Ascending terminal part of the posterior
+  horizontal limb of the Sylvianfissure.</p>
+<p><i>p.c.i</i>, Inferior praecentral sulcus.</p>
+<p><i>p.c.s</i>, Superior praecentral sulcus.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>r</i>, Fissure of Rolando.</p>
+<p><i>g.s</i>, Superior genu.</p>
+<p><i>g.i</i>, Inferior genu.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Sulcus diagonalis.</p>
+<p><i>t</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Superior temporal sulcus (parallel sulcus).</p>
+<p><i>t</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Inferior temporal sulcus.</p>
+<p><i>p</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Inferior postcentral sulcus.</p>
+<p><i>p</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Superior postcentral sulcus.</p>
+<p><i>p</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Ramus horizontalis.</p>
+<p><i>p</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Ramus occipitalis.</p>
+<p><i>s.o.t</i>, Sulcus occipitalis transversus.</p>
+<p><i>occ</i>. lat, Sulcus occipitalis lateralis (the
+  sulcus lunatus of Elliot Smith).</p>
+<p><i>c.m</i>, Calloso-marginal sulcus.</p>
+<p><i>c.t.r</i>, Inferior transverse furrow.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:461px" src="images/img397a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;Orbital surface of the left
+frontal lobe and the island of Reil; the
+tip of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe has
+been removed to display the latter.<br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>17. Convolution of the margin of the
+      longitudinal fissure.</p>
+<p>O. Olfactory fissure, over which the
+      olfactory peduncle and lobe are
+      situated.</p>
+<p>TR. Orbital sulcus.</p>
+<p>1&Prime; 1&Prime;&prime;. Convolutions on the orbital
+      suface.</p>
+<p>1,1,1,1. Under surface of infero-frontal
+      convolution.</p>
+<p>4. Under surface of ascending frontal;
+      and 5, of ascending parietal convolutions.</p>
+<p>C. Central lobe or insula.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The <i>Temporo-Sphenoidal Lobe</i> presents
+on the outer surface of the hemisphere
+three convolutions, arranged in parallel <i>tiers</i>
+from above downward, and named <i>superior,
+middle and inferior temporal</i> gyri. The
+fissure which separates the superior and
+middle of these convolutions is called the
+<i>parallel fissure</i> (fig. 9, <i>t</i><span class="sp">1</span>). The <i>Occipital
+Lobe</i> also consists from above downwards
+of three parallel gyri, named <i>superior,
+middle and inferior occipital</i>. The <i>Frontal
+Lobe</i> is more complex; immediately in
+front of the fissure of Rolando, and forming
+indeed its anterior boundary, is a convolution
+named <i>ascending frontal</i> or pre-central,
+which ascends obliquely backward and
+upward from the Sylvian to the longitudinal
+fissure. Springing from the front of this
+gyrus, and passing forward to the anterior
+end of the cerebrum, are three gyri, arranged
+in parallel <i>tiers</i> from above downwards, and
+named <i>superior, middle and inferior frontal</i>
+gyri, which are also prolonged on to the
+orbital face of the frontal lobe. The <i>Parietal
+Lobe</i> is also complex; its most anterior
+gyrus, named <i>ascending parietal</i> or post-central, ascends parallel
+to and immediately behind the fissure of Rolando. Springing from
+the upper end of the back of this gyrus is the supra-parietal lobule,
+which, forming the boundary of the longitudinal fissure, extends as
+far back as the parieto-occipital fissure; springing from the lower
+end of the back of this gyrus is the <i>supra-marginal</i>, which forms the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span>
+upper boundary of the hinder part of the Sylvian fissure; as this
+gyrus occupies the hollow in the parietal bone, which corresponds
+to the eminence, it may appropriately be named the <i>gyrus</i> of the
+<i>parietal eminence</i>. Above and behind the gyrus of the parietal
+eminence is the <i>angular
+gyrus</i>, which bends round
+the posterior extremity of
+the parallel fissure, while
+arching over the hinder end
+of the inferior temporo-sphenoidal
+sulcus is the
+post-parietal gyrus. Lying
+in the parietal lobe is the
+<i>intra-parietal</i> fissure (fig. 9,
+<i>p</i><span class="sp">3</span> and <i>p</i><span class="sp">4</span>), which separates
+the gyrus of the parietal
+eminence from the supra-parietal
+lobule.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Central Lobe</i> of the
+hemisphere, more usually
+called the <i>insula</i> or <i>island
+of Reil</i>, does not come to the
+surface of the hemisphere,
+but lies deeply within the
+Sylvian fissure, the opercula
+forming the margin of
+which, conceal it. It consists
+of four or five short
+gyri, which radiate from
+the <i>locus perforatus anticus</i>,
+situated at the inner end of
+the fissure. This lobe is
+almost entirely surrounded
+by a deep sulcus called
+the limiting sulcus of Reil,
+which insulates it from
+the adjacent gyri. It lies
+opposite the upper part of
+the ali-sphenoid, where it
+articulates with the parietal
+and squamous-temporal.</p>
+
+<p>In front of the central
+lobe, on the base of the
+brain, are the <i>orbital gyri</i>,
+which are separated from
+one another by the <i>orbital
+sulcus</i>. This is usually
+H-shaped, and the gyri
+are therefore anterior,
+posterior, external and internal.
+Bisecting the internal
+orbital gyrus is an
+antero-posteripr sulcus (<i>s. rectus</i>), beneath which lies the olfactory
+lobe, bulbous in front, for the olfactory nerves to arise from.</p>
+
+<p>On the mesial surface of the hemisphere, as seen when the brain is
+longitudinally bisected and the cerebellum and medulla removed by
+cutting through the crus cerebri (see fig. 11), the
+divided corpus callosum is the most central
+object, while below it are seen the fornix, septum
+lucidum and third ventricle, the description of
+which will follow. The cerebral surface, above
+and in front of the corpus callosum, is divided
+into two by a sulcus, the contour of which
+closely resembles that of the upper margin of
+the corpus callosum. This is the <i>calloso-marginal
+sulcus</i>, so called because it separates the callosal
+gyrus, which lies between it and the corpus
+callosum, from the marginal gyri nearer the
+margin of the brain. When the sulcus reaches
+a point vertically above the hind end of the
+corpus callosum it turns sharply upward and so
+forms the hinder limit of the marginal gyri, the
+posterior inch or two of which is more or less
+distinctly marked off to form the <i>paracentral
+lobule</i>, where the upper part of the central fissure
+of Rolando turns over the margin of the brain.
+The callosal gyrus, which is also called the
+gyrus fornicatus from its arched appearance, is
+continued backward round the posterior end of
+the corpus callosum, and so to the mesial surface
+of the temporal lobe. Behind the upturned end
+of the calloso-marginal sulcus there is a square
+area which is called the <i>precuneus</i> or <i>quadrate
+lobe</i>; it is bounded behind by the deeply cut
+internal parieto-occipital fissure and this runs
+from the margin of the brain downward and
+forward to join another fissure, the calcarine, at an acute angle,
+thus enclosing a wedge-shaped piece of brain called the <i>cuneus</i>
+between them. The <i>calcarine</i> fissure is fairly horizontal, and is
+joined about its middle by the internal parieto-occipital, so that the
+part in front of the junction is called the <i>pre-calcarine</i>, and that behind
+the <i>post-calcarine</i> fissure. The internal parieto-occipital and calcarine
+are real fissures, because they cause an elevation in the
+interior of the brain, known as the hippocampus minor. Just in
+front of the anterior end of the calcarine fissure the callosal gyrus is
+constricted to form the isthmus which connects it with the hippocampal
+or uncinate gyrus. Below the calcarine fissure is a gyrus
+called the <i>gyrus lingualis</i>, and this is bounded below by another
+true fissure, the <i>collateral</i>, which runs parallel to the calcarine, but
+is continued much farther forward into the temporal lobe and so
+forms the lower boundary of the hippocampal gyrus. It will thus
+be seen that the hippocampal gyrus is continuous posteriorly with
+the callosal gyrus above by means of the isthmus, and with the gyrus
+lingualis below. The hippocampal gyrus is bounded above by the
+dentate or hippocampal fissure which causes the hippocampus major
+in the descending cornu and so is a complete fissure. If its lips are
+separated the fascia dentata or gyrus dentatus and the fimbria
+continued from the posterior pillar of the fornix are seen. Anteriorly
+the fissure is arrested by the recurved process of the upper part of the
+hippocampal gyrus, called the <i>uncus</i>, and in front of this a slight
+sulcus, the <i>incisura temporalis</i>, marks off the temporal pole or tip
+of the temporal lobe from the region of the uncus. It will be seen
+that the callosal gyrus, isthmus, and hippocampal gyrus form
+nearly a complete ring, and to this the name of <i>limbic lobe</i> is given.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Interior of the Cerebrum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If a horizontal slice be removed from the upper part of each
+hemisphere (see fig. 12), the peripheral grey matter of the gyri will
+be seen to follow their various windings, whilst the core of each gyrus
+consists of white matter continuous with a mass of white matter
+in the interior of the hemisphere. If a deeper slice be now made
+down to the plane of the corpus callosum, the white matter of that
+structure will be seen to be continuous with the white centre of
+each hemisphere known as the centrum ovale. The <i>corpus callosum</i>
+does not equal the hemispheres in length, but approaches nearer to
+their anterior than their posterior ends. It terminates behind in a
+free rounded end, named the splenium (see fig. 11), whilst in front
+it forms a knee-shaped bend, and passes downwards and backwards
+as far as the lamina cinerea. If the dissection be performed on a
+brain which has been hardened in spirit, the corpus callosum is seen
+to consist almost entirely of bundles of nerve fibres, passing transversely
+across the mesial plane between the two hemispheres; these
+fibres may be traced into the white cores and grey matter of the
+gyri, and connect the gyri, though by no means always corresponding
+ones, in the opposite hemispheres. Hence the corpus callosum is a connecting
+or commissural structure, which brings the gyri of the two
+hemispheres into anatomical and physiological relation with each
+other. On the surface of the corpus callosum a few fibres, the <i>striae
+longitudinales</i>, run in the antero-posterior or longitudinal direction
+(see fig. 12, <i>b</i>). Their morphological interest is referred to in the
+section below on <i>Comparative Anatomy</i>. In the sulcus between the
+corpus callosum and the limbic lobe a narrow band of fibres called
+the <i>cingulum</i> is seen, most of its fibres only run a short distance in
+it and link together adjacent parts of the brain. If the corpus
+callosum be now cut through on each side of its mesial line, the large
+cavity or <i>lateral ventricle</i> in each hemisphere will be opened into.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:682px; height:393px" src="images/img397b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-The book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;The Gyri and Sulci on the Mesial Aspect of the Cerebral Hemisphere,
+<i>r</i>, Fissure of Rolando. <i>r</i>, <i>o</i>, Rostral sulcus. <i>i</i>, <i>t</i>, Incisura temporalis.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The lateral ventricle is subdivided into a <i>central space</i> or body,
+and three bent prolongations or <i>cornua</i>; the <i>anterior cornu</i> extends
+forward, outward and downward into the frontal lobe; the <i>posterior
+cornu</i> curves backward, outward and inward into the occipital lobe;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span>
+the <i>descending cornu</i> curves backward, outward, downward, forward
+and inward, behind and below the optic thalamus into the temporo-sphenoidal
+lobe. On the floor of the central space may be seen
+from before backward the grey upper surface of the pear-shaped
+caudate nucleus of the <i>corpus striatum</i> (figs. 12 and 13, <i>f</i>), and to its
+inner and posterior part a small portion of the <i>optic thalamus</i>, whilst
+between the two is the curved flat band, the <i>taenia semicircularis</i>
+(figs. 12 and 13, <i>g</i>). Resting on the upper surface of the thalamus
+is the vascular fringe of the velum interpositum, named <i>choroid
+plexus</i>, and immediately internal to this fringe is the free edge of the
+white <i>posterior pillar of the fornix</i>. The anterior cornu has the anterior
+end of the corpus striatum projecting into it. The posterior
+cornu has an elevation on its floor, the <i>hippocampus minor</i> (fig. 12, <i>n</i>),
+and between this cornu and the descending cornu is the elevation
+called <i>eminentia collateralis</i>, formed by the collateral fissure (fig. 12, <i>o</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:416px; height:515px" src="images/img398a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;To show the Right Ventricle and the left half of the
+Corpus Callosum.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Transverse fibres, and</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Longitudinal fibres of corpus callosum.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Anterior, and</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Posterior cornua of lateral ventricle.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Septum lucidum.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Corpus striatum.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>g</i>, Taenia semicircularis.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Optic thalamus.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Choroid plexus.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Taenia hippocampi.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Hippocampus major.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Hippocampus minor.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Eminentia collateralis.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Extending down the descending cornu and following its curvature
+is the <i>hippocampus major</i>, which terminates below in a nodular end,
+the <i>pes hippocampi</i>; on its inner border is the white <i>taenia hippocampi</i>,
+continuous above with the posterior pillar of the fornix.
+If the taenia be drawn to one side the hippocampal fissure is exposed,
+at the bottom of which the grey matter of the gyrus hippocampi
+may be seen to form a well-defined dentated border (the so-called
+<i>fascia dentala</i>). The choroid plexus of the pia mater turns round the
+gyrus hippocampi, and enters the descending cornu through the
+lateral part of the great transverse fissure between the taenia hippocampi
+and optic thalamus. The lateral ventricle is lined by a
+ciliated epithelium called the <i>ependyma.</i> This lining is continuous
+through the foramen of Monro with that of the third ventricle,
+which again is continuous with the lining of the fourth ventricle
+through the aqueduct of Sylvius. A little fluid is contained in the
+cerebral ventricles, which, under some pathological conditions, may
+increase greatly in quantity, so as to occasion considerable dilatation
+of the ventricular cavities.</p>
+
+<p>If the corpus callosum be now divided about its middle by a
+transverse incision, and the posterior half of this structure be turned
+back (see fig. 13), the body of the fornix on which the corpus callosum
+rests is exposed. If the anterior half of the corpus callosum be now
+turned forward, the grey partition, or <i>septum lucidum</i>, between the
+two lateral ventricles is exposed. This septum fits into the interval
+between the under surface of the corpus callosum and the upper
+surface of the anterior part of the fornix. It consists of two layers
+of grey matter, between which is a narrow vertical mesial space,
+the <i>fifth ventricle</i> (fig. 13, <i>e</i>), and this space does not communicate
+with the other ventricles nor is it lined with ependyma. If the
+septum be now removed, the anterior part of the fornix is brought
+into view.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>fornix</i> is an arch-shaped band of nerve fibres extending in the
+antero-posterior direction. Its anterior end forms the <i>anterior</i>
+pillars of the arch, its posterior end the <i>posterior pillars</i>, whilst the
+intermediate <i>body</i> of the fornix forms the crown of the arch. It
+consists of two lateral halves, one belonging to each hemisphere.
+At the summit of the arch the two lateral halves are joined to form
+the <i>body</i>; but in front the two halves separate from each other,
+and form two anterior pillars, which descend in front of the third
+ventricle to the base of the cerebrum, where they form the <i>corpora
+albicantia</i>, and from these some white fibres called the bundle of
+Vicq d&rsquo;Azyr ascend to the optic thalamus (see fig. 11). Behind the
+body the two halves diverge much more from each other, and form
+the posterior pillars, in the triangular interval between which is a
+thin lamina of commissural fibres called the <i>lyra</i> (fig. 13, <i>a</i>). Each
+posterior pillar curves downward and outward into the descending
+cornu of the ventricle, and, under the name of <i>taenia hippocampi</i>,
+forms the mesial free border of the hippocampus major (fig. 13, <i>l</i>).
+Eventually it ends in the substance of the hippocampus and in the
+uncus of the temporal lobe. If the body of the fornix be now
+divided by a transverse incision, its anterior part thrown forward,
+and its posterior part backward, the great transverse fissure of the
+cerebrum is opened into, and the velum interpositum lying in that
+fissure is exposed.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>velum interpositum</i> is an expanded fold of pia mater, which
+passes into the anterior of the hemispheres through the great transverse
+fissure. It is triangular in shape; its base is a line with the
+posterior end of the corpus callosum, where it is continuous with the
+external pia mater; its lateral margins are fringed by the choroid
+plexuses, which are seen in the bodies and descending cornua of the
+lateral ventricles, where they are invested by the endothelial lining
+of those cavities. Its apex, where the two choroid plexuses blend
+with each other, lies just behind the anterior pillars of the fornix.
+The interval between the apex and these pillars is the aperture of
+communication between the two lateral ventricles and the third,
+already referred to as the foramen of Monro. The choroid plexuses
+contain the small <i>choroidal arteries</i>; and the blood from these is
+returned by small veins, which join to form the <i>veins of Galen.</i>
+These veins pass along the centre of the velum, and, as is shown
+in fig. 1, open into the straight sinus. If the velum interpositum
+be now carefully raised from before backward, the optic thalami,
+third ventricle, pineal body and corpora quadrigemina are exposed.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:416px; height:524px" src="images/img398b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;A deeper dissection of the Lateral Ventricle, and of the
+Velum Interpositum.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Lyra, turned back.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, Posterior pillars of the fornix, turned back.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, Anterior pillars of the fornix.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Velum interpositum and veins of Galen.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Fifth ventricle.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, Corpus striatum.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>g</i>, <i>g</i>, Taenia semicircularis.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, <i>h</i>, Optic thalamus.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, Choroid plexus.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Taenia hippocampi.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Hippocampus major in descending cornu.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Hippocampus minor.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Eminentia collateralis.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The <i>optic thalamus</i> is a large, somewhat ovoid body situated behind
+the corpus striatum, and above the crus cerebri. Its upper surface
+is partly seen in the floor of the body of the lateral ventricle, but is
+for the most part covered by the fornix and velum interpositum.
+Its postero-inferior surface forms the roof of the descending cornu
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span>
+of the ventricle, whilst its inner surface forms the side wall of the
+third ventricle. At its outer and posterior part are two slight elevations,
+in close relation to the optic tract, and named respectively
+corpus geniculatum internum and externum.</p>
+
+<p>The posterior knob-like extremity of the thalamus is called the
+<i>pulvinar</i>; this, as well as the two corpora geniculata and the superior
+corpus quadrigeminum, is connected with the optic tract.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>third ventricle</i> (see fig. 6) is a cavity situated in the mesial
+plane between the two optic thalami. Its roof is formed by the velum
+interpositum and body of the fornix; its floor by the posterior
+perforated space, corpora albicantia, tuber cinereum, infundibulum,
+and optic commissure; its anterior boundary by the anterior
+pillars of the fornix, anterior commissure and lamina cinerea; its
+posterior boundary by the corpora quadrigemina and posterior
+commissure. The cavity of this ventricle is of small size in the living
+head, for the inner surfaces of the two thalami are connected together
+by intermediate grey matter, named the <i>middle</i> or <i>soft commissure</i>.
+Immediately in front of the corpora quadrigemina, the white fibres
+of the <i>posterior commissure</i> pass across between the two optic thalami.
+If the anterior pillars of the fornix be separated from each other, the
+white fibres of the <i>anterior commissure</i> may be seen lying in front of
+them.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:570px; height:807px" src="images/img399.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;Horizontal Section through the Right Cerebral Hemisphere
+at the Level of the Widest Part of the Lenticular Nucleus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>pineal body</i> is a reddish cone-shaped body situated upon the
+anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina (see figs. 3 and 6). From
+its broad anterior end two white bands, the <i>peduncles</i> of the <i>pineal
+body</i>, pass forward, one on the inner side of each optic thalamus.
+Each peduncle joins, along with the taenia semicircularis, the
+anterior pillar of the fornix of its own side. In its structure this
+body consists of tubular gland tissue containing gritty calcareous
+particles, constituting the <i>brain sand</i>. Its morphology will be
+referred to later.</p>
+
+<p>A general idea of the internal structure of the brain is best obtained
+by studying a horizontal section made just below the level of the
+Sylvian point and just above the great transverse fissure (see fig. 14).
+Such a section will cut the corpus callosum anteriorly at the genu
+and posteriorly at the splenium, but the body is above the plane of
+section. Behind the genu the fifth ventricle is cut, and behind that
+the two pillars of the fornix which here form the anterior boundary
+of the third ventricle. At the posterior end of this is the pineal
+body, which the section has just escaped. To the outer side of the
+fornix is seen the foramen of Munro, leading into the front of the body
+and anterior horn of the lateral ventricle. It will be seen that the
+lateral boundary of this horn is the cut caudate nucleus of the corpus
+striatum, while the lateral boundary of the third ventricle is the cut
+optic thalamus, both of which bodies have been already described,
+but external to these is a third triangular grey mass, with its apex
+directed inward, which cannot be seen except in a section. This is
+the lenticular nucleus of the corpus striatum, the inner or apical
+half of which is of a light colour and is called the <i>globus pallidus</i>,
+while the basal half is reader and is known as the <i>putamen.</i> External
+to the putamen is a long narrow strip of grey matter called the
+<i>claustrum</i>, which is sometimes regarded as a third nucleus
+of the corpus striatum. These masses of grey matter, taken
+together, are the basal nuclei of the brain. Internal to the
+lenticular nucleus, and between it and the caudate nucleus
+in front and the thalamus behind, is the <i>internal capsule</i>,
+through which run most of the fibres connecting the cerebral
+cortex with the crus cerebri. The capsule adapts itself to the
+contour of the lenticular nucleus and has an anterior limb,
+a bend or genu, and a posterior limb. Just behind the genu
+of the internal capsule is a very important region, for here the
+great motor tract from the Rolandic region of the cortex
+passes on its way to the crusta and spinal cord. Besides this
+there are fibres passing from the cortex to the deep origins of
+the facial and hypo-glossal nerves. Behind the motor tracts
+are the sensory, including the fillet, the superior cerebellar
+peduncle and the inferior quadrigeminal tract, while quite at
+the back of the capsule are found the auditory and optic
+radiations linking up the higher (cortical) and lower auditory
+and visual centres. Between the putamen and the claustrum
+is the <i>external capsule</i>, which is smaller and of less importance
+than the internal, while on the lateral side of the claustrum
+is the white and then the grey matter of the central lobe.
+As the fibres of the internal capsule run up toward the cortex
+they decussate with the transverse fibres of the corpus callosum
+and spread out to form the <i>corona radiata.</i> It has only been
+possible to deal with a few of the more important bundles of
+fibres here, but it should be mentioned that much of the white
+matter of the brain is formed of association fibres which link
+up different cortical areas, and which become medullated
+and functional after birth.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Weight of the Brain.</i></p>
+
+<p>This has been the subject of a great deal of research, but
+the results are not altogether conclusive; it seems, however,
+that, although the male brain is 4 to 5 oz. heavier than that of
+the female, its relative weight to that of the body is about the
+same in the two sexes. An average male brain weighs about
+48 oz. and a female 43½ oz. The greatest absolute weight is
+found between twenty-five and thirty-five years of age in the
+male and a little later in the female. At birth the brain weighs
+comparatively much more than it does later on, its proportion
+to the body weight being about 1 to 6. At the tenth year it
+is about 1 to 14, at the twentieth 1 to 30, and after that about
+1 to 36.5. In old age there is a further slight decrease in
+proportion. In many men of great intellectual eminence the
+brain weight has been large&mdash;Cuvier&rsquo;s brain weighed 64½ oz.,
+Goodsir&rsquo;s 57½, for instance&mdash;but the exceptions are numerous.
+Brains over 60 oz. in weight are frequently found in quite
+undistinguished people, and even in idiots 60 oz. has been
+recorded. On the other hand, microcephalic idiots may have
+a brain as low as 10 or even 8½ oz., but it is doubtful whether
+normal intelligence is possible with a brain weighing less than
+32 oz. The taller the individual the greater is his brain weight,
+but short people have proportionally heavier brains than tall.
+The weight of the cerebellum is usually one-eighth of that of
+the entire brain. Attempts have been made to estimate the surface
+area of the grey matter by dissecting it off and measuring it, and
+also by covering it with gold leaf and measuring that. The results,
+however, have not been conclusive.</p>
+
+<p>Further details of the brain, abundantly illustrated, will be found
+in the later editions of any of the standard text-books on anatomy,
+references to which will be found in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: <i>Modern
+Human. Das Menschenhirn</i>, by G. Retzius (Stockholm, 1896), and
+numerous recent memoirs by G. Elliot Smith and D.J. Cunningham
+in the <i>Journ. Anat. and Phys.</i> and <i>Anatomisch Anzeig.</i>, may be
+consulted.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Histology of Cerebral Cortex.</i></p>
+
+<p>The cerebral cortex (see fig. 15) consists of a continuous sheet of
+grey matter completely enveloping the white matter of the hemispheres.
+It varies in thickness in different parts, and becomes
+thinner in old age, but all parts show a somewhat similar microscopic
+structure. Thus, in vertical section, the following layers may be
+made out:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span></p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Molecular Layer (Stratum zonale).</i>&mdash;This is made up of a
+large number of fine nerve branchings both medullated and non-medullated.
+The whole forms a close network, the fibres of which
+run chiefly a tangential course. The cells of this layer are the so-called
+<i>cells of Cajal</i>. They possess an irregular body, giving off 4 or
+5 dendrites, which terminate within the molecular layer and a long
+nerve fibre process or neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface of
+the convolution.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Layer of small Pyramidal Cells.</i>&mdash;The typical cells of this
+layer are pyramid-shaped, the apices of the pyramids being directed
+towards the surface. The apex terminates in a dendron which
+reaches into the molecular layer, giving off several collateral
+horizontal branches in its course. The final branches in the molecular
+layer take a direction parallel to the surface. Smaller dendrites
+arise from the lateral and basal surfaces of these cells, but do not
+extend far from the body of the cell. The neuraxon always arises
+from the base of the cell and passes towards the central white
+matter, thus forming one of the nerve-fibres of that substance. In
+its path it gives off a number of collaterals at right angles, which
+are distributed to the adjacent grey matter.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:504px; height:751px" src="images/img400a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="f80">From Cunningham, <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;Diagram to illustrate Minute Structure of the Cerebral Cortex.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A. Neuroglia cells.</p>
+<p>B. &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</p>
+<p>C. Cell with short axon (N) which breaks up in a free arborization.</p>
+<p>D. Spindle-shaped cell in stratum zonale.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>E. Small pyramidal cell.</p>
+<p>F. Large pyramidal cell.</p>
+<p>G. Cell of Martinotti.</p>
+<p>H. Polymorphic cell.</p>
+<p>K. Corticipetal fibres.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">3. <i>The Layer of large Pyramidal Cells.</i>&mdash;This is characterized by
+the presence of numbers of cells of the same type as those of the
+preceding layer, but of larger size. The nerve-fibre process becomes
+a medullated fibre of the white matter.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Layer of Polymorphous Cells.</i>&mdash;The cells of this layer are
+irregular in outline, and give off several dendrites branching into the
+surrounding grey matter. The neuraxon gives off a number of
+collaterals, and then becomes a nerve-fibre of the central white matter.</p>
+
+<p>Scattered through these three layers there are also a number of
+cells (<i>cells of Golgi</i>) whose neuraxon divides at once, the divisions
+terminating within the immediate vicinity of the cell-body. Some
+cells are also found in which the neuraxon, instead of running into
+the white matter of the brain, passes toward the surface; these are
+called <i>cells of Martinotti</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The medullated nerve-fibres of the white matter when traced
+into the cortex are seen to enter in bundles set vertically to the
+surface. These bundles taper and are resolved into isolated fibres
+in the upper parts of the pyramidal layers. The fibres constituting
+the bundles form two sets. (a) The centrifugal fibres consist as
+above described of the fibre processes of the pyramidal and polymorphous
+cells. (b) The centripetal fibres ascend through the cortex
+to terminate within the molecular layer by horizontally running
+branches. As they pass through they give off a number of collaterals.
+The position of the cells from which these fibres arise is not known.
+In addition to the radially arranged bundles of fibres, networks are
+formed by the interlacement with them of large numbers of fine
+medullated fibres running tangentially to the surface. These are
+derived chiefly from the collaterals of the pyramidal cells and of the
+centripetal fibres. They form two specially marked bundles, one
+within the layer of the polymorphous cells known as the <i>inner
+band of Baillarger</i>, and another in the layer of large pyramidal cells
+called the <i>outer band of Baillarger</i>. This latter is very thick in the
+calcarine region, and forms the <i>white stria of Gennin</i>, while the inner
+band is best seen in the precentral gyrus. As both these strands
+cross the already mentioned radial bundles at right angles, they are
+regarded as specialized parts of an <i>interradial reticulum</i> of fibres, but,
+nearer the surface than the radial bundles penetrate, tangential
+fibres are found, and here they are called the <i>supraradial reticulum</i>.
+In certain parts of the brain the fibres of this reticulum are more
+closely set, and form the <i>band of Bechterew</i> in the superficial part of
+the small pyramidal cell zone.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:350px" src="images/img400b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>The Museum Catalogue of the Royal College of Surgeons of England</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;Brain of <i>Petromyzon marinus</i> (dorsal view).
+A, Brain; B, choroid plexus removed.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For further information on the structure of the cerebral cortex,
+see A.W. Campbell, <i>Proc. R. Soc.</i> vols. lxxii. and lxxiv.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i></p>
+
+<p>A useful introduction to the study of the vertebrate brain is that
+of the Amphioxus, one of the lowest of the Chordata or animals
+having a notochord. Here the brain is a very slightly modified
+part of the dorsal tubular nerve-cord, and, on the surface, shows no
+distinction from the rest of that cord. When a section is made the
+central canal is seen to be enlarged into a cavity, the neurocoele,
+which, in the young animal, communicates by an opening, the
+neuropore, with the bottom of the olfactory pit, and so with the
+exterior. More ventrally another slight diverticulum probably
+represents the infundibulum. The only trace of an eye is a patch
+of pigment at the anterior end of the brain, and there are no signs
+of any auditory apparatus. There are only two pairs of cerebral
+nerves, both of which are sensory (Willey, <i>Amphioxus</i>, 1894). In the
+Cyclostomata, of which the lamprey (Petromyzon) is an example,
+the minute brain is much more complex, though it is still only a very
+slight enlargement of the anterior end of the cord. The single cavity
+seen in Amphioxus is here subdivided into three: an anterior or
+prosencephalon, a middle or mesencephalon, and a hinder or
+rhombencephalon. The rhombencephalon has a very slight transverse
+thickening in the fore-part of its roof, this is the rudimentary cerebellum
+(<i>Cer.</i>); the rest of this part of the brain is taken up by the
+large medulla, the cavity of which is the <i>fossa rhomboidalis</i> or fourth
+ventricle. This fossa is roofed over by the epithelium lining the
+cavity of the ventricle, by pia mater and blood-vessels constituting
+a choroid plexus (fig. 16, B). The fourth ventricle communicates
+with the parts in front by means of a passage known as the aqueduct
+of Sylvius.</p>
+
+<p>The mesencephalon or mid-brain, when looked at from the dorsal
+surface, shows a pair of large hollow swellings, the optic lobes or
+<i>corpora bigemina</i>. Their cavities open out from the aqueduct of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span>
+Sylvius, and from the nervous tissue in their walls the optic nerves
+derive their fibres. From the front of the prosencephalon or anterior
+vesicle the olfactory nerves come off, and at the base of each of these
+are two hollow swellings; the larger and more anterior is the olfactory
+bulb, the smaller and more posterior the cerebral hemisphere.
+Both these swellings must be regarded as lateral outgrowths from
+the blind front end of the original single vesicle of the brain as seen
+in Amphioxus, and from the anterior subdivision or prosencephalon
+in the lamprey. The anterior vesicle, however, is now again subdivided,
+and that part from which the cerebral hemispheres
+bud out, and the hemispheres themselves, is called the
+telencephalon, while the posterior part of the original
+prosencephalon is known as the thalamencephalon, or more
+rarely the diencephalon. On the dorsal surface of the
+thalamencephalon are two nervous masses called the
+ganglia habenulae; the right is much larger than the left,
+and from it a stalk runs forward and upward to end in
+the vestigial pineal body (or epiphysis), which contains
+rudiments of a pigmented retina and of a lens, and
+which is usually regarded as the remains of one of a pair
+of median eyes, though it has been suggested that it may
+be an organ for the appreciation of temperature. From the
+small left ganglion habenulae a still more rudimentary
+pineal stalk projects, and there are signs of a third outgrowth
+(paraphysis) in front of these. On the floor of the
+thalamencephalon the blind pouch-like infundibulum is
+in contact with the pituitary body, an outgrowth from
+the combined pituitary and olfactory pouch, which in the
+adult opens on to the top of the head just in front of the
+pineal area. The anterior closed end of the nerve-tube, in
+front of the foramina of Munro or openings from which the
+hemispheres have grown out, is known as the <i>lamina
+terminalis</i>, and in this is seen a little white commissure,
+connecting the hemispheres of opposite sides and belonging
+entirely to the telencephalon, known as the anterior commissure.
+The roof of the telencephalon is mainly epithelial, and contains
+no traces of cortical structure. In the posterior part of the
+roof of the thalamencephalon is the small posterior commissure
+(Ahlborn, <i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> Bd. xxxix., 1883, p. 191). In the
+Elasmobranch Fish, such as the sharks and rays, the cerebellum
+(<i>Cer</i>. fig. 17) is very large and contains the layers found in all the
+higher vertebrates. In the mesencephalon fibres corresponding
+with those of the fillet of higher vertebrates can be seen, and there is
+a nucleus in the hinder part of the <i>corpora bigemina</i> foreshadowing
+the separation into corpora quadrigemina. There is only one pineal
+stalk in the roof of the thalamencephalon, and the ganglia habenulae&mdash;very
+constant structures in the vertebrate brain&mdash;are not so
+marked as in Petromyzon, but are, as usual, connected with the
+olfactory parts of the cerebrum, with the surface of the optic lobes
+(<i>tectum opticum</i>), and with the <i>corpus interpedunculare</i> (Meynert&rsquo;s
+bundle). They are united across the middle line by a small <i>superior</i>
+or <i>habenular commissure</i>. In the floor of the thalamencephalon are
+two masses of ganglionic tissue, the optic thalami. The infundibulum
+dilates into two rounded bodies, the <i>lobi inferiores</i>, while the
+pituitary body or <i>hypophysis cerebri</i> has two lateral diverticula
+known as <i>sacci vasculosi</i>. Ganglia geniculata are found for the first
+time in connexion with the optic tracts in the lower part of the
+thalamus. The olfactory lobes (fig. 17, <i>Olf. Bulb</i>) are very large and
+often separated by long stalks from the cerebral hemispheres,
+which are comparatively much larger than those of the Cyclostomata;
+their roof or pallium is nervous, but devoid of cortical
+structure, while in the floor in some species large anterior basal
+ganglia or <i>corpora striata</i> are found (Miklucho-Maclay, <i>Beiträge z.
+vergl. Neurol.</i>, 1870; Edinger, <i>Arch. mikr. Anat.</i> Bd. lviii., 1901,
+p. 661, &ldquo;Cerebellum&rdquo;). The Teleostean Fish are chiefly remarkable
+for the great development of the optic lobes and suppression of the
+olfactory apparatus. The pallium is non-nervous, and the optic
+tracts merely cross one another instead of forming a commissure.
+A process of the cerebellum called <i>valvula cerebelli</i> projects into the
+cavity of each optic lobe (Rabl. Ruckhard, <i>Arch. Anat. u. Phys</i>.,
+1898, p. 345 [Pallium]; Haller, <i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> Bd. xxvi., 1898,
+p. 632 [Histology and Bibliography]). The brain of the Dipnoi, or
+mud fish, shows no very important developments, except that the
+anterior pineal organ or paraphysis is large (Saunders, <i>Ann. and
+Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 6, vol. iii., 1889, p. 157; Burkhardt, <i>Centralnervensystem
+v. Protopterus</i>, Berlin, 1892).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:595px; height:207px" src="images/img401a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;Section of the Brain of Porbeagle Shark (<i>Lamna</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the Amphibia the brain is of a low type, the most marked
+advances on that of the fish being that the anterior commissure is
+divided into a dorsal and ventral part, of which the ventral is the
+true anterior commissure of higher vertebrates, while the dorsal is
+a hippocampal commissure and coincides in its appearance with
+the presence of a small mass of cells in the outer layer of the median
+wall of the pallium, which is probably the first indication of a
+hippocampal cortex or cortex of any kind (Osborn, <i>Journ. Morph.</i>
+vol. ii., 1889, p. 51).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:585px; height:312px" src="images/img401b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;Section of Brain of Turtle (<i>Chelone</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the Reptilia the medulla has a marked flexure with a ventral
+convexity, and an undoubted cerebral cortex for the first time makes
+its appearance. The mesial wall of the cerebral hemisphere is divided
+into a large dorsal hippocampal area (fig. 18, <i>Hip.</i>) and a smaller
+ventral olfactory tubercle. Between these two a narrow area of
+ganglionic matter runs forward from the side of the <i>lamina terminalis</i>
+and is known as the paraterminal or precommissural area (Elliot
+Smith, <i>Journ. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. xxxii. p. 411). To the upper
+lateral part of the hemisphere Elliot Smith has given the name of
+<i>neopallium</i>, while the lower lateral part, imperfectly separated from
+it, is called the <i>pyriform lobe</i>. In the Lacertilia the pineal eye, if it
+be an eye, is better developed than in any existing vertebrate,
+though even in them there is no evidence of its being used for sight.
+Behind the so-called pineal eye and its stalk is the <i>epiphysis</i> or pineal
+body, and sometimes there is a dorsal sac between them (see fig. 18).<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+The middle or soft commissure appears in certain reptiles (<i>Crocodilia</i>
+and <i>Chelonia</i>), as does also the <i>corpus mammillare</i> (Edinger,
+Senckenberg, <i>Naturf. Gesell.</i> Bd. xix., 1896, and Bd. xxii., 1899;
+Haller, <i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> Bd. xxviii., 1900, p. 252). Among the birds
+there is great unity of type, the cerebellum is large and, by its forward
+projection, presses the optic lobes down toward the ventro-lateral
+part of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres are also large, owing
+chiefly to the great size of the <i>corpora striata</i>, which already show
+a differentiation into caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus.
+The pallium is reptilian in character, though its cortical area is more
+extensive. The geniculate bodies are very large (Bumm,
+<i>Zeits. wiss. Zool.</i> Bd. xxxviii., 1883, p. 430; Brandis, <i>Arch.
+mikr. Anat.</i> Bd. xli., 1893, p. 623, and xliii., 1894, p. 96,
+and xliv., 1895, p. 534; Boyce and Warrington, <i>Phil.
+Trans.</i> vol. cxci., 1899, p. 293).</p>
+
+<p>Among the Mammalia the Monotremata have a cerebellum
+which shows, in addition to the central lobe of the lower
+vertebrates, a flocculus on each side, and the two halves of
+the cerebellum are united by a ventral commissure, the
+<i>pons varolii</i>. The pallium is reptilian in its arrangement,
+but that part of it which Elliot Smith has named the neopallium
+is very large, both in the Ornithorynchus and
+Echidna, a fact very difficult to account for. In the latter
+animal the cortical area is so extensive as to be thrown
+into many and deep sulci, and yet the Echidna is one
+of the lowliest of mammals in other respects. A well-marked
+rhinal fissure separates the pyriform lobe from
+the neopallium, while, on the mesial surface, the hippocampal
+fissure separates the neopallium from the hippocampal area. Just
+below the hippocampal fissure a specially coloured tract indicates
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span>
+the first appearance of the fascia dentata (see fig. 20). The anterior
+commissure is divided, as in reptiles, into dorsal and ventral parts, of
+which the latter is the larger (fig. 20, <i>Comm. V. and D</i>.), while just
+behind the dorsal part is the first appearance of the fimbria or fornix.
+In addition to the two fissures already named, there is, in the Echidna,
+one which in position and mode of formation corresponds with the
+Sylvian fissure of higher mammals. Elliot Smith, however, wisely
+refuses to homologize it absolutely with that fissure, and proposes
+the name of pseudosylvian for it. The pineal body is rudimentary,
+and the optic lobes are now, and throughout the Mammalia, subdivided
+into four <i>corpora quadrigemina</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:243px" src="images/img402a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;Ventral and Dorsal Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Among the Marsupialia the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus) gives
+a very good idea of a generalized mammalian brain, and shows a
+large development of the parts concerned in the sense of smell.
+The most important advance on the monotreme brain is that the
+calcarine fissure has now appeared on the posterior part of the mesial
+surface and causes a bulging into the ventricle, called the <i>calcar
+avis</i> or hippocampus minor, just as the hippocampal fissure causes
+the <i>hippocampus major</i> (Gervais, <i>Nuov. Arch. Mus</i>. tom. v., 1869;
+Ziehen, <i>Jenaische Denkschr</i>. Bd. vi., 1897).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:581px; height:142px" src="images/img402b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:587px; height:164px" src="images/img402c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2l.&mdash;Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of the Tasmanian Devil
+(<i>Sarcophilus</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the Eutheria or mammals above the marsupials, the cerebellum
+gradually becomes more complex, owing to the appearance of lateral
+lobes between the flocculus and the vermis, as well as the paraflocculus
+on the outer side of the flocculus. The corpus callosum
+now first appears as a bridge between the neopallia, and its development
+leads to the stretching of the hippocampal formation, so that
+in the higher mammals the hippocampus is only found in the lower
+and back part of the ventricle, while the rudiments of the dorsal
+part remain as the <i>striae  longitudinals</i> on the corpus callosum.
+The dorsal part of the original anterior commissure becomes the
+fornix, and the paraterminal area is modified to form the septum
+lucidum. The first appearance of the fissure of Rolando is probably
+in some of the Carnivora, in which, as the <i>sulcus crucialis</i>, it forms
+the posterior boundary of the &ldquo;ursine lozenge&rdquo; described by Mivart
+(<i>Journ. Linn. Soc</i>. vol. xix., 1886) (see fig. 22, <i>Sulc. Cru</i>.). In the
+higher apes or Anthropoidea the human fissures and sulci are largely
+recognizable, so that a gibbon&rsquo;s brain, apart from all question of
+comparative anatomy, forms a useful means of demonstrating to a
+junior class the main gyri and sulci of Man in a simple and diagrammatic
+way. The main points of difference, apart from greater
+simplicity, are that the central lobe or island of Reil is exposed on
+the surface of the brain, as it is in the human foetus, and that the
+anterior part of the occipital lobe has a well-marked vertical sulcus,
+called the simian sulcus or <i>Affenspalte</i>; this often has a semilunar
+shape with its convexity forward, and is then called the <i>sulcus
+lunatus</i>. It is usually concealed in European brains by the overgrowth
+of the surrounding gyri, but it occasionally remains, though less
+frequently than in the brains of Egyptian fellaheen. Its relation to
+the <i>white stria of Gennari</i> is especially interesting, and is
+recorded by Elliot Smith in the <i>Anatomischer Anzeiger</i>, Bd.
+xxiv., 1904, p. 436. The rhinal fissure, which is so characteristic
+a feature of the lower mammals, almost disappears
+in Man, and is only represented by the <i>incisura temporalis</i>
+(see fig. 11, <i>i.t</i>). The hippocampal fissure persists with little
+modification all through the mammalian class. The calcarine
+fissure remains with many modifications from the
+marsupials to man, and in view of the famous controversy of
+1864, in which Owen, Huxley and the then bishop of
+Oxford took part, it is interesting to note that its hippocampus
+minor can now be clearly demonstrated, even
+in the Marsupialia. Another very ancient and stable sulcus
+is the <i>orbital</i>, which is a simple antero-posterior line until Man
+is reached (see fig. 23, <i>Sulc. Orb.</i>). The great point of importance,
+however, in the evolution of the mammalian brain is the gradual
+suppression of the olfactory region, and the development of the neopallium,
+a development which takes a sudden stride between the
+Anthropoid apes and Man. (For further particulars of this and other
+points in the comparative anatomy of the brain, see <i>Catalogue of the
+Physiological Series</i> of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
+of England, vol. ii. 2nd ed., by R.H. Burne and G. Elliot
+Smith, London, 1902.)</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:417px; height:567px" src="images/img402d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;Dorsal and Lateral Views of the Brain of a Ratel
+(<i>Mellivora indica</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Embryology.</i></p>
+
+<p>The brain, like the rest of the nervous system, is developed
+from the ectoderm or outer layer of the embryo by the
+formation of a groove in the mid-dorsal line. The lips of this
+<i>medullary groove</i> unite to form a canal beginning at the
+place where the neck of the embryo is to be. The part of
+the neural canal in front of the earliest union forms the brain
+and very early becomes constricted into three vesicles, to
+which the names of <i>prosencephalon</i>, <i>mesencephalon</i> and
+<i>rhombencephalon</i> are now usually given. The simple tubular
+brain we have seen as a permanent arrangement in Amphioxus,
+but the stage of the three vesicles is a transitory one,
+and is not found in the adult of any existing animal. From the
+sides of the prosencephalon, the optic vesicles grow out before the
+neural tube is completely closed, and eventually form the optic
+nerves and retinae, while, soon after this, the cerebral hemispheres
+bulge from the antero-dorsal part of the first primary vesicle, their
+points of evagination being the <i>foramina of Munro</i>. From the
+ventral parts of these cerebral hemispheres the olfactory lobes are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span>
+constricted off, while just behind the openings of the foramina of
+Munro a constriction occurs which divides the prosencephalon into
+two secondary vesicles, the anterior of which, containing the foramina
+of Munro, is called the <i>telencephalon</i>, while the posterior is the
+<i>thalamencephalon</i> or <i>diencephalon</i>. A constriction also occurs in the
+hind vesicle or <i>rhombencephalon</i>, dividing it into an anterior part,
+the <i>metencephalon</i>, from which the cerebellum is developed, and a
+posterior or <i>myelencephalon</i>, the primitive <i>medulla oblongata</i>. At this
+stage the general resemblance of the brain to that of the lamprey is
+striking.</p>
+
+<p>Before the secondary constrictions occur three vertical flexures
+begin to form. The first is known as the <i>cephalic</i>, and is caused by the
+prosencephalon bending sharply downward, below and in front of
+the mesencephalon. The second is the <i>cervical</i>, and marks the place
+where the brain ends and the spinal cord begins; the concavity of
+this flexure is ventral. The third to appear has a ventral convexity
+and is known as the <i>pontine</i>, since it marks the site of the future
+<i>pons Varolii</i>; it resembles the permanent flexure in the reptilian
+brain.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:604px; height:301px" src="images/img403.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>Cat. R.C.S. England</i>.</span>
+<br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;Lateral view of cerebral hemisphere of Gorilla (<i>Anthropopithecus
+gorilla</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It will now be seen that the original neural canal, which is lined
+by ciliated epithelium, forms the ventricles of the brain, while
+superficial to this epithelium (<i>ependyma</i>) the grey and white matter
+is subsequently formed. It has been shown by His that the whole
+neural tube may be divided into <i>dorsal</i> or <i>alar</i>, and <i>ventral</i> or <i>basal</i>
+laminae, and, as the cerebral hemispheres bud out from the dorsal
+part of the anterior primary vesicle, they consist entirely of alar
+laminae. The most characteristic feature of the human and anthropoid
+brain is the rapid and great expansion of these hemispheres,
+especially in a backward direction, so that the mesencephalon and
+metencephalon are hidden by them from above at the seventh
+month of intra-uterine life. At first the foramina of Munro form
+a communication not only between the third and lateral ventricles,
+but between the two lateral ventricles, so that the cavity of each
+hemisphere is continuous with that of the other; soon, however,
+a median longitudinal fissure forms, into which the mesoderm grows
+to form the falx, and so the foramina of Munro are constricted into
+a V-shaped canal. In the floor of the hemispheres the corpora
+striata are developed at an early date by a multiplication of nerve
+cells, and on the external surface a depression, called the <i>Sylvian
+fossa</i>, marks the position of the future central lobe, which is afterwards
+hidden as the lips of the fossa (<i>opercula</i>) gradually close in
+on it to form the Sylvian fissure. The real fissures are complete
+infoldings of the whole thickness of the vesicular wall and produce
+swellings in the cavity. Some of them, like the choroidal on the
+mesial surface, are developed very early, while the vesicle is little
+more than epithelial, and contain between their walls an inpushing
+of mesoderm to form the choroid plexus. Others, like the hippocampal
+and calcarine, appear in the second and third months and
+correspond to invaginations of the nervous tissue, the hippocampus
+major and minor. The sulci appear later than the fissures and do
+not affect the internal cavity; they are due to the rapid growth of
+the cortex in certain areas. The corpus callosum and fornix appear
+about the third month and their development is somewhat doubtful;
+they are probably modifications of the lamina terminalis, but they
+may be secondary adhesions between the adjacent surfaces of the
+cerebral hemispheres where the cortical grey matter has not covered
+the white. They begin at their antero-ventral part near the genu
+of the corpus callosum and the anterior pillars of the fornix, and these
+are the parts which first appear in the lower mammals. The original
+anterior vesicle from which the hemispheres evaginate is composed,
+as already shown, of an anterior part or telencephalon and a posterior
+or thalamencephalon; the whole forming the third ventricle in the
+adult. Here the alar and basal laminae are both found, but the
+former is the more important; from it the optic thalami are derived,
+and more posteriorly the geniculate bodies. The anterior wall, of
+course, is the lamina terminalis, and from it are formed the <i>lamina
+cinerea</i>, the <i>corpus callosum</i>, <i>fornix</i> and <i>septum lucidum</i>. The roof
+largely remains epithelial and is invaginated into the ventricle by
+the mesoderm to form the <i>choroid plexuses</i> of the third ventricle,
+but at the posterior part it develops the <i>ganglia habenulae</i> and the
+pineal body, from a structure just in front of which both a lens
+and retinal elements are derived in the lower forms. This is one
+great difference between the development of this organ and that
+of the true eyes; indeed it has been suggested that the pineal is an
+organ of thermal sense and not the remains of a median eye at all.
+The floor of the third ventricle is developed from the basal laminae,
+which here are not very important and from which the <i>tuber cinereum</i>
+and, until the fourth month, single <i>corpus mammillare</i> are developed.
+The <i>infundibulum</i> or stalk of the posterior part of the pituitary
+body at first grows down in front of the <i>tuber cinereum</i> and, according
+to Gaskel&rsquo;s theory, represents an ancestral mouth to which the
+ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the cord acted as the
+stomach and intestine (<i>Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci.</i> 31, p. 379; and
+<i>Journ. of Phys.</i> v. 10, p. 153). The reason why the basal lamina is
+here small is because it contains the nuclei of no cranial nerves.
+The anterior and posterior commissures appear before the middle
+and the middle before the <i>corpus callosum</i>, as they do in phylogeny.
+In connexion with the thalamencephalon, though not really belonging
+to it, may be mentioned the anterior lobes of the pituitary body;
+these begin as an upward <i>diverticulum</i> from the posterior wall of the
+primitive pharynx or <i>stomatodaeum</i> about the fourth week. This
+<i>pouch of Rathke</i>, as it is called, becomes nipped off by the developing
+base of the skull, and its bifid blind end meets and becomes applied
+to the posterior part of the body, which comes down from the brain.
+In the mesencephalon the alar laminae form the <i>corpora quadrigemina</i>;
+these at first are bigeminal and hollow as they are in the
+lower vertebrates. The basal laminae thicken to form the <i>crura
+cerebri</i>. In the rhombencephalon the division into basal
+and alar laminae is better marked than in any other
+part; there is a definite groove inside the fourth ventricle,
+which remains in the adult as the superior and
+inferior <i>fovea</i> and which marks the separation between
+the two laminae. In the basal laminae are found the
+deep origins of most of the motor cranial nerves, while
+those of the sensory are situated in the alar laminae.
+The roof of the fourth ventricle widens out very much
+and remains largely epithelial as the superior and
+inferior medullary vela. The cerebellum develops in the
+anterior part of the roof of the rhombencephalon as two
+lateral rudiments which unite in the mid line and so
+form a transverse bar similar to that seen in the adult
+lamprey; at the end of the second month the flocculus
+and paraflocculus become marked, and later on a series
+of transverse fissures occur dividing the various lobes.
+Of the cerebellar peduncles the inferior develops first
+(third month), then the middle forming the <i>pons</i> (fourth
+month), and lastly the <i>superior</i> (fifth month) (Elliot
+Smith, <i>Review of Neurology and Psychiatry</i>, October 1903;
+W. Kuithan, &ldquo;Die Entwicklung des Kleinhirns bei Säugetieren,&rdquo;
+<i>Munchener Med. Abhandl.</i>, 1895; B. Stroud,
+&ldquo;Mammalian cerebellum,&rdquo; <i>Journ. of Comp. Neurology</i>,
+1895). Much of our knowledge of the tracts of fibres in the brain is
+due to the fact that they acquire their white sheaths at different
+stages of development, some long after birth.</p>
+
+<p>For further details and references see Quain&rsquo;s <i>Anat</i>. vol. i. (1908);
+Minot&rsquo;s <i>Human Embryology</i> (New York); W. His, <i>Anat. menschlicher
+Embryonen</i> (Leipzig, 1881); Marshall&rsquo;s <i>Vertebrate Embryology</i>;
+Kölliker, <i>Grundriss der Entwickelungsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1880);
+A. Keith, <i>Human Embryology and Morphology</i> (London, 1904);
+O. Hertwig, <i>Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen Entwickelungslehre
+der Wirbeltiere</i>, Bd. 2, part 3 (Jena, 1902-1906);
+<i>Development of the Human Body</i>, J.P. McMurrich (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. G. P.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">2. Physiology</p>
+
+<p>The nervous system has as its function the co-ordinating of
+the activities of the organs one with another. It puts the organs
+into such mutual relation that the animal reacts as a whole with
+speed, accuracy and self-advantage, in response to the environmental
+agencies which stimulate it. For this office of the
+nervous system there are two fundamental conditions. The
+system must be thrown into action by agencies at work in the
+environment. Light, gravity, mechanical impacts, and so on,
+which are conditions significant for animal existence, must find
+the system responsive and through it evoke appropriate activity
+in the animal organs. And in fact there have been evolved
+in the animal a number of structures called receptive organs
+which are selectively excitable by different environmental
+agencies. Connected with these receptive organs lies that
+division of the nervous system which is termed <i>afferent</i> because
+it conducts impulses inwards towards the nervous centres.
+This division consists of elongated nerve-cells, in man some two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span>
+million in number for each half of the body. These are living
+threads of microscopic tenuity, each extending from a receptive
+organ to a central nervous mass. These central nervous masses
+are in vertebrates all fused into one, of which the part which
+lies in the head is especially large and complex, because directly
+connected with particularly important and delicate receptive
+organs. The part of the central nervous organ which lies in
+the head has, in consequence of its connexion with the most
+important receptive organs, evolved a dominant importance in
+the nervous system, and this is especially true of the higher
+animal forms. This head part of the central nervous organ is
+sufficiently different from the rest, even to anatomical examination,
+to have received a separate name, the <i>brain</i>. But the fact
+of its having received a separate name ought not to obscure the
+singleness and solidarity of the whole central nervous organ
+as one entity. The functions of the whole central nervous
+organ from region to region are essentially similar throughout.
+One of its essential functions is reception, via afferent nerves,
+of nervous impulses generated in the receptive organs by environmental
+agents as stimuli. In other words, whatever the
+nature of the agent, its result on the receptive organs enters the
+central nervous organ as a nervous impulse, and all segments
+of the central nervous organ receive impulses so generated.
+Further, it is not known that nervous impulses present qualitative
+differences among themselves. It is with these impulses that
+the central nervous organ whether spinal cord or brain has to
+deal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Material and Psychical Signs of Cerebral Activity.</i>&mdash;In the
+central nervous organ the action resulting from entrant impulses
+has issue in three kinds of ways. The reaction may die out, be
+suppressed, and so far as discoverable lead to nothing; or the
+impulses may evoke effect in either or both of two forms. Just
+as from the receptive organs, nerves lead into the central nervous
+organ, so conversely from the central organ other nerves, termed
+<i>efferent</i>, lead to various organs of the body, especially glands and
+muscles. The reaction of the central nervous organ to impulses
+poured into it commonly leads to a discharge of impulses from
+it into glands and muscles. These centrifugal impulses are, so
+far as is known, qualitatively like the centripetal impulses.
+On reaching the glands and muscles they influence the activity
+of those organs. Since those organs are therefore the mechanisms
+in which the ultimate effect of the nervous reaction takes place,
+they are often termed from this point of view <i>effector organs</i>.
+A change ensuing in effector organs is often the only sign an
+observer has that a nervous reaction has occurred, unless the
+nervous system under observation be the observer&rsquo;s own.</p>
+
+<p>If the observer turns to his own nervous system for evidence
+of reaction, he meets at once in numberless instances with
+<i>sensation</i> as an outcome or sign of its reaction. This effect he
+cannot show to any being beside himself. He can only describe
+it, and in describing it he cannot strictly translate it into any
+term of material existence. The unbridged gulf between sensation
+and the changes produced in effector organs necessitates a
+separate handling of the functions of the nervous system according
+as their office under consideration is sensation or material
+effect. This holds especially in the case of the brain, and for the
+following reasons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychosis and the Fore-Brain.</i>&mdash;Hippocrates wrote, &ldquo;It is
+through the brain that we become mad, that delirium seizes us,
+that fears and terrors assail us.&rdquo; &ldquo;We know that pleasure and
+joy on the one hand and pain and grief on the other are referable
+to the brain. It is in virtue of it that we think, understand, see,
+hear, know ugliness and beauty, evil and good, the agreeable
+and the disagreeable.&rdquo; Similarly and more precisely Descartes
+indicated the brain, and the brain alone, as the seat of consciousness.
+Finally, it was Flourens who perhaps first definitely
+insisted on the restriction of the seat of consciousness in higher
+animals to that part of the brain which is the fore-brain. A
+functional distinction between the fore-brain and the remainder
+of the nervous system seems, in fact, that consciousness and physical
+reactions are adjunct to the fore-brain in a way in which
+they are not to the rest of the system. After transection of the
+spinal cord, or of the brain behind the fore-brain, psychical
+phenomena do not belong to the reactions of the nervous arcs
+posterior to the transection, whereas they do still accompany
+reactions of the nervous arcs in front and still connected with the
+fore-brain. A man after severance of the spinal cord does not
+possess in the strict sense consciousness of the limbs whose
+afferent nerves lie behind the place of spinal severance. He can
+see them with his eyes, and if the severance lie between the arms
+and the legs, can feel the latter with his hands. He knows them
+to be a part of his body. But they are detached from his consciousness.
+Sensations derived from them through all other
+channels of sense than their own do not suffice to restore them
+in any adequate measure to his consciousness. He must have
+the sensations so called &ldquo;resident&rdquo; in them, that is, referred to
+them, without need of any logical inference. These can be yielded
+only by the receptive organs resident in the part itself, its skin,
+its joints, its muscles, &amp;c., and can only be yielded by those
+receptive organs so long as the nerve impulses from them have
+access to the fore-brain. Consciousness, therefore, does not seem
+to attach to any portion of the nervous system of higher animals
+from which the fore-brain has been cut off. In the dog it has
+been found that no sign of memory, let alone intelligence, has
+been forthcoming after removal of the greater part of the fore-brain.</p>
+
+<p>In lower vertebrates it is not clear that consciousness in
+primitive form requires always the co-operation of the fore-brain.
+In them the fore-brain does not seem a <i>conditio sine qua non</i> for
+psychosis&mdash;so far as we may trust the rather hazardous inferences
+which study of the behaviour of fish, &amp;c., allows. And
+the difference between higher and lowlier animal forms in respect
+of the fore-brain as a condition for psychosis becomes more
+marked when the Arthropoda are examined. The behaviour
+of some Insecta points strongly to their possessing memory,
+rudimentary in kind though it may be. But in them no homologue
+of the fore-brain of vertebrates can be indisputably made
+out. The head ganglia in these Invertebrates may, it is true,
+be analogous in function in certain ways to the brain of vertebrates.
+Some experiments, not plentiful, indicate that destruction
+of these head ganglia induces deterioration of behaviour
+such as follows loss of psychical functions in cases of destruction
+of the fore-brain in vertebrates. Though, therefore, we cannot
+be clear that the head ganglia of these Invertebrates are the
+same structure morphologically as the brain of vertebrates,
+they seem to hold a similar office, exercising analogous functions,
+including psychosis of a rudimentary kind. We can, therefore,
+speak of the head ganglia of Arthropods as a brain, and in doing
+so must remember that we define by physiological evidence
+rather than by morphological.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cerebral Control over Lower Nervous Centres.</i>&mdash;There accrues
+to the brain, especially to the fore-brain of higher Vertebrates,
+another function besides that of grafting psychical qualities upon
+the reactions of the nervous system. This function is exhibited
+as power to control in greater or less measure the pure reflexes
+enacted by the system. These pure reflexes have the character
+of fatality, in the sense that, given a particular stimulus, a
+particular reaction unvaryingly follows; the same group of
+muscles or the same gland is invariably thrown into action in
+the same way. Removal of the fore-brain, <i>i.e.</i> of that portion of
+the central nervous organ to which psychosis is adjunct, renders
+the nervous reactions of the animal more predictable and less
+variable. The animal, for instance, a dog, is given over more
+completely to simple reflexes. Its skin is touched and it scratches
+the spot, its jaw is stroked and it yawns, its rump is rubbed and
+it shakes itself, like a dog coming out of water; and these
+reactions occur fatally and inopportunely, for instance, when
+food is being offered to it, when the dog normally would allow
+no such insignificant skin stimuli as the above to defer his
+appropriate reaction. Goltz relates the behaviour of a dog
+from which almost the whole fore-brain had been removed.
+The animal lived healthily under the careful treatment accorded
+it. At feeding time a little quinine (bitter) added to its sop of
+meat and milk led to the morsels, after being taken into the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span>
+mouth, being at once and regularly rejected. None was ever
+swallowed, nor was the slightest hesitation in their rejection
+ever obtained by any coaxing or command, or encouragement
+of the animal by the attendant who constantly had charge of it.
+On the other hand, directly an undoctored piece had entered
+the mouth it was swallowed at once. Goltz threw to his own
+house-dog a piece of the same doctored meat. The creature
+wagged its tail and took it eagerly, then after receiving it into
+its mouth pulled a wry face and hesitated, astonished. But on
+encouragement to go on eating it the dog did so. Perhaps it
+deemed it unseemly to appear ungrateful to the giver and reject
+the gift. It overcame its reflex of rejection, and by its self-control
+gave proof of the intact cerebrum it possessed.</p>
+
+<p>There seems a connexion between consciousness and the
+power to modify reflex action to meet the exigencies of the
+occasion. Pure reflexes are admirably adapted to certain ends.
+They are reactions which have long proved advantageous to the
+phylum of which the existent animal is the representative
+embodiment. But the reflexes have a machine-like fatality,
+and conscious aim does not forerun their execution. The subject
+as active agent does not direct them. Yet they lie under the
+control of higher centres. The cough, the eye-closure, the
+<span class="correction" title="amended from impluse">impulse</span> to smile, all these can be suppressed. The innate respiratory
+rhythm can be modified to meet the requirements of vocal
+utterance. In other words, the reaction of reflex arcs is controllable
+by the mechanism to whose activity consciousness is
+adjunct. The reflexes controlled are often reactions but slightly
+affecting consciousness, but consciousness is very distinctly
+operative with the centres which exert the control. It may be
+that the primary aim, object and purpose of consciousness is
+control. &ldquo;Consciousness in a mere automaton,&rdquo; writes Professor
+Lloyd Morgan, &ldquo;is a useless and unnecessary epiphenomenon.&rdquo;
+As to <i>how</i> this conscious control is operative on reflexes, how it
+intrudes its influence on the running of the reflex machinery,
+little is known.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cerebrum an Organ giving Adaptation and Readjustment of
+Motor Acts.</i>&mdash;The exercise of this control and the acquirement
+of skilled actions have obviously elements in common. By
+skilled actions, we understand actions not innately given,
+actions acquired by training in individual experience. The
+controlling centres pick out from an ancestral motor action some
+part, and isolate and enhance that until it becomes a skilled act.
+The motor co-ordination ancestrally provided for the ring finger
+gives an extending of it only in company with extension of the
+fingers on either side of it. The isolated lifting of the ring finger
+can, however, soon be acquired by training. In such cases the
+higher centre with conscious effort is able to dissociate a part
+from an ancestral co-ordination, and in that way to add a
+skilled adapted act to the powers of the individual.</p>
+
+<p>The nervous organs of control form, therefore, a special instrument
+of adaptation and of readjustment of reaction, for better
+accommodation to requirements which may be new. The attainment
+of more precision and speed in the use of a tool, or the
+handling of a weapon, means a process in which nervous organs
+of control modify activities of reflex centres themselves already
+perfected ancestrally for other though kindred actions. This
+process of learning is accompanied by conscious effort. The
+effort consists not so much in any course of reasoning but rather
+in the acquiring of new sensorimotor experience. To learn
+swimming or skating by simple cogitation or mere visual observation
+is of course impossible. The new ideas requisite cannot be
+constructed without motor experience, and the training must
+include that motor experience. Hence the training for a new
+skilled motor manoeuvre must be simply <i>ad hoc</i>, and is of itself
+no training for another motor co-ordination.</p>
+
+<p>The more complex an organism the more points of contact
+does it have with its environment, and the more does it need
+readjustment amid an environment of shifting relationships.
+Hence the organs of consciousness and control, being organs of
+adaptation and readjustment of reaction, will be more pronounced
+the farther the animal scale is followed upward to its
+crowning species, man. The cerebrum and especially the cerebral
+cortex may be regarded as the highest expression of the nervous
+organ of individual adaptation of reactions. Its high development
+in man makes him the most successful animal on earth&rsquo;s
+surface at the present epoch. The most important part of all
+this adjustment in his case, as he stands now, consists doubtless
+in that nervous activity which is intellectual. The mentality
+attached to his cerebrum includes reason in higher measure than
+is possessed by the mentality of other animals. He, therefore,
+more than they, can profitably forecast the future and act
+suitably to meet it from memory of the past. The cerebrum has
+proved itself by his case the most potent weapon existent for
+extending animal dominance over the environment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Means and Present Aims of Physiological Study of the Brain.</i>&mdash;The
+aspects of cerebral activity are therefore twofold. There is
+the contribution which it makes to the behaviour of the animal
+as seen in the creature&rsquo;s doings. On the other hand there is its
+product in the psychical life of the animal. The former of these
+is subject matter for physiology; the latter is especially the
+province of psychology. Physiology does, however, concern
+itself with the psychical aspect of cerebral functions. Its scope,
+embracing the study of the bodily organs in regard to function,
+includes the psychic as well as the material, because as just
+shown the former inextricably interlace with the latter. But the
+relation between the psychic phenomena and the working of the
+brain in regard to any data of fundamental or intimate character
+connecting the two remains practically as unknown to us as to
+the Greek philosophers. What physiology has at present to be
+content with in this respect is the mere assigning of certain kinds
+of psychic events to certain local regions of the cerebrum. This
+primitive quest constitutes the greater part of the &ldquo;neurology&rdquo;
+of our day, and some advance has been made along its lines.
+Yet how meagre are really significant facts will be clear from
+the brief survey that follows. Before passing finally from these
+general considerations, we may note that it becomes more and
+more clear that the brain, although an organ than can be treated
+as a whole, is complex in the sense that separable functions belong
+in some measure to its several parts.</p>
+
+<p>The means principally adopted in studying the functions of
+the brain&mdash;and it must be remembered that this study in its
+present phase is almost exclusively a mere search for localization&mdash;are
+four. These are the physiological, the clinico-pathological,
+the histological and the zoological. The first named proceeds
+by observing the effects of artificial excitation, chiefly electric,
+of various parts of the brain, and the defects produced by
+destruction or removal of circumscribed portions. The clinico-pathological
+proceeds by observing the disturbances of body
+and mind occurring in disease or injury, and ascertaining the
+extent of the disease or injury, for the most part <i>post mortem</i>.
+The histological method examines the microscopic structure of
+the various regions of the brain and the characters and arrangement
+of the nerve-cells composing it. The zoological follows and
+compares the general features of the brain, as represented
+in the various types of animal creation.</p>
+
+<p>It is on the functions of the fore-brain that interest now
+mainly focuses, for the reasons mentioned above. And the
+interest in the fore-brain itself chiefly attaches to the functions
+of its cortex. This is due to several causes. In man and the
+animals nearest him the cortex forms by far the larger part of
+the whole cerebral hemisphere. More than any other part it
+constitutes the distinctively human feature. It lies accessible
+to various experimental observations, as also to traumatic
+lesions and to the surgeon&rsquo;s art. It is composed of a great
+unbroken sheet of grey matter; for that reason it is a structure
+wherein processes of peculiar interest for the investigation in
+view are likely to occur. To make this last inference more
+clear a reference to the histology of nervous tissue must be made.
+The whole physiological function of the nervous system may
+be summed up in the one word &ldquo;conduction.&rdquo; This &ldquo;conduction&rdquo;
+may be defined as the transmission of states of excitement
+(nerve-impulses) along the neural arcs composing the
+system. The whole nervous system is built up of chains of nerve-cells
+(neurones) which are nervous conductors, the chains often
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span>
+being termed arcs. Each neurone is an elongated cell which
+transmits nerve-impulses from its one end to its other, without
+so far as is known modifying the impulses in transit, unless
+in that part of the nerve-cell where the nucleus lies. That part
+of the neurone or nerve-cell is called the perikaryon or cell-body,
+and from that part usually many branches of the cell (each
+branch being a nerve-fibre) ramify. There is no evidence that
+impulses are modified in transit along a branch of a nerve-cell,
+but there is clear evidence of manifold modification of nerve-impulses
+in transit along the nerve-arcs of the nervous system.
+These nerve-arcs are neurone-chains. In them one neurone
+continues the line of conduction where the immediately foregoing
+neurone left it. That is, the neurones are laid in conductive
+series, the far end of one apposed to the near end of its precursor.
+The place of juxtaposition of the end of one neurone against
+the beginning of another is called the <i>synapse</i>. At it the conduction
+which has so far been wholly intra-neuronic is replaced
+by an inter-neuronic process, in which the nerve impulse passes
+from one neurone to the next. The process there, it is natural to
+think, must be physiologically different from that conductive
+process that serves for transmission merely within the neurone
+itself. It may be that to this inter-neuronic conduction are due
+the differences between conduction in nerve-<i>arcs</i> and nerve-<i>trunks</i>
+(nerve-fibres) respectively. Significant of the former
+are changes in rhythm, intensity, excitability and modifications
+by summation and inhibition; in fact a number of the main
+features of nervous reaction. These characters impressed upon
+conduction in nerve arcs (neurone-chains) would therefore be
+traceable to the intercalation of perikarya and synapses, for
+both these structures are absent from nerve-trunks. It is
+therefore probably to perikarya and synapses that the greater
+part of the co-ordination, elaboration and differentiation of
+nervous reactions is due. Now, perikarya and synapses are
+not present in the <i>white</i> matter of the central nervous organ,
+any more than they are in nerve-trunks. They are confined
+exclusively to those portions of the central organ which consist
+of <i>grey</i> matter (so called from its naked-eye appearance). Hence
+it is to the great sheet of grey matter which enfolds the cerebrum
+that the physiologist turns, as to a field where he would expect
+to find evidences of the processes of cerebral co-ordination at
+work. It is therefore to items regarding the functions of the
+great sheet of cerebral cortex that we may now pass.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cerebral Cortex and its Functions.</i>&mdash;The main question
+which vexed the study of the physiology of the cerebral hemispheres
+in the 19th century was whether differences of function
+are detectible in the different regions of the hemisphere and
+especially in those of its cortex. One camp of experimenters
+and observers held that the cortex was identical in function
+throughout its extent. These authorities taught that the
+various faculties and senses suffer damage in proportion to the
+amount of cortex removed or injured, and that it is a matter of
+indifference what may be the particular region wherein the
+destruction takes place. Against this an opposed set of observers
+held that different regions perform different functions, and
+this latter &ldquo;differential&rdquo; view was raised in two wholly dissimilar
+forms in the first and last quarters of the 19th century
+respectively. In the first quarter of the century, a school, with
+which the name of Gall is prominently associated, held that
+each faculty of a set of particular so-called &ldquo;faculties,&rdquo; which
+it assumed constituted intelligence, has in the brain a spatially
+separate organ proper to itself. Gall&rsquo;s doctrine had two fundamental
+propositions. The first was that intelligence resides
+exclusively in the brain: the second, that intelligence consists
+of twenty-seven &ldquo;faculties,&rdquo; each with a separate local seat
+in the brain. The first proposition was not new. It is met with
+in Hippocrates, and it had been elaborated by Descartes and
+others. But Bichat in his <i>Anatomie generale</i> had partly wandered
+from the gradually established truth and referred the emotions
+to the visceral organs, returning to a naive view popularly
+prevalent. Gall&rsquo;s first proposition was probably raised especially
+in reaction against Bichat. But Gall&rsquo;s proposition was retrograde
+from the true position of the science of his time. Flourens
+and others of his contemporaries had already shown not only
+that intelligence was resident exclusively in the brain, but that
+it was resident exclusively in that part of the brain which is
+the fore-brain. Now Gall placed certain of his twenty-seven
+intellectual faculties in the cerebellum, which is part of the
+hind-brain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phrenology.</i>&mdash;As to Gall&rsquo;s second proposition, the set of
+faculties into which he analysed intelligence shows his power
+of psychological analysis to have been so weak that it is matter
+of surprise his doctrine could obtain even the ephemeral vogue
+it actually did. Among his twenty-seven faculties are, for
+instance, &ldquo;<i>l&rsquo;amour de la progéniture, l&rsquo;instinct carnassier, l&rsquo;amitié,
+la ruse, la sagacité comparative, l&rsquo;esprit métaphysique, le talent
+poétique, la mimique</i>,&rdquo; &amp;c. Such crudity of speculation is remarkable
+in one who had undoubtedly considerable insight into
+human character. Each of the twenty-seven faculties had its
+seat in a part of the brain, and that part of the brain was called
+its &ldquo;organ.&rdquo; The mere spatial juxtaposition or remoteness
+of these organs one from another in the brain had, according
+to Gall, an influence on the constitution of the mind. &ldquo;<i>Comme
+l&rsquo;organe des arts est placé loin de l&rsquo;organe du sens des couleurs,
+cette circonstance explique pourquoi les peintres d&rsquo;histoire ont été
+rarement coloristes</i>.&rdquo; All these &ldquo;faculty-organs&rdquo; were placed
+by Gall at the surface of the brain. &ldquo;This explains the correspondence
+which exists between craniology and the doctrine
+of the functions of the brain (cerebral physiology), the single
+aim of my researches.&rdquo; Gall wrote that he found the bump of
+pride (<i>la bosse de l&rsquo;orgueil</i>) as far down in the animal series as
+the goat. Broussais traced the &ldquo;organ&rdquo; of veneration as far
+down as the sheep. Gall found the bump of murder (<i>bosse du
+meurtre</i>) in the carnivora. Later it was traced also in herbivora.
+Broussais added apologetically that &ldquo;the herbivora cause a
+real destruction of plants.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gall&rsquo;s doctrine enjoyed enormous vogue. He himself had the
+gifts and the demerits of quackery. His doctrine possessed,
+apart from its falsity, certain other mischievous qualities.
+&ldquo;<i>Que ces hommes si glorieux, qui font égorger les nations par
+millions, sachent qu&rsquo;ils n&rsquo;agissent point de leur propre chef, que
+c&rsquo;est la nature qui a placé dans leur coeur la rage de la destruction</i>.&rdquo;
+One of his scientific opponents rejoined, &ldquo;Nay, it is not that
+which they should know. What they should know is that if
+providence has allowed to man the possibility of doing evil, it
+has also endowed him with the power to do good.&rdquo; The main
+cause of the success of phrenology (<i>q.v.</i>) has been no doubt the
+common desire of men to read the characters and hidden thoughts
+of others by external signs. Each bump or &ldquo;bosse&rdquo; on the
+cranium was supposed to indicate the existence and degree of
+development of one or other of the twenty-seven &ldquo;faculties.&rdquo;
+One such &ldquo;bosse&rdquo; showed the development of the organ of
+&ldquo;goodness,&rdquo; and another the development of the organ of
+&ldquo;murder.&rdquo; Such an easy means to arrive at information so
+curious delighted many persons, and they were not willingly
+undeceived.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Localization Doctrines.</i>&mdash;The crude localization of the
+phrenologists is therefore too clumsy to possess an interest it
+might otherwise have had as an early expression of belief in
+cerebral localization, a belief which other labours have subsequently
+justified, although on facts and lines quite different
+from these imagined by Gall and his followers. Patient scientific
+toil by the hands of E. Hitzig and D. Ferrier and their followers
+has slowly succeeded in obtaining certain facts about the <i>cortex
+cerebri</i> which not only show that different regions of it are concerned
+with different functions, but, for some regions at least,
+outline to some extent the kind of function exercised. It is true
+that the greater part of the cortex remains still <i>terra incognita</i>
+unless we are content with mere descriptive features concerning
+its coarse anatomy. For several scattered regions some
+knowledge of their function has been gained by physiological
+investigation. These scattered regions are the <i>visual</i>, the
+<i>auditory</i>, the <i>olfactory</i> and the <i>precentral</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The grey matter of the cerebral cortex is broadly characterized
+histologically by the perikarya (nerve-cells bodies) which lie in it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span>
+possessing a special shape; they are pyramidal. The dendrite
+fibres of these cells&mdash;that is, their fibres which conduct <i>towards</i>
+the perikarya&mdash;are branches from the apex and corners of the
+pyramid. From the base often near its middle arises one large
+fibre&mdash;the axone fibre, which conducts impulses away from the
+perikaryon. The general appearance and arrangement of the
+neurones in a particle of cortical grey matter are shown in fig. 15,
+above. The apices of the pyramidal perikarya are turned
+towards the free surface of the cortex. The figure as interpreted
+in terms of functional conduction means that the cortex is beset
+with conductors, each of which collects nerve-impulses, from
+a minute but relatively wide field by its branched dendrites,
+and that these nerve-impulses converge through its perikaryon,
+issue by its axone, and are carried whithersoever the axone runs.
+In some few cells the axone breaks up into branches in the immediate
+neighbourhood of its own perikaryon in the cortex.
+In most cases, however, the axone runs off into the subjacent
+white matter, leaving the cortex altogether. On reaching the
+subjacent white matter it mingles with other fibres and takes one
+of the following courses:&mdash;(1) to the grey matter of the cortex of
+the same hemisphere, (2) to the grey matter of the cortex of the
+opposite hemisphere, (3) to the grey matter of the pons, (4) to
+the grey matter of the bulb or spinal cord. It is noteworthy
+that the dendrite fibres of these cortical neurones do not transgress
+the limits of the grey cortex and the immediate neighbourhood
+of the perikaryon to which they belong; whereas the discharging
+or axone fibre does in the vast majority of cases transgress
+the limits of the grey matter wherein its perikaryon lies.
+The cortical neurone therefore collects impulses in the region of
+cortex just about its perikaryon and discharges them to other
+regions, some not cortical or even cerebral, but spinal, &amp;c. One
+question which naturally arises is, do these cells spontaneously
+generate their impulses or are they stirred to activity by impulses
+which reach them from without? The tendency of physiology
+is to regard the actions of the cortex as reactions to impulses
+communicated to the cortical cells by nerve-channels reaching
+them from the sense organs. The neurone conductors in the
+cortex are in so far considered to resemble those of reflex centres,
+though their reactions are more variable and complex than in the
+use of the spinal. The chains of neurones passing through the
+cortex are more complex and connected with greater numbers of
+associate complex chains than are those of the spinal centres.
+But just as the reflex centres of the cord are each attached to
+afferent channels arriving from this or that receptive-organ, for
+instance, tactile-organs of the skin, or spindles of muscle-sense,
+&amp;c., so the regions of cortex whose function is to-day with some
+certainty localized seem to be severally related each to some
+particular sense-organ. The localization, so far as ascertained,
+is a localization which attaches separate areas of cortex to the
+several species of sense, namely the visual, the auditory, the
+olfactory, and so on. This being so, we should expect to find the
+sensual representation in the cortex especially marked for the
+organs of the great distance-receptors, the organs which&mdash;considered
+as <i>sense</i> organs&mdash;initiate sensations having the quality
+of projicience into the sensible environment. The organs of
+distance-receptors are the olfactory, the visual and the auditory.
+The environmental agent which acts as stimulus in the case of
+the first named is chemical, in the second is radiant, and in the
+last is mechanical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Olfactory Region of Cortex.</i>&mdash;There is phylogenetic evidence
+that the development of the <i>cortex cerebri</i> first occurred in connexion
+with the distance-receptors for chemical stimuli&mdash;that is,
+expressed with reference to psychosis, in connexion with olfaction.
+The olfactory apparatus even in mammals still exhibits a neural
+architecture of primitive pattern. The cell which conducts
+impulses to the brain from the olfactory membrane in the nose
+resembles cells in the skin of the earthworm, in that its cell-body
+lies actually amid the epithelium of the skin-surface and is not
+deeply buried near or in the central nervous organ. Further, it
+has at its external end tiny hairlets such as occur in specially
+receptive-cells but not usually in purely nervous cells. Hence
+we must think that one and the same cell by its external end
+receives the environmental stimulus and by its deep end excites
+the central nervous organ. The cell under the stimulation of the
+environmental agent will therefore generate in itself a nervous
+impulse. This is the clearest instance we have of a neurone being
+actually excited under natural circumstances by an agent of the
+environment <i>directly</i>, not indirectly. The deep ends of these
+olfactory neurones having entered the central nervous organ
+come into contact with the <span class="correction" title="amended from dentrites">dendrites</span> of large neurones, called,
+from their shape, mitral. In the dog, an animal with high
+olfactory sense, the axone of each olfactory neurone is connected
+with five or six mitral cells. In man each olfactory neurone is
+connected with a single mitral cell only. We may suppose that
+the former arrangement conduces to intensification of the central
+reaction by summation. At the same time it is an arrangement
+which could tend to smother sharp differentiation of the central
+reaction in respect to locality of stimulus at the receptive surface.
+Considering the diffuse way in which olfactory stimuli are applied
+in comparison, for instance, with visual, the exact localization of
+the former can obviously yield little information of use for
+locating the exact position of their source. On the other hand, in
+the case of visual stimuli the locus of incidence, owing to the
+rectilinear propagation of light, can serve with extraordinary
+exactitude for inferences as to the position of their source. The
+adaptation of the neural connexions of the two organs in this
+respect is therefore in accord with expectation.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest cerebral cortex is formed in connexion with the
+neurone-chains coming into the central nervous organ from the
+patch of olfactory cells on the surface of the head. The region of
+cerebrum thus developed is the so-called olfactory lobe and
+hippocampal formation. The greater part of the cerebral hemisphere
+is often termed the <i>pallium</i>, because as its development
+extends it folds cloak-wise over the older structures at the base
+of the brain. The olfactory lobe, from its position, is sometimes
+called the <i>pallium basale</i>, and the hippocampal formation the
+<i>pallium marginale</i>; and these two parts of the pallium form
+what, on account of their phylogenetic history, Elliott Smith
+well terms the <i>archipallium</i>. A fissure, the limbic fissure, marks
+off more or less distinctly this archipallium from the rest of the
+pallium, a remainder which is of later development and therefore
+designated by Elliott Smith the <i>neopallium</i>. Of the archipallium,
+the portion which constitutes the olfactory lobe is well formed
+in the selachian fish. In the reptilian cerebrum the hippocampal
+region, the pallium marginale, coexists in addition. These are
+both of them olfactory in function. Even so high up in the
+animal scale as the lowest mammals they still form one half of
+the entire pallium. But in the higher apes and in man the
+olfactory portion of the pallium is but a small fraction of the
+pallium as a whole. It is indeed so relatively dwarfed and
+obscured as to be invisible when the brain is regarded from the
+side or above. The olfactory part of the pallium exhibits little
+variation in form as traced up through the higher animals. It is
+of course small in such animals as Cetaceans, which are <i>anosmatic</i>.
+In highly osmatic such as the dog it is large. The <i>uncus</i>, and
+<i>subiculum cornu ammonis</i> of the human brain, belong to it.
+Disease of these parts has been accompanied by disturbance of
+the sense of smell. When stimulated electrically (in the rabbit)
+the olfactory pallium occasions peculiar torsion of the nose and
+lips (Ferrier), and change, often slowing or arrested, of the
+respiratory rhythm. P.E. Flechsig has shown that the nerve-fibres
+of this part of the pallium attain the final stage of their
+growth, that is to say, acquire their sheaths of myelin, early in
+the ontogenetic development of the brain. In the human brain
+they are myelinate before birth. This is significant from the
+point of view of function, for reasons which have been made
+clear especially by the researches of Flechsig himself.</p>
+
+<p>The completion of the growth of the nerve-fibres entering and
+leaving the cortex occurs at very various periods in the growth
+of the brain. Study of the development of the fibres entering
+and leaving the various regions of the pallium in the human
+brain, discovers that the regions may be conveniently grouped
+into those whose fibres are perfected before birth and those
+whose fibres are perfected during the first post-natal month,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span>
+and those whose fibres are perfected after the first but before the
+end of the fourth post-natal month. The regions thus marked
+out by completion before birth are five in number, and are each
+connected, as also shown by collateral evidence, with one or
+other particular species of sense-organ. And these regions have
+another character in common recognizable in the nerve-fibres
+entering and leaving them, namely, they possess fibres projected
+to or from parts of the nervous system altogether outside the
+cortex itself. These fibres are termed &ldquo;projection&rdquo; fibres.
+Other regions of the cortex possess fibres coming from or going
+to various regions of the cortex itself, but do not possess in
+addition, as do the five primitive cortical fields, the fibres of
+projection. So that the facts established by Flechsig for the
+regions of pallium, which other evidence already indicated as
+connected with the sense-organ of smell, support that evidence
+and bring the olfactory region of cortex into line with certain
+other regions of cortex similarly primarily connected with organs
+of sense.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted that what has been achieved by these various
+means of study in regard to the region of the cortex to which
+olfactory functions are attributed amounts at present to little
+more than the bare ascertainment of the existence there of
+nervous mechanisms connected with olfaction, and to the delimiting
+roughly of their extent and of their ability to influence
+certain movements, and in man sensations, habitually associated
+with exercise of the olfactory organ. As to what part the cortical
+mechanism has in the elaboration or association of mental
+processes to which olfaction contributes, no evidence worth the
+name seems as yet forthcoming. In this respect our knowledge,
+or rather our want of knowledge, of the functions of the olfactory
+region of the cortex, is fairly typical of that to which we have
+to confess in regard to the other regions of the cortex, even the
+best known.</p>
+
+<p><i>Visual Region of the Cortex.</i>&mdash;There is a region of the cortex
+especially connected with vision. The <i>optic nerve</i> and <i>tract</i>
+constitute the second link in the chain of neurones joining the
+retina to the brain. They may therefore be regarded as the
+equivalent of an intraspinal tract connecting the deep ends of
+the afferent neurones from the skin with higher nervous centres.
+In the bony fishes the optic tract reaches the grey matter of the
+optic lobe, a part of the mid-brain, to which the so-called anterior
+colliculus is equivalent in the mammalian brain. In the optic
+lobe the axones of the neurones of the optic tract meet neurones
+whose axones pass in turn to the motor neurones of the muscles
+moving the eyeballs, and also to other motor neurones. But in
+these fish the optic tract has no obvious connexion with the
+fore-brain or with any cerebral pallium. Ascending, however,
+to the reptilian brain is found an additional arrangement: a
+small portion of the optic tract passes to grey matter in front of
+the optic lobe. This grey matter is the lateral geniculate body.
+From this geniculate body a number of neurones extend to the
+pallial portion of the cerebrum, for in the reptilian brain the
+pallium is present. The portion of pallium connected with the
+lateral geniculate body lies above and behind the olfactory or
+archipallium. It is a part of what was mentioned above as
+neopallium.</p>
+
+<p>In the mammalian brain the portion of the optic tract which
+goes to the optic lobe (<i>ant. colliculus</i> of the mammal) is dwarfed
+by great development of the part which goes to the geniculate
+body and an adjoining grey mass, the pulvinar (part of the optic
+thalamus). From these latter pass large bands of fibres to the
+occipital region of the neopallium. In mammals this visual
+region of the cortex is distinguished in its microscopic features
+from the cortex elsewhere by a layer of myelinate nerve-fibres,
+many of which are the axones of neurones of the geniculate body
+and pulvinar. Thus, whereas in the bony fishes all the third
+links of the conductive chain from the retina lead exclusively
+to the final neurones of motor centres for muscles, in the mammal
+the majority of the third links conduct to grey matter of the
+cortex cerebri.</p>
+
+<p>The application of electric stimuli to the surface of the cortex
+does not for the greater part of the extent of the cortex evoke
+in higher mammalian brains any obvious effect; no muscular
+act is provoked. But from certain limited regions of the cortex
+such stimulation does evoke muscular acts, and one of these
+regions is that to which the neurones forming the third link of
+the conductive chain from the retina pass. The muscular acts
+thus provoked from that region are movements of the eyeballs
+and of the neck turning the head. In the monkey the movement
+is the turning of both eyeballs and the head away from the side
+stimulated. In short, the gaze is directed as to an object on
+the opposite side. The newer conductive chain traceable through
+the cortex does therefore, after all, like the older one through
+the optic lobe, lead ultimately to the motor neurones of the eye
+muscles and the neck, only it takes a longer course thither and
+is undoubtedly much more complex. What gain is effected by
+this new and as it were alternative and longer route, which takes
+a path up to the cerebral cortex and down again, we can only
+conjecture, but of one point we may rest well assured, namely,
+that a much richer inter-connexion with other arcs of the nervous
+system is obtained by the path that passes via the cortex. The
+functional difference between the old conductive circuit and the
+new can at present hardly indeed be stated even in outline.
+A natural inference might be that the phylogenetically older and
+less complex path is concerned with functions purely reflex-motor,
+not possessing sensation as an attribute. But fish, which
+possess only the older path, can be trained to seize bait of one
+colour and not of another colour, even against what appeared
+to be an original colour-preference in them. Such discrimination
+individually acquired seems to involve memory, though it may
+be rudimentary in kind. Where motor reaction to visual stimuli
+appears to involve memory&mdash;and without memory the training
+could hardly be effective&mdash;some germ of consciousness can hardly
+be denied to the visual reactions, although the reactions occurred
+in complete absence of a cortical path and indeed of a visual
+cortex altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Removal of the visual pallium in the tortoise produces little
+or no obvious defect in vision; but in the bird such a lesion
+greatly impairs the vision of the eye of the side opposite to the
+lesion. The impairment does not, however, amount to absolute
+blindness. Schrader&rsquo;s hawk, after removal of the pallium,
+reacted to movements of the mice with which it was caged.
+But the reactions were impaired: they lacked the sustained
+purpose of the normal reactions. The bird saw the mice; that
+was certain, for their movements across its field of vision made
+it turn its gaze towards them. But on their ceasing to move,
+the reaction on the part of the bird lapsed. Neither did their
+continuing to move excite the attack upon them which would
+have been the natural reaction on the part of the bird of prey
+towards its food. The bird apparently did not recognize them as
+prey, but saw them merely as moving objects. It saw them perhaps
+as things to which mental association gave no significance.
+Similarly, a dog after ablation of the occipital lobes of the cortex
+is able to see, for it avoids obstacles in its path; but if food is
+offered to it or the whip held up to it, it does not turn towards
+the food or away from the whip. It sees these things as if it saw
+them for the first time, but without curiosity, and as if it had no
+experience of their meaning. It gives no hint that it any longer
+understands the meaning of even familiar objects so long as these
+are presented to it through the sense of vision. Destruction of
+the visual cortex of one hemisphere alone produces in the dog
+impairment of vision, not as in the bird practically exclusively
+in the opposite eye, but in one lateral half of each eye, and that
+half the half opposite the hemisphere injured. Thus when the
+cortex destroyed is of the right cerebral hemisphere, the resultant
+visual defect is in the left half of the field of vision of both eyes.
+And this is so in man also.</p>
+
+<p>In man disturbances of sensation can be better studied
+because it is possible to obtain from him his description of his
+condition. The relation of the <i>cortex cerebri</i> to human vision
+can be summarized briefly as follows. The visual cortex is distinguishable
+in higher mammals by a thin white stripe, the stripe
+of Gennari, seen in its grey matter when that is sectioned. This
+stripe results from a layer of nerve-fibres, many of which are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span>
+axones from the neurones of the lateral geniculate body and the
+pulvinar, the grey masses directly connected with the optic
+nerve-fibres. In the dog, and in such monkeys as the Macaque,
+the region of cortex containing this stripe traceable to optic
+fibres forms practically the whole occipital lobe. But in the man-like
+apes and in man this kind of cortex is confined to one region
+of the occipital lobe, namely, that of the calcarine fissure and the
+<i>cuneus</i> behind that. This region of cortex thus delimited in man
+is one of Flechsig&rsquo;s areas of earlier myelinization. It is also one
+of his areas possessing projection fibres; and this last fact
+agrees with the yielding by this area, when under electrical
+stimulation, of movements indicating that impulses have been
+discharged from it into the motor neurones of the muscles of
+the eyes and neck. Evidence from cases of disease show that
+destruction of the cortex of the upper lip of the calcarine fissure,
+say in the right half of the brain, causes in man impairment in
+the upper right-hand quadrant of both retinae: destruction of
+the lower lip of the fissure causes impairment in the lower right-hand
+quadrants. Destruction of the calcarine region of one
+hemisphere produces therefore &ldquo;crossed hemianopia,&rdquo; that is,
+loss of the opposite half of the field of vision. But in this
+hemianopia the region of central vision is always spared. That
+is, the piece of visual field which corresponds with the yellow
+spot of the retina is not affected in either eye, unless the calcarine
+regions of both hemispheres are destroyed. This central point
+of vision is connected therefore not with one side of the brain
+only but with both.</p>
+
+<p>The impairment of sight is more severe in men than in lower
+animals. Where the destruction of the visuo-sensory cortex
+in one calcarine region is complete, a candle-flame offered in the
+hemianopic field cannot even be perceived. It may hardly
+excite a reflex contraction of the pupil. In such cases the visual
+defect amounts to blindness. But this is a greater defect than
+is found in the dog even after entire removal of both occipital
+lobes. The dog still avoids obstacles as it walks. Its defect
+is rather, as said above, a complete loss of interest in the visual
+images of things. But a dog or monkey after loss of the visual
+cortex hesitates more and avoids obstacles less well in a familiar
+place than it does when entirely blind from loss of the peripheral
+organ of vision. In man extensive destruction of the visual
+cortex has as one of its symptoms loss of memory of localities,
+thus, of the paths of a garden, of the position of furniture, and
+of accustomed objects in the patient&rsquo;s own room. This loss of
+memory of position does not extend to spatial relations ordinarily
+appreciated by touch, such as parts of the patient&rsquo;s own person
+or clothing. There is nothing like this in the symptoms following
+blindness by loss of the eye itself. Those who lose their sight by
+disease of the retina retain good memorial pictures of positions
+and directions appreciated primarily by vision.</p>
+
+<p>Cases of disease are on record in which loss of visual memory
+has occurred without hemianopia. Visual hallucinations referred
+to the hemianopic side have been observed. This suggests
+that the function of visual memory in regard to certain kinds
+of percepts must belong to localities of cortex different from
+those pertaining to other visual percepts. The area of cortex
+characterized by the stripe of Gennari occupies in man, as
+mentioned, the calcarine and cuneate region. It is surrounded by
+a cortical field which, though intimately connected with it by
+manifold conducting fibres, &amp;c., is yet on various grounds distinct
+from it. This field of cortex surrounding the visuo-sensory
+of the calcarine-cuneate region is a far newer part of the neopallium
+than the region it surrounds. Both in the individual
+(Flechsig) and in the phylum (Bolton, Campbell, Mott) its development
+occurs far later than that of the visuo-sensory which it
+surrounds. Flechsig finds that it has no &ldquo;projection&rdquo; fibres,
+that is, that it receives none of the optic radiations from the
+lower visual centres and gives no centrifugal fibres in the reverse
+direction. This field encompassing the visuo-sensory region
+differs from the latter in its microscopic structure by absence
+of the lower layer of stellate cells and by the presence in it of a
+third or deep layer of pyramidal cells (Mott). Its fibres are
+on the average smaller than are those of the visuo-sensory
+(W.A. Campbell). This zonal field is small in the lower apes, and
+hardly discoverable in the dog. In the anthropoid apes it is
+much larger. In man it is relatively much larger still. The
+impairment of visual memory and visual understanding in regard
+to direction and locality is said to be observed in man only when
+the injury of the cortex includes not only the calcarine-cuneate
+region but a wide area of the occipital lobe. From this it is
+argued that the zonal field is concerned with memories and
+recognitions of a kind based on visual perceptions. It has
+therefore been termed the <i>visuo-psychic</i> area. It is one of
+Flechsig&rsquo;s &ldquo;association-areas&rdquo; of the cortex.</p>
+
+<p>Adjoining the antero-lateral border of the just-described
+<i>visuo-psychic area</i> lies another region separate from it and yet
+related to it. This area is even later in its course of development
+than is the visuo-psychic. It is one of Flechsig&rsquo;s &ldquo;terminal
+fields,&rdquo; and its fibres are among the last to ripen in the whole
+cortex. This terminal field is large in man. It runs forward in
+the parietal lobe above and in the temporal lobe below. Its
+wide extent explains, in the opinion of Mott, the displacement
+of the visuo-sensory field from the outer aspect of the hemisphere
+in the lower monkeys to the median aspect in man. To this
+terminal field all the more interest attaches because it includes
+the angular gyrus, which authorities hold to be concerned
+with the visual memory of words. Study of diseased conditions
+of speech has shown that the power to understand <i>written</i> words
+may be lost or severely impaired although the words may be
+perfectly distinct to the sight and although the power to understand
+<i>heard</i> words remains good. This condition is asserted
+by many physicians to be referable to destruction of part of
+the angular gyrus. Close beneath the cortex of the angular
+gyrus runs a large tract of long fibres which pass from the visual
+cortex (see above) to the auditory cortex (see below) in the
+superior temporal gyrus and to the lower part of the frontal
+lobe. This lower part of the frontal lobe is believed&mdash;and has
+long been believed&mdash;to be concerned intimately with the production
+of the movements of speech. A difficulty besetting
+the investigation of the function of the angular gyrus is the
+fact that lesion of the cortex there is likely to implicate the
+underlying tract of fibres in its damage. It cannot be considered
+to have been as yet clearly ascertained whether the condition
+of want of recognition of seen words&mdash;&rdquo;word-blindness&rdquo;&mdash;is
+due to cortical injury apart from subcortical, to the angular
+gyrus itself apart from the underlying tract. Word-blindness
+seems, in the right-handed, to resemble the aphasia believed
+to be connected with the lower part of the frontal lobe, in that
+it ensues upon lesions of the left hemisphere, not of the right.
+In left-handed persons, on the contrary, it seems to attach to
+the right hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Auditory Region of the Cortex.</i>&mdash;Besides the two great organs
+of distance-receptors, namely, the nose and eye, whose cerebral
+apparatus for sensation has just been mentioned, those of a
+third great distance-receptor have to be considered. The agents
+of stimulation of the two former are respectively chemical
+(olfactory) and radiant (visual); the mode of stimulation of the
+third is mechanical, and the sensations obtained by it are termed
+auditory. Their cerebral localization is very imperfectly ascertained.
+Electric stimuli applied to a part of the uppermost
+temporal gyrus excites movements of the ears and eyes in the
+dog. Destruction of the same region when executed on both
+hemispheres is argued by several observers to impair the sense
+of hearing. To this region of cortex fibres have been traced from
+the lower centres connected with the nerve-fibres coming from
+the cochlea of the ear. From each cochlear nerve a path has been
+traced which passes to the <i>insulae</i> and the above-mentioned
+<i>temporal</i> region of cortex of both the cerebral hemispheres.
+The insula is a deeper-seated area of cortex adjoining the uppermost
+temporal convolution. To it Flechsig&rsquo;s chronological
+studies also impute a connexion with the nerves of the ear.
+Early myelinization of fibres, presence of ascending and descending
+&ldquo;projection&rdquo; tracts to and from lower centres outside the
+cortex, calibre of fibres, microscopic characters of its cortical
+cells, all those kinds of indirect items of evidence that obtain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span>
+for the visual cortex likewise mark out this insular-temporal
+area as connected fairly directly with a special sense-organ,
+as in fact a sensory field of the cortex; and the suspicion is that
+it is auditory. Clinical observation supports the view in a
+striking way, but one requiring, in the opinion of some, further
+confirmation. It is widely believed that destruction of the
+upper and middle part of the uppermost temporal convolution
+produces &ldquo;word-deafness,&rdquo; that is, an inability to recognize
+familiar words when heard, although the words are recognized
+when seen.</p>
+
+<p>More precise information regarding this auditory region of
+the cortex has recently been obtained by the experiments of
+Kalischer. These show that after removal of this region from
+both sides of the brain in the dog the animal shows great defect
+in answering to the call of its master. Whereas prior to the
+operation the animal will prick its ears and attend at once
+to the lightest call, it requires after the removal of the auditory
+regions great loudness and insistence of calling to make it attend
+and react as it did. This is the more striking in view of other
+experimental results obtained. Kalischer trained a number of
+his dogs not to take meat offered them except at the sound
+of a particular note given by an organ pipe or a harmonium.
+The dogs rapidly learned not to take the food on the sounding
+of notes of other pitch than the one taught them as the permissive
+signal. This reaction on the part of the animal was not
+impaired by the removal of the so-called auditory regions of
+the cortex. Kalischer suggests that this reaction taught by
+training is not destroyed by the operation which so greatly
+impairs the common reaction to the master&rsquo;s call, because the
+former is a simpler process more allied to reflex action. In
+it the attention of the dog is already fastened upon the object,
+namely the food, and the stimulus given by the note excites a
+reaction which simply allows the act of seizing the food to take
+place, or on the other hand stops it. In the case of answering
+the call of the master the stimulus has to excite attention, to
+produce perception of the locality whence it comes, and to
+invoke a complicated series of movements of response. He
+finds that destruction of the posterior colliculi of the mid-brain,
+which have long been known to be in some way connected with
+hearing, likewise destroys the response to the call of the master,
+but did not destroy the trick taught to his dogs of taking meat
+offered at the sound of a note of one particular pitch but not
+at notes of other pitch given by the same instrument.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Senses and Localization in the Cortex Cerebri.</i>&mdash;Turning
+now to the connexion between the function of the cortex and
+the senses other than those of the great distance-receptors just
+dealt with, even less is known. Disturbance and impairment of
+skin sensations are observable both in experiments on the cerebrum
+of animals and in cases of cerebral disease in man. But the
+localization in the cortex of regions specially or mainly concerned
+with cutaneous sensation has not been made sufficiently clear to
+warrant statement here. Still less is there satisfactory knowledge
+regarding the existence of cortical areas concerned with sensations
+originated in the alimentary canal. The least equivocal of
+such evidence regards the sense of taste. There is some slight
+evidence of a connexion between this sense and a region of the
+hippocampal gyrus near to but behind that related to smell.</p>
+
+<p>As to the sensations excited by the numerous receptors which
+lie not in any of the surface membranes of the body but embedded
+in the masses of the organs and between them, the <i>proprioceptors</i>,
+buried in muscles, tendons and joints, there is little
+doubt that these sensations may be disturbed or impaired by
+injury of the <i>cortex cerebri</i>. They may probably also be excited
+by cortical stimulation. But evidence of localization of their
+seat in, and their details of connexion with, the cortex, is at
+present uncertain. Many authorities consider it probable that
+sensations of touch and the sensations initiated by the proprioceptors
+of muscles and joints (the organs of the so-called muscular
+sense) are specially related to the post-central gyrus and perhaps
+to the pre-central gyrus also. The clearest items on this point are
+perhaps the following.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the regions instanced above, in the limbic (olfactory),
+occipital (visual), and temporal (auditory) lobes, as exhibiting
+precocity of development, there is a region showing similar
+precocity in the fronto-parietal portion of the hemisphere. This
+is the region which in the Primates includes the large <i>central
+fissure</i> (sometimes called the fissure of Rolando). To it fibres
+are traced which seem to continue a path of conduction that
+began with afferent tracts belonging to the spinal cord, and tracts
+which there is reason to think conduct impulses from the receptor-organs
+of skin and muscles. The part of the cortex immediately
+behind the <i>central fissure</i> seems to be the main cortical goal for
+these upward-conducting paths. That <i>post-central</i> strip of cortex
+would in this view bear to these paths a relation similar to that
+which the occipital and temporal regions bear to afferent tracts
+from the retina and the cochlea. There are observations which
+associate impaired tactual sense and impaired perception of
+posture and movement of a limb with injury of the <i>central region</i>
+of the cortex. But there are a number also which show that the
+motor defect which is a well-ascertained result of injury of the
+<i>pre-central</i> gyrus is sometimes unaccompanied by any obvious
+defect either of touch or of muscular sense. It seems then that
+the motor centres of this region are closely connected with the
+centres for cutaneous and muscular sense, yet are not so closely
+interwoven with them that mechanical damage inflicted on the
+one of necessity heavily damages the other as well. There is
+evidence that the sensory cortex in this region lies posterior to
+that which has been conveniently termed the &ldquo;motor.&rdquo; These
+latter in the monkey and the man-like apes and man lie in front
+of the central fissure: the sensory lie probably behind it. A.W.
+Campbell has found changes in the cortex of the post-central
+convolution ensuing in the essentially sensory disease, <i>tabes
+dorsalis</i>, a disease in which degeneration of sensory nerve-fibres
+of the muscular sense and of the skin senses is prominent. He
+considers that in man and the man-like apes the part of the post-central
+gyrus which lies next to and enters into the <i>central fissure</i>
+is concerned with simpler sensual recognitions, while the adjoining
+part of that convolution farther back is a &ldquo;psychic region&rdquo;
+concerned with more complex psychosis connected with the
+senses of skin and muscle. His subdivision of the post-central
+gyrus is based on histological differences which he discovers
+between its anterior and its posterior parts and on the above-described
+analogous differentiation of a &ldquo;sensory&rdquo; from a
+&ldquo;psychic&rdquo; part in the visual region of cortex.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted that although certain regions of the cortex are
+found connected closely with certain of the main sense organs,
+there are important receptive organs which do not appear to
+have any special region of cortex assigned to their sensual
+products. Thus, there is the &ldquo;vestibular labyrinth&rdquo; of the ear.
+This great receptive organ, so closely connected in function with
+the movements and adjustment of the postures of the head and
+eyes, and indeed of the whole body, is prominent in the co-ordination
+necessary for the equilibrium of the body, an essential
+part of the fundamental acts of progression, standing, &amp;c. Yet
+neither structural nor functional connexion with any special
+region of the cortex has been traced as yet for the labyrinthine
+receptors. Perceptions of the position of the head and of the
+body are of course part of our habitual and everyday experience.
+It may perhaps be that these perceptions are almost entirely
+obtained through sense organs which are not labyrinthine, but
+visual, muscular, tactual, and so on. The labyrinth may, though
+it controls and adjusts the muscular activities which maintain
+the balance of the body, operate reflexly without in its operation
+exciting of itself sensations. The results of the unconscious
+reflexes it initiated and guided would be perceptible through other
+organs of sense. But against this purely unconscious functioning
+of the labyrinth and its nervous apparatus stands the fact that
+galvanic stimulation of the labyrinth is accompanied by well-known
+distinctive sensations&mdash;including giddiness, &amp;c. Moreover,
+the prominent factor in sea-sickness, a disorder richly
+suffused with sensations, is probably the labyrinth. Yet there is
+marked absence of evidence of any special and direct connexion
+between the <i>cortex cerebri</i> and the labyrinth organs.</p>
+
+<p>Also there is curiously little evidence of connexion of the cortex
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span>
+with the nervous paths of conduction concerned with pain. As
+far as the present writer can find from reference to books and
+from the clinical experience of others, &ldquo;pain&rdquo; is unknown as an
+<i>aura</i> in cortical epilepsy, or at most is of equivocal occurrence.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding brief exposition of some of the main features
+of the localization of function in the <i>cortex cerebri</i>, gradually
+deciphered by patient inquiry, shows that the scheme of partition
+of function so far perceptible does not follow the quaint lines of
+analysis of the phrenologists with their supposed mental entities,
+so-called &ldquo;faculties.&rdquo; On the contrary it is based, as some of
+those who early favoured a differential arrangement of function
+in the cerebrum had surmised, on the <i>separateness of the incoming
+channels from peripheral organs of sense</i>. These organs fall into
+groups separate one from another not only by reason of their
+spatial differentiation at the surface and in the thickness of the
+body, but also because each group generates sensations which
+introspection tells us are of a species unbridgeably separate from
+those generated by the other groups. Between sensations of
+hearing and sensations of sight there is a dissimilarity across
+which no intermediate series of sensual phenomena extend. The
+two species of sensations are wholly disparate. Similarly
+there is a total and impassable gap between
+sensations of touch and sensations of sight and sound.
+In other words the sensations fall into groups which
+are wholly disparate and are hence termed species.
+But within each species there exist multifold varieties
+of the specific sensation, <i>e.g.</i> sensations of red, of yellow,
+&amp;c. We should expect, therefore, that the conducting
+paths from the receptive organs which in their function
+as sense-organs yield wholly disparate sensations would
+in so far as subserving sensation diverge and pass to
+separate neural mechanisms. That these sense-organs
+should in fact be found to possess in the cortex of the
+cerebrum separate fields for their sensual nervous
+apparatus is, therefore, in harmony with what would
+be the <i>a priori</i> supposition.</p>
+
+<p>But, as emphasized at the beginning of this article,
+the receptive organs belonging to the surfaces and
+the depths of the body and forming the starting-points
+for the whole system of the afferent nerves,
+have two functions more or less separate. One of
+these functions is to excite sensations and the other is
+to excite movements, by reflex action, especially in
+glands and muscles. In this latter function, namely
+the reflexifacient, all that the receptive organs effect is
+effected by means of the efferent nerves. They all have
+to use the efferent, especially the motor, nerves of
+the body. So rich is the connexion of the receptive organs
+with the efferent nerves that it is not improbable that,
+through the central nervous organ, each receptive organ is
+connected with every motor nerve of the whole nervous system,&mdash;the
+facts of strychnine poisoning show that if this is not literally
+true it is at least approximately so. Hence one of the goals to
+which each afferent fibre from a receptive organ leads is a number
+of motor nerves. Their conducting paths must, therefore, converge
+in passing to the starting-points of the motor nerves;
+because these latter are instruments common to the use of a
+number of different receptive organs in so far as they excite
+reflex actions. On the other hand those of their conducting
+paths which are concerned in the genesis of sensation, instead of
+converging, diverge, at least as far as the <i>cortex cerebri</i>, or if not
+divergent, remain separate. These considerations would make it
+appear likely that the conducting path from each receptive
+organ divides in the central nervous system into two main lines,
+one of which goes off to its own particular region of the <i>cortex
+cerebri</i> whither run conductors only of similar sensual species to
+itself, while the other main line passes with many others to a
+great motor station where, as at a telephone exchange, coordinate
+use of the outgoing lines is assured to them all. Now
+there is in fact a portion of the cortex in mammals the functions
+of which are so pre-eminently motor, as judged by our present
+methods, that it is commonly designated the <i>motor cortex</i> (see
+fig. 24). This region of the cortex occupies in the Primates,
+including Man, the pre-central gyrus. Among the items of evidence
+which reveal its motor capabilities are the following.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:597px; height:479px" src="images/img411.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of Foci in the
+Motor Field of Chimpanzee.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>The Precentral or Motor Region of the Cortex.</i>&mdash;The application
+to it of electric currents excites movements in the skeletal muscles.
+The movements occur in the half of the body of the side crossed
+from that of the hemisphere excited. The &ldquo;motor representation,&rdquo;
+as it is termed, is in the cortex better described as a
+representation of definite actions than of particular muscles.
+The actions &ldquo;represented&rdquo; in the top part of the gyrus, namely
+next the great longitudinal fissure, move the leg; those in the
+lowest part of the gyrus belong to the tongue and mouth. The
+topical distribution along the length of the gyrus may be described
+in a general way as following a sequence resembling that
+of the motor representation in the spinal cord, the top of the
+gyrus being taken as corresponding with the caudal end of the
+spinal cord. The sequence as the gyrus is followed downwards
+runs: perineum, foot, knee, hip, abdomen, chest, shoulder, elbow,
+wrist, hand, eyelids and ear, nose, mouth and tongue. The
+nature of the movement is very fairly constant for separate
+points of this motor cortex as observed both in the same and in
+similar experiments. Thus flexion of the arm will be excitable
+from one set of points, and extension of the arm from another set
+of points; opening of the jaw from one set and closure from
+another, and so on. These various movements if excited strongly
+tend to have characters like those of the movements seen in an
+epileptic convulsion. Strong stimulation excites in fact a convulsion
+like that of epilepsy, beginning with the movement
+usual for the point stimulated and spreading so as to assume the
+proportions of a convulsion affecting the entire skeletal musculature
+of one half or even of the whole body. The resemblance
+to an epileptic seizure is the closer because the movement before
+it subsides becomes clonic (rhythmic) as in epilepsy. The
+determination of the exact spots of cortex in which are represented
+the various movements of the body has served a useful
+practical purpose in indicating the particular places in the cortex
+which are the seat of disease. These the physician can localize
+more exactly by reason of this knowledge. Hence the surgeon,
+if the nature of the disease is such as can be dealt with by surgical
+means, can without unnecessarily damaging the skull and brain,
+proceed directly to the point which is the seat of the mischief.</p>
+
+<p>The motor representation of certain parts of the body is much
+more liberal than is that of others. There is little correspondence
+between the mere mass of musculature involved and the area of
+the cortex devoted to its representation. Variety of movement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span>
+rather than force or energy of movement seems to demand
+extent of cortex. The cortical area for the thumb is larger than
+those for the whole abdomen and chest combined. The cortical
+area for the tongue is larger than that for the neck. Different
+movements of one and the same part are very unequally represented
+in the cortex. Thus, flexion of the leg is more extensively
+represented than is extension, opening of the jaw has a much
+larger cortical area than has closure of the jaws. It is interesting
+that certain agents, for instance strychnine, and the poison of the
+bacilli which cause the disease known as tetanus or lock-jaw,
+upset this normal topography, and replace in the cortex flexion
+of the limb by extension of the limb, and opening of the jaw by
+closure of the jaw. There is, however, no evidence that they do
+this by changing in any way the cortical mechanisms themselves.
+It is more likely that their action is confined to the lower centres,
+bulbar and spinal, upon which the discharge excited from the
+cortex plays. The change thus induced in the movement excited
+by the cortex does, however, show that the point of cortex
+which causes for instance opening of the mouth is connected
+with the motor nerves to the closing muscles as well as with
+those of the opening muscles. This is an item of evidence that
+the &ldquo;centres&rdquo; of the cortex are connected with the motor nerves
+of antagonistic muscles in such a way that when the &ldquo;centre&rdquo;
+excites one set of the muscles to contract, it simultaneously
+under normal circumstances causes inhibition of the motor
+neurones of the opposed set of muscles (reciprocal innervation).
+In the great majority of movements excited from the motor
+cortex of a single hemisphere of the cerebrum, the movement
+evoked is confined to one side of the body, namely to that opposite
+to the hemisphere stimulated. There are, however, important
+exceptions to this. Thus, adduction of both vocal cords is
+excited from the cortex of either hemisphere. The movement of
+closure of the eyelids is usually bilateral, unless the stimulation
+be very weak; then the movement is of the eyelids of the opposite
+side only. The same holds true for the movements of the jaw.
+It, therefore, seems clear that with many movements which are
+usually bilaterally performed in ordinary life, such as opening
+of the jaw, blinking, &amp;c., the symmetrical areas of the motor
+regions of both hemispheres are simultaneously in action.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to all these movements elicitable by artificial stimuli
+from the motor cortex it is obvious that were there clearer evidence
+that the pallial region from which they are elicitable is
+fairly directly connected with corticopetal paths subserving
+cutaneous sensation or &ldquo;muscular sense,&rdquo; the movements might
+be regarded as falling into the category of higher reflexes connected
+with the organs of touch, muscular sense, &amp;c., just as the
+movements of the eyeball excitable from the visual cortex may
+be regarded as higher reflexes connected with vision. The evidence
+of the connexion of the reactions of the motor cortex with
+cutaneous and muscular senses appears, however, scarcely
+sufficient to countenance at present this otherwise plausible view,
+which has on general grounds much to commend it.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that movements of the eyeball itself, <i>i.e.</i>
+apart from movement of the lids, are not in the category of
+movements elicitable from the precentral gyrus, the &ldquo;motor&rdquo;
+cortex. They are found represented in a region farther forward,
+namely in front of the precentral gyrus altogether, and occupying
+a scattered set of points in the direction frontal from the areas
+for movements of arm and face. This frontal area yields on
+excitation conjugate movements of both eyeballs extremely like
+if not exactly similar to those yielded by excitation of the
+occipital (visual) region of the cortex. It is supposed by some
+that this frontal area yielding eye-movements has its function
+in this respect based upon afferent conductors from other parts
+of the eyeball than the retina, for instance upon kinaesthetic
+(Bastian) impressions or upon sensual impressions derived from
+the cornea and the coats of the eyeball including the ciliary
+and iris muscles. The ocular muscles are certainly a source of
+centripetal impulses, but their connexion with the cortex is not
+clear as to either their nature or their seat. The question seems
+for the present to allow no clearer answer. It is certain, however,
+that the frontal area of eye movements has corticofugal paths
+descending from it to the lower motor centres of the eyeballs
+quite independent of those descending from the occipital (visual)
+area of eye-movements. Further, it seems clear that in many
+animals there is another cortical region, a third region, the region
+which we saw above might be considered auditory, where movements
+of the eyeball similar to those elicitable in the occipital
+and frontal cortex can be provoked. A. Tschermak is inclined
+to give the eyeball movements of the frontal region the significance
+of reflex movements which carry the visual field in various
+directions in answer to demands made by sensory data derived
+from touch, &amp;c., as for instance from the hand. The movements
+of the eyeballs elicitable from the occipital region of the cortex
+he regards as probably concerned with directing the gaze toward
+something seen, for instance, in the peripheral field of vision.
+The occipital movement would, therefore, be excited through the
+retina, and would result in bringing the yellow spot region of
+the retinae of both eyes to bear upon the object. This view has
+much to justify it. The movements of the eyeballs excited
+from the cortex of the auditory region would in a similar way
+be explicable as bringing the gaze to bear upon a direction in
+which a sound had been located, auditory initiation replacing
+the visual and tactual of the occipital and the frontal regions
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Turning from these still speculative matters to others less
+suggestive but of actual ascertainment, we find that the motor
+nature of the precentral cortex as ascertained by electric stimuli
+is further certified by the occurrence of disturbance and impairment
+of motor power and adjustment following destruction of
+that region of the cortex. The movements which such a part
+as a limb executes are of course manifold in purpose. The hind
+limb of a dog is used for standing, for stepping, for scratching,
+for squatting, and, where a dog, for instance, has been trained
+to stand or walk on its hind legs alone, for skilled acts requiring
+a special training for their acquisition. It is found that when
+the motor area of the brain has been destroyed, the limb is at
+first paralysed for all these movements, but after a time the limb
+recovers the ability to execute some of them, though not all.
+The scratching movement suffers little, and rapid improvement
+after cerebral injury soon effaces the impairment, at first somewhat
+pronounced, in the use of the limb for walking, running,
+&amp;c., and ordinary movements of progression. Even when both
+hemispheres have been destroyed the dog can still stand and
+walk and run. Destruction of the motor region of the cortex
+renders the fore limbs of the dog unable to execute such skilled
+movements as the steadying of a bone for gnawing or the trained
+act of offering the paw in answer to the command of the master.
+Skilled acts of the limb, apart from conjoined movements in
+which it, together with all the other limbs, takes part, assume of
+course a larger share of the office of the limb in the Primates
+than in the dog; and this is especially true for the fore limb.
+It is when the fore-foot becomes a hand that opportunity is given
+for its more skilled individual use and for its training in movements
+as a tool, or for the handling of tools and weapons. It is
+these movements which suffer most heavily and for the longest
+period after injury of the motor region of the cortex. Hence
+the disablement ensuing upon injury to the cortex would be
+expected to be most apparent in the Primates; and it is so,
+and most of all in Man. Further, in Man there ensues a condition
+called &ldquo;contracture,&rdquo; which is not so apparent or frequent a
+result in other animals,&mdash;indeed, does not occur at all in other
+animals except the monkey. In contracture the muscles of the
+paretic limb are not flaccid, as they are usually in paralysis,
+but they are tense and the limb is more or less rigidly fixed by
+them in a certain position, usually one of flexion at elbow and
+wrist. This condition does not occur at first, but gradually
+supervenes in the course of a number of weeks. In Man the
+destruction of the motor area of the cortex cripples the limb
+even for the part it should play in the combined limb movements
+of walking, &amp;c., and cripples it to an extent markedly contrasting
+with the slight disturbances seen in the lower mammals, <i>e.g.</i> the
+dog.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the recovery of motor power after lesions of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span>
+motor cortex, two processes seem at work which are termed
+respectively <i>restitution</i> and <i>compensation</i>. By the former is
+understood the recovery obtained when a part of a &ldquo;centre&rdquo;
+is destroyed, and the rest of the centre, although thrown out of
+function at first, recovers and supplements the deficiency later.
+An example of restitution would be the recovery from temporary
+hemianopia caused by a small injury in one occipital lobe. By
+compensation is understood the improvement of an impaired
+nervous function, traceable to other centres different from those
+destroyed supplying means to compass the reaction originally
+dependent on the centres subsequently destroyed. Instances
+of such compensation are the recovery of taxis for equilibrium
+subsequent to destruction of the labyrinth of the ear, where
+the recovery is traceable to assistance obtained through the eye.
+It will be noted that these instances of recovery by restitution
+and by compensation respectively are taken, from cases of injury
+inflicted on receptive rather than on motor centres. It is doubtful
+how far they really apply to the undoubted improvement
+that does within certain limits progress and succeed in partially
+effacing the paresis immediately consequent on lesions of the
+motor area. It has to be remembered that in all cases of traumatic
+injury to the nervous system, especially where the trauma
+implicates the central nervous organ, the first effects and impairment
+of function resulting are due to a mixed cause, namely
+on the one hand the mechanical rupture of conducting
+paths actually broken by solution of their continuity, and on
+the other hand the temporary interruption of conducting
+paths by &ldquo;shock.&rdquo; Shock effects are not permanent: they
+pass off. They are supposed to be due to a change at the
+synapses connecting neurone with neurone in the grey matter.
+They amount in effect to a long-lasting and gradually subsiding
+inhibition.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For diseases of the brain see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skull</a></span>
+(<i>Surgery</i>), &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. S. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The literature of the pineal region is enormous. Studnicka
+(in <i>Oppels Vergleichende mikrosk. Anat.</i> Teile 4-5, 1904, 1905) gives
+285 references. The present conception of the generalized arrangement
+is: (&alpha;) A single glandular median organ from the fore-brain
+called the paraphysis. (&beta;) A pouch of the ependymal roof of the
+ventricle called the dorsal sac. (&gamma;) A right and left epiphysis, one
+of which may be wholly or partially suppressed. These may change
+their position to anterior and posterior in some animals.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAINERD, DAVID<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1718-1747), American missionary
+among the Indians, was born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the
+20th of April 1718. He was orphaned at fourteen, and studied
+for nearly three years (1739-1742) at Yale. He then prepared
+for the ministry, being licensed to preach in 1742, and early in
+1743 decided to devote himself to missionary work among the
+Indians. Supported by the Scottish &ldquo;Society for Promoting
+Christian Knowledge,&rdquo; he worked first at Kaunaumeek, an
+Indian settlement about 20 m. from Stockbridge, Massachusetts,
+and subsequently, until his death, among the Delaware Indians
+in Pennsylvania (near Easton) and New Jersey (near Cranbury).
+His heroic and self-denying labours, both for the spiritual and
+for the temporal welfare of the Indians, wore out a naturally
+feeble constitution, and on the 19th of October 1747 he died
+at the house of his friend, Jonathan Edwards, in Northampton,
+Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Journal</i> was published in two parts in 1746 by the Scottish
+Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; and in 1749, at
+Boston, Jonathan Edwards published <i>An Account of the Life of the
+Late Rev. David Brainerd, chiefly taken from his own Diary and other
+Private Writings</i>, which has become a missionary classic. A new
+edition, with the <i>Journal</i> and Brainerd&rsquo;s letters embodied, was
+published by Sereno E. Dwight at New Haven in 1822; and in
+1884 was published what is substantially another edition, <i>The
+Memoirs of David Brainerd</i>, edited by James M. Sherwood.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAINERD,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Crow Wing county,
+Minnesota, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about
+127 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 5703; (1900) 7524,
+of whom 2193 were foreign-born; (1905) 8133; (1910) 8526.
+It is served by the Minnesota &amp; International and the Northern
+Pacific railways. The latter maintains here large car and repair
+shops, and a sanatorium for its employees. There are also the
+Sisters of St Joseph hospital, a county court house, a public
+library and a Y.M.C.A. building. A dam across the Mississippi
+provides water power (about 60,000 H.P.) which is utilized
+extensively for manufacturing purposes. Lumbering is an
+important industry, and there are saw mills and planing mills,
+and an extensive creosote plant for treating railway ties and
+timber. There are also flour mills, paper and pulp mills, cigar
+factories, a brewery, a large foundry and a grain elevator. In
+1906 large quantities of iron ore were discovered in the vicinity,
+the new range, the Cuyuna, running through the city from
+north-east to south-west. Brainerd, named in honour of David
+Brainerd, was settled in 1870, and chartered as a city in 1883.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAINTREE,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a market town in the Maldon parliamentary
+division of Essex, England; 45 m. N.E. of London by a branch
+line from Witham of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of
+urban district, 5330. The parish church of St Michael is a
+fine edifice of Early English work with later additions. A corn
+exchange, mechanics&rsquo; institute and public hall may also be
+mentioned. The bishops of London had formerly a palace in
+the town, but there are no remains of the building. The manufactures
+of silk and crape have superseded that of woollen cloth,
+which was introduced by the Flemings who fled to England to
+escape the persecution of the duke of Alva. Matting and
+brushes are also made. On the north lies the large village of
+BOCKING, with the Perpendicular parish church of St Mary,
+similar industries, and a population of 3347.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAINTREE,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., on the Monatiquot river about 10 m. S. of Boston. Pop.
+(1890) 4848; (1900) 598l, including 1250 foreign-born; (1905, state
+census) 6879; (1910) 8066. The New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford
+railway crosses the town and has stations at its villages of
+Braintree, South Braintree and East Braintree, which are also
+served by suburban electric railways. In South Braintree are
+the Thayer Academy (co-educational; opened 1877) and the
+Thayer public library, both founded by and named in honour
+of General Sylvanus Thayer (1785-1872), a well-known military
+engineer born in Braintree, who was superintendent of the
+United States Military Academy in 1817-1833 and has been
+called the &ldquo;father of West Point.&rdquo; There are large shoe factories
+and other manufactories. Bog iron was early found in Braintree,
+and iron-works, among the first in America, were established
+here in 1644. Braintree was first incorporated in 1640 from
+land belonging to Boston and called Mount Wollaston, and
+was named from the town in England. At Merry Mount, in
+that part of Braintree which is now Quincy, a settlement was
+established by Thomas Morton in 1625, but the gay life of the
+settlers and their selling rum and firearms to the Indians greatly
+offended the Pilgrims of Plymouth, who in 1627 arrested Morton;
+soon afterward Governor John Endecott of Massachusetts
+Bay visited Merry Mount, rebuked the inhabitants and cut
+down their Maypole. Later the place was abandoned, and in
+1634 a Puritan settlement was made here. In 1708 the town
+was divided into the North Precinct and the South Precinct,
+and it was in the former, now Quincy, that John Adams, John
+Hancock and John Quincy Adams were born. Quincy was
+separated from Braintree in 1792 (there were further additions to
+Quincy from Braintree in 1856), and Randolph in 1793.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See D.M. Wilson, <i>Quincy, Old Braintree and Merry Mount</i> (Boston,
+1906); C.F. Adams, Jr., <i>Three Episodes of Massachusetts History</i>
+(Boston, 1892 and 1896); W.S. Pattee, <i>History of Old Braintree
+and Quincy</i> (Quincy, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAKE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Oldenburg,
+on the left bank of the Weser, about halfway between Bremen
+and the mouth of the river. Pop. 5000. It was for centuries
+the port of Bremen; and though, since the founding of Bremerhaven,
+it no longer possesses a monopoly of the river traffic as
+before, it still continues to flourish. Large docks have been
+constructed, and the place has a considerable import trade in
+English coal. Shipbuilding and weaving are carried on to some
+extent.</p>
+
+<p>Brake in Oldenburg must be distinguished from the village of
+the same name in the principality of Lippe, known as Brake bei
+Limgo, which gave its name to the cadet line of the counts of
+Lippe-Brake (1621-1709).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAKE.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1) A term for rough-tangled undergrowth, connected,
+according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, with &ldquo;break,&rdquo;
+to separate. The &ldquo;brake-fern&rdquo; (<i>Pteris aquilina</i>) is the common
+&ldquo;bracken,&rdquo; and is a shortened form of that northern Eng.
+word, derived from a Scand. word for &ldquo;fern&rdquo; (cf. Swed. <i>bräken</i>),
+though often confused with &ldquo;brake,&rdquo; undergrowth. (2) A term
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span>
+applied to many implements and mechanical and other appliances,
+often spelled &ldquo;break.&rdquo; Here there are probably several
+words, difficult to separate in origin, connected either with
+&ldquo;break,&rdquo; to separate, and its derived meanings, or with the Fr.
+<i>braquer</i> (appearing in such expressions as <i>braquer un canon</i>, to
+turn or point a gun), from O. Fr. <i>brac</i>, modern <i>bras</i>, an arm, Lat.
+<i>bracchium</i>. The word is thus used of a toothed instrument for
+separating the fibre of flax and hemp; of the &ldquo;break-rolls&rdquo;
+employed in flour manufacture; of a heavy wheeled vehicle
+used for &ldquo;breaking in&rdquo; horses, and hence of a large carriage of
+the wagonette type; of an arm or lever, and so of the winch of a
+crossbow and of a pump handle, cf. &ldquo;brake-pump&rdquo;; of a curb
+or bridle for a horse; and of a mechanical appliance for checking
+the speed of moving vehicles, &amp;c. It is noteworthy that the
+two last meanings are also possessed by the Fr. <i>frein</i> and the
+Ger. <i>Bremse</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Brakes, in engineering, are instruments by means of which
+mechanical energy may be expended in overcoming friction.
+They are used for two main classes of purpose: (1) to limit or
+decrease the velocity of a moving body, or to bring it completely
+to rest; and (2) to measure directly the amount of frictional
+resistance between two bodies, or indirectly the amount of energy
+given out by a body or bodies in motion. Machines in which
+brakes are employed for purposes of the second class are commonly
+known as dynamometers (<i>q.v.</i>). The other class is exemplified
+in the brakes used on wheeled vehicles and on cranes, lifts,
+&amp;c. Here a body, or system of bodies, originally at rest, has
+been set in motion and has received acceleration up to a certain
+velocity, the work which has been done in that acceleration
+being stored up as &ldquo;actual energy&rdquo; in the body itself. Before
+the body can be brought to rest it must part with this energy,
+expending it in overcoming some external resistance. If the
+energy be great in proportion to the usual resistance tending to
+stop the body, the motion will continue for a long time, or through
+a long distance, before the energy has been completely expended
+and the body brought to rest. But in certain cases considerations
+of safety or convenience require that this time or distance be
+greatly shortened, and this is done by artificially increasing the
+external resistance for the time being, by means of a brake.</p>
+
+<p>A simple method of obtaining this increased resistance is by
+pressing a block or shoe of metal or wood against the rim of a
+moving wheel, or by tightening a flexible strap or band on a
+rotating pulley or drum. In wheeled road vehicles, a wheel
+may be prevented from rotating by a chain passed through its
+spokes and attached to the body of the vehicle, when the resistance
+is increased by the substitution of a rubbing for a rolling
+action; or the same effect may be produced by fixing a slipper
+or skid under the wheel. Other forms of brake depend, not on
+the friction between two solid bodies, but on the frictional
+resistance of a fluid, as in &ldquo;fan&rdquo; and &ldquo;pump&rdquo; brakes. Thus
+the motion of revolving blades may be opposed by the resistance
+of the air or of a liquid in which they are made to work, or the
+motion of a plunger fitting tightly in a cylinder filled with a
+fluid may be checked by the fluid being prevented from escape
+except through a narrow orifice. The fly used to regulate the
+speed of the striking train in a clock is an example of a fan brake,
+while a pump brake is utilized for controlling the recoil of guns
+and in the hydraulic buffers sometimes fitted at terminal railway
+stations to stop trains that enter at excessive speed. On electric
+tramcars a braking effect is sometimes obtained by arranging
+the connexions of the motors so that they act as generators
+driven by the moving car. In this way a counter-torque is
+exerted on the axles. The current produced is expended by
+some means, as by being made to operate some frictional braking
+device, or to magnetize iron shoes carried on the car just over,
+but clear of, the running rails, to which they are then magnetically
+attracted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Traction</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The simplest way of applying a brake is by muscular force,
+exerted through a hand or foot lever or through a screw, by
+which the brake block is pressed against the rim of the wheel or
+the band brake tightened on its drum. This method is sufficient
+in the case of most road vehicles, and is largely used on railway
+vehicles. But the power thus available is limited, and becomes
+inadequate for heavy vehicles moving at high speeds. Moreover,
+on a train consisting of a number of vehicles, the hand brakes on
+each of which are independent of all others, either a brakesman
+must be carried on each, or a number of the brakes must be left
+unused, with consequent loss of stopping power; while even if
+there is a brakesman on every vehicle it is impossible to secure
+that all the brakes throughout the train are applied with the
+promptness that is necessary in case of emergency.</p>
+
+<p>Considerations of this sort led to the development of power
+brakes for railway trains. Of these there are five main classes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) Mechanical brakes, worked by springs, friction wheels on
+the axle, chains wound on drums, or other mechanical devices,
+or by the force produced when, by reason of a sudden
+checking of the speed of the locomotive, the momentum
+<span class="sidenote">Railway power brakes.</span>
+of the cars causes pressure on the draw-bars or buffing
+devices. (2) Hydraulic brakes, worked by means of
+water forced through pipes into proper mechanism for transmitting
+its force to the brake-shoes. (3) Electric brakes. (4) Air
+and vacuum brakes, worked by compressed air or by air at
+atmospheric pressure operating on a vacuum. (5) Brakes worked
+by steam or water from the boiler of the engine, operating by
+means of a cylinder; the use of these is generally limited to the
+locomotive. Of this kind is the counter-pressure or water brake
+of L. le Chatelier. If the valve gear of a locomotive in motion
+be reversed and the steam regulator be left open, the cylinders
+act as compressors, pumping air from the exhaust pipe into the
+boiler against the steam pressure. A retarding effect is thus
+exercised, but at the cost of certain inconveniences due to the
+passage of hot air and cinders from the smoke box through the
+cylinders. To remedy these, le Chatelier arranged that a jet of
+hot water from the boiler should be delivered into the exhaust
+pipe, so that steam and not the hot flue gases should be pumped
+back.</p>
+
+<p>Power brakes may be either continuous or independent&mdash;continuous
+if connected throughout the train and with the
+locomotive by pipes, wires, &amp;c., as the compressed air, vacuum
+and electric brakes; independent if not so connected, as the
+buffer-brakes and hand-brakes. Continuous brakes may be
+divided into two other great classes&mdash;automatic and non-automatic.
+The former are so arranged that they are applied
+automatically on all the coaches of the train if any important
+part of the apparatus is broken, or the couplings between cars are
+ruptured; in an emergency they can be put on by the guard, or
+(in some cases) by a passenger. Non-automatic brakes can be
+applied only by the person (usually the engine-driver) to whom
+the management of them is given; they may become inoperative
+on all the coaches, and always on those which have become
+detached, if a coupling or other important and generally essential
+part is broken. Many mechanical and several hydraulic and
+electrical continuous brakes have been invented and tried; but
+experience has shown them so inadequate in practice that they
+have all practically disappeared, leaving the field to the air and
+the vacuum brakes. At first these were non-automatic, but in
+1872 the automatic air-brake was invented by George Westinghouse,
+and the automatic vacuum-brake was developed a few
+years later.</p>
+
+<p>Those respects in which non-automatic brakes are inadequate
+will be understood from the following summary of the requirements
+most important in a train-braking apparatus: (1) It
+must be capable of application to every wheel throughout the
+train. (2) It must be so prompt in action that the shortest
+possible time shall elapse between its first application and the
+moment when the full power can be exerted throughout the train.
+(3) It must be capable of being applied by the engine-driver or
+by any of the officials in charge of the train, either in concert or
+independently. (4) The motion of the train must be arrested
+in the shortest possible distance. (5) The failure of a vital part
+must declare itself by causing the brake to be applied and to
+remain applied until the cause of failure is removed. (6) The
+breaking of the train in two or more parts must cause immediate
+automatic application of the brakes on all the coaches. (7)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span>
+When used in ordinary service stops it must be capable of gradual
+and uniform application (followed, if necessary, by a full emergency
+application at any part of the service application) and of
+prompt release under all conditions of application. (8) It must
+be simple in operation and construction, not liable to derangement,
+and inexpensive in maintenance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Westinghouse non-automatic or &ldquo;straight&rdquo; air-brake,
+patented in 1869, consists in its simplest form of a direct-acting,
+steam-driven air-pump, carried on the locomotive, which
+forces compressed air into a reservoir, usually placed
+<span class="sidenote">Simple air-brake.</span>
+under the foot-plate of the locomotive. From this reservoir
+a pipe is led through the engine cab, where it is fitted with a
+three-way cock, to the rear of the locomotive tender, where it terminates
+in a flexible hose, on the end of which is a coupling. The
+coaches are furnished with a similar pipe, having hose and coupling
+at each end, which communicates with one end of a cylinder containing
+a piston, to the rod of which the brake-rods and levers are
+connected. The application of the brakes is effected by the engine-driver
+turning the three-way cock, so that compressed air flows
+through the pipe and, acting against one side of the brake-cylinder
+piston, applies the brake-shoes to the wheels by the movement of
+this piston and the rods and levers connected to it. To release the
+brakes the three-way cock is turned to cut off communication
+between the main reservoir and the train-pipe, and to open a port
+permitting the escape of the compressed air in the train-pipe and
+brake-cylinders. This brake was soon found defective and inadequate
+in many ways. An appreciable time was required for the air
+to flow through the pipes from the locomotive to the car-cylinders,
+and this time increased quickly with the length of the trains. Still
+more objectionable, however, was the fact that on detached coaches
+the air-brakes could not be applied, the result being sometimes
+serious collisions between the front and rear portions of the train.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:293px" src="images/img415.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Westinghouse Air-Brake.
+<br />Section through Triple-Valve and Brake-Cylinder.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the Westinghouse &ldquo;ordinary&rdquo; automatic air-brake a main
+air reservoir on the engine is kept charged with compressed air at
+80 &#8468; per sq. in. by means of the steam-pump, which may
+be controlled by an automatic governor. On electric
+<span class="sidenote">Automatic air-brake.</span>
+railways a pump, driven by an electric motor, is generally
+employed; but occasionally, on trains which run short distances,
+no pump is carried, the main reservoir being charged at the terminal
+points with sufficient compressed air for the journey. Conveniently
+placed to the driver&rsquo;s hand is the driver&rsquo;s valve, by means of which
+he controls the flow of air from the main reservoir to the train-pipe,
+or from the train-pipe to the atmosphere. A reducing-valve is
+attached to the driver&rsquo;s valve, and in the normal or running position
+of the latter reduces the pressure of the air flowing from the main
+reservoir to the train-pipe by 10 or 15 &#8468; per sq. in. From the engine
+a train-pipe runs the whole length of the train, being rendered
+continuous between each vehicle and between the engine and the
+rest of the train by flexible hose couplings. Each vehicle is provided
+with a brake-cylinder H (fig. 1), containing a piston, the movement
+of which applies the brake blocks to the wheels, an &ldquo;auxiliary air-reservoir&rdquo;
+G, and an automatic &ldquo;triple-valve&rdquo; F. The auxiliary
+reservoir receives compressed air from the train-pipe and stores it
+for use in the brake-cylinder of its own vehicle, and both the auxiliary
+reservoir and the triple-valve are connected directly or indirectly
+with the train-pipe through the pipe E. The automatic action of
+the brake is due to the construction of the triple-valve, the principal
+parts of which are a piston and slide-valve, so arranged that the air
+in the auxiliary reservoir acts at all times on the side of the piston
+to which the slide-valve is attached, while the air in the train-pipe
+exerts its pressure on the opposite side. So long as the brakes are
+not in operation, the pressures in the train-pipe, triple-valve and
+auxiliary reservoir are all equal, and there is no compressed air in the
+brake-cylinder. But when, in order to apply the brake, the driver
+discharges air from the train-pipe, this equilibrium is destroyed,
+and the greater pressure in the auxiliary reservoir forces the
+triple-valve to a position which allows air from the auxiliary reservoir
+to pass directly into the brake-cylinder. This air forces out the
+piston of the brake-cylinder and applies the brakes, connexion being
+made with the brake-rigging at R. The purpose of the small groove
+<i>n</i> which establishes communication between the two sides of the
+piston when the brakes are off, is to prevent their unintended
+application through slight leakage from the train-pipe. To release
+the brakes, the driver, by moving the handle of his valve to the
+release position, admits air from the main reservoir to the train-pipe,
+the pressure in which thus becomes greater than that in the auxiliary
+reservoir; the piston and slide-valve of the triple-valve are thereby
+forced back to their normal position, the compressed air in the
+brake-cylinder is discharged, and the piston is brought back by the
+coiled spring, thus releasing the brakes. At the same time the
+auxiliary reservoir is recharged.</p>
+
+<p>With this &ldquo;ordinary&rdquo; brake, since an appreciable time is required
+for the reduction of pressure to travel along the train-pipe from the
+engine, the brakes are applied sensibly sooner at the front
+than at the end of the train, and with long trains this
+<span class="sidenote">Quick-acting air-brake.</span>
+difference in the time of application becomes a matter of
+importance. The &ldquo;quick-acting&rdquo; brake was introduced to
+remedy this defect. For it the triple valve is provided with a supplementary
+mechanism, which, when the air pressure in the train-pipe is
+suddenly or violently reduced, opens a passage whereby air from the
+train-pipe is permitted to enter the brake-cylinder directly. The result
+is twofold: not only is the pressure from the auxiliary reservoir acting
+in the brake-cylinder reinforced by the pressure in the train-pipe, but
+the pressure in the train-pipe is reduced locally in every vehicle
+in extremely rapid succession instead of at the engine only, and
+in consequence all the brakes are applied almost simultaneously
+throughout the train. The same effect is produced should the train
+break in two, or a hose or any part of the train-pipe burst; but
+during ordinary or &ldquo;service&rdquo; stops the triple-valve acts exactly
+as in the ordinary brake, the quick-acting portion, that is, the
+vertical piston and valve seen in fig. 1, not coming into operation.
+When the handle Z is turned to the position X the quick-acting
+mechanism is rendered inoperative, and when it is at Y the brake
+on the vehicle concerned is wholly cut out of action.</p>
+
+<p>A further improvement introduced in the Westinghouse brake in
+1906 was designed to give quick action for service as well as emergency
+stops. In this the triple-valve is substantially the same as in
+the ordinary brake. The additional mechanism of the quick-acting
+portion is dispensed with, but instead, a small chamber, normally
+containing air at atmospheric pressure, is provided on each vehicle,
+and is so arranged that it is put into communication with the train-pipe
+by the first movement of the triple-valve. As soon, therefore,
+as the driver, by lowering the pressure in the train-pipe, causes the
+triple-valve in the foremost vehicle of the train to operate, a certain
+quantity of air rushes out of the train-pipe into the small chamber;
+a further local reduction in the pressure of the train-pipe in that
+vehicle is thereby effected, and this almost instantaneously actuates
+the triple-valve of the succeeding vehicle, and so on throughout
+the train. In this way, on a train 1800 ft. long, consisting of sixty
+30-ft. vehicles, the brake-blocks may be applied, with equal force,
+on the last vehicle about 2½ seconds later than on the first.</p>
+
+<p>Brake-blocks can be applied, without skidding the wheels,
+with greater pressure at high speeds than at low. Advantage is
+taken of this fact in the design of the Westinghouse
+&ldquo;high-speed&rdquo; brake, invented in 1894, which consists of
+<span class="sidenote">High-speed air-brake.</span>
+attachments enabling the pressure in the train-pipe and
+reservoirs to be increased at the will of the driver. The
+increased pressure acting in the brake-cylinder increases in the same
+proportion the pressure of the brake-shoes against the wheels.
+Attached to the brake cylinder is a valve for automatically reducing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span>
+the pressure therein proportionately to the reduction in speed, until
+the maximum pressure under which the brakes are operated in
+making ordinary stops is reached, when this valve closes and the
+maximum safe pressure for operating the brakes at ordinary speeds
+is retained until a stop is made.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:607px" src="images/img416.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2&mdash;Automatic Vacuum-Brake, showing its general arrangement.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the automatic vacuum-brake, the exhausting apparatus generally
+consists of a combined large and small ejector (a form of jet-pump)
+worked by steam and under the control of the
+driver, though sometimes a mechanical air-pump, driven
+<span class="sidenote">Automatic Vacuum-Brake.</span>
+from the crosshead of the locomotive, is substituted for
+the small ejector. These ejectors, of which the small
+one is at work continuously while the large one is only employed
+when it is necessary to create vacuum quickly, <i>e.g.</i> to take off the
+brakes after a short stop, produce in the train-pipe a vacuum equal
+to about 20 in. of mercury, or in other words reduce the pressure
+within it to about one-third of an atmosphere. The train-pipe
+extends the whole length of the train and communicates under each
+vehicle with a cylinder, to the piston of which, by suitable rods and
+levers, the brake-shoes are connected. The communication between
+the train-pipe and the cylinder is controlled by a ball-valve, one form
+of which is shown in fig. 2. The release-valve is for the purpose of
+withdrawing the ball from its seat when it is necessary to take off
+the brakes by hand; it is made air-tight by a small diaphragm, the
+pressure of which, when there is vacuum in the pipe, pulls in the
+spindle and allows the ball to fall freely into its seat. When air is
+exhausted through the train-pipe it travels out from below the
+piston direct, and from above it past the ball, which is thus forced
+off its seat, to roll back again when the exhaustion is complete. In
+this state of affairs the piston is held in equilibrium and the brake-blocks
+are free of the wheels. To apply them, air is admitted to the
+train-pipe, either purposely by the guard or driver, or accidentally
+by the rupture of the train-pipe or coupling-hose between the vehicles.
+The air passes to the lower side of the piston, but is prevented from
+gaining access to the upper side by the ball-valve which blocks the
+passage; hence the pressure becomes different on the two sides of
+the piston, which in consequence is forced upwards and thus applies
+the brakes. They are released by the re-establishment of equilibrium
+(by the use of the large ejector if necessary); when this is done the
+piston falls and the brakes drop off. The general arrangement of
+the apparatus is shown in fig. 2. To render the application of the
+brakes nearly simultaneous throughout a long train, the valve in
+the guard&rsquo;s van is arranged to open automatically when the driver
+suddenly lets in air to the train-pipe. This valve has a small hole
+through its stem, and is secured at the top by a diaphragm to a small
+dome-like chamber, which is exhausted when a vacuum is created
+in the train-pipe. A gradual application destroys the vacuum in
+the chamber as quickly as in the pipe and the diaphragm remains
+unmoved; but with a sudden one the vacuum below the valve
+is destroyed more quickly, and with the difference of pressure the
+diaphragm lifts the valve and admits air. A rapid-acting valve
+(fig. 3) is sometimes interposed between the train-pipe and the
+cylinder on each vehicle. In the normal or running position, a
+vacuum is maintained below the valve A and above the diaphragm
+B, while the chamber below B and above A is at atmospheric pressure.
+For an emergency application of the brake, air is suddenly admitted
+to the train-pipe and thus to the lower side of A, and the pressure
+acting on the under side of B is sufficient to cause it to lift the valve
+A, and to admit air from the atmosphere, both to the brake-cylinder
+and the train-pipe, through the clappet-valve D, which also rises
+because of the difference of pressure on its two sides. In a graduated
+application, neither D nor A rises from its seat, but air from the
+train-pipe finds access to the brake-cylinder by passing around the peg
+C, which is so proportioned as to allow the necessary amount of air to
+enter the brake-cylinder, and so obtain simultaneous action of the
+brake throughout the train. When the handle E is turned so as to
+prevent the clappet D from rising, the rapid action is cut out and
+the brake acts as an ordinary vacuum automatic brake. A modification
+of the device for obtaining accelerated action, described
+above in connexion with the Westinghouse brake, is also applicable.
+Accelerating chambers, again containing air at atmospheric pressure,
+are provided on each vehicle and are connected with the train-pipe
+by valves which open as the vacuum in the latter begins to decrease
+with the operation of the driver&rsquo;s valve. The air thus admitted
+into the train-pipe effects a still further local reduction of the
+vacuum, which is sufficient to actuate the accelerating valve of each
+next succeeding vehicle and is thus rapidly propagated throughout
+the train.</p>
+
+<p>Famous tests of railway brakes were those made by Sir Douglas
+Galton and Mr George Westinghouse on the London, Brighton
+and South Coast railway, in England, in 1878, and by
+a committee of the Master Car Builders&rsquo; Association,
+<span class="sidenote">Brake trials.</span>
+near Burlington, Iowa, in 1886 and 1887. The object
+of the former series (for accounts of which see <i>Proc. Inst. Mech.
+Eng.</i>, 1878, 1879) was to determine the co-efficient of friction between
+the brake-shoe and the wheel, and between the wheel and rail at
+different velocities when the wheels were revolving and when skidded,
+<i>i.e.</i> stopped in their rotation and caused to slide. These experiments
+were the first of their kind ever undertaken, and for many years their
+results furnished most of the trustworthy data obtainable on the
+friction of motion. It was found that the co-efficient of friction
+between cast-iron shoes and steel-tired wheels increased as the speed
+of the train decreased, varying from 0.111 at 55 m. an hour to 0.33
+when the train was just moving. It also decreased with the time
+during which the brakes were applied; thus at 20 m. an hour the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span>
+co-efficient was at the beginning 0.182, after ten seconds 0.133,
+after twenty seconds 0.099. Generally speaking, especially at
+moderate speeds, the decrease in the co-efficient of friction due to
+time is less than the increase due to decrease of speed, although
+when the time is long the reverse may be true. When the wheels are
+skidded the retardation of the train is always reduced; therefore,
+for the greatest braking effect, the pressures on the brake-shoes
+should never be sufficient to cause the wheels to slide on the rails.
+The Burlington brake tests were undertaken to determine the
+practicability of using power brakes on long and heavy freight trains.
+In the 1886 tests there were five competitors&mdash;three buffer-brakes,
+one compressed-air brake, and one vacuum-brake. The tests comprised
+stops with trains of twenty-five and fifty vehicles, at 20 and
+40 m. an hour, on the level and on gradients of 1 in 100. They
+demonstrated that the buffer-brakes were inadequate for long trains,
+and that considerable improvements in the continuous brakes, both
+compressed-air and vacuum, would be needed to make them act
+quickly enough to avoid excessive shocks in the rear vehicles. In
+1887 the trials of the year before were repeated by the same committee,
+and at the same place. Trains of fifty vehicles, about
+2000 ft. long and fitted with each brake, were again provided, and
+there were again five competitors, but they all entered continuous
+brakes&mdash;three compressed-air brakes, one vacuum and one electric.
+The results of the first day&rsquo;s test of the train equipped with Westinghouse
+brakes are shown in Table I., the distances in which are the
+feet run by the train after the brakes were set, and the times the
+seconds that elapsed from the application of the brakes to full stop.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:312px" src="images/img417.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3&mdash;Rapid-acting Vacuum-Brake Valve.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I</span>.&mdash;<i>Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1887</i>&mdash;
+<i>Automatic Air-Brakes.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Speed in<br />Miles per<br />Hour.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance in<br />Feet.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Time in<br />Seconds.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Equivalent Distance<br />at 20 m. and 40.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">19½</td> <td class="tcc rb">186</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">196</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">19¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">215</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">233</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">36½</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">588</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">693</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The remarkable shortness of these stops is the more evident when
+they are compared with the best results obtained in 1886, as shown
+in Table II.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table II</span>.&mdash;<i>Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1886</i>&mdash;
+<i>Automatic Air-Brakes.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Speed in<br />Miles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance in<br />Feet.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Time in<br />Seconds.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Equivalent Distance<br />at 20 m. and 40.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">23.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">424</td> <td class="tcc rb">17½</td> <td class="tcc rb">307</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">20.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">354</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">340</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">40&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">922</td> <td class="tcc rb">22½</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">922</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">40&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">927</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22¾</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">927</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The time that elapsed between the application of the brakes on
+the engine and on the fiftieth vehicle was almost twice as great in
+1886 as in 1887, being in the latter tests only five to six seconds, and
+in 1887 the stops were made in less than two-thirds the distance
+required in 1886. Still, violent shocks were caused by the rear
+vehicles running against those in front, before the brakes on the
+former were applied with sufficient force to hold them, and these
+shocks were so severe as to make the use of the brakes in practice
+impossible on long trains. When the triple-valves were actuated
+electrically, however, the stops were still further improved, as shown
+in Table III.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table III</span>.&mdash;<i>Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars&mdash;
+Electric Application of Air-Brakes</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Speed in<br />Miles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Distance in<br />Feet.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Time in<br />Seconds.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Equivalent Distance<br />at 20 m. and 40.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">21½</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7</td> <td class="tcc rb">139</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">23&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">183</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8</td> <td class="tcc rb">138</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">38&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">475</td> <td class="tcc rb">14½</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">519</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">36½</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">460</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">545</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Although the same levers, shoes, rods and other connexions were
+used, there were no shocks in the fiftieth car of the train on any stop,
+whether on the level or on a gradient. The committee in charge
+reported that the best type of brake for long freight trains was one
+operated by air, in which the valves were actuated by electricity, but
+they expressed doubt of the practicability of using electricity on
+freight trains. The Westinghouse Company then proceeded to
+quicken the action of the triple-valve, operated by air only, so that
+stops with fifty-car trains could be made without shock, and without
+electrically operated valves; and they were so successful in this
+respect that, towards the end of the same year, 1887, with a train
+of fifty vehicles, stops were made without shock, fully equalling in
+quickness and shortness of distance run any that had been made
+at the trials by the electrically operated brakes.</p>
+
+<p>In 1889 some further tests were made by Sir Douglas Galton with
+the automatic vacuum-brake, on a practically level portion of the
+Manchester, Sheffield &amp; Lincolnshire railway (now the Great Central).
+The train was composed of an engine, tender and forty carriages, the
+total length over buffers being 1464 ft., and the total weight 574 tons,
+of which 423 tons were braked. At a speed of about 32 m. an hour
+this train was brought to a standstill in twelve seconds after the
+application of the brakes, in a distance of 342 ft.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (<i>fl</i>. 1200), English monk, and
+author of a chronicle narrating the fortunes of the monastery
+of Bury St Edmunds between 1173 and 1202. He is only
+known to us through his own work. He was a native of
+Bury St Edmunds; he served his novitiate under Samson of
+Tottington, who was at that time master of the novices, but
+afterwards sub-sacrist, and, from 1182, abbot of the house.
+Jocelyn took the habit of religion in 1173, during the time of
+Abbot Hugo (1157-1180), through whose improvidence and
+laxity the abbey had become impoverished and the inmates dead
+to all respect for discipline. The fortunes of the abbey changed
+for the better with the election of Samson as Hugo&rsquo;s successor.
+Jocelyn, who became abbot&rsquo;s chaplain within four months of
+the election, describes the administration of Samson at considerable
+length. He tells us that he was with Samson night and day
+for six years; the picture which he gives of his master, although
+coloured by enthusiastic admiration, is singularly frank and
+intimate. It is all the more convincing since Jocelyn is no
+stylist. His Latin is familiar and easy, but the reverse of classical.
+He thinks and writes as one whose interests are wrapped up
+in his house; and the unique interest of his work lies in the
+minuteness with which it describes the policy of a monastic
+administrator who was in his own day considered as a model.</p>
+
+<p>Jocelyn has also been credited with an extant but unprinted
+tract on the election of Abbot Hugo (Harleian MS. 1005, fo.
+165); from internal evidence this appears to be an error. He
+mentions a (non-extant) work which he wrote, before the
+<i>Cronica</i>, on the miracles of St Robert, a boy whom the Jews of
+Bury St Edmunds were alleged to have murdered (1181).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the editions of the <i>Cronica Jocelini de Brakelonda</i> by T. Arnold
+(in <i>Memorials of St Edmund&rsquo;s Abbey</i>, vol. i. Rolls series, 1890), and
+by J.G. Rokewood (Camden Society, 1840); also Carlyle&rsquo;s <i>Past
+and Present</i>, book ii. A translation and notes are given in T.E.
+Tomlin&rsquo;s <i>Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century in the
+Chronicle of Jocelyn de Brakelond</i> (1844). There is also a translation
+of Jocelyn by Sir E. Clarke (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAMAH, JOSEPH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1748-1814), English engineer and inventor,
+was the son of a farmer, and was born at Stainborough,
+Yorkshire, on the 13th of April 1748. Incapacitated for agricultural
+labour by an accident to his ankle, on the expiry of his
+indentures he worked as a cabinet-maker in London, where he
+subsequently started business on his own account. His first
+patent for some improvements in the mechanism of water-closets
+was taken out in 1778. In 1784 he patented the lock
+known by his name, and in 1795 he invented the hydraulic
+press. For an important part of this, the collar which secured
+water-tightness between the plunger and the cylinder in which it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span>
+worked, he was indebted to Henry Maudslay, one of his workmen,
+who also helped him in designing machines for the manufacture
+of his locks. In 1806 he devised for the Bank of England a
+numerical printing machine, specially adapted for bank-notes.
+Other inventions of his included the beer-engine for drawing
+beer, machinery for making aerated waters, planing machines,
+and improvements in steam-engines and boilers and in paper-making
+machinery. In 1785 he suggested the possibility of
+screw propulsion for ships, and in 1802 the hydraulic transmission
+of power; and he constructed waterworks at Norwich in 1790
+and 1793. He died in London on the 9th of December 1814.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAMANTE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bramante Lazzari</span> (<i>c.</i> 1444-1514), Italian
+architect and painter, whose real name was Donate d&rsquo;Augnolo,
+was born at Monte-Asdrualdo in Urbino, in July 1444. He
+showed a great taste for drawing, and was at an early age placed
+under Fra Bartolommeo, called Fra Carnavale. But though
+he afterwards gained some fame as a painter, his attention was
+soon absorbed by architecture. He appears to have studied
+under Scirro Scirri, an architect in his native place, and perhaps
+under other masters. He then set out from Urbino, and proceeded
+through several of the towns of Lombardy, executing works of
+various magnitudes, and examining patiently all remains of
+ancient art. At last, attracted by the fame of the great Duomo,
+he reached Milan, where he remained from 1476 to 1499. He
+seems to have left Milan for Rome about 1500. He painted
+some frescoes at Rome, and devoted himself to the study of the
+ancient buildings, both in the city and as far south as Naples.
+About this time the Cardinal Caraffa commissioned him to
+rebuild the cloister of the Convent della Pace. Owing to the
+celerity and skill with which Bramante did this, the cardinal
+introduced him to Pope Alexander VI. He began to be consulted
+on nearly all the great architectural operations in Rome, and
+executed for the pope the palace of the Cancelleria or chancery.
+Under Julius II., Alexander&rsquo;s successor, Bramante&rsquo;s talents
+began to obtain adequate sphere of exercise. His first large
+work was to unite the straggling buildings of the palace and the
+Belvedere. This he accomplished by means of two long galleries
+or corridors enclosing a court. The design was only in part
+completed before the death of Julius and of the architect. So
+impatient was the pope and so eager was Bramante, that the
+foundations were not sufficiently well attended to; great part of
+it had, therefore, soon to be rebuilt, and the whole is now so much
+altered that it is hardly possible to decipher the original design.</p>
+
+<p>Besides executing numerous smaller works at Rome and
+Bologna, among which is specially mentioned by older writers a
+round temple in the cloister of San Pietro-a-Montorio, Bramante
+was called upon by Pope Julius to take the first part in one of
+the greatest architectural enterprises ever attempted&mdash;the
+rebuilding of St Peter&rsquo;s. Bramante&rsquo;s designs were complete,
+and he pushed on the work so fast that before his death he
+had erected the four great piers and their arches, and completed
+the cornice and the vaulting in of this portion. He also
+vaulted in the principal chapel. After his death on the 11th of
+March 1514, his design was much altered, in particular by
+Michelangelo.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Pungileoni, <i>Memoire intorno alla vita ed alle opere di Bramante</i>
+(Rome, 1836); H. Semper, <i>Donato Bramante</i> (Leipzig, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1817-1907),
+English judge, was born at Hitchin, on the 14th of September
+1817. He received his education at Bedford school. The son
+of a solicitor, he was early familiarized with legal principles.
+Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1843, he at once joined
+the old home circuit, and after enjoying a lucrative practice as
+a junior, took silk in 1859. His name is identified with many
+of the famous trials of the reign of Queen Victoria. He was
+engaged in the Simon Bernard case (of the Orsini plot celebrity),
+in that of <i>Roupell</i> v. <i>Waite</i>, and in the Overend-Gurney prosecutions.
+The two <i>causes célèbres</i>, however, in which Hawkins
+attained his highest legal distinction were the Tichborne trials
+and the great will case of <i>Sugden</i> v. <i>Lord St Leonards</i>. In both
+of these he was victorious. In the first his masterly cross-examination
+of the witness Baigent was one of the great features
+of the trial. He did a lucrative business in references and
+arbitrations, and acted for the royal commissioners in the
+purchase of the site for the new law courts. Election petitions
+also formed another branch of his extensive practice. Hawkins
+was raised to the bench in 1876, and was assigned to the then
+exchequer division of the High Court, not as baron (an appellation
+which was being abolished by the Judicature Act), but with the
+title of Sir Henry Hawkins. He was a great advocate rather
+than a great lawyer. His searching voice, his manner, and the
+variety of his facial expression, gave him an enormous influence
+with juries, and as a cross-examiner he was seldom, if ever,
+surpassed. He was an excellent judge in chambers, where he
+displayed a clear and vigorous grasp of details and questions
+of fact. His knowledge of the criminal law was extensive and
+intimate, the reputation he gained as a &ldquo;hanging&rdquo; judge making
+him a terror to evil-doers; and the court for crown cases reserved
+was never considered complete without his assistance. In
+1898 he retired from the bench, and was raised to the peerage
+under the title of Baron Brampton. He frequently took part
+in determining House of Lords appeals, and his judgments were
+distinguished by their lucidity and grasp. He held for many
+years the office of counsel to the Jockey Club, and as an active
+member of that body found relaxation from his legal and judicial
+duties at the leading race meetings, and was considered a capable
+judge of horses. In 1898 he was received into the Roman
+Catholic Church, and in 1903 he presented, in conjunction with
+Lady Brampton (his second wife), the chapel of SS. Augustine
+and Gregory to the Roman Catholic cathedral of Westminster,
+which was consecrated in that year. In 1904 he published his
+<i>Reminiscences</i>. He died in London on the 6th of October 1907,
+and Lady Brampton in the following year.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAMPTON,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a market town in the Eskdale parliamentary
+division of Cumberland, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Carlisle, on a
+branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2494. It is
+picturesquely situated in a narrow valley opening upon that of
+the Irthing. The town has an agricultural trade, breweries, and
+manufactures of cotton and tweeds. The neighbourhood is
+rich in historical associations. Two miles N.E. of Brampton is
+the castle of Naworth, a fine example of a Border fortress. It
+was built in the reign of Edward III., by a member of the family
+of Dacre, who for many generations had had their stronghold
+here. Overlooking a deep wooded ravine, with streams to the
+east and west, the great quadrangular castle was naturally
+defended except on the south, where it was rendered secure by a
+double moat and drawbridge. By marriage in 1577 with Lady
+Elizabeth Dacre it passed into the hands of William Howard,
+afterwards lord warden of the Marches, the &ldquo;Belted Will&rdquo; of
+Sir Walter Scott and the Border ballads, who acquired great
+fame by his victories over the Scottish moss-troopers. The
+castle, the walls of which have many secret passages and hiding-places,
+is inhabited, and in its hall are numerous fine pictures,
+including a portrait of Charles I. by Van Dyck. Not far distant
+is Lanercost Priory, where in 1169 an Augustinian monastery
+was established. In 1311 Robert Bruce and his army were
+quartered here, and the priory was pillaged in 1346 by David,
+king of Scotland. From this time its prosperity declined, and
+at its dissolution under Henry VIII. it consisted only of a prior
+and seven canons. The Early English church has a restored
+nave, but retains much fine carving. The chancel is ruined, but
+the interesting crypt is preserved.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1808-1892), English judge, was born in London on the
+12th of June 1808, being the eldest son of George Bramwell,
+of the banking firm of Dorrien, Magens, Dorrien &amp; Mello. He
+was educated privately, and at the age of sixteen he entered
+Dorriens&rsquo; bank. In 1830 he gave up this business for the
+law, being admitted as a student at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1830, and
+at the Inner Temple in 1836. At first he practised as a special
+pleader, but was eventually called to the bar at both Inns in
+1838. He soon worked his way into a good practice both in
+London and the home circuit, his knowledge of law and procedure
+being so well recognized that in 1850 he was appointed a member
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span>
+of the Common Law Procedure Commission, which resulted in
+the Common Law Procedure Act of 1852. This act he drafted
+jointly with his friend Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Willes, and
+thus began the abolition of the system of special pleading. In
+1851 Lord Cranworth made Bramwell a queen&rsquo;s counsel, and the
+Inner Temple elected him a bencher&mdash;he had ceased to be a
+member of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1841. In 1853 he served on the
+royal commission to inquire into the assimilation of the mercantile
+laws of Scotland and England and the law of partnership, which
+had as its result the Companies Act of 1862. It was he who,
+during the sitting of this commission, suggested the addition of
+the word &ldquo;limited&rdquo; to the title of companies that sought to
+limit their liability, in order to prevent the obvious danger to
+persons trading with them in ignorance of their limitation of
+liability. As a queen&rsquo;s counsel Bramwell enjoyed a large
+and steadily increasing practice, and in 1856 he was raised to
+the bench as a baron of the court of exchequer. In 1867,
+with Mr Justice Blackburn and Sir John Coleridge, he was made
+a member of the judicature commission. In 1871 he was one of
+the three judges who refused the seat on the judicial committee
+of the privy council to which Sir Robert Collier, in evasion of
+the spirit of the act creating the appointment, was appointed;
+and in 1876 he was raised to the court of appeal, where he sat
+till the autumn of 1881. As a puisne judge he had been conspicuous
+as a sound lawyer, with a strong logical mind unfettered
+by technicalities, but endowed with considerable respect for the
+common law. His rulings were always clear and decisive,
+while the same quality marked his dealings with fact, and,
+coupled with a straightforward, unpretentious manner, gave
+him great influence with juries. In the court of appeal he
+was perhaps not so entirely in his element as at <i>nisi prius</i>, but
+the same combination of sound law, strong common sense and
+clear expression characterized his judgments. His decisions
+during the three stages of his practical career are too numerous
+to be referred to particularly, although <i>Ryder</i> v. <i>Wombwell</i>
+(L. R. 3 Ex. 95); <i>R.</i> v. <i>Bradshaw</i> (14 Cox C. C. 84); <i>Household
+Fire Insurance Company</i> v. <i>Grant</i> (4 Ex. Div. 216); <i>Stonor</i> v.
+<i>Fowle</i> (13 App. Cas. 20), <i>The Bank of England</i> v. <i>Vagliano
+Brothers</i> (App. Cas. 1891) are good examples. Upon his retirement,
+announced in the long vacation of 1881, twenty-six judges
+and a huge gathering of the bar entertained him at a banquet in
+the Inner Temple hall. In December of the same year he was
+raised to the peerage, taking the title Baron Bramwell of Hever,
+from his home in Kent. In private life Bramwell had simple
+tastes and enjoyed simple pleasures. He was musical and fond
+of sports. He was twice married: in 1830 to Jane (d. 1836),
+daughter of Bruno Silva, by whom he had one daughter, and in
+1861 to Martha Sinden. He died on the 9th of May 1892.</p>
+
+<p>His younger brother, Sir Frederick Bramwell (1818-1903),
+was a well-known consulting engineer and &ldquo;expert witness.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At all times Lord Bramwell had been fond of controversy and
+controversial writing, and he wrote constant letters to <i>The
+Times</i> over the signature B. (he also signed himself at different times
+Bramwell, G.B. and L.L.). He joined in 1882 the Liberty and
+Property Defence League, and some of his writings after that date
+took the form of pamphlets published by that society.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAN,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> in Celtic legend, the name of (1) the hero of the Welsh
+<i>Mabinogi of Branwen</i>, who dies in the attempt to avenge his
+sister&rsquo;s wrongs; he is the son of Llyr (= the Irish sea-god Ler),
+identified with the Irish Bran mac Allait, Allait being a synonym
+of Ler; (2) the son of Febal, known only through the 8th-century
+Irish epic, <i>The Voyage of Bran</i> (to the world below); (3) the dog
+of Ossian&rsquo;s Fingal. Bran also appears as a historical name,
+Latinized as <i>Brennus</i>. See Kuno Meyer and D. Nutt, <i>The
+Voyage of Bran</i> (London, 1895).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAN,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> the ground husk of wheat, oats, barley or other cereals,
+used for feeding cattle, packing and other purposes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour</a></span>).
+The word occurs in French <i>bren</i> or <i>bran</i>, in the dialects of other
+Romanic languages, and also in Celtic, cf. Breton <i>brenn</i>, Gaelic
+<i>bran</i>. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> considers these Celtic forms
+to be borrowed from French or English. In modern French
+<i>bren</i> means filth, refuse, and this points to some connexion with
+Celtic words, <i>e.g.</i> Irish <i>brean</i>, manure. If so, the original meaning
+would be refuse. &ldquo;Bran-new,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> quite new, is now the
+common form of &ldquo;brand-new,&rdquo; that which is fresh from the
+&ldquo;brand,&rdquo; the branding-iron used for marking objects, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANCH<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>branche</i>, late Lat. <i>branca</i>, an animal&rsquo;s
+paw), a limb of a tree; hence any offshoot, <i>e.g.</i> of a river, railway,
+&amp;c., of a deer&rsquo;s antlers, of a family or genealogical tree, and
+generally a subdivision or department, as in &ldquo;a branch of learning.&rdquo;
+The phrase, to destroy &ldquo;root and branch,&rdquo; meaning to
+destroy utterly, taken originally from Malachi iv. 1, was made
+famous in 1641 by the so-called &ldquo;Root and Branch&rdquo; Bill and
+Petition for the abolition of episcopal government, in which
+petition occurred the sentence, &ldquo;That the said government,
+with all its dependencies, roots and branches, be destroyed.&rdquo;
+Among technical senses of the word &ldquo;branch&rdquo; are: the certificate
+of proficiency given to pilots by Trinity House; and in siege-craft
+a length of trench forming part of a zigzag approach.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANCO,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Parima</span>, a river of northern Brazil and tributary
+of the Rio Negro, formed by the confluence of the Takutú, or
+&ldquo;Upper Rio Branco,&rdquo; and Uraricoera, about 3° N. lat. and
+60° 28&prime; W. long., and flowing south by west to a junction
+with the Negro. It has rapids in its upper course, but the
+greater part of its length of 348 m. is navigable for steamers
+of light draught. The Takutú rises in the Roraima and Coïrrit
+ranges on the Guiana frontier, while the Uraricoera rises in the
+Serra de Parima, on the Venezuelan frontier, and has a length
+of 360 m. before reaching the Branco. These are white water
+rivers, from which the Branco (white) derives its name, and at
+its junction with the Negro the two differently-coloured streams
+flow side by side for some distance before mingling.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANCOVAN,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brancoveanu</span>, the name of a family which
+has played an important part in the history of Rumania. It was
+of Servian origin and was connected with the family of Branko
+or Brankovich. Constantine Brancovan, the most eminent
+member of the family, was born in 1654, and became prince of
+Walachia in 1689. In consequence of his anti-Turkish policy of
+forming an alliance first with Austria and then with Russia, he
+was denounced to the Porte, deposed from his throne, brought
+under arrest to Constantinople and imprisoned (1710) in the
+fortress of Yedi Kuleh (Seven Towers). Here he was tortured by
+the Turks, who hoped thus to discover the fortune of £3,000,000,
+which Constantine was alleged to have amassed. He was beheaded
+with his four sons on the 26th of August 1714. His
+faithful friend Enake Vacarescu shared his fate. Constantine
+Brancovan became, through his tragic death, the hero of
+Rumanian popular ballads. His family founded and endowed the
+largest hospital in Walachia, the so-called Spital Brancovanescu.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See O.G. Lecca, <i>Familiile Boere&#351;ti Române</i> (Bucharest, 1899),
+p. 90, sqq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAND, JOHN<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1744-1806), English antiquary, was born on
+the 19th of August 1744 at Washington, Durham, where his
+father was parish clerk. His early years were spent at Newcastle-on-Tyne
+with his uncle, a cordwainer, to whom he was apprentice
+in his fourteenth year. Showing promise, however, at Newcastle
+grammar school, friends interested themselves in him and assisted
+him to go to Oxford. It was not, however, until his twenty-eighth
+year that he matriculated at Lincoln College, but before
+this he had been ordained, holding in succession the curacies of
+Bolam, Northumberland, of St Andrew&rsquo;s, Newcastle, and of
+Cramlington, 8 m. from the county town. He graduated in
+1775 and two years later was elected fellow of the Society of
+Antiquaries. Having for a short time been under-usher at the
+Newcastle grammar school, the duke of Northumberland, a
+former patron, gave him in 1784 the rectory of the combined
+parishes of St Mary-at-Hill and St Mary Hubbard, London.
+Appointed secretary to the Society of Antiquaries in the same
+year, he was annually re-elected until his death in 1806. He was
+buried in the chancel of his church. His most important work is
+<i>Observations on Popular Antiquities: including the whole of Mr
+Bourne&rsquo;s &ldquo;Antiquitates Vulgares,&rdquo; with addenda to every chapter
+of that work</i>. This was published in London in 1777, and after
+Brand&rsquo;s death, a new edition embodying the MSS. left by him,
+was published by Sir Henry Ellis in 1813. Brand also published
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span>
+a poem entitled: <i>On Illicit Love, written among the ruins of
+Godstow Nunnery, near Oxford</i> (1775, Newcastle); <i>The History
+and Antiquities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne</i> (2 vols., London, 1789),
+and many papers in the <i>Archaeologia</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1823-1888), president of the
+Orange Free State, was the son of Sir Christoffel Brand, speaker
+of the House of Assembly of the Cape Colony. He was born at
+Cape Town on the 6th of December 1823, and was educated at
+the South African College in that city. Continuing his studies at
+Leiden, he took the degree of D.C.L. in 1845. He was called to
+the English bar from the Inner Temple in 1849, and practised as
+an advocate in the supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope
+from that year until 1863. In 1858 he was appointed professor of
+law in the South African College. He was elected president of
+the Orange Free State in 1863, and subsequently re-elected for
+five years in 1869, 1874, 1879 and 1884. In 1864 he resisted the
+pressure of the Basuto on the Free State boundary, and after
+vainly endeavouring to induce Moshesh, the Basuto chief, to
+keep his people within bounds, he took up arms against them in
+1865. This first war ended in the treaty of Thaba Bosigo, signed
+on the 3rd of April 1866; and a second war, caused by the
+treachery of the Basuto, ended in the treaty of Aliwal North,
+concluded on the 12th of February 1869. In 1871 Brand was
+solicited by a large party to become president of the Transvaal,
+and thus unite the two Dutch republics of South Africa; but as
+the project was hostile to Great Britain he declined to do so, and
+maintained his constant policy of friendship towards England,
+where his merits were recognized in 1882 by the honour of the
+G.C.M.G. He died on the 14th of July 1888. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange
+Free State</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1788-1866), English chemist,
+was born in London on the 11th of January 1788. After leaving
+Westminster school, he was apprenticed, in 1802, to his brother,
+an apothecary, with the view of adopting the profession of
+medicine, but his bent was towards chemistry, a sound knowledge
+of which he acquired in his spare time. In 1812 he was
+appointed professor of chemistry to the Apothecaries&rsquo; Society,
+and delivered a course of lectures before the Board of Agriculture
+in place of Sir Humphry Davy, whom in the following year he
+succeeded in the chair of chemistry at the Royal Institution,
+London. His <i>Manual of Chemistry</i>, first published in 1819,
+enjoyed wide popularity, and among other works he brought out
+a <i>Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art</i> in 1842, on a new
+edition of which he was engaged when he died at Tunbridge
+Wells on the 11th of February 1866.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDENBURG,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> the name of a margraviate and electorate
+which played an important part in German history, and afterwards
+grew into the kingdom of Prussia. During the early years
+of the Christian era, the district was inhabited by the Semnones,
+and afterwards by various Slavonic tribes, who were partially
+subdued by Charlemagne, but soon regained their independence.
+The history of Brandenburg begins when the German king,
+Henry the Fowler, defeated the Havelli, or Hevelli, and took
+their capital, Brennibor, from which the name Brandenburg is
+derived. It soon came under the rule of Gero, margrave of the
+Saxon east mark, who pressed the campaign against the Slavs
+with vigour, while Otto the Great founded bishoprics at Havelberg
+and Brandenburg. When Gero died in 965, his mark was
+divided into two parts, the northern portion, lying along both
+banks of the middle Elbe, being called the north or old mark,
+and forming the nucleus of the later margraviate of Brandenburg.
+After Otto the Great died, the Slavs regained much of
+their territory, Brandenburg fell again into their hands, and a
+succession of feeble margraves ruled only the district west of the
+Elbe, together with a small district east of that river.</p>
+
+<p>A new era began in 1106 when Lothair, count of Supplinburg,
+became duke of Saxony. Aided by Albert the Bear, count of
+Ballenstädt, he renewed the attack on the Slavs, and
+in 1134 appointed Albert margrave of the north mark.
+<span class="sidenote">Albert the Bear.</span>
+The new margrave continued the work of Lothair, and
+about 1140 made a treaty with Pribislaus, the childless duke of
+Brandenburg, by which he was recognized as the duke&rsquo;s heir.
+He took at once the title margrave of Brandenburg, but when
+Pribislaus died in 1150, a stubborn contest followed with Jazko,
+a relation of the late duke, which was terminated in 1157 in
+Albert&rsquo;s favour. Albert was the real founder of Brandenburg.
+Under his rule Christianity and civilization were extended,
+bishoprics were restored and monasteries founded. The country
+was colonized with settlers from the lower Rhineland, land was
+brought under cultivation, forts were built, German laws and
+customs introduced, and gradually the woods and marshes
+were converted into lands of comparative fertility.</p>
+
+<p>When Albert died in 1170, Brandenburg fell to his eldest son,
+Otto I. (<i>c</i>. 1130-1184), who compelled the duke of Pomerania to
+own his supremacy, and slightly increased by conquest the area
+of the mark. Otto&rsquo;s son, Otto II., was the succeeding margrave,
+and having quarrelled with his powerful neighbour, Ludolf,
+archbishop of Magdeburg, was forced to own the archbishop&rsquo;s
+supremacy over his allodial lands. He died in 1205, and was
+followed by his step-brother, Albert II. (<i>c</i>. 1174-1220), who
+assisted the emperor Otto IV. in various campaigns, but later
+transferred his allegiance to Otto&rsquo;s rival, Frederick of Hohenstaufen,
+afterwards the emperor Frederick II. His sons, John I.
+and Otto III., ruled Brandenburg in common until the death of
+John in 1266, and their reign was a period of growth and prosperity.
+<span class="sidenote">Otto III.</span>
+Districts were conquered or purchased from
+the surrounding dukes; the marriage of Otto with
+Beatrice, daughter of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, in 1253, added
+upper Lusatia to Brandenburg; and the authority of the
+margraves was extended beyond the Oder. Many monasteries
+and towns were founded, among them Berlin; the work of
+Albert the Bear was continued, and the prosperity of Brandenburg
+formed a marked contrast to the disorder which prevailed
+elsewhere in Germany. Brandenburg appears about this time to
+have fallen into three divisions&mdash;the old mark lying west of the
+Elbe, the middle mark between the Elbe and the Oder, and the
+new mark, as the newly conquered lands beyond the Oder began
+to be called. When Otto died in 1267, the area of the mark had
+been almost doubled, and the margraves had attained to an
+influential position in the Empire. The <i>Sachsenspiegel</i>, written
+before 1235, mentions the margrave as one of the electors, by
+virtue of the office of chamberlain, which had probably been
+conferred on Albert the Bear by the German king Conrad III.</p>
+
+<p>In 1258 John and Otto had agreed upon a division of their
+lands, but the arrangement only took effect on Otto&rsquo;s death
+in 1267, when John&rsquo;s son, John II., received the
+electoral dignity, together with the southern part
+<span class="sidenote">Otto IV.</span>
+of the margraviate, which centred around Stendal, and Otto&rsquo;s
+son, John III., the northern or Saltzwedel portion. John II.&rsquo;s
+brother, Otto IV., who became elector in 1281, had passed his
+early years in struggles with the archbishop of Magdeburg,
+whose lands stretched like a wedge into the heart of Brandenburg.
+In 1280 he was wounded in the head with a dart, and as he
+retained there a part of the weapon for a year, he was called
+&ldquo;Otto with the dart.&rdquo; He secured the appointment of his
+brother Eric as archbishop of Magdeburg in 1283, and was
+afterwards engaged in various feuds. Songs attributed to him
+are found in F.H. von der Hagen&rsquo;s <i>Minnesinger</i>. Otto was
+succeeded in 1309 by his nephew, Valdemar, who, assisted by
+other members of his family, conquered Pomerellen, which
+he shared with the Teutonic order in 1310, and held his own
+in a struggle with the kings of Poland, Sweden and Denmark
+and others, over the possession of Stralsund.</p>
+
+<p>In order to pay for these wars, and to meet the expenses
+of a splendid court, the later margraves had sold various rights
+to the towns and provinces of Brandenburg, and so aided the
+development of local government. John III. of Saltzwedel had
+shared his possessions with his brothers, but in 1303 they were
+reunited by his nephew Hermann, who purchased lower Lusatia
+in the same year. Hermann&rsquo;s daughter Agnes married the
+elector Valdemar, and on the death of her only brother, John VI.,
+in 1317, the possessions of the Saltzwedel branch of the family
+passed to Valdemar, together with Landsberg and the Saxon
+Palatinate, which had been purchased from Albert the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span>
+Degenerate, landgrave of Thuringia. Valdemar thus gathered
+the whole of the mark under his rule, together with upper and
+lower Lusatia, and various outlying districts. He died childless
+in 1319, and was succeeded by his nephew Henry II., who died
+in 1320, when the Ascanian family, as the descendants of Albert
+the Bear were called, from the Latinized form of the name of
+their ancestral castle of Aschersleben, became extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Brandenburg now fell into a deplorable condition, portions
+were seized by neighbouring princes, and the mark itself was
+disputed for by various claimants. In 1323 King
+Louis IV. took advantage of this condition to bestow
+<span class="sidenote">Wittelsbach dynasty.</span>
+the mark upon his young son, Louis, and thus Brandenburg
+was added to the possessions of the Wittelsbach
+family, although Louis did not receive the extensive lands of
+the Ascanian margraves. Upper and lower Lusatia, Landsberg,
+and the Saxon Palatinate had been inherited by female members
+of the family, and passed into the hands of other princes, the
+old mark was retained by Agnes, the widow of Valdemar, who
+was married again to Otto II., duke of Brunswick, and the
+king was forced to acknowledge these claims, and to cede districts
+to Mecklenburg and Bohemia. During the early years of the
+reign of Louis, who was called the margrave Louis IV. or V.,
+Brandenburg was administered by Bertold, count of Henneberg,
+who established the authority of the Wittelsbachs in the middle
+mark, which, centring round Berlin, was the most important
+part of the margraviate. The quarrel between King Louis
+and Pope John XXII. was inimical to the interests of Brandenburg,
+which was ravaged by the Poles, torn by the strife of
+contending clerical factions, and alternately neglected and
+oppressed by the margrave. Trade and commerce were at a
+standstill, agriculture was neglected, the privileges and estates
+of the margrave passed into private hands, the nobles were
+virtually independent, and the towns sought to defend themselves
+by means of alliances. During the struggle between the
+families of Wittelsbach and Luxemburg, which began in 1342,
+there appeared in Brandenburg an old man who claimed to be
+the margrave Valdemar. He was gladly received by the king
+of Poland, and other neighbouring princes, welcomed by a large
+number of the people, and in 1348 invested with the margraviate
+by King Charles IV., who eagerly seized this opportunity to deal
+a blow at his enemy. This step compelled Louis to make peace
+with Charles, who abandoned the false Valdemar, invested
+Louis and his step-brothers with Brandenburg, and in return
+was recognized as king. Louis recovered the old mark in 1348,
+drove his opponent from the land, and in 1350 made a treaty
+with his step-brothers, Louis the younger and Otto, at Frankfort-on-Oder,
+by which Brandenburg was handed over to Louis
+the younger and Otto. Louis, who then undertook the government,
+made peace with his neighbours, finally defeated the
+false Valdemar, and was recognized by the Golden Bull of
+1356 as one of the seven electors. The emperor Charles IV.
+took advantage of a family quarrel over the possessions of Louis
+the elder, who died in 1361, to obtain a promise from Louis the
+younger and Otto, that the margraviate should come to his own
+son, Wenceslaus, in case the electors died childless. Louis
+the younger died in 1365, and when his brother Otto, who had
+married a daughter of Charles IV., wished to leave Brandenburg
+to his own family Charles began hostilities; but in 1373 an
+arrangement was made, and Otto, by the treaty of Fürstenwalde,
+abandoned the margraviate for a sum of 500,000 gold gulden.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Wittelsbach rule, the estates of the various provinces
+of Brandenburg had obtained the right to coin money, to build
+fortresses, to execute justice, and to form alliances
+with foreign states. Charles invested Wenceslaus
+<span class="sidenote">Imperial control.</span>
+with the margraviate in 1373, but undertook its
+administration himself, and passed much of his time at a castle
+which he built at Tangermünde. He diminished the burden of
+taxation, suppressed the violence of the nobles, improved
+navigation on the Elbe and Oder, and encouraged commerce
+by alliances with the Hanse towns, and in other ways. He
+caused a <i>Landbook</i> to be drawn up in 1375, in which are recorded
+all the castles, towns and villages of the land with their estates
+and incomes. When Charles died in 1378, and Wenceslaus
+became German and Bohemian king, Brandenburg passed to
+the new king&rsquo;s half-brother Sigismund, then a minor, and a
+period of disorder ensued. Soon after Sigismund came of age,
+he pledged a part of Brandenburg to his cousin Jobst, margrave
+of Moravia, to whom in 1388 he handed over the remainder of
+the electorate in return for a large sum of money, and as the
+money was not repaid, Jobst obtained the investiture in 1397
+from King Wenceslaus. Sigismund had also obtained the new
+mark on the death of his brother John in 1396, but sold this
+in 1402 to the Teutonic order. Jobst paid very little attention
+to Brandenburg, and the period was used by many of the noble
+families to enrich themselves at the expense of the poorer and
+weaker towns, to plunder traders, and to carry on feuds with
+neighbouring princes. When in 1410 Sigismund and Jobst
+were rivals for the German throne, Sigismund, anxious to obtain
+another vote in the electoral college, declared the bargain with
+Jobst void, and empowered Frederick VI. of Hohenzollern,
+burgrave of Nuremberg, to exercise the Brandenburg vote at
+the election. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick I.</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Elector of Brandenburg</a></span>.)
+In 1411 Jobst died and Brandenburg reverted to Sigismund,
+who appointed Frederick as his representative to govern the
+margraviate, and a further step was taken when, on the 30th of
+April 1415, the king invested Frederick of Hohenzollern and his
+heirs with Brandenburg, together with the electoral privilege
+and the office of chamberlain, in return for a payment of 400,000
+gold gulden, but the formal ceremony of investiture was
+delayed until the 18th of April 1417, when it took place at
+Constance.</p>
+
+<p>During the century which preceded the advent of the Hohenzollerns
+in Brandenburg its internal condition had become
+gradually worse and worse, and had been accompanied
+by a considerable loss of territory. The central power
+<span class="sidenote">Condition before the Hohenzollern rule.</span>
+had become weakened and the central organization
+relaxed, while the electorate had lost most of the
+advantages which formerly distinguished it from other
+German fiefs. Under the rule of the earliest margraves, it was the
+official side of their position that was prominent, and it was not
+forgotten that they were technically only the representatives
+of the emperor. But in the 13th century this feeling began to
+disappear, and Brandenburg enjoyed an independence and
+carried out an independent policy in a way that was not paralleled
+by any other German state. The emperor was still suzerain
+indeed, but his relations with the mark were so insignificant that
+they exercised practically no influence on its development;
+and so the power of the Ascanian margraves was virtually
+unlimited. This independence was enhanced by the fact that
+few great nobles had followed Albert the Bear in his work of
+conquest, and that consequently there were few large lordships
+with their crowd of dependents. The towns, the village communities
+and the knights held their lands and derived their
+rights directly from the margraves. The towns and villages
+had generally been laid out by contractors or <i>locatores</i>, men
+not necessarily of noble birth, who were installed as hereditary
+chief magistrates of the communities, and received numerous
+encouragements to reclaim waste lands. This mode of colonization
+was especially favourable to the peasantry, who seem in
+Brandenburg to have retained the disposal of their persons and
+property at a time when villenage or serfdom was the ordinary
+<i>status</i> of their class elsewhere. The dues paid by these contractors
+in return for the concessions formed the main source of the
+revenue of the margraves. Gradually, however, the expenses
+of warfare, liberal donations to the clergy, and the maintenance of
+numerous and expensive households, compelled them to pledge
+these dues for sums of ready money. This proceeding gave the
+barons and knights an opportunity to buy out the village magistrates
+and to replace them with nominees of their own. Thus the
+condition of the peasants grew worse, and their freedom was practically
+destroyed when the emperor Louis IV. recognized the jurisdiction
+of the nobles over their estates. Henceforth the power
+of the nobles steadily increased at the expense of the peasants,
+who soon sank into servitude. Instead of communicating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span>
+directly with the margrave through his burgraves and bailiffs,
+or <i>vogts</i>, the village communities came to be represented by the
+nobles who had obtained possession of their lands. Many of the
+towns were forced into the same position. Others were able
+to maintain their independence, and to make use of the pecuniary
+needs of the margraves to become practically municipal republics.
+Their strength, however, was perhaps more usefully shown in their
+ability to resist the nobles, a proceeding which saved industry
+and commerce from extinction at a time of unbridled lawlessness.
+In the pecuniary embarrassments of the margraves also originated
+the power of the <i>Stände</i>, or estates, consisting of the nobles,
+the clergy and the towns. The first recorded instance of the
+<i>Stände</i> co-operating with the rulers occurred in 1170; but it
+was not till 1280 that the margrave solemnly bound himself not
+to raise a <i>bede</i> or special voluntary contribution without the
+consent of the estates. In 1355 the <i>Stände</i> secured the appointment
+of a permanent councillor, without whose concurrence
+the decrees of the margraves were invalid. In the century
+which followed the extinction of the Ascanian house, liberty
+degenerated into licence, and the country was given over to
+anarchy. Only the most powerful towns were able to maintain
+their independence; others, together with the clergy, regularly
+paid blackmail to the neighbouring nobles. Under these conditions
+it is no wonder that the electorate not only completely
+lost its political importance, but also suffered a considerable
+diminution of territory. Upper and lower Lusatia, the new mark
+of Brandenburg, and other outlying districts had been shorn
+away, and the electorate now consisted of the old mark, the
+middle mark with Priegnitz, Uckermark and Sternberg, a total
+area of not more than 10,000 sq.m.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the condition and extent of Brandenburg in 1411
+when Frederick of Hohenzollern became the representative of
+King Sigismund therein. Entering the electorate with
+a strong force in June 1412, his authority was quickly
+<span class="sidenote">Frederick of Hohenzollern, 1412.</span>
+recognized in the middle mark, but the nobles of the
+old mark and of Priegnitz refused to follow this example.
+The two succeeding years were skilfully used by Frederick to
+make peace with the neighbouring princes, and having thus isolated
+his domestic enemies, he turned his arms against them early in
+1414. Their strongholds were stormed, and in a few weeks their
+leaders were either prisoners or fugitives. A general peace was
+then declared at Tangermünde which enabled Frederick to leave
+the mark to the rule of his wife, Elizabeth, and to turn his
+attention elsewhere. Returning to Brandenburg as elector in
+1416, the last flickers of the insurrection were extinguished;
+and when Frederick was invested at Constance in April 1417
+his authority over the mark was undisputed. His next difficulty
+was with Pomerania, which had been nominally under the
+suzerainty of Brandenburg since 1181. The revival of this
+claim by the elector provoked an invasion of the mark by an
+army of Pomeranians with their allies in 1420, when Frederick
+inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Angermünde; but in
+1424 a temporary coolness between the elector and the emperor
+Sigismund led to a renewal of the attack which Frederick was
+unable to repulse. This reverse, together with the pressure of
+other business, induced him to leave Brandenburg in January
+1426, after handing over its government to his eldest son, John.
+John, called the &ldquo;Alchemist,&rdquo; who was born in 1403, had been
+disappointed in his hope of obtaining the vacant electoral duchy
+of Saxe-Wittenberg in 1423. Lacking the diplomatic and military
+qualities of his father, his difficulties were augmented by the
+poverty of the country, and the evils which Frederick had suppressed
+quickly returned. The feeling of security vanished,
+the towns banded themselves together for defensive purposes,
+the rights of the margrave were again pledged to provide money,
+and in 1432 the land was ravaged by the Hussites. John never
+attained to the electoral dignity; for, in 1437, his father in
+arranging a division of his territories decided that Brandenburg
+should pass to his second and fourth sons, both of whom were
+named Frederick. The elder of the two took up the government
+at once, whereupon John left the mark for South Germany, where
+he remained until his death in 1464.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick II., who became elector on his father&rsquo;s death in
+September 1440, was born on the 19th of November 1413, and
+earned the surname of &ldquo;Iron&rdquo; through his sternness
+to his country&rsquo;s enemies. He had little difficulty
+<span class="sidenote">Frederick II.</span>
+in repressing the turbulence of the nobles which had
+been quickened into life during the regency of his brother, but
+found it less easy to deal with the towns. Three strong leagues
+had been formed among them about 1431, and the spirit of
+municipal independence was most prominently represented
+by the neighbouring and allied towns of Berlin and Cöln. In
+his conflict with the towns over his refusal to ratify all their
+privileges the elector&rsquo;s task was lightened by a quarrel between
+the magistrates and the burghers of Berlin, which he was called
+in to decide in 1442. He deposed the governing oligarchy,
+changed the constitution of the town, forbade all alliances and
+laid the foundations of a castle. The inhabitants soon chafed
+under these restrictions. A revolt broke out in 1447, but the
+power of the elector overawed the people, who submitted their
+case to the estates, with the result that the arrangement of 1442
+was re-established. In 1447 Frederick was compelled to cede
+the old mark and Priegnitz to his younger brother, Frederick,
+under whose feeble rule they quickly fell into disorder. In 1463,
+however, when the younger Frederick died childless, the elector
+united them again with his own possessions and took measures
+to suppress the prevailing anarchy. In his dealings with neighbouring
+rulers Frederick pursued a peaceful and conciliatory
+policy. In 1442 he obtained some small additions to his territory,
+and the right of succession to the duchy of Mecklenburg in
+case the ducal family should die out. In 1445 an old feud with
+the archbishop of Magdeburg was settled, and in 1457 a treaty
+of mutual succession was made with the houses of Saxony and
+Hesse. Cottbus and Peitz in Lusatia were acquired, and retained
+after a quarrel with George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and the
+new mark of Brandenburg was purchased from the Teutonic
+order in 1454. An attempt, however, to secure the duchy of
+Pomerania-Stettin failed, and the concluding years of this reign
+were troubled by warfare with the Pomeranians.</p>
+
+<p>The general success of Frederick&rsquo;s rule was secured by the
+sedulous care with which he confined himself to the work of
+government. He is said to have refused the thrones of Poland
+and Bohemia; and although he made pilgrimages to the Holy
+Land and to Rome, his interest in ecclesiastical questions
+was mainly directed towards quickening the religious life of
+his people. He obtained important concessions from Pope
+Nicholas V. with regard to the appointment of bishops and other
+ecclesiastical matters in 1447, and in general maintained cordial
+relations with the papacy. About 1467 his only son, John, died,
+and increasing infirmity led him to contemplate abdication.
+An arrangement was made with his brother, Albert Achilles,
+to whom early in 1470 the mark was handed over, and Frederick
+retired to Plassenburg where he died on the 10th of February 1471.</p>
+
+<p>Albert appeared in Brandenburg early in the same year, and
+after receiving the homage of his people took up the struggle
+with the Pomeranians, which he soon brought to a
+satisfactory conclusion; for in May 1472 he not only
+<span class="sidenote">Albert Achilles.</span>
+obtained the cession of several districts, but was
+recognized as the suzerain of Pomerania and as its future ruler.
+The expenses of this war led to a quarrel with the estates. A
+subsidy was granted which the elector did not regard as adequate,
+and by a dexterous use of his power he established his right to
+take an excise on beer. Albert&rsquo;s most important contribution
+to the history of Brandenburg was the issue on the 24th of
+February 1473 of the <i>Dispositio Achillea</i>. By this instrument
+the elector decreed that the electoral mark should pass in its
+entirety to his eldest son, an establishment of primogeniture
+which had considerable influence on the future development of
+the country. He then entrusted the government to his eldest
+son, John, and left Brandenburg. Handicapped by poverty,
+John had to face attacks from two quarters. The Pomeranians,
+inspired by the declaration of the emperor Frederick III. that
+their land was a direct fief of the Empire, and aided by Matthias
+Corvinus, king of Hungary, took up arms; and a quarrel broke
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span>
+out with John, duke of Sagan, over the possessions of John&rsquo;s
+brother-in-law, Henry XI., duke of Glogau. To deal with these
+difficulties Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, and during
+his stay drove back the Pomeranians, and added Crossen and
+other parts of duke Henry&rsquo;s possessions to the electorate. Again
+left in charge of the country, John beat back a fresh attack made
+by John of Sagan in 1482; and he became elector on his father&rsquo;s
+death in March 1486. He added the county of Zossen to his
+possessions in 1490, and in 1493 made a fresh treaty with the
+duke of Pomerania. Although he brought a certain degree of
+order into the finances, his poverty and the constant inroads of
+external enemies prevented him from seriously improving the
+condition of the country. John, who was called &ldquo;Cicero,&rdquo;
+either on account of his eloquence, or of his knowledge of Latin,
+was interested in learning, welcomed Italian scholars to the
+electorate, and strove to improve the education of his people.
+He died at Arneburg on the 9th of January 1499, and was
+succeeded by his son Joachim I.</p>
+
+<p>When Joachim undertook the government of Brandenburg
+he had to deal with an amount of disorder almost as great as
+that which had taxed the energies of Frederick I. a
+century before. Highway robbery was general, the
+<span class="sidenote">Joachim.</span>
+lives and property of traders were in continual jeopardy, and
+the machinery for the enforcement of the laws was almost at a
+standstill. About 1504 an attack of unusual ferocity on some
+Frankfort traders aroused the elector&rsquo;s wrath, and during the
+next few years the execution of many lawbreakers and other
+stern measures restored some degree of order. In this and in
+other ways Joachim proved himself a sincere friend to the towns
+and a protector of industry. Following the economic tendencies
+of the time he issued sumptuary laws and encouraged manufactures;
+while to suppress the rivalry among the towns he
+established an order of precedence for them. Equally important
+was his work in improving the administration of justice, and in
+this direction he was aided by scholars from the university which
+he had founded at Frankfort-on-Oder in 1506. He gave a new
+organization to the highest court of justice, the <i>Kammergericht</i>,
+secured for himself an important voice in the choice of its
+members, and ordered that the local law should be supplemented
+by the law of Rome. He did not largely increase the area of
+Brandenburg, but in 1524 he acquired the county of Ruppin,
+and in 1529 he made a treaty at Grimnitz with George and
+Barnim XI., dukes of Pomerania, by which he surrendered the
+vexatious claim to suzerainty in return for a fresh promise of
+the succession in case the ducal family should become extinct.
+Joachim&rsquo;s attitude towards the teaching of Martin Luther which
+had already won many adherents in the electorate, was one of
+unrelenting hostility. The Jews also felt the weight of his
+displeasure, and were banished in 1510.</p>
+
+<p>Ignoring the <i>Dispositio Achillea</i>, the elector bequeathed
+Brandenburg to his two sons. When he died in July 1535 the
+elder, Joachim II., became elector, and obtained the
+old and middle marks, while the younger, John, received
+<span class="sidenote">Joachim II.</span>
+the new mark. John went definitely over to the side
+of the Lutherans in 1538, while Joachim allowed the reformed
+doctrines free entrance into his dominions in 1539. The elector,
+however, unlike his brother, did not break with the forms of the
+Church of Rome, but established an ecclesiastical organization
+independent of the pope, and took up a position similar to that
+of King Henry VIII. in England. Many of the monasteries were
+suppressed, a consistory was set up to take over the functions
+of the bishops and to act as the highest ecclesiastical court of
+the country. In 1541 the new ecclesiastical system was confirmed
+by the emperor Charles V. With regard to this policy
+the elector was probably influenced by considerations of greed.
+The bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus were
+secularized; their administration was entrusted to members
+of the elector&rsquo;s family; and their revenues formed a welcome
+addition to his impoverished exchequer. Nor did Joachim
+neglect other opportunities for adding to his wealth and possessions.
+In 1537 he had concluded a treaty with Frederick III.,
+duke of Liegnitz, which guaranteed to the Hohenzollerns the
+succession to the Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau
+in the event of the ducal family becoming extinct; this arrangement
+is important as the basis of the claim made by Frederick
+the Great on Silesia in 1740. The treaty was declared invalid
+by the German king, Ferdinand I.; but the elector insisted on
+its legality, and in 1545 strengthened his position by arranging
+a double marriage between members of his own family and that
+of Duke Frederick. Of more immediate consequence was an
+arrangement made in 1569 with the representatives of Joachim&rsquo;s
+kinsman, Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, after which the
+elector obtained the joint investiture of the duchy of Prussia from
+Sigismund II., king of Poland, and was assured of the succession
+if the duke&rsquo;s family became extinct. Joachim&rsquo;s luxurious habits,
+his partiality for adventurers, and his delight in building, led
+him to incur such a heavy expenditure that after pledging many
+of his lands and rights he was compelled in 1540 to appeal for
+help to the estates. Taking advantage of his difficulties, the
+estates voted him a sum of money as the price of valuable concessions,
+the most important of which was that the elector
+should make no alliance without their consent. Fresh liabilities
+were soon incurred, and in spite of frequent contributions from
+the estates Joachim left at his death in January 1571 a heavy
+burden of debt to his son and successor, John George.</p>
+
+<p>The elector&rsquo;s death was followed ten days later by that of his
+brother, John, and as John left no sons the whole of Brandenburg,
+together with the districts of Beeskow and Storkow
+which had been added by purchase to the new mark,
+<span class="sidenote">John George.</span>
+were united under the rule of his nephew, John George.
+Born on the 11th of September 1525 this prince had served in
+the field under Charles V., and, disliking his father&rsquo;s policy and
+associates, had absented himself from Berlin, and mainly confined
+his attention to administering the secularized bishopric of
+Brandenburg which he had obtained in 1560. When he became
+elector he hastened to put his ideas into practice. His father&rsquo;s
+favourites were exiled; foreigners were ousted from public
+positions and their places taken by natives; and important
+economies were effected, which earned for John George the
+surname of <i>Oekonom</i>, or steward. To lighten the heavy burden
+of debt left by Joachim the elector proposed a tax on wheat and
+other cereals. Some opposition was shown, but eventually the
+estates of both divisions of the mark assented; only, however
+at the price of concessions to the nobles, predominant in the diet,
+which thrust the peasantry into servitude. Thus the rule of
+John George was popular with the nobles, and to some extent
+with the towns. Protestant refugees from France and the
+Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Brandenburg, and a
+period of peace was beneficial to a land, the condition of which
+was still much inferior to that of other parts of Germany. In
+religion the elector was a follower of Luther, whose doctrines were
+prevalent among his people. He had accepted the <i>Formula
+Concordiae</i>, a Lutheran document promulgated in June 1580,
+and sought to prevent any departure from its tenets. His
+dislike of Calvinism, or his antipathy to external complications,
+however, prevented him from taking any serious steps to defend
+Protestantism from the attacks of the counter-reformation.
+He did indeed join the league of Torgau, which voted assistance
+to Henry IV. of France in 1591; but he refused to aid the United
+Provinces, or even to give assistance to his eldest son, Joachim
+Frederick, administrator of the archbishopric of Magdeburg,
+whose claim to sit and vote in the imperial diet was contested,
+or to his grandson, John George, whose election to the bishopric
+of Strassburg was opposed by a Roman Catholic minority in the
+chapter. This indifference to the welfare of the Protestants
+added to the estrangement between the elector and his eldest son,
+which was further accentuated when John George, ignoring the
+<i>Dispositio Achillea</i>, bequeathed the new mark to one of his
+younger sons. He died on the 8th of January 1598.</p>
+
+<p>Joachim Frederick, who now became elector, was born on the
+27th of January 1546. Since 1553 he had held the bishopric of
+Havelberg, since 1555 that of Lebus; he had been administrator
+of Magdeburg since 1566, and of Brandenburg since
+1571. Resigning these dignities in 1598, he contested his father&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span>
+will, and was successful in preventing a division of the electorate.
+An agreement with George Frederick, the childless margrave of
+<span class="sidenote">Joachim Frederick.</span>
+Ansbach and Bayreuth, paved the way for an
+arrangement with the elector&rsquo;s younger brothers, who
+after the margrave&rsquo;s death in April 1603, shared
+his lands in Franconia, and were compensated in other ways
+for surrendering all claims on Brandenburg. This agreement,
+known as the Gera Bond, ratified the <i>Dispositio Achillea</i>. By
+George Frederick&rsquo;s death, Joachim became administrator of
+the duchy of Prussia, ruled nominally by the weak-minded
+Albert Frederick, but he had some difficulty in asserting his
+position. In Brandenburg he made concessions to the nobles
+at the expense of the peasantry, and admitted the right of the
+estates to control taxation. In religious matters he was convinced
+of the necessity of a union between Lutherans and
+Calvinists, and took steps to bring this about. Public opinion,
+however, in Brandenburg was too strong for him, and he was
+compelled to fall back upon the Lutheran <i>Formula</i> and the
+religious policy of his father. Joachim seems to have been a
+wise ruler, who improved in various ways the condition of the
+mark. He married Catherine, daughter of John, margrave of
+Brandenburg-Cüstrin, and when he died, on the 18th of July
+1608, was succeeded by his eldest son John Sigismund.</p>
+
+<p>The new elector, born on the 8th of November 1572, had
+married in 1594 Anna, daughter of Albert Frederick of Prussia,
+a union which not only strengthened the pretensions
+of the electors of Brandenburg to the succession in
+<span class="sidenote">John Sigismund.</span>
+that duchy, but gave to John Sigismund a claim on
+the duchies of Cleves, Jülich and Berg, and other
+Rhenish lands should the ruling family become extinct. In
+March 1609 the death of Duke John William left these duchies
+without a ruler, and by arrangement they were occupied jointly
+by the elector and by his principal rival, Wolfgang, son of Philip
+Louis, count palatine of Neuburg. This proceeding aroused
+some opposition, and, complicated by religious considerations
+and by the excited state of European politics, almost precipitated
+a general war. However, in November 1614 the dispute was
+temporarily settled by the treaty of Xanten. Brandenburg
+obtained the duchy of Cleves with the counties of Mark and
+Ravensberg, but as the Dutch and Spanish garrisons were not
+withdrawn, these lands were only nominally under the elector&rsquo;s
+rule. In 1609, John Sigismund had joined the Evangelical
+Union, probably to win support in the Rhineland, and the same
+consideration was doubtless one reason why, in 1613, he forsook
+the Lutheran doctrines of his family, and became an adherent
+of the reformed, or Calvinist, faith. This step aroused grave
+discontent in the electorate, and, quickly abandoning his
+attempts to proselytize, the elector practically conceded religious
+liberty to his subjects. Over the Cleves-Jülich succession, John
+Sigismund had incurred heavy expenses, and the public debt
+had again mounted up. He was thus obliged to seek aid from
+the estates, and in return for grants to make concessions to the
+nobles. The elector spent much of his time in Prussia striving
+to assert his authority in that duchy, and in August 1618, according
+to the arrangement of 1569, became duke by the death of
+Albert Frederick. He only enjoyed this dignity for a short time,
+as he died on the 23rd of December 1619. He was succeeded
+by his eldest son, George William.</p>
+
+<p>The new elector, born on the 3rd of November 1597, proved
+a weak and incapable ruler. He had married Elizabeth, daughter
+of Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine, and
+sister of the elector Frederick V., afterwards king of
+<span class="sidenote">George William.</span>
+Bohemia, and before his accession had acted as his
+father&rsquo;s representative in Cleves. Although a Protestant he
+was under the influence of Adam, count of Schwarzenberg, who
+was a Roman Catholic of imperialist sympathies. As a result
+the elector remained neutral during the early years of the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War in spite of his relationship with Frederick of the
+Palatinate, and the obvious danger to his Rhenish lands. This
+attitude was not successful. Brandenburg was ravaged impartially
+by both parties, and in 1627 George William attacked his
+brother-in-law, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who was using
+Prussia as a base of operations for his war against Poland. This
+campaign was short and inglorious for Brandenburg, and the
+elector was soon compelled to make peace. Although alarmed
+by the edict of restitution of 1629, George William took no steps
+to help the Protestants. In 1631, however, Gustavus Adolphus
+marched on Berlin, compelled the elector to cede the fortress of
+Spandau, and to aid him with men and money. The Brandenburg
+troops then assisted the Swedes until after the death of
+Gustavus in 1632, and the Swedish defeat at Nördlingen in 1634,
+when the elector assented to the treaty of Prague, which was
+made in May 1635 between the emperor Ferdinand II. and John
+George I., elector of Saxony. The imperialists did nothing,
+however, to drive the Swedes from Brandenburg, and the
+unfortunate land was entirely at the mercy of the enemy. This
+was the principal reason why the elector was unable to annex
+Pomerania when its last duke, Bogislaus XIV., died in 1637.
+In 1638 George William transferred his residence to Königsberg,
+leaving Schwarzenberg to administer the electorate. Although
+his harsh measures aroused some irritation, the count did something
+to rid the land of the Swedes and to mitigate its many evils;
+but its condition was still very deplorable when George William
+died at Königsberg on the 1st of December 1640, leaving an only
+son, Frederick William. The most important facts in the internal
+history of Brandenburg during the 16th century were the
+increase in the power of the estates, owing chiefly to the continuous
+pecuniary needs of the electors; the gradual decline in
+the political importance of the towns, due mainly to intestine
+feuds; and the lapse of the peasantry into servitude. These
+events gave a preponderance of power to the nobles, but concurrently
+a number of circumstances were silently preparing
+the way for a great increase of authority on the part of the ruler.
+The substitution of the elector for the pope as head of the church;
+the introduction of Roman law with its emphasis on a central
+authority and a central administration; the determined and
+successful efforts to avoid any partition of the electorate; and
+the increasing tendency of the separate sections of the diet to
+act independently; all tended in this direction. This new order
+was heralded in 1604 by the establishment of a council of state,
+devoted to the interests of the elector, which strengthened his
+authority, and paved the way for a bureaucratic government.</p>
+
+<p>When Frederick William, the &ldquo;Great Elector,&rdquo; became ruler
+of Brandenburg in 1640 he found the country in a very deplorable
+condition. Trade and agriculture were almost
+destroyed, and the inhabitants, compelled to support
+<span class="sidenote">Frederick William, the &ldquo;Great Elector.&rdquo;</span>
+the Swedish army of occupation, suffered also from
+the disorderly conduct of the native soldiers. Although
+the young elector spent the two first years of his reign
+mainly in Prussia, he was by no means forgetful of Brandenburg,
+and began resolutely to root out the many evils which had sprung
+up during the feeble rule of his father. The powers of Schwarzenberg
+were curtailed; the state council was restored; and the
+licence of the soldiers was restrained, while their numbers were
+reduced. Then turning his attention to the Swedes a truce was
+arranged, and soon afterwards, in return for an indemnity, they
+agreed to evacuate the electorate. Having returned to Brandenburg
+in 1643, Frederick William remained neutral during the
+concluding years of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and set to work to
+organize an army and to effect financial reforms. About the
+same time diplomatic methods freed Cleves, Mark and
+Ravensberg from foreign troops, but the estates of these lands
+gained a temporary victory when the elector attacked their
+privileges. However, in 1647 his title was formally admitted
+by Wolfgang, count palatine of Neuburg.</p>
+
+<p>The terms of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 are the best
+commentary on the general success of the elector&rsquo;s policy.
+Although he was obliged to give up his claim to the western part
+of Pomerania in favour of Sweden, he secured the eastern part
+of that duchy, together with the secularized bishoprics of
+Halberstadt, Minden and Kammin, and other lands, the whole
+forming a welcome addition to the area of Brandenburg. He
+was also promised the archbishopric of Magdeburg when its
+administrator, Augustus, duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, should die.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span>
+This event happened in 1680 when he secured the lands of the
+archbishopric. The elector did not, however, take possession
+of the newly-acquired territories at once. Fresh difficulties
+arose with Sweden, and it was not until 1653 that eastern
+Pomerania was freed from her soldiers. Meanwhile a new
+quarrel had broken out with Wolfgang of Neuburg. In 1650
+Frederick William attacked his rival, but a variety of circumstances,
+among others a change of government in the Netherlands,
+and the resistance of the estates of Cleves, thwarted his plans,
+and he was compelled to listen to the mediating powers, and to
+acquiesce in the <i>status quo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Profiting by these reverses the elector then undertook a series
+of internal reforms, tending to strengthen the central authority,
+and to mitigate the constant lack of money, which was perhaps
+his chief obstacle to success; a work in which he was aided by
+George, count of Waldeck (1620-1692), who became his chief
+adviser about this time. In 1651 the powers of the state council
+were extended to include all the lands under the elector&rsquo;s rule;
+and a special committee was appointed to effect financial
+economies, and so to augment the electoral resources. In
+imperial politics Frederick William supported the election of
+Ferdinand, son of the emperor Ferdinand III., as king of the
+Romans in 1653; but when the emperor failed to fulfil his
+promises, influenced by Waldeck, he acted in opposition to the
+imperial interests, and even formed a plan for a great alliance
+against the Habsburgs. These projects were disturbed by the
+war which broke out in 1655 between Sweden and Poland. In
+this struggle the elector fought first on one side and then on the
+other; but the important consequences of his conduct belong
+rather to the history of the duchy of Prussia (<i>q.v.</i>). The transfer
+of the elector&rsquo;s support from Sweden to Poland in 1656 was
+followed by the fall from power of Waldeck, who was succeeded
+by Otto von Schwerin (1616-1679), under whose influence the
+elector&rsquo;s relations with the emperor became more cordial.</p>
+
+<p>The increase in the prestige of Brandenburg was due chiefly
+to his army, which was gradually brought to a high state of
+efficiency. A proper organization was established to superintend
+the pay and maintenance of the soldiers, and they were commanded
+by experienced officers, among others by Georg
+Derfflingen (1606-1695), and Otto von Sparr (1605-1668). The
+general poverty, however, made the estates reluctant to support
+a standing army, and after the peace of Oliva in 1660, it was
+reduced to about 3500 men. The continual difficulties with the
+estates of his different dominions had harassed and hampered
+the elector, and the general peace which followed the treaty of
+Oliva offered a favourable opportunity to curtail their powers.
+Undaunted by two previous rebuffs he attacked the estates of
+Cleves, and by a display of force gained a substantial victory.
+Some important privileges were annulled, and he obtained a
+considerable sum of money. The <i>Landtag</i> of Brandenburg was
+not cowed so easily into submission, but an increase of revenue
+was obtained, and the stubborn struggle which ensued in Prussia
+ended in a victory for the ruler. This increased income enabled
+the elector to take a more considerable part in European politics.
+In 1663 he assisted the imperialists in their struggle with the
+Turks; in 1666 the dispute over Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg
+was finally settled, and Brandenburg were confirmed in the
+possession of these lands; and in the same year a reconciliation
+was effected with Sweden. Several disputes which threatened
+to disturb the peace of the Empire were settled through his
+mediation, and he compelled the citizens of Magdeburg to do
+homage to him. In religious matters he interceded with the
+emperor and the diet for the Protestants, and sought, but without
+success, to bring about a reconciliation between Lutherans and
+Calvinists in Brandenburg.</p>
+
+<p>The elector&rsquo;s relations with Louis XIV. of France are full of
+interest. After the conclusion of the war of devolution in 1667,
+he allied himself with Louis, and together they agreed to support
+the candidature of Wolfgang of Neuburg for the vacant Polish
+throne. In 1668, moreover, he refused to join the triple alliance
+against France, but soon afterwards became aware of the danger
+to his country from the aggressive policy of Louis. The United
+Provinces were bound to him by religious interests, political
+considerations, and family ties alike, and he could not be indifferent
+when their position was threatened by France. In spite
+of tempting offers from Louis, he was the first to join the Dutch
+when they were attacked by Louis in 1672, and conducted an
+ineffectual campaign on the Rhine until June 1673, when he was
+forced to make peace. In July 1674, however, he joined the
+Empire, the United Provinces and Spain, and in return for a
+subsidy, fought against France in Alsace. Meanwhile Louis had
+instigated the Swedes to invade Brandenburg, which had been
+left to the care of John George II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau.
+Hastening from Franconia to defend the electorate, Frederick
+William gained a complete victory over a superior number of
+the enemy at Fehrbellin on the 28th of June 1675, a great and
+glorious day for the arms of Brandenburg. Aided by the
+imperialists and the Danes, he followed up this success, and
+cleared Brandenburg and Pomerania of the Swedes, capturing
+Stettin in 1677 and Stralsund in 1678, while an attack made by
+Sweden on Prussia was successfully repelled. The general peace
+of Nijmwegen was followed by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye
+in June 1679 between Sweden and Brandenburg. Owing,
+however, to the insistence of Louis XIV. and the indifference,
+or weakness, of the emperor Leopold I., the elector was forced
+to restore western Pomerania to Sweden, in return for the payment
+of 300,000 crowns by France. This feebleness on the part
+of his ally induced Frederick William to listen more readily to
+the overtures of Louis, and in 1679, and again in 1681, he bound
+himself to support the interests of France. He had, moreover,
+a further grievance against the emperor as Leopold refused to
+recognize his right to the Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and
+Wohlau, which had been left without a ruler in 1675. About
+1684, however, the foreign policy of Brandenburg underwent
+another change. Disliking the harshness shown by Louis to the
+Protestants, the elector concluded an alliance with William,
+prince of Orange, in August 1685; and entered into more friendly
+relations with the emperor. Further incensed against France
+by the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, he made an
+alliance with Leopold in January 1686, agreeing in return for
+a subsidy to send troops against the Turks. Soon afterwards he
+received Schwiebus to compensate him for abandoning his claim
+on the Silesian duchies, and in a secret treaty made promises
+of support to Leopold. The great elector died in May 1688,
+leaving his territories to his eldest son, Frederick.</p>
+
+<p>The remarkable services of Frederick William to his country
+can best be judged by comparing its condition in 1640 with that
+in 1688. At his accession the greater part of his territory was
+occupied by strangers and devastated by war, and in European
+politics Brandenburg was merely an appendage of the empire.
+Its army was useless; its soil was poor; its revenue was insignificant.
+At his death the state of Brandenburg-Prussia was a
+power to be reckoned with in all European combinations.
+Inferior to Austria alone among the states of the Empire, it was
+regarded as the head of the German Protestantism; while the fact
+that one-third of its territory lay outside the Empire added to
+its importance. Its area had been increased to over 40,000
+sq. m.; its revenue had multiplied sevenfold; and its small
+army was unsurpassed for efficiency. The elector had overthrown
+Sweden and inherited her position on the Baltic, and had offered
+a steady and not ineffectual resistance to the ambition of France.</p>
+
+<p>While thus winning for himself a position in the councils of
+Europe, Frederick William was not less active in strengthening
+the central authority within his own dominions. He found
+Brandenburg a constitutional state, in which the legislative
+power was shared between the elector and the diet; he left it
+to his successor substantially an absolute monarchy. Many
+circumstances assisted to bring about this change, among the
+chief of which were the want of harmonious action on the part
+of the estates, and the decline in the political power of the towns.
+The substitution of a permanent excise for the subsidies granted
+from time to time by the estates also tended to increase his
+independence, and the officials or <i>Steuerräthe</i>, appointed by him
+to collect this tax in the towns, gradually absorbed many of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span>
+the administrative functions of the local authorities. The nobles
+and prelates generally preferred to raise their share of the revenue
+by the old method of a <i>bede</i>, or contribution, thus weakening
+the remaining bond between them and the burghers.</p>
+
+<p>In matters of general administration Frederick William showed
+himself a prudent and careful ruler, and laid the foundation of
+the future greatness of Prussia in almost every department.
+The wounds inflicted by the Thirty Years&rsquo; War were in a great
+measure healed, and the finances and credit of the state were
+established on a firm basis. Agriculture and commerce were
+improved and encouraged by a variety of useful measures, and
+in this connexion the settlement of a large number of Flemings,
+and the welcome extended to French Protestants, both before
+and after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, were of incalculable
+service. A small but efficient navy was founded, and strict
+economy, together with increasing resources, enabled a disciplined
+army to be maintained. Education was not neglected,
+a trading company was established, and colonies were founded
+on the west coast of Africa. In religious matters Calvinists and
+Lutherans were placed upon an equality, but the elector was
+unable to impress his own spirit of tolerance upon the clergy,
+who were occupied with ecclesiastical squabbles while the state
+of education and of public morals left much to be desired. The
+condition of the peasantry, however, during this reign reached
+its lowest point, and the &ldquo;recess,&rdquo; or charter, of 1653 practically
+recognizes the existence of villenage. While the nobles had been
+losing power with regard to the ruler they had been increasing
+it at the expense of the peasants. The Thirty Years&rsquo; War afforded
+them frequent opportunities of replacing the village <i>Schulzen</i>,
+or magistrates, with officials of their own; and the fact that their
+share of taxation was wholly wrung from the peasants made the
+burden of the latter much heavier than that of the townsmen.</p>
+
+<p>The new elector, Frederick III., followed in general the policy
+of his father. Having persuaded his step-brothers to surrender
+the principalities bequeathed to them by the great
+elector, he assisted William of Orange to make his
+<span class="sidenote">Frederick III.</span>
+descent on England; then in 1688 allied himself with
+other German princes against Louis XIV., and afterwards
+fought for the Empire against both France and Turkey. Before
+he became elector Frederick had promised the emperor that he
+would restore Schwiebus, and he was now called upon to fulfil
+this engagement, which after some murmuring he did in 1695.
+This fact, however, together with some slights put upon him at
+the peace of 1697, led him to look with less favour upon imperial
+interests. Frederick&rsquo;s chief adviser about this time was Eberhard
+Danckelmann (1643-1722), whose services in continuing the
+reforming work of the great elector were very valuable; but
+having made many enemies, the electress Sophia among them,
+he fell from power in 1697, and was imprisoned for several years.
+The most important work of the elector was to crown the labours
+of his father by securing the kingly title for himself and his
+descendants. Broached in 1692 this matter was brought up
+again in 1698 when the emperor and his ministers, faced with
+the prospect of a fight over the Spanish succession, were anxious
+to conciliate Brandenburg. It was at length decided that the
+title should be taken from Prussia rather than from Brandenburg
+as the former country lay outside the Empire, and in return
+Frederick promised to assist Leopold with 8000 men. The
+coronation ceremony took place at Königsberg on the 18th of
+January 1701. The territorial additions to Brandenburg during
+this reign were few and unimportant, but the comparative wealth
+and prosperity enabled the elector to do a good deal for education,
+and to spend some money on buildings. In 1694 the university
+of Halle was founded; academies for arts and sciences were
+established, and Berlin was greatly improved. The subsequent
+history of Brandenburg is merged in that of Prussia (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;H. Brosien, <i>Geschichte der Mark Brandenburg
+in Mittelalter</i> (Leipzig, 1887); G.G. Küster, <i>Bibliotheca historica
+Brandenburgensis</i> (Breslau, 1743); and <i>Accessiones</i> (Breslau, 1768),
+and <i>Collectio opusculorum historiam marchicam illustrantium</i>
+(Breslau, 1731-1733); A. Voss and G. Stimming, <i>Vorgeschichtliche
+Alterthümer aus der Mark Brandenburg</i> (Berlin, 1886-1890); F.
+Voigt, <i>Geschichte des brandenburgisch-preussischen Staats</i> (Berlin,
+1878); E. Berner, <i>Geschichte des preussischen Staats</i> (Berlin, 1890-1891);
+A.F. Riedel, <i>Codex diplomaticus Brandenburgensis</i> (Berlin,
+1838-1865); J. Heidemann, <i>Die Reformation in der Mark Brandenburg</i>
+(Berlin, 1889); <i>Forschungen zur brandenburgischen und
+preussischen Geschichte</i>, edited by R. Koser (Leipzig, 1888 fol.);
+T. Carlyle, <i>History of Frederick the Great</i>, vol. i. (London, 1858);
+J.G. Droysen, <i>Geschichte der preussischen Politik</i> (Berlin, 1855-1886);
+E. Lavisse, <i>Étude sur une des origines de la monarchie prussienne</i>
+(Paris, 1875); B. Gebhardt, <i>Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte</i>,
+Band ii. (Leipzig, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDENBURG,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> the central and one of the largest provinces
+of Prussia, consisting of a part of the former electorate of
+Brandenburg from which it derives its name. With the other
+territories of the elector of Brandenburg, it was merged in 1701
+in the kingdom of Prussia, and when the administration of
+Prussia was reformed in 1815, Brandenburg became one of the
+provinces of Prussia. The boundaries of the new province,
+however, differed considerably from those of the old district.
+The old mark, the district on the left bank of the Elbe, was added
+to the province of Saxony, and in return a district to the south,
+taken from the kingdom of Saxony, was added to the province
+of Brandenburg. It has an area of 15,382 sq. m., and is
+divided into the two governments of Potsdam and Frankfort-on-Oder;
+the capital, Berlin, forming a separate jurisdiction.
+The province is a sandy plain interspersed with numerous fertile
+districts and considerable stretches of woodland, mostly pine and
+fir. Its barrenness was formerly much exaggerated, when it
+was popularly described as the &ldquo;sandbox of the Holy Roman
+Empire.&rdquo; It is generally well watered by tributaries of its two
+principal rivers, the Elbe and the Oder, and is besides remarkable
+for the number of its lakes, of which it contains between 600 and
+700. The mineral products comprise lignite, limestone, gypsum,
+alum and potter&rsquo;s earth; barley and rye are the usual cereals;
+fruits and vegetables are abundant; and considerable quantities
+of hemp, flax, hops and tobacco are raised. The breeding of
+sheep receives much attention, and the province exports wool in
+considerable quantity. Bees are largely kept, and there is an
+abundance of game. The rivers and lakes also furnish fish,
+particularly carp, of excellent quality. The climate is cold and
+raw in winter, excessively hot in summer, and there are
+frequently violent storms of wind. The manufacturing industry
+of the province is both varied and extensive, but is for the most
+part concentrated in the principal towns. The most important
+branches are the spinning and weaving of wool and cotton, the
+manufacturing of paper, and the distillation of brandy. Pop.
+(1895) 2,821,695; (1905) 3,529,839.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDENBURG,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a town of Germany, capital of the district
+and province of same name, on the river Havel, 36 m. S.W.
+from Berlin, on the main line to Magdeburg and the west. Pop.
+(1905) 51,251, including 3643 military. The town is enclosed by
+walls, and is divided into three parts by the river&mdash;the old town
+on the right and the new town on the left bank, while on an
+island between them is the &ldquo;cathedral town,&rdquo;&mdash;and is also called,
+from its position, &ldquo;Venice.&rdquo; Many of the houses are built on
+piles in the river. There are five old churches (Protestant), all
+more or less noteworthy. These are the Katharinenkirche (nave
+1381-1401, choir c. 1410, western tower 1583-1585), a Gothic
+brick church with a fine carved wooden altar and several interesting
+medieval tombs; the Petrikirche (14th century Gothic); the
+cathedral (Domkirche), originally a Romanesque basilica (1170),
+but rebuilt in the Gothic style in the 14th century, with a good
+altar-piece (1465), &amp;c., and noted for its remarkable collection of
+medieval vestments; the Gothardskirche, partly Romanesque
+(1160), partly Gothic (1348); the Nikolaikirche (12th and 13th
+centuries), now no longer used. There is also a Roman Catholic
+church. Of other buildings may be mentioned the former town
+hall of the &ldquo;old town&rdquo; (Altstadt Rathaus), built in the 13th and
+14th centuries, now used as government offices; the new Real-gymnasium;
+and the town hall in the Neustadt, before which, in
+the market-place, stands a Rolandssäule, a colossal figure 18 ft.
+in height, hewn out of a single block of stone. A little north of
+the town is the Marienberg, or Harlungerberg, on which the
+heathen temple of Triglaff and afterwards the church and convent
+of St Mary were built. On the top stands a lofty monument
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span>
+to the soldiers from the Mark who fell in the wars of 1864,
+1866 and 1870-71. The town has a considerable trade, with
+manufactures of woollens, silks, linens, hosiery and paper, as well
+as breweries, tanneries, boat-building and bicycle factories.</p>
+
+<p>Brandenburg, originally <i>Brennaburg</i> (<i>Brennabor</i>) or <i>Brendanburg</i>,
+was originally a town of the Slavic tribe of the Hevelli,
+from whom it was captured (927-928) by the German king
+Henry I. In 948 Otto I. founded a bishopric here, which was
+subordinated first to the archdiocese of Mainz, but from 968
+onwards to the newly created archbishopric of Magdeburg. It
+was, however, destroyed by the heathen Wends in 983, and was
+only restored when Albert the Bear recaptured the town from
+them in 1153. In 1539 the bishop of Brandenburg, Matthias
+von Jagow, embraced the Lutheran faith, and five years
+later the Protestant worship was established in the cathedral.
+The see was administered by the elector of Brandenburg until
+1598 and then abolished, its territories being for the most part
+incorporated in the electoral domains. The cathedral chapter,
+however, survived, and though suppressed in 1810, it was restored
+in 1824. It consists of twelve canons, of whom three only are
+spiritual, the other nine prebends being held by noblemen; all
+are in the gift of the king of Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;old&rdquo; and &ldquo;new&rdquo; towns of Brandenburg were for
+centuries separate towns, having been united under a single
+municipality so late as 1717.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Schillmann, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Brandenburg</i> (Brandenburg,
+1874-1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDER, GUSTAVUS<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1720-1787), English naturalist, who
+came of a Swedish family, was born in London in 1720, and was
+brought up as a merchant, in which capacity he achieved success
+and became a director of the Bank of England. His leisure time
+was occupied in scientific pursuits, and at his country residence
+at Christchurch in Hampshire he became interested in the fossils
+so abundant in the clays of Hordwell and Barton. A set of
+these was presented by him to the British Museum, and they
+were described by D.C. Solander in the beautifully illustrated
+work entitled <i>Fossilia Hantoniensia collecta, et in Musaeo Britannico
+deposita a Gustavo Brander</i> (London, 1766). Brander was
+elected F.R.S. in 1754, and he was also a trustee of the British
+Museum. He died on the 21st of January 1787.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1842-&emsp;&emsp;), Danish
+critic and literary historian, was born in Copenhagen on the
+4th of February 1842. He became a student in the university
+in 1859, and first studied jurisprudence. From this, however, his
+maturer taste soon turned to philosophy and aesthetics. In 1862
+he won the gold medal of the university for an essay on <i>The
+Nemesis Idea among the Ancients</i>. Before this, indeed since 1858,
+he had shown a remarkable gift for verse-writing, the results of
+which, however, were not abundant enough to justify separate
+publication. Brandes, indeed, did not collect his poems till so late
+as 1898. At the university, which he left in 1864, Brandes was
+much under the influence of the writings of Heiberg in criticism
+and Sören Kierkegaard in philosophy, influences which have
+continued to leave traces on his work. In 1866 he took part in
+the controversy raised by the works of Rasmus Nielsen in a
+treatise on &ldquo;Dualism in our Recent Philosophy.&rdquo; From 1865
+to 1871 he travelled much in Europe, acquainting himself with
+the condition of literature in the principal centres of learning.
+His first important contribution to letters was his <i>Aesthetic
+Studies</i> (1868), in which, in several brief monographs on Danish
+poets, his maturer method is already foreshadowed. In 1870
+he published several important volumes, <i>The French Aesthetics
+of Our Days</i>, dealing chiefly with Taine, <i>Criticisms and Portraits</i>,
+and a translation of <i>The Subjection of Women</i> of John Stuart Mill,
+whom he had met that year during a visit to England. Brandes
+now took his place as the leading critic of the north of Europe,
+applying to local conditions and habits of thought the methods
+of Taine. He became <i>docent</i> or reader in <i>Belles Lettres</i> at the
+university of Copenhagen, where his lectures were the sensation
+of the hour. On the professorship of Aesthetics becoming vacant
+in 1872, it was taken as a matter of course that Brandes would
+be appointed. But the young critic had offended many susceptibilities
+by his ardent advocacy of modern ideas; he was
+known to be a Jew, he was convicted of being a Radical, he was
+suspected of being an atheist. The authorities refused to elect
+him, but his fitness for the post was so obvious that the chair
+of Aesthetics in the university of Copenhagen remained vacant,
+no one else daring to place himself in comparison with Brandes.
+In the midst of these polemics the critic began to issue the most
+ambitious of his works, <i>Main Streams in the Literature of the
+Nineteenth Century</i>, of which four volumes appeared between
+1872 and 1875 (English translation, 1901-1905). The brilliant
+novelty of this criticism of the literature of the chief countries
+of Europe at the beginning of the 19th century, and his description
+of the general revolt against the pseudo-classicism of the
+18th century, at once attracted attention outside Denmark. The
+tumult which gathered round the person of the critic increased
+the success of the work, and the reputation of Brandes grew
+apace, especially in Germany and Russia. Among his later
+writings must be mentioned the monographs on <i>Sören Kierkegaard</i>
+(1877), on <i>Esaias Tegnér</i> (1878), on <i>Benjamin Disraeli</i>
+(1878), <i>Ferdinand Lassalle</i> (in German, 1877), <i>Ludvig Holberg</i>
+(1884), on <i>Henrik Ibsen</i> (1899) and on <i>Anatole France</i> (1905).
+Brandes has written with great fulness on the main contemporary
+poets and novelists of his own country and of Norway, and he
+and his disciples have long been the arbiters of literary fame in
+the north. His <i>Danish Poets</i> (1877), containing studies of Carsten
+Hauch, Ludwig Bödtcher, Christian Winther, and Paludan-Müller,
+his <i>Men of the Modern Transition</i> (1883), and his <i>Essays</i>
+(1889), are volumes essential to the proper study of modern
+Scandinavian literature. He wrote an excellent book on <i>Poland</i>
+(1888; English translation, 1903), and was one of the editors of
+the German version of <i>Ibsen</i>. In 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen
+and settled in Berlin, taking a considerable part in the aesthetic
+life of that city. His political views, however, made Prussia
+uncomfortable for him, and he returned in 1883 to Copenhagen,
+where he found a whole new school of writers and thinkers eager
+to receive him as their leader. The most important of his recent
+works has been his study of Shakespeare (1897-1898), which was
+translated into English by William Archer, and at once took a
+high position. It was, perhaps, the most authoritative work on
+Shakespeare, not principally intended for an English-speaking
+audience, which had been published in any country. He was
+afterwards engaged on a history of modern Scandinavian literature.
+In his critical work, which extends over a wider field than
+that of any other living writer, Brandes has been aided by
+a singularly charming style, lucid and reasonable, enthusiastic
+without extravagance, brilliant and coloured without affectation.
+His influence on the Scandinavian writers of the &rsquo;eighties was very
+great, but a reaction, headed by Holger Drachmann, against
+his &ldquo;realistic&rdquo; doctrines, began in 1885 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>).
+In 1900 he collected his works for the first time in a complete
+and popular edition, and began to superintend a German
+complete edition in 1902.</p>
+
+<p>His brother Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), also a well-known
+critic, was the author of a number of plays, and of two psychological
+novels: <i>A Politician</i> (1889), and <i>Young Blood</i> (1899).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDING<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from Teutonic <i>brinnan</i>, to burn), in criminal law
+a mode of punishment; also a method of marking goods or
+animals; in either case by stamping with a hot iron. The
+Greeks branded their slaves with a Delta, &Delta;, for <span class="grk" title="doulos">&#916;&#959;&#8166;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>.
+Robbers and runaway slaves were marked by the Romans with
+the letter F (<i>fur</i>, <i>fugitivus</i>); and the toilers in the mines, and
+convicts condemned to figure in gladiatorial shows, were branded
+on the forehead for identification. Under Constantine the face
+was not permitted to be so disfigured, the branding being on
+the hand, arm or calf. The canon law sanctioned the punishment,
+and in France galley-slaves could be branded &ldquo;TF&rdquo; (<i>travaux
+forcés</i>) until 1832. In Germany, however, branding was illegal.
+The punishment was adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, and the
+ancient law of England authorized the penalty. By the Statute
+of Vagabonds (1547) under Edward VI. vagabonds, gipsies and
+brawlers were ordered to be branded, the first two with a large
+V on the breast, the last with F for &ldquo;fraymaker.&rdquo; Slaves, too,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span>
+who ran away were branded with S on cheek or forehead. This
+law was repealed in 1636. From the time of Henry VII. branding
+was inflicted for all offences which received benefit of clergy (<i>q.v.</i>),
+but it was abolished for such in 1822. In 1698 it was enacted
+that those convicted of petty theft or larceny, who were entitled
+to benefit of clergy, should be &ldquo;burnt in the most visible part of
+the left cheek, nearest the nose.&rdquo; This special ordinance was
+repealed in 1707. James Nayler, the mad Quaker, who in the
+year 1655 claimed to be the Messiah, had his tongue bored
+through and his forehead branded B for blasphemer.</p>
+
+<p>In the Lancaster criminal court a branding-iron is still preserved
+in the dock. It is a long bolt with a wooden handle at
+one end and an M (malefactor) at the other. Close by are two
+iron loops for firmly securing the hands during the operation.
+The brander, after examination, would turn to the judge and
+exclaim, &ldquo;A fair mark, my lord.&rdquo; Criminals were formerly
+ordered to hold up their hands before sentence to show if they
+had been previously convicted.</p>
+
+<p>Cold branding or branding with cold irons became in the
+18th century the mode of nominally inflicting the punishment
+on prisoners of higher rank. &ldquo;When Charles Moritz, a young
+German, visited England in 1782 he was much surprised at this
+custom, and in his diary mentioned the case of a clergyman who
+had fought a duel and killed his man in Hyde Park. Found
+guilty of manslaughter he was <i>burnt</i> in the hand, if that could
+be called burning which was done with a cold iron&rdquo; (Markham&rsquo;s
+<i>Ancient Punishments of Northants</i>, 1886). Such cases led to
+branding becoming obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except
+in the case of deserters from the army. These were marked with
+the letter D, not with hot irons but by tattooing with ink or
+gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were also branded with
+BC (bad character). By the British Mutiny Act of 1858 it was
+enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other penalty,
+may order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 in. below
+the armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than 1 in.
+long. In 1879 this was abolished.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Andrews, <i>Old Time Punishments</i> (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle,
+<i>Curious Punishments of Bygone Days</i> (London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1790-1867), German
+philologist and historian of philosophy, was born at Hildesheim
+and educated at Kiel University. In 1812 he graduated at
+Copenhagen, with a thesis <i>Commentationes Eleaticae</i> (a collection
+of fragments from Xenophanes, Parmenides and Melissus). For
+a time he studied at Göttingen, and in 1815 presented as his
+inaugural dissertation at Berlin his essay <i>Von dem Begriff der
+Geschichte der Philosophie</i>. In 1816 he refused an extraordinary
+professorship at Heidelberg in order to accompany B.G. Niebuhr
+to Italy as secretary to the Prussian embassy. Subsequently
+he assisted I. Bekker in the preparation of his edition of Aristotle.
+In 1821 he became professor of philosophy in the newly founded
+university of Bonn, and in 1823 published his <i>Aristotelius et
+Theophrasti Metaphysica</i>. With Boeckh and Niebuhr he edited
+the <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, to which he contributed important
+articles on Socrates (1827, 1829). In 1836-1839 he was tutor
+to the young king Otho of Greece. His great work, the <i>Handbuch
+der Geschichte der griechisch-röm. Philos</i>. (1835-1866; republished
+in a smaller and more systematic form, <i>Gesch. d. Entwickelungen
+d. griech. Philos</i>., 1862-1866), is characterized by sound criticism.
+Brandis died on the 21st of July 1867.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Trendelenburg, <i>Zur Erinnerung an C. A. B</i>. (Berlin, 1868).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDON,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a city and port of entry of Manitoba, Canada, on
+the Assiniboine river, and the Canadian Pacific and Canadian
+Northern railways, situated 132 m. W. of Winnipeg, 1184 ft.
+above the sea. Pop. (1891) 3778; (1907) 12,519. It is in one
+of the finest agricultural sections and contains a government
+experimental farm, grain elevators, saw and grist mills. It was
+first settled in 1881, and incorporated as a city in 1882.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDON,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a market town in the Stowmarket parliamentary
+division of Suffolk, England, on the Little Ouse or Brandon
+river, 86½ m. N.N.E. from London by the Ely-Norwich line of
+the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2327. The church of
+St Peter is Early English with earlier portions; there is a free
+grammar school founded in 1646; and the town has some
+carrying trade by the Little Ouse in corn, coal and timber.
+Rabbit skins of fine texture are dressed and exported. Extensive
+deposits of flint are worked in the neighbourhood, and the work
+of the &ldquo;flint-knappers&rdquo; has had its counterpart here from the
+earliest eras of man. Close to Brandon, but in Norfolk across
+the river, at the village of Weeting, are the so-called Grimes&rsquo;
+Graves, which, long supposed to show the foundations of a
+British village, and probably so occupied, were proved by excavation
+to have been actually neolithic flint workings. The pits,
+though almost completely filled up (probably as they became
+exhausted), were sunk through the overlying chalk to the depth
+of 20 to 60 ft., and numbered 254 in all. Passages branched out
+from them, and among other remains picks of deer-horn were
+discovered, one actually bearing in the chalk which coated it
+the print of the workman&rsquo;s hand.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDY,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> an alcoholic, potable spirit, obtained by the distillation
+of grape wine. The frequently occurring statement
+that the word &ldquo;brandy&rdquo; is derived from the High German
+<i>Branntwein</i> is incorrect, inasmuch as the English word (as
+Fairley has pointed out) is quite as old as any of its continental
+equivalents. It is simply an abbreviation of the Old English
+<i>brandewine</i>, <i>brand-wine</i> or <i>brandy wine</i>, the word &ldquo;brand&rdquo; being
+common to all the Teutonic languages of northern Europe, meaning
+a thing burning or that has been burnt. John Fletcher&rsquo;s
+<i>Beggar&rsquo;s Bush</i> (1622) contains the passage, &ldquo;Buy brand wine&rdquo;;
+and from the Roxburgh <i>Ballads</i> (1650) we have &ldquo;It is more fine
+than brandewine.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;brandy&rdquo; came into familiar
+use about the middle of the 17th century, but the expression
+&ldquo;brandywine&rdquo; was retained in legal documents until 1702
+(Fairley). Thus in 1697 (<i>View Penal Laws</i>, 173) there occurs
+the sentence, &ldquo;No aqua vitae or brandywine shall be imported
+into England.&rdquo; The <i>British Pharmacopoeia</i> formerly defined
+French brandy, which was the only variety mentioned (officially
+<i>spiritus vini gallici</i>), as &ldquo;Spirit distilled from French wine; it has
+a characteristic flavour, and a light sherry colour derived from
+the cask in which it has been kept.&rdquo; In the latest edition the
+Latin title <i>spiritus vini gallici</i> is retained, but the word <i>French</i>
+is dropped from the text, which now reads as follows: &ldquo;A
+spirituous liquid distilled from wine and matured by age, and
+containing not less than 36½% by weight or 43½% by volume
+of ethyl hydroxide.&rdquo; The <i>United States Pharmacopoeia</i> (1905),
+retains the Latin expression <i>spiritus vini gallici</i> (English title
+<i>Brandy</i>), defined as &ldquo;an alcoholic liquid obtained by the distillation
+of the fermented, unmodified juice of fresh grapes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Very little of the brandy of commerce corresponds exactly to
+the former definition of the <i>British Pharmacopoeia</i> as regards
+colouring matter, inasmuch as trade requirements necessitate
+the addition of a small quantity of caramel (burnt sugar) colouring
+to the spirit in the majority of cases. The object of this is, as
+a rule, not that of deceiving the consumer as to the apparent
+age of the brandy, but that of keeping a standard article of
+commerce at a standard level of colour. It is practically
+impossible to do this without having recourse to caramel colouring,
+as, practically speaking, the contents of any cask will always
+differ slightly, and often very appreciably, in colour intensity
+from the contents of another cask, even though the age and
+quality of the spirits are identical.</p>
+
+<p>The finest brandies are produced in a district covering an area
+of rather less than three million acres, situated in the departments
+of Charente and Charente Inférieure, of which the centre is the
+town of Cognac. It is generally held that only brandies produced
+within this district have a right to the name &ldquo;cognac.&rdquo; The
+Cognac district is separated into district zones of production,
+according to the quality of the spirit which each yields. In the
+centre of the district, on the left bank of the Charente, is the
+<i>Grande Champagne</i>, and radiating beyond it are (in order of merit
+of the spirit produced) the <i>Petite Champagne</i>, the <i>Borderies</i> (or
+<i>Premiers Bois</i>), the <i>Fins Bois</i>, the <i>Bons Bois</i>, the <i>Bois Ordinaires</i>,
+and finally the <i>Bois communs dits à terroir</i>. Many hold that the
+brandy produced in the two latter districts is not entitled to
+the name of &ldquo;cognac,&rdquo; but this is a matter of controversy, as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span>
+is also the question as to whether another district called the
+<i>Grande Fine Champagne</i>, namely, that in the immediate neighbourhood
+of the little village of Juillac-le-Coq, should be added to
+the list. The pre-eminent quality of the Cognac brandies is largely
+due to the character of the soil, the climate, and the scientific
+and systematic cultivation of the vines. For a period&mdash;from the
+middle &rsquo;seventies to the &rsquo;nineties of the 19th century&mdash;the cognac
+industry was, owing to the inroads of the phylloxera, threatened
+with almost total extinction, but after a lengthy series of
+experiments, a system of replanting and hybridizing, based on the
+characteristics of the soils of the various districts, was evolved,
+which effectually put a stop to the further progress of the disease.
+In 1907 the area actually planted with the vine in the Cognac
+district proper was about 200,000 acres, and the production of
+cognac brandy, which, however, varies widely in different years,
+may be put down at about five million gallons per annum. The
+latter figure is based on the amount of wine produced in the two
+Charentes (about forty-five million gallons in 1905).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Brandy is also manufactured in numerous other districts in
+France, and in general order of commercial merit may be
+mentioned the brandies of Armagnac, Marmande, Nantes and Anjou.
+The brandies commanding the lowest prices are broadly known
+as the <i>Trois-Six de Monlpellier</i>. In a class by themselves are the
+<i>Eaux-de-vie de Marc</i>, made from the wine pressings or from the
+solid residues of the stills. Some of these, particularly those made
+in Burgundy, have characteristic qualities, and are considered
+by many to be very fine. The consumption is chiefly local.
+Brandy of fair quality is also made in other wine-producing
+countries, particularly in Spain, and of late years colonial
+(Australian and Cape) brandies have attracted some attention.
+The comsumption of brandy in the United Kingdom amounts to
+about two million gallons.</p>
+
+<p>Brandy, in common with other potable spirits, owes its flavour
+and aroma to the presence of small quantities of substances
+termed secondary or by-products (sometimes &ldquo;impurities&rdquo;).
+These are dissolved in the ethyl alcohol and water which form
+over 99% of the spirit. The nature and quantity of all of these
+by-products have not yet been fully ascertained, but the knowledge
+in this direction is rapidly progressing. Ch. Ordonneau
+fractionally distilled 100 litres of 25-year-old cognac brandy,
+and obtained the following substances and quantities thereof:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm">Grammes in<br />100 Litres.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Normal propyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">40.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Normal butyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">218.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">83.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hexyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">0.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Heptyl alcohol</td> <td class="tcr">1.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ethyl acetate</td> <td class="tcr">35.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ethyl propionate, butyrate and caproate</td> <td class="tcr">3.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oenanthic ether (about)</td> <td class="tcr">4.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aldehyde</td> <td class="tcr">3.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acetal</td> <td class="tcr">traces</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amines</td> <td class="tcr">traces</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Most of the above substances, in fact probably all of them,
+excepting the oenanthic ether, are contained in other spirits,
+such as whisky and rum. The oenanthic ether (ethyl pelargonate)
+is one of the main characteristics which enable us
+chemically to differentiate between brandy and other distilled
+liquors. Brandy also contains a certain quantity of free acid,
+which increases with age, furfural, which decreases, and small
+quantities of other matters of which we have as yet little
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The table gives analyses, by the present author (excepting
+No. 3, which is by F. Lusson), of undoubtedly genuine commercial
+cognac brandies of various ages.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Genuine Cognac Brandies.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Excepting the alcohol, results are expressed in grammes per 100 litres of absolute alcohol.)</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Age, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Alcohol<br />% by vol.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Acid.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Non-<br />volatile<br />Acid.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Esters.</td> <td class="tccm allb">&ldquo;Higher<br />Alcohols.&rdquo;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Aldehyde.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Furfural.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1. <i>New</i> 1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">61.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcc rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2. <i>New</i>, still heated by steam coil</td> <td class="tcc rb">56.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3. <i>New</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">67.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">51</td> <td class="tcr rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">158</td> <td class="tcc rb">152</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">4. <i>Five years old</i>, 1900 vintage</td> <td class="tcc rb">57.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">5. <i>1875 vintage</i>, pale</td> <td class="tcc rb">46.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">177</td> <td class="tcc rb">261</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">6. <i>1848 vintage</i>, brown</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">38.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">254</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">190</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">488</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.1</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Note.</i>&mdash;In the above table the acid is expressed in terms of acetic
+acid, the esters are expressed as ethyl acetate, and the aldehyde as
+acetaldehyde. The &ldquo;Higher Alcohol&rdquo; figures do not actually represent these
+substances, but indicate the relative coloration obtained with sulphuric
+acid when compared with an iso-butyl standard under certain conditions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Storage and Maturation.</i>&mdash;Brandy is stored in specially selected
+oak casks, from which it extracts a certain quantity of colouring
+matter and tannin, &amp;c. Commercial cognac brandies are generally
+blends of different growths and vintages, the blending being
+accomplished in large vats some little time prior to bottling.
+The necessary colouring and sweetening matter is added in the
+vat. In the case of pale brandies very little colouring and
+sweetening are added, the usual quantity being in the neighbourhood
+of ½ to 1%. Old &ldquo;brown brandies,&rdquo; which are nowadays
+not in great demand, require more caramel and sugar than do
+the pale varieties. The preparation of the &ldquo;liqueur,&rdquo; as the
+mixed caramel and sugar syrup is termed, is an operation requiring
+much experience, and the methods employed are kept strictly
+secret. Fine &ldquo;liqueur&rdquo; is prepared with high-class brandy,
+and is stored a number of years prior to use. Brandy, as is well
+known, improves very much with age (for chemical aspects of
+maturation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spirits</a></span>), but this only holds good when the spirit
+is in <i>wood</i>, for there is no material appreciation in quality
+after bottling. It is a mistake to believe, however, that brandy
+improves indefinitely, even when kept in wood, for, as a matter
+of fact, after a certain time&mdash;which varies considerably according
+to the type of brandy, the vintage, &amp;c.&mdash;there is so much evaporation
+of alcohol that a number of undesirable changes come about.
+The brandy begins to &ldquo;go back,&rdquo; and becomes, as it is called,
+&ldquo;worn&rdquo; or &ldquo;tired.&rdquo; It is necessary, therefore, that the bottling
+should not be deferred too long. Sometimes, for trade reasons,
+it is necessary to keep brandy in cask for a long period, and
+under these conditions the practice is to keep a series of casks,
+which are treated as follows:&mdash;The last cask is kept filled by
+occasionally adding some spirit from the cask next in order,
+the latter is filled up by spirit taken from the third cask from the
+end, and so on, until the first cask in the row is reached. The
+latter is filled up or &ldquo;topped&rdquo; with some relatively fresh spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Brandy is much employed medicinally as a food capable of
+supplying energy in a particularly labile form to the body, as
+a stimulant, carminative, and as a hypnotic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adulteration.</i>&mdash;A good deal has been written about the
+preparation of artificial brandy by means of the addition of essential
+oils to potato or beetroot spirit, but it is more than doubtful
+whether this practice was really carried on on a large scale
+formerly. What undoubtedly did occur was that much beet,
+potato or grain spirit was used for blending with genuine grape
+spirit. Prosecutions under the Food and Drugs Act, by certain
+English local authorities in the year 1904, resulted in the practical
+fixation of certain chemical standards which, in the opinion of
+the present writer, have, owing to their arbitrary and unscientific
+nature, resulted in much adulteration of a type previously
+non-existent. There is no doubt that at the present time
+artificial esters and higher alcohols, &amp;c., are being used on an
+extensive scale for the preparation of cheap brandies, and the
+position, in this respect, therefore, has not been inproved.
+Where formerly fraud was practically confined to the blending
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span>
+of genuine brandy with spirit other than that derived from the
+grape, it is now enhanced by the addition of artificial essences
+to the blend of the two spirits.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANDYWINE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> the name of a stream in Pennsylvania and
+Delaware, U.S.A., which runs into the Delaware river a few
+miles east of Wilmington, Delaware. It is famous as the scene of
+the battle of Brandywine in the American War of Independence,
+fought on the 11th of September 1777 about 10 m. north-west of
+Wilmington, and a few miles inside the Pennsylvania border.
+Sir William Howe, the British commander-in-chief, while opposed
+to Washington&rsquo;s army in New Jersey, had formed the plan of
+capturing Philadelphia from the south side by a movement by
+sea to the head of Delaware Bay. But contrary winds and
+accidents delayed the British transports so long that Washington,
+who was at first puzzled, was able to divine his opponents&rsquo;
+intentions in time; and rapidly moving to the threatened point
+he occupied a strong entrenched position at the fords over the
+Brandywine, 25 m. south-west of Philadelphia. Here on the
+11th of September the British attacked him. Howe&rsquo;s plan,
+which was carefully worked out and exactly executed, was to
+deliver an energetic feint attack against the American front,
+to take a strong column 12 m. up the stream, and crossing
+beyond Washington&rsquo;s right to attack his entrenchments in rear.
+Washington was successfully held in play during the movement,
+and General Sullivan, the commander of the American right
+wing, misled by the conflicting intelligence which reached him
+from up-stream, was surprised about noon by definite information
+as to the approach of Cornwallis on his right rear. Changing
+front &ldquo;right back&rdquo; in the dense country, he yet managed to
+oppose a stubborn resistance to the flanking attack, and with
+other troops that were hurried to the scene his division held its
+ground for a time near Birmingham meeting-house. But Howe
+pressed his attack sharply and drove back the Americans for
+2 m.; the holding attack of the British right was converted into
+a real one, and by nightfall Washington was in full retreat northward
+toward Chester, protected by General Greene and a steady
+rear-guard, which held off Howe&rsquo;s column for the necessary time.
+The British were too exhausted to pursue, and part of Howe&rsquo;s
+force was inextricably mixed up with the advancing troops of
+the frontal attack. The American loss in killed, wounded and
+prisoners was about 1000; that of the British less than 600.
+Howe followed up his victory, and on the 27th of September
+entered Philadelphia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANFORD,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a township, including a borough of the same
+name, in New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., at the mouth
+of the Branford river and at the head of a short arm of Long
+Island Sound, about 7 m. E.S.E. of New Haven. Pop. of the
+township (1890) 4460; (1900) 5706 (1968 foreign-born);(1910)
+6047; of the borough (1910) 2560. The borough is served by
+the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railway, and by an
+electric line connecting with New Haven. A range of rocky hills
+commands fine views of the Sound, the shore is deeply indented,
+the harbour and bays are dotted with islands, and the harbour
+is deep enough for small craft, and these natural features attract
+many visitors during the summer season. In Branford is the
+James Blackstone Memorial library (1896), designed by Solon
+Spencer Beman (b. 1853) in the Ionic style (the details being
+taken from the Erechtheum at Athens). On the interior of the
+dome which covers the rotunda are a series of paintings by Oliver
+Dennett Grover (b. 1861) illustrating the evolution of book-making,
+and between the arches are medallion portraits, by the
+same artist, of New England authors&mdash;Longfellow, Emerson,
+Hawthorne, Lowell, Bryant, Whittier, Holmes and Mrs Stowe.
+The library was erected by Timothy B. Blackstone (1829-1900),
+a native of Branford, and president of the Chicago &amp; Alton
+railway from 1864 to 1899&mdash;as a memorial to his father, a
+descendant of William Blackstone (d. 1675), the New England
+pioneer. The principal industries of Branford are the
+manufacture of malleable iron fittings, locks and general
+hardware, the quarrying of granite, and oyster culture.</p>
+
+<p>The territory of Totoket (now the township of Branford) was
+purchased from the Indians by the New Haven Plantation, in
+December 1638, for eleven coats of trucking cloth and one coat
+of English cloth, but with the reservation for a few Indians of
+what is still known as Indian Neck. In 1640 the general court
+of New Haven granted it to the Rev. Samuel Eaton (1596?-1665),
+a brother of Theophilus Eaton, on condition that he brought
+friends from England to settle it. As Eaton went to England
+and did not return, Totoket was granted in 1644 to settlers
+mostly from Wethersfield, Conn., on condition that they should
+organize a church state after the New Haven model and join
+the New Haven Jurisdiction. The settlement was made in
+the same year, and about two years later several new families
+came from Southampton, Long Island, under the leadership of
+the Rev. Abraham Pierson (<i>c.</i> 1608-1678), an ardent advocate of
+the church state, who was chosen pastor at Totoket. The present
+name of the township, derived from Brentford, England, was
+adopted about 1645. After the members of the New Haven
+Jurisdiction had submitted to Connecticut, Pierson, in 1666-1667,
+led the most prominent citizens of Branford to New Jersey,
+where they were leaders in founding Newark. The borough of
+Branford was incorporated in 1893.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E.C. Baldwin, <i>Branford Annals</i>, in Papers of New Haven
+Colony Historical Society (New Haven, 1882 and 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANGWYN, FRANK<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1867-&emsp;&emsp;), English painter, was born
+at Bruges, and received his first instruction from his father, the
+owner of an establishment for church embroideries and kindred
+objects, who took a leading part in the Gothic revival under
+Pugin. When the family moved to England, Brangwyn attracted
+the attention of William Morris by a drawing on which he was
+engaged at South Kensington museum. He worked for some
+time in Morris&rsquo;s studio, and then travelled more than once to the
+East, whereby his sense of colour and the whole further development
+of his art became deeply influenced. Indeed, the impressions
+he then received, and his love of Oriental decorative art&mdash;tiles
+and carpets&mdash;exercised a greater influence on him than any
+early training or the works of any European master. His whole
+tendency is essentially decorative: a colour-sense of sumptuous
+richness is wedded to an equally strong sense of well-balanced,
+harmonious design. These qualities, together with a summary
+suppression of the details which tie a subject to time and place,
+give his compositions a nobly impressive and universal character,
+such as may be seen in his decorative panel &ldquo;Modern Commerce&rdquo;
+in the ambulatory of the Royal Exchange, London. Among
+other decorative schemes executed by him are those for &ldquo;L&rsquo;Art
+nouveau&rdquo; in the rue de Provence, Paris; for the hall of the
+Skinners&rsquo; Company, London; and for the British room at the
+Venice International Exhibition, 1905. The Luxembourg
+museum has his &ldquo;Trade on the Beach&rdquo;; the Venice municipal
+museum, the &ldquo;St Simon Stylites&rdquo;; the Stuttgart gallery, the
+&ldquo;St John the Baptist&rdquo;; the Munich Pinakothek, the &ldquo;Assisi&rdquo;;
+the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburg, his &ldquo;Sweetmeat Seller&rdquo;;
+the Prague gallery, his &ldquo;Turkish Boatmen&rdquo;; and the National
+Gallery of New South Wales, &ldquo;The Scoffers.&rdquo; Brangwyn
+embarked successfully in many fields of applied art, and made
+admirable designs for book decoration, stained glass, furniture,
+tapestry, metal-work and pottery. He devoted himself extensively
+to etching, and executed many plates of astonishing vigour
+and dramatic intensity. He was elected associate of the Royal
+Academy in 1904.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANKS,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (probably akin to Irish <i>brancas</i>, a halter; Ger.
+<i>Pranger</i>, fetter, pillory), or <span class="sc">Scolding-Bridle</span>, a contrivance
+formerly in use throughout England and Scotland for the
+punishment of scolding women. It is said to have originated in
+the latter country. It seems to have never been a legalized form
+of punishment; but corporations and lords of manors in England,
+town councils, kirk-sessions and barony courts in Scotland
+assumed a right to inflict it. While specially known as the
+&ldquo;Gossip&rsquo;s or Scold&rsquo;s Bridle&rdquo; the branks was also used for women
+convicted of petty offences, breaches of the peace, street-brawling
+and abusive language. It was the equivalent of the male punishments
+of the stocks and pillory. In its earliest form it consisted
+of a hoop head-piece of iron, opening by hinges at the side so as
+to enclose the head, with a flat piece of iron projecting inwards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span>
+so as to fit into the mouth and press the tongue down. Later
+it was made, by a multiplication of hoops, more like a cage, the
+front forming a mask of iron with holes for mouth, nose and eyes.
+Sometimes the mouth-plate was armed with a short spike. With
+this on her head the offending woman was marched through the
+streets by the beadle or chained to the market-cross to be gibed
+at by passers. The date of origin is doubtful. It was used at
+Edinburgh in 1567, at Glasgow in 1574, but not before the 17th
+century in any English town. A brank in the church of Walton-on-Thames,
+Surrey, bears date 1633; while another in a private
+collection has the crowned cipher of William III. The Ashmolean
+Museum at Oxford, the Scottish National Museum of Antiquities
+at Edinburgh, the towns of Lichfield, Shrewsbury, Leicester
+and Chester have examples of the brank. As late as 1856 it
+was in use at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Andrews, <i>Old Time Punishments</i> (Hull, 1890); A.M.
+Earle, <i>Curious Punishments of Bygone Days</i> (Chicago, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANT, JOSEPH<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1742-1807), American Indian chief of the
+Mohawk tribe, known also by his Indian name, <span class="sc">Thayendanegea</span>,
+was born on the banks of the Ohio river in 1742. In early youth
+he attracted the attention of Sir William Johnson, who sent him
+to be educated by Dr Eleazar Wheelock at Lebanon, Conn., in
+Moor&rsquo;s Indian charity school, in which Dartmouth College had
+its origin. He took part, on the side of the English, in the French
+and Indian War, and in 1763 fought with the Iroquois against
+Pontiac. Subsequently he settled at Canajoharie, or Upper
+Mohawk Castle (in what is now Montgomery county, New York),
+where, being a devout churchman, he devoted himself to
+missionary work, and translated the Prayer Book and St Mark&rsquo;s
+Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (1787). When Guy Johnson
+(1740-1788) succeeded his uncle, Sir William, as superintendent
+of Indian affairs in 1774, Brant became his secretary. At the
+outbreak of the War of Independence, he remained loyal, was
+commissioned colonel, and organized and led the Mohawks and
+other Indians allied to the British against the settlements on
+the New York frontier. He took part in the Cherry Valley
+Massacre, in the attack on Minisink and the expedition of General
+St Leger which resulted in the battle of Oriskany on the 6th of
+August 1777. After the war he discouraged the continuance of
+Indian warfare on the frontier, and aided the commissioners of
+the United States in securing treaties of peace with the Miamis
+and other western tribes. Settling in Upper Canada, he again
+devoted himself to missionary work and in 1786 visited England,
+where he raised funds with which was erected the first Episcopal
+church in Upper Canada. His character was a peculiar compound
+of the traits of an Indian warrior&mdash;with few rivals for daring
+leadership&mdash;and of a civilized politician and diplomat of the
+more conservative type. He died on an estate granted him by
+the British government on the banks of Lake Ontario on the 24th
+of November 1807. A monument was erected to his memory
+at Brantford, Ontario, Canada (named in his honour) in 1886.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.L. Stone, <i>Life of Joseph Brant</i> (2 vols., New York, 1838;
+new ed., Albany, 1865); Edward Eggleston and Elizabeth E. Seelye,
+<i>Brant and Red Jacket</i> in &ldquo;Famous American Indians&rdquo; (New York,
+1879); and a <i>Memoir</i> (Brantford, 1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANT, SEBASTIAN<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1457-1521), German humanist and
+satirist, was born at Strassburg about the year 1457. He studied
+at Basel, took the degree of doctor of laws in 1489, and for some
+time held a professorship of jurisprudence there. Returning to
+Strassburg, he was made syndic of the town, and died on the
+10th of May 1521. He first attracted attention in humanistic
+circles by his Latin poetry, and edited many ecclesiastical and
+legal works; but he is now only known by his famous satire,
+<i>Das Narrenschiff</i>(1494), a work the popularity and influence
+of which were not limited to Germany. Under the form of an
+allegory&mdash;a ship laden with fools and steered by fools to the fools&rsquo;
+paradise of Narragenia&mdash;Brant here lashes with unsparing vigour
+the weaknesses and vices of his time. Although, like most of the
+German humanists, essentially conservative in his religious views,
+Brant&rsquo;s eyes were open to the abuses in the church, and the
+<i>Narrenschiff</i> was a most effective preparation for the Protestant
+Reformalion. Alexander Barclay&rsquo;s <i>Ship of Fools</i> (1509) is a
+free imitation of the German poem, and a Latin version by
+Jacobus Locher (1497) was hardly less popular than the German
+original. There is also a large quantity of other &ldquo;fool literature.&rdquo;
+Nigel, called Wireker (fl. 1190), a monk of Christ Church Priory,
+Canterbury, wrote a satirical <i>Speculum stultorum</i>, in which the
+ambitious and discontented monk figured as the ass Brunellus,
+who wanted a longer tail. Brunellus, who has been educated at
+Paris, decides to found an order of fools, which shall combine the
+good points of all the existing monastic orders. <i>Cock Lovell&rsquo;s
+Bote</i> (printed by Wynkyn de Worde, c. 1510) is another imitation
+of the <i>Narrenschiff</i>. Cock Lovell is a fraudulent currier who
+gathers round him a rascally collection of tradesmen. They sail
+off in a riotous fashion up hill and down dale throughout England.
+Brant&rsquo;s other works, of which the chief was a version of Freidank&rsquo;s
+<i>Bescheidenheit</i> (1508), are of inferior interest and importance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Brant&rsquo;s <i>Narrenschiff</i> has been edited by F. Zarncke (1854); by
+K. Goedeke (1872); and by F. Bobertag (Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche
+Nationalliteratur</i>, vol. xvi., 1889). A modern German translation
+was published by K. Simrock in 1872. On the influence of Brant
+in England see especially C.H. Herford, <i>The Literary Relations of
+England and Germany in the 16th Century</i> (1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANTFORD,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada,
+on the Grand river, and on the Grand Trunk, and Toronto,
+Hamilton &amp; Buffalo railways. The river is navigable to within
+2½ m. of the town; for the remaining distance a canal has been
+constructed. Agricultural implements, plough, engine, bicycle
+and stove works, potteries and large railway shops constitute
+the important industrial establishments. It contains an institute
+for the education of the blind, maintained by the provincial
+government, and a women&rsquo;s college. The city is named in honour
+of the Mohawk Indian chief, Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea),
+who settled in the neighbourhood after the American War
+of Independence, in which he had led the Six Nations (Iroquois)
+on the British side. The amalgamated tribes of the Six Nations
+still make it their headquarters, and a monument to Brant has
+been erected in Victoria Square. Brantford is one of the most
+flourishing industrial towns of the province, and its population
+rose from 9616 in 1881 to 20,713 in 1907.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (d. 1394), English lord
+treasurer and bishop of Exeter, came of a Durham family.
+An older relative, Ralph de Brantingham, had served Edward II.
+and Edward III., and Thomas was made a clerk in the treasury.
+Edward III. obtained preferment for him in the church, and from
+1361 to 1368 he was employed in France in responsible positions.
+He was closely associated with William of Wykeham, and while
+the latter was in power as chancellor, Brantingham was lord
+treasurer (1369-1371, and 1377-1381), being made bishop of
+Exeter in 1370. He continued to play a prominent part in
+public affairs under Richard II., and in 1389 was again lord
+treasurer for a few months. He died in 1394 and was buried
+in Exeter cathedral.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANTÔME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur and
+Abbé de</span> (<i>c.</i> 1540-1614), French historian and biographer, was
+born in Périgord about 1540. He was the third son of the baron
+de Bourdeille. His mother and his maternal grandmother were
+both attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois, and at her
+death in 1549 he went to Paris, and later (1555) to Poitiers, to
+finish his education. He was given several benefices, the most
+important of which was the abbey of Brantôme (see below), but
+he had no inclination for an ecclesiastical career. At an early
+age he entered the profession of arms. He showed himself
+a brave soldier, and was brought into contact with most of
+the great leaders who were seeking fame or fortune in the
+wars that distracted the continent. He travelled much in
+Italy; in Scotland, where he accompanied Mary Stuart (then
+the widow of Francis I.); in England, where he saw Queen
+Elizabeth (1561, 1579); in Morocco (1564); and in Spain and
+Portugal. He fought on the galleys of the order of Malta, and
+accompanied his great friend, the French commander Philippe
+Strozzi (grandson of Filippo Strozzi, the Italian general, and
+nephew of Piero), in his expedition against Terceira, in which
+Strozzi was killed (1582). During the wars of religion under
+Charles IX. he fought in the ranks of the Catholics, but he
+allowed himself to be won over temporarily by the ideas of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span>
+reformers, and though he publicly separated himself from
+Protestantism it had a marked effect on his mind. A fall from
+his horse compelled him to retire into private life about 1589,
+and he spent his last years in writing his <i>Memoirs</i> of the illustrious
+men and women whom he had known. He died on the 15th of July
+1614.</p>
+
+<p>Brantôme left distinct orders that his manuscript should
+be printed; a first edition appeared, however, late (1665-1666)
+and not very complete. Of the later editions the most valuable
+are: one in 15 volumes (1740); another by Louis Jean Nicolas
+Monmerqué (1780-1860) in 8 volumes (1821-1824), reproduced
+in Buchan&rsquo;s <i>Panthéon littéraire</i>; that of the Bibliothèque elzévirienne,
+begun (1858) by P. Mérimée and L. Lacour, and finished,
+with vol. xiii., only in 1893; and Lalanne&rsquo;s edition for the
+Société de l&rsquo;Histoire de France (12 vols., 1864-1896). Brantôme
+can hardly be regarded as a historian proper, and his <i>Memoirs</i>
+cannot be accepted as a very trustworthy source of information.
+But he writes in a quaint conversational way, pouring forth his
+thoughts, observations or facts without order or system, and
+with the greatest frankness and naïveté. His works certainly
+gave an admirable picture of the general court-life of the time,
+with its unblushing and undisguised profligacy. There is not
+a <i>homme illustre</i> or a <i>dame galante</i> in all his gallery of portraits
+who is not stained with vice; and yet the whole is narrated
+with the most complete unconsciousness that there is anything
+objectionable in their conduct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The edition of L. Lalanne has great merit, being the first to indicate
+the Spanish, Italian and French sources on which Brantôme drew,
+but it did not utilize all the existing MSS. It was only after Lalanne&rsquo;s
+death that the earliest were obtained for the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+At Paris and at Chantilly (Musée Condé) all Brantôme&rsquo;s original
+MSS., as revised by him several times, are now collected (see the
+<i>Bibliothèque de l&rsquo;école des Chartes</i>, 1904), and a new and definitive
+edition has therefore become possible. Brantôme&rsquo;s poems (which
+amount to more than 2200 verses) were first published in 1881; see
+Lalanne&rsquo;s edition.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANTÔME,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a town of south-western France, in the department
+of Dordogne, 20 m. N. by W. of Périgueux by steam-tramway.
+Pop. (1906) 1230. The town is built, in great part,
+on an island in the river Dronne. It is well known for the remains
+of an abbey founded by Charlemagne about 770 and afterwards
+destroyed by the Normans. The oldest existing portion is a
+square tower dating from the 11th century, built upon a rock
+beside the church which it overlooks. It communicates by a
+staircase with the church, a rectangular building partly Romanesque,
+partly Gothic, to the west of which are the remains of a
+cloister. The abbey buildings date from the 18th century, and
+now serve as hôtel-de-ville, magistrature and schools. Caves in
+the neighbouring rocks were inhabited by the monks before the
+building of the abbey; one of them, used as an oratory, contains
+curious carvings, representing the Last Judgment and the
+Crucifixion. In the middle of the 16th century Pierre de Bourdeille
+came into possession of the abbey, from which he took the
+name of Brantôme.</p>
+
+<p>Brantôme has some old houses and a church of the 15th
+century, which was once fortified and is now used as a market.
+Truffles are the chief article of commerce; and there are quarries
+of freestone in the neighbourhood. The dolmen which is known
+as Pierre-Levée, to the east of the town, is the most remarkable
+in Périgord.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANXHOLM,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Branksome</span>, a feudal castle, now modernized,
+and an ancient seat of the Buccleuchs, on the Teviot,
+3 m. S.W. of Hawick, Roxburgh, Scotland. It was at Branksome
+Hall that Sir Walter Scott laid the scene of <i>The Lay of the Last
+Minstrel</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRANXTON,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brankston</span>, a village of Northumberland,
+England, 10½ m. E. by N. of Kelso, and 2 m. E.S.E. of Coldstream,
+and 10 m. N.W. of Wooler. It was on Branxton Hill, immediately
+south of the village, that the battle of Flodden (<i>q.v.</i>) was
+fought between the English and the Scots on the 9th of September
+1513. During the fight the Scots centre pushed as far as
+Branxton church, but &ldquo;the King&rsquo;s Stone,&rdquo; which lies N.W. of
+the church and is popularly supposed to mark the spot where
+James IV. fell, is some three-quarters of a mile from the scene
+of the battle; it is believed in reality to mark the sepulchre
+of a chieftain, whose name had already perished in the 16th
+century. Branxton church, dedicated to St Paul, was rebuilt
+in 1849 in Norman style. Of the older building nothing
+remains save the chancel arch.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (d. 1211), lord of Brecknock, Radnor
+and Limerick, spent the early part of his life fighting the Welsh
+in Radnorshire. He was high in King John&rsquo;s favour, received a
+large number of honours, and was even given the custody of
+Prince Arthur. But John and he quarrelled, probably over
+money (1207). In 1208 John began to suspect the fidelity of the
+whole family, and William had to fly to Ireland. After a number
+of attempted reconciliations, he was outlawed (1210) and died
+at Corbeil (1211). It is said that his wife and son were starved
+to death by John.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Foedera</i>, i. 107; <i>Histoire des ducs</i> (ed. Michel), Wendover;
+Kate Norgate&rsquo;s <i>John Lackland</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A descendant, William de Braose (d. 1326), lord of Gower,
+was a devoted follower of Edward I., and in 1299 was summoned
+to parliament as baron de Braose; and his nephew Thomas
+de Braose (d. 1361) also distinguished himself in the wars and
+was summoned as baron de Braose in 1342. This latter barony
+became extinct in 1399; but a claim to the barony of William
+de Braose, which, as he had no son, fell into abeyance between
+his two daughters and co-heirs, Alina (wife of Lord Mowbray)
+and Joan (wife of John de Bohun), or their descendants, may
+still be traced by careful genealogists in various noble English
+families.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1804-1867), French
+painter, was born at Bordeaux, and studied art in Paris, where
+in 1825 he won a <i>prix de Rome</i> with a picture (&ldquo;Chasse de
+Méléagre&rdquo;) now in the Bordeaux gallery. He went to Italy
+and painted a number of landscapes which were exhibited
+between 1827 and 1835; but subsequently he devoted himself
+mainly to animal-painting, in which his reputation as an artist
+was made. His &ldquo;Lutte de taureaux&rdquo; (1837), in the <i>musée</i>
+at Nantes, and his &ldquo;Vache attaquée par des loups&rdquo; (1845),
+in the Leipzig museum, were perhaps the best of his pictures;
+but he was remarkable for his accuracy of observation and
+correct drawing. He was elected a member of the Institute
+in 1846. He died at Paris on the 28th of February 1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAS D&rsquo;OR,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a landlocked and tideless gulf or lake of high
+irregular outline, 50 m. long by 20 m. broad, almost separating
+Cape Breton Island (province of Nova Scotia, Canada) into
+two parts. A ship canal across the isthmus (about 1 m. wide)
+completes the severance of the island. The entrance to the
+gulf is on the N.E. coast of the island, and it is connected with
+the Atlantic by the Great and Little Bras d&rsquo;Or channels, which
+are divided by Boulardeire Island. One channel is 25 m. long
+and from ¼ m. to 3 m. broad, but is of little depth, the other
+(used by shipping) is 22 m. long, 1 to 1½ m. wide, and has a depth
+of 60 fathoms. The gulf or lake is itself divided into two basins,
+the inner waters being known as the Great Bras d&rsquo;Or Lake.
+The waters are generally from 12 to 60 fathoms deep, but in
+the outer basin (known as the Little Bras d&rsquo;Or Lake) are soundings
+said to reach nearly 700 ft. The shores of the gulf are very
+picturesque and well wooded and have attracted many tourists.
+Sea fishing (cod, mackerel, &amp;c.) is the chief industry. The
+name is said to be a corruption of an Indian word, but it assumed
+its present form during the French occupation of Cape Breton
+Island.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASDOR, PIERRE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1721-1799), French surgeon, was born
+in the province of Maine. He took his degree in Paris as master
+of surgery in 1752, and was appointed regius professor of anatomy
+and director of the Academy of Surgery. He was a skilful operator,
+whose name was long attached to a ligature of his invention;
+and he was an ardent advocate of inoculation. He died in Paris
+on the 28th of September 1799.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASIDAS<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (d. 422 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a Spartan officer during the first
+decade of the Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Tellis and
+Argileonis, and won his first laurels by the relief of Methone,
+which was besieged by the Athenians (431 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span>
+following year he seems to have been eponymous ephor (Xen.
+<i>Hell</i>. ii. 3, 10), and in 429 he was sent out as one of the three
+commissioners (<span class="grk" title="symbouloi">&#963;&#973;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#953;</span>) to advise the admiral Cnemus. As
+trierarch he distinguished himself in the assault on the Athenian
+position at Pylos, during which he was severely wounded (Thuc.
+iv. n. 12).</p>
+
+<p>In the next year, while Brasidas mustered a force at Corinth
+for a campaign in Thrace, he frustrated an Athenian attack on
+Megara (Thuc. iv. 70-73), and immediately afterwards marched
+through Thessaly at the head of 700 helots and 1000 Peloponnesian
+mercenaries to join the Macedonian king Perdiccas.
+Refusing to be made a tool for the furtherance of Perdiccas&rsquo;s
+ambitions, Brasidas set about the accomplishment of his main
+object, and, partly by the rapidity and boldness of his movements,
+partly by his personal charm and the moderation of his demands,
+succeeded during the course of the winter in winning over the
+important cities of Acanthus, Stagirus, Amphipolis and Torone
+as well as a number of minor towns. An attack on Eion was
+foiled by the arrival of Thucydides, the historian, at the head
+of an Athenian squadron. In the spring of 423 a truce was concluded
+between Athens and Sparta, but its operation was at once
+imperilled by Brasidas&rsquo;s refusal to give up Scione, which, the
+Athenian partisans declared, revolted two days after the truce
+began, and by his occupation of Mende shortly afterwards. An
+Athenian fleet under Nicias and Nicostratus recovered Mende
+and blockaded Scione, which fell two years later (421 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+Meanwhile Brasidas joined Perdiccas in a campaign against
+Arrhabaeus, king of the Lyncesti, who was severely defeated.
+On the approach of a body of Illyrians, who, though summoned
+by Perdiccas, unexpectedly declared for Arrhabaeus, the Macedonians
+fled, and Brasidas&rsquo;s force was rescued from a critical
+position only by his coolness and ability. This brought to a head
+the quarrel between Brasidas and Perdiccas, who promptly
+concluded a treaty with Athens, of which some fragments have
+survived (<i>I.G.</i> i. 42).</p>
+
+<p>In April 422 the truce with Sparta expired, and in the same
+summer Cleon was despatched to Thrace, where he stormed
+Torone and Galepsus and prepared for an attack on Amphipolis.
+But a carelessly conducted reconnaissance gave Brasidas the
+opportunity for a vigorous and successful sally. The Athenian
+army was routed with a loss of 600 men and Cleon was slain.
+On the Spartan side only seven men are said to have fallen, but
+amongst them was Brasidas. He was buried at Amphipolis
+with impressive pomp, and for the future was regarded as the
+founder (<span class="grk" title="oikistaes">&#959;&#7984;&#954;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>) of the city and honoured with yearly games
+and sacrifices (Thuc. iv. 78-v. 11). At Sparta a cenotaph was
+erected in his memory near the tombs of Pausanias and Leonidas,
+and yearly speeches were made and games celebrated in their
+honour, in which only Spartiates could compete (Paus. in. 14).</p>
+
+<p>Brasidas united in himself the personal courage characteristic
+of Sparta with those virtues in which the typical Spartan was
+most signally lacking. He was quick in forming his plans and
+carried them out without delay or hesitation. With an oratorical
+power rare amongst the Lacedaemonians he combined a conciliatory
+manner which everywhere won friends for himself and
+for Sparta (Thuc. iv. 81).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See in particular Thucydides, ii.-v.; what Diodorus xii. adds is
+mainly oratorical elaboration or pure invention. A fuller account
+will be found in the histories of Greece (<i>e.g.</i> those of Grote, Beloch,
+Busolt, Meyer) and in G. Schimmelpfeng, <i>De Brasidae Spartani
+rebus gestis atque ingenio</i> (Marburg, 1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASS,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a river, town and district of southern Nigeria, British
+West Africa. The Brass river is one of the deltaic branches of
+the Niger, lying east of the Rio Nun or main channel of the river.
+From the point of divergence from the main stream to the sea
+the Brass has a course of about 100 m., its mouth being in
+6° 20&prime; E., 4° 35&prime; N. Brass town is a flourishing trading settlement
+at the mouth of the river. It is the headquarters of a district
+commissioner and the seat of a native court. Its most
+conspicuous building is a fine church, the gift of a native chief.
+The capital of the Brass tribes is Nimbé, 30 m. up river.</p>
+
+<p>The Brass river, called by its Portuguese discoverers the Rio
+Bento, is said to have received its English name from the brass
+rods and other brass utensils imported by the early traders in
+exchange for palm-oil and slaves. The Brass natives, of the pure
+negro type, were noted for their savage character. In 1856 their
+chiefs concluded a treaty with Great Britain agreeing to give
+up the slave-trade in exchange for a duty on the palm-oil
+exported. Finding their profitable business as middlemen
+between the up-river producer and the exporter threatened by
+the appearance of European traders, they made ineffective
+complaints to the British authorities. The establishment of the
+Royal Niger Company led to further loss of trade, and on the
+29th of January 1895 the natives attacked and sacked the
+company&rsquo;s station at Akassa on the Rio Nun, over forty
+prisoners being killed and eaten as a sacrifice to the fetish gods.
+In the following month a punitive expedition partially destroyed
+Nimbé, and a heavy fine was paid by the Brass chiefs. Since
+then the country has settled down under British administration.
+The trade regulations of which complaint had been made were
+removed in 1900 on the establishment of the protectorate of
+Southern Nigeria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Valuable information concerning the country and people will be
+found in the <i>Report by Sir John Kirk on the Disturbances at Brass
+(Africa</i>, No. 3, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASS<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>braes</i>), an alloy consisting mainly if not
+exclusively of copper and zinc; in its older use the term was
+applied rather to alloys of copper and tin, now known as bronze
+(<i>q.v.</i>)Thus the brass of the Bible was probably bronze, and so
+also was much of the brass of later times, until the distinction
+between zinc and tin became clearly recognized. The Latin
+word <i>aes</i> signifies either pure copper or bronze, not brass, but
+the Romans comprehended a brass compound of copper and zinc
+under the term <i>orichalcum</i> or <i>aurichalcum</i>, into which Pliny
+states that copper was converted by the aid of cadmia (a mineral
+of zinc).</p>
+
+<p>In England there is good evidence of the manufacture of
+brass with zinc at the end of the 16th century, for Queen
+Elizabeth by patent granted to William Humfrey and Christopher
+Schutz the exclusive right of working calamine and making
+brass. This right subsequently devolved upon a body called the
+&ldquo;Governors, Assistants and Societies of the City of London of
+and for the Mineral and Battery Works,&rdquo; which continued to
+exercise its functions down to the year 1710.</p>
+
+<p>When a small percentage of zinc is present, the colour of brass
+is reddish, as in <i>tombac</i> or red brass, which contains about 10%.
+With about 20% the colour becomes more yellow, and a series
+of metals is obtained which simulate gold more or less closely;
+such are <i>Dutch metal, Mannheim gold, similar</i> and <i>pinchbeck</i>, the
+last deriving its name from a London clockmaker, Christopher
+Pinchbeck, who invented it in 1732. Ordinary brass contains
+about 30% of zinc, and when 40% is present, as in <i>Muntz,
+yellow</i> or <i>patent</i> metal (invented by G.F. Muntz in 1832), the
+colour becomes a full yellow. When the proportion of zinc is
+largely increased the colour becomes silver-white and finally
+grey. The limit of elasticity increases with the percentage of
+zinc, as also does the amount of elongation before fracture, the
+maximum occurring with 30%. The tenacity increases with the
+proportion of zinc up to a maximum with 45%; then it decreases
+rapidly, and with 50% the metals are fragile. By varying the
+proportion between 30 and 43% a series of alloys may be prepared
+presenting very varied properties. The most malleable
+of the series has an elongation of about 60%, with a tensile
+strength of 17.5 tons per sq. in. Increase in the proportion of
+zinc gives higher tensile strength, accompanied, however, by a
+smaller percentage of elongation and a materially increased
+tendency to produce unsound castings. The quality of copper-zinc
+alloys is improved by the addition of a small quantity of
+iron, a fact of which advantage is taken in the production of
+Aich&rsquo;s metal and delta metal. Of the latter there are several
+varieties, modified in composition to suit different purposes.
+Some of them possess high tensile strength and ductility. They
+are remarkably resistant to corrosion by sea-water, and are well
+suited for screw-propellers as well as for pump-plungers, pistons
+and glands. Heated to a dull red delta metal becomes malleable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span>
+and can be worked under the hammer, press or stamps. By
+such treatment an ultimate tensile strength of 30 tons per sq. in.
+may be obtained, with an elongation of 32% in 2 in. and a contraction
+of area of 30%.</p>
+
+<p>In the arts brass is a most important and widely used alloy.
+As compared with copper its superior hardness makes it wear
+better, while being more fusible it can be cast with greater
+facility. It is readily drawn into fine wire, and formed into
+rolled sheets and rods which are machined into a huge number
+of useful and ornamental articles. It is susceptible of a fine
+polish, but tarnishes with exposure to the air; the brilliancy of
+the surface can, however, be preserved if the metal is thoroughly
+cleansed by &ldquo;dipping&rdquo; in nitric acid and &ldquo;lacquered&rdquo; with a
+coating of varnish consisting of seed-lac dissolved in spirit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASSES, MONUMENTAL,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a species of engraved sepulchral
+memorials which in the early part of the 13th century began to
+take the place of tombs and effigies carved in stone. Made of
+hard <i>latten</i> or sheet brass, let into the pavement, and thus
+forming no obstruction in the space required for the services of
+the church, they speedily came into general use, and continued
+to be a favourite style of sepulchral memorial for three centuries.
+Besides their great value as historical monuments, they are
+interesting as authentic contemporary evidence of the varieties
+of armour and costume, or the peculiarities of palaeography
+and heraldic designs, and they are often the only authoritative
+records of the intricate details of family history. Although the
+intrinsic value of the metal has unfortunately contributed to the
+wholesale spoliation of these interesting monuments, they are
+still found in remarkable profusion in England, and they were at
+one time equally common in France, Germany and the Low
+Countries. In France, however, those that survived the troubles
+of the 16th century were totally swept away during the reign of
+terror, and almost the only evidence of their existence is now
+supplied by the collection of drawings bequeathed by Gough to
+the Bodleian library. The fine memorials of the royal house of
+Saxony in the cathedrals of Meissen and Freiberg are the most
+artistic and striking brasses in Germany. Among the 13th-century
+examples existing in German churches are the full-length
+memorials of Yso von Welpe, bishop of Verden (1231), and of
+Bernard, bishop of Paderborn (1340). Many fine Flemish
+specimens exist in Belgium, especially at Bruges. Only two or
+three examples, and these of late date, are known in Scotland,
+among which are the memorials of Alexander Cockburn (1564)
+at Ormiston; of the regent Murray (1569) in the collegiate
+church of St Giles, Edinburgh; and of the Minto family (1605)
+in the south aisle of the nave of Glasgow cathedral. England is
+the only country which now possesses an extensive series of
+these interesting memorials, of which it is calculated that there
+may be about 4000 still remaining in the various churches.
+They are most abundant in the eastern counties, and this fact
+has been frequently adduced in support of the opinion that they
+were of Flemish manufacture. But in the days when sepulchral
+brasses were most in fashion the eastern counties of England were
+full of commercial activity and wealth, and nowhere do the engraved
+memorials of civilians and prosperous merchants more
+abound than in the churches of Ipswich, Norwich, Lynn and
+Lincoln. Flemish brasses do occur in England, but they were
+never numerous, and they are readily distinguished from those
+of native workmanship. The Flemish examples have the figures
+engraved in the centre of a large plate, the background filled in
+with diapered or scroll work, and the inscription placed round
+the edge of the plate. The English examples have the figures
+cut out to the outline and inserted in corresponding cavities in
+the slab, the darker colour of the stone serving as a background.
+This is not an invariable distinction, however, as &ldquo;figure-brasses&rdquo;
+of Flemish origin are found both at Bruges and in
+England. But the character of the engraving is constant, the
+Flemish work being more florid in design, the lines shallower,
+and the broad lines cut with a chisel-pointed tool instead of the
+lozenge-shaped burin. The brass of Robert Hallum, bishop of
+Salisbury, the envoy of Henry V. to the council of Constance,
+who died and was interred there in 1416, precisely resembles
+the brasses of England in the peculiarities which distinguish
+them from continental specimens. Scarcely any of the brasses
+which now exist in England can be confidently referred to the
+first half of the 13th century, though several undoubted examples
+of this period are on record. The full-sized brass of Sir John
+d&rsquo;Aubernon at Stoke d&rsquo;Abernon in Surrey (<i>c</i>. 1277) has the
+decorations of the shield filled in with a species of enamel.
+Other examples of this occur, and the probability is, that, in
+most cases, the lines of the engraving were filled with colouring-matter,
+though brass would scarcely bear the heat requisite to
+fuse the ordinary enamels. A well-known 13th-century example
+is that of Sir Roger de Trumpington (<i>c</i>. 1290), who accompanied
+Prince Edward in his expedition to Palestine and is represented
+cross-legged. About half a dozen instances of this peculiarity
+are known. The 14th-century brasses are much more numerous,
+and present a remarkable variety in their details. The finest
+specimen is that of Nicholas Lord Burnell (1315) in the church of
+Acton Burnell, Shropshire. In the 15th century the design and
+execution of monumental brasses had attained their highest
+excellence. The beautiful brass of Thomas Beauchamp, earl of
+Warwick (d. 1401), and his wife Margaret, which formerly covered
+the tomb in St Mary&rsquo;s church, Warwick, is a striking example.
+One of the best specimens of plate armour is that of Sir Robert
+Stantoun (1458) in Castle Donnington church, Leicestershire,
+and one of the finest existing brasses of ecclesiastics is that of
+Abbot de la Mare of St Albans. It is only in the 16th century
+that the engraved representations become portraits. Previous to
+that period the features were invariably represented conventionally,
+though sometimes personal peculiarities were given. A
+large number of brasses in England are <i>palimpsests</i>, the back of
+an ancient brass having been engraved for the more recent
+memorial. Thus a brass commemorative of Margaret Bulstrode
+(1540) at Hedgerley, on being removed from its position, was
+discovered to have been previously the memorial of Thomas
+Totyngton, abbot of St Edmunds, Bury (1312). The abbey was
+only surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1539, so that before the year
+was out the work of spoliation had begun, and the abbot&rsquo;s brass
+had been removed and re-engraved to Margaret Bulstrode. In
+explanation of the frequency with which ancient brasses have
+thus been stolen and re-erected after being engraved on the
+reverse, as at Berkhampstead, it may be remarked that all the
+sheet brass used in England previous to the establishment of a
+manufactory at Esher by a German in 1649, had to be imported
+from the continent.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:522px" src="images/img434a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:238px; height:522px" src="images/img434b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:169px; height:519px" src="images/img434c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:178px; height:523px" src="images/img434d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Sir John D&rsquo;Abernon, 1277.<br />
+Stoke D&rsquo;Abernon Surrey.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Margaret de Camoys. 1310.<br />
+Trotton, Sussex.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Henry de Grofhurst, c. 1330<br />
+Horsemonden, Kent.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Sir Nicholas Burnell, 1382.<br />
+Acton Burnell, Shropshire.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:522px" src="images/img434e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:295px; height:521px" src="images/img434f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:278px; height:519px" src="images/img434g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Margaret Lady Cobham,<br />
+1385. Cobham, Kent.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Sir John Corp and Eleanor, his grand-daughter<br />
+1391, 1361. Stoke Fleming, Devonshire.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;Sir Symon de Felbrigge and Margaret his wife,<br />
+1400. Felbrigge, Norfolk.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption">Figs. 1 and 6 from Waller&rsquo;s <i>Monumental Brasses.</i></td>
+<td class="caption">Figs. 5 and 7 from Boutell&rsquo;s <i>Monumental Brasses.</i></td>
+<td class="caption">Figs. 2, 3, and 4 by permission of the <i>Monumental Brass Society</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:283px; height:518px" src="images/img434h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:221px; height:520px" src="images/img434i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:251px; height:522px" src="images/img434j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Thomas de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick and Lady,<br />
+1406 and 1401. St. Mary&rsquo;s Church, Warwick.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin,<br />
+1417. New College, Oxford.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Sir William Vernon and Lady, 1467.<br />
+Tong Church, Shropshire.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:306px; height:520px" src="images/img434k.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:207px; height:520px" src="images/img434l.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:300px; height:522px" src="images/img434m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;John Shelley, Esq., 1526, and his wife Elizabeth, 1513.<br />
+Clapham, Sussex.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Dame Margaret Chute, 1614.<br />
+Mardon, Herefordshire.</td>
+<td class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Sir Edward Filmer and Lady, 1638.<br />
+East Sutton, Kent.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc f90">
+Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 6 from Waller&rsquo;s <i>Monumental Brasses</i>.</td>
+
+<td class="tcc f90">
+Figs. 4 and 5 by permission of the <i>Monumental Brass Society</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;(1) General: <i>Manual for the Study of Monumental
+Brasses</i> (Oxford, 1848); Boutell&rsquo;s <i>Monumental Brasses of England</i>,
+engravings on wood, folio (London, 1849); <i>Manual of Monumental
+Brasses</i>, by H. Haines (2 vols. 8vo, 1861); Waller&rsquo;s <i>Series of Monumental
+Brasses in England</i> (London and Oxford, Parkers, 1863);
+<i>Monumental Brasses</i>, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, 1890); <i>The Brasses
+of England</i>, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, London, 1907). (2) English
+Counties: Cotman&rsquo;s <i>Engravings of the most Remarkable of the Sepulchral
+Brasses of Norfolk</i> (4to, London, 1813-1816); and second
+edition, with plates and notes by Meyrick, Albert Way and Sir Harris
+Nicholas (2 vols. folio, London, 1839); <i>Illustrations of Monumental
+Brasses in Cambridge</i> (4to, Camden Society, 1846); <i>Monumental
+Brasses of Northamptonshire</i>, by F. Hudson (folio, 1853); <i>The
+Monumental Brasses of Wiltshire</i>, by G. Kite (8vo, London, 1860);
+<i>Architectural and Historical Notes of the Churches of Cambridgeshire</i>,
+by A.C. Hill (8vo, 1880); <i>Monumental Brasses of Cornwall</i>, by
+E.H.W. Dunken (4to, London, 1882); <i>Monumental Brasses of
+Worcestershire and Herefordshire</i>, ed. by C.T. Davis (1884); <i>Kentish
+Brasses</i>, by W.D. Belcher (4to, London, 1888); <i>List of Monumental
+Brasses in the County of Norfolk</i>, by the Rev. E. Farrer (Norwich,
+1890); <i>The Monumental Brasses of Lancashire and Cheshire</i>, by
+James Thornby (8vo, Hull, 1893); <i>Monumental Brasses in the
+Bedfordshire Churches</i>, by Grace Isherwood (8vo, London, 1906),
+a large collection of rubbings of special interest and value. (3)
+Foreign: <i>Monumental Brasses and Incised Slabs in Belgium</i> (8vo,
+1849); <i>Books of Facsimiles of Monumental Brasses of the Continent
+of Europe</i>, folio (1884), by the Rev. W.F. Greeny.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ÉTIENNE<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1814-1874),
+Belgian ethnographer, was born at Bourbourg, near
+Dunkirk, on the 8th of September 1814. He entered the Roman
+Catholic priesthood, was professor of ecclesiastical history in the
+Quebec seminary in 1845, vicar-general at Boston in 1846, and
+from 1848 to 1863 travelled as a missionary, chiefly in Mexico
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span>
+and Central America. He gave great attention to Mexican
+antiquities, published in 1857-1859 a history of Aztec civilization,
+and from 1861 to 1864 edited a collection of documents in the
+indigenous languages. In 1863 he announced the discovery of
+a key to Mexican hieroglyphic writing, but its value is very
+questionable. In 1864 he was archaeologist to the French military
+expedition in Mexico, and his <i>Monuments anciens du Mexique</i>
+was published by the French Government in 1866. Perhaps his
+greatest service was the publication in 1861 of a French translation
+of the <i>Popol Vuh</i>, a sacred book of the Quiché Indians,
+together with a Quiché grammar, and an essay on Central
+American mythology. In 1871 he brought out his <i>Bibliothèque
+Mexico-Guatemalienne</i>, and in 1869-1870 gave the principles of
+his decipherment of Indian picture-writing in his <i>Manuscrit
+Troano, études sur le système graphique et la langue des Mayas.</i>
+He died at Nice on the 8th of January 1874. His chief merit is
+his diligent collection of materials; his interpretations are
+generally fanciful.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASSEY, THOMAS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1805-1870), English railway contractor,
+was born at Buerton, near Chester, on the 7th of November 1805.
+His father, besides cultivating land of his own, held a large farm
+of the marquess of Westminster; his ancestors, according to
+family tradition, having been settled for several centuries at
+Bulkeley, near Malpas, Cheshire, before they went to Buerton
+in 1663. Thomas Brassey received an ordinary commercial
+education at a Chester school. At the age of sixteen he was
+apprenticed to a surveyor, and on the completion of his term
+became the partner of his master, eventually assuming the sole
+management of the business. In the local surveys to which he
+devoted his attention during his early years he acquired the
+knowledge and practical experience which were the necessary
+foundation of his great reputation. His first engagement as
+railway contractor was entered upon in 1835, when he undertook
+the execution of a portion of the Grand Junction railway, on the
+invitation of the distinguished engineer Joseph Locke, who soon
+afterwards entrusted him with the completion of the London and
+Southampton railway, a task which involved contracts to the
+amount of £4,000,000 sterling and the employment of a body of
+3000 men. At the same time he was engaged on portions of
+several other lines in the north of England and in Scotland. In
+conjunction with his partner, W. Mackenzie, Brassey undertook,
+in 1840, the construction of the railway from Paris to Rouen, of
+which Locke was engineer. He subsequently carried out the
+extension of the same line. A few years later he was engaged with
+his partner on five other French lines, and on his own account
+on the same number of lines in England, Wales and Scotland.
+Brassey was now in control of an industrial army of 75,000 men,
+and the capital involved in his various contracts amounted to
+some £36,000,000. But his energy and capacity were equal to
+still larger tasks. He undertook in 1851 other works in England
+and Scotland; and in the following year he engaged in the
+construction of railways in Holland, Prussia, Spain and Italy.
+One of his largest undertakings was the Grand Trunk railway of
+Canada, 1100 m. in length, with its fine bridge over the St
+Lawrence. In this work he was associated with Sir M. Peto and
+E.L. Betts. In the following years divisions of his industrial
+army were found in almost every country in Europe, in India,
+in Australia and in South America. Besides actual railway
+works, he originated and maintained a great number of subordinate
+assistant establishments, coal and iron works, dockyards,
+&amp;c., the direction of which alone would be sufficient to
+strain the energies of an ordinary mind. His profits were, of
+course, enormous, but prosperity did not intoxicate him; and
+when heavy losses came, as sometimes they did, he took them
+bravely and quietly. Among the greatest of his pecuniary
+disasters were those caused by the fall of the great Barentin
+viaduct on the Rouen and Havre railway, and by the failure
+of Peto and Betts. Brassey was one of the first to aim at improving
+the relations between engineers and contractors, by
+setting himself against the corrupt practices which were common.
+He resolutely resisted the &ldquo;scamping&rdquo; of work and the
+bribery of inspectors, and what he called the &ldquo;smothering of
+the engineer&rdquo;; and he did much in this way to bring about
+a better state of things. Large-hearted and generous to a
+rare degree, modest and simple in his taste and manners, he
+was conscious of his power as a leader in his calling, and knew
+how to use it wisely and for noble ends. Honours came to him
+unsought. The cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred
+on him. From Victor Emmanuel he received the cross of
+the Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus; and from the emperor
+of Austria the decoration of the Iron Crown, which it is said had
+not before been given to a foreigner. He died at St Leonards
+on the 8th of December 1870. His life and labours are commemorated
+in a volume by Sir Arthur Helps (1872).</p>
+
+<p>He left three sons, of whom the eldest, <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (b. 1836),
+was knighted and afterwards (1886) created <span class="sc">Baron Brassey</span>.
+Lord Brassey, who was educated at Rugby and Oxford, entered
+parliament as a liberal in 1865, and devoted himself largely
+to naval affairs. He was civil lord of the admiralty (1880-1883),
+and secretary to the admiralty (1883-1885); and both before
+and after his elevation to the peerage did important work on
+naval and statistical inquiries for the government. In 1893-1805
+he was president of the Institution of Naval Architects. In
+1894 he was a lord-in-waiting, and from 1895 to 1900 was governor
+of Victoria. In 1908 he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque
+Ports. His voyages in his yacht &ldquo;Sunbeam&rdquo; from 1876 onwards,
+with his first wife (d. 1887), who published an interesting book
+on the subject, took him all over the world. Lord Brassey
+married a second time in 1890. Among other publications, his
+inauguration of the <i>Naval Annual</i> (1886 onwards), and his
+volumes on <i>The British Navy</i>, are the most important. His
+eldest son Thomas, who edited the <i>Naval Annual</i> (1890-1904),
+and unsuccessfully contested several parliamentary constituencies,
+was born in 1862.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRASSÓ<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Kronstadt</i>; Rumanian, <i>Bra&#351;ov</i>), a town of
+Hungary, in Transylvania, 206 m. S.E. of Kolozsvár by rail.
+Pop. (1900) 34,511. It is the capital of the comitat (county)
+of the same name, also known as Burzenland, a fertile country
+inhabited by an industrious population of Germans, Magyars
+and Rumanians. Brassó is beautifully situated on the slopes
+of the Transylvanian Alps, in a narrow valley, shut in by mountains,
+and presenting only one opening on the north-west towards
+the Burzen plain. The town is entirely dominated by the Zinne
+of Kapellenberg, a mountain rising 1276 ft. above the town
+(total altitude 3153 ft.), from which a beautiful view is obtained
+of the lofty mountains around and of the carefully cultivated
+plain of the Burzenland, dotted with tastefully built and well-kept
+villages. On the summit of the mountain is one of the
+numerous monuments erected in 1896 in different parts of the
+country to commemorate the thousandth anniversary of the
+foundation of the Hungarian state. It is known as Árpád&rsquo;s
+Monument, and consists of a Doric column erected on a circular
+pedestal, which supports the bronze figure of a warrior from the
+time of Árpád.</p>
+
+<p>Brassó consists of the inner town, which is the commercial
+centre, and the suburbs of Blumenau, Altstadt and Obere Vorstadt
+or Bolgárszeg, inhabited respectively by Germans, Magyars
+and Rumanians. To the east of the inner town rises the Schlossberg,
+crowned by the citadel, which was erected in 1553, and
+constitutes the principal remaining fragment of the old fortifications
+with which Brassó was encircled. The most interesting
+building in the town is the Protestant church, popularly called
+the Black Church, owing to its smoke-stained walls, caused
+by the great fire of 1689. This church, the finest in Transylvania,
+is a Gothic edifice with traces of Romanesque influence, and
+was built in 1385-1425. In the square in front of it is the statue
+of Johannes Honterus (1498-1549), &ldquo;the apostle of Transylvania,&rdquo;
+who was born in Brassó, and established here the
+first printing-press in Transylvania. In the principal square
+of the inner town stands the town hall, built in 1420 and restored
+in the 18th century, with a tower 190 ft. high. Brassó is the
+most important commercial and manufacturing town of Transylvania.
+Lying near the frontier of Rumania, with easy access
+through the Tömös pass, it developed from the earliest time an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span>
+active trade with that country and with the whole of the Balkan
+states. Its chief industries are iron and copper works, wool-spinning,
+turkey-red dyeing, leather goods, paper, cement and
+petroleum refineries. The timber industry in all its branches,
+with a speciality for the manufacture of the wooden bottles
+largely used by the peasantry in Hungary and in the Balkan
+states, as well as the dairy industry, and ham-curing are also
+fully developed. A peculiarity of Brassó, which constitutes a
+survival of the old methods of trade with the Balkan states,
+is the number of money-changers who ply their trade at small
+movable tables in the market-place and in the open street.
+Brassó is the most populous town of Transylvania, and its
+population is composed in about equal numbers of Germans,
+Magyars and Rumanians. The town, especially on market
+days, presents an animated and picturesque aspect. Here are
+seen Germans, Szeklers, Magyars, Rumanians, Armenians and
+Gipsies, each of them wearing their distinctive national costume,
+and talking and bargaining in their own special idiom.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the places of interest round Brassó is the watering-place
+Zaizon, 15 m. to the east, with ferruginous and iodine
+waters; while about 17 m. to the south-west lies the pretty
+Rumanian village of Zernest, where in 1690 the Austrian general
+Heussler was defeated and taken prisoner by Imre (Emerich)
+Tököly, the usurper of the Transylvanian throne.</p>
+
+<p>Brassó was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1211, and soon
+became a flourishing town. Through the activity of Honterus
+it played a leading part in the introduction of the Reformation
+in Transylvania in the 16th century. The town was almost completely
+destroyed by the big fire of 1689. During the revolution
+of 1848-1849 it was besieged by the Hungarians under General
+Bern from March to July 1849, and several engagements between
+the Austrian and the Hungarian troops took place in its neighbourhood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRATHWAIT, RICHARD<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1588-1673), English poet, son of
+Thomas Brathwait, was born in 1588 at his father&rsquo;s manor of
+Burneshead, near Kendal, Westmorland. He entered Oriel
+College, Oxford, in 1604, and remained there for some years,
+pursuing the study of poetry and Roman history. He removed
+to Cambridge to study law and afterwards to London to the
+Inns of Court. Thomas Brathwait died in 1610, and the son
+went down to live on the estate he inherited from his father.
+In 1617 he married Frances Lawson of Nesham, near Darlington.
+On the death of his elder brother, Sir Thomas Brathwait, in 1618,
+Richard became the head of the family, and an important
+personage in the county, being deputy-lieutenant and justice
+of the peace. In 1633 his wife died, and in 1639 he married
+again. His only son by this second marriage, Sir Stafford
+Brathwait, was killed in a sea-fight against the Algerian pirates.
+Richard Brathwait&rsquo;s most famous work is <i>Barnabae Itinerarium
+or Barnabees Journall</i> [1638], by &ldquo;Corymbaeus,&rdquo; written in
+English and Latin rhyme. The title-page says it is written for
+the &ldquo;travellers&rsquo; solace&rdquo; and is to be chanted to the old tune of
+&ldquo;Barnabe.&rdquo; The story of &ldquo;drunken Barnabee&rsquo;s&rdquo; four journeys
+to the north of England contains much amusing topographical
+information, and its gaiety is unflagging. Barnabee rarely visits
+a town or village without some notice of an excellent inn or a
+charming hostess, but he hardly deserves the epithet &ldquo;drunken.&rdquo;
+At Banbury he saw the Puritan who has become proverbial,</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Hanging of his cat on Monday</p>
+<p class="i05">For killing of a Mouse on Sunday.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Brathwait&rsquo;s identity with &ldquo;Corymbaeus&rdquo; was first established
+by Joseph Haslewood. In his later years he removed to Catterick,
+where he died on the 4th of May 1673. Among his other works
+are: <i>The Golden Fleece</i> (1611), with a second title-page announcing
+&ldquo;sonnets and madrigals,&rdquo; and a treatise on the <i>Art of Poesy</i>,
+which is not preserved; <i>The Poets Willow; or the Passionate
+Shepheard</i> (1614); <i>The Prodigals Teares</i> (1614); <i>The Schollers
+Medley, or an intermixt Discourse upon Historicall and Poeticall
+relations</i> (1614), known in later editions as a <i>Survey of History</i>
+(1638, &amp;c.); a collection of epigrams and satires entitled <i>A
+Strappado for the Divell</i> (1615), with which was published incongruously
+<i>Loves Labyrinth</i> (edited, 1878, by J.W. Ebsworth);
+<i>Natures Embassie; or, the wildemans measures; danced naked
+by twelve satyres</i> (1621), thirty satires finding antique parallels
+for modern vices; with these are bound up <i>The Shepheards Tales</i>
+(1621), a collection of pastorals, one section of which was reprinted
+by Sir Egerton Brydges in 1815; two treatises on
+manners, <i>The English Gentleman</i> (1630) and <i>The English Gentlewoman</i>
+(1631); <i>Anniversaries upon his Panarete</i> (1634), a poem
+in memory of his wife; <i>Essaies upon the Five Senses</i> (1620);
+<i>The Psalmes of David ... and other holy Prophets, paraphras&rsquo;d
+in English</i> (1638); <i>A Comment upon Two Tales of ... Jeffray
+Chaucer</i> (1665; edited for the Chaucer Soc. by C. Spurgeon,
+1901). Thomas Hearne, on whose testimony (MS. collections
+for the year 1713, vol. 47, p. 127) the authorship of the <i>Itinerarium</i>
+chiefly rests, not inappropriately called him &ldquo;the scribler
+of those times,&rdquo; and the list just given of his works, published
+under various pseudonyms, is by no means complete.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A full bibliography is given in Joseph Haslewood&rsquo;s edition of
+<i>Barnabee&rsquo;s Journall</i> (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1876). See also J. Corser,
+<i>Collectanea</i> (Chetham Soc., 1860, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRATIANU<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bratiano</span>), <span class="bold">ION C.</span> (1821-1891), Rumanian
+statesman, was born at Pitesci in Walachia on the 2nd of June
+1821. He entered the Walachian army in 1838, and visited
+Paris in 1841 for purposes of study. Returning to Walachia,
+he took part, with his friend C.A. Rosetti and other prominent
+politicians, in the Rumanian rebellion of 1848, and acted as
+prefect of police in the provisional government formed in that
+year. The restoration of Russian and Turkish authority shortly
+afterwards drove him into exile. He took refuge in Paris, and endeavoured
+to influence French opinion in favour of the proposed
+union and autonomy of the Danubian principalities. In 1854,
+however, he was sentenced to a fine of £120 and three months&rsquo;
+imprisonment for sedition, and later confined in a lunatic
+asylum; but in 1856 he returned home with his brother, Dimitrie
+Bratianu, afterwards one of his foremost political opponents.
+During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Bratianu figured
+prominently as one of the Liberal leaders. He assisted in 1866
+in the deposition of Cuza and the election of Prince Charles of
+Hohenzollern, under whom he held several ministerial appointments
+during the next four years. He was arrested for complicity
+in the revolution of 1870, but soon released. In 1876, aided
+by C.A. Rosetti, he formed a Liberal cabinet, which remained
+in power until 1888. For an account of his work in connexion
+with the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the Berlin congress, the
+establishment of the Rumanian kingdom, the revision of the
+constitution, and other reforms, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rumania</a></span>. After 1883
+Bratianu acted as sole leader of the Liberals, owing to a quarrel
+with C.A. Rosetti, his friend and political ally for nearly forty
+years. His long tenure of office, without parallel in Rumanian
+history, rendered Bratianu extremely unpopular, and at its
+close his impeachment appeared inevitable. But any proceedings
+taken against the minister would have involved charges
+against the king, who was largely responsible for his policy;
+and the impeachment was averted by a vote of parliament in
+February 1890. Bratianu died on the 16th of May 1891. Besides
+being the leading statesman of Rumania during the critical years
+1876-1888, he attained some eminence as a writer. His French
+political pamphlets, <i>Mémoire sur l&rsquo;empire d&rsquo;Autriche dans la
+question d&rsquo;Orient</i> (1855), <i>Réflexions sur la situation</i> (1856),
+<i>Mémoire sur la situation de la Moldavie depuis le traité de Paris</i>
+(1857), and <i>La Question religieuse en Roumanie</i> (1866), were all
+published in Paris.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For his other writings and speeches see <i>Din Scrierile &#351;i cuvîntarile
+lui I.C. Bratianu</i>, 1821-1891 (Bucharest, 1903, &amp;c.), edited with a
+biographical introduction by D.A. Sturza. A brief anonymous
+biography, <i>Ion C. Bratianu</i>, appeared at Bucharest in 1893.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRATLANDSDAL<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> Bratland valley), a gorge of southern
+Norway in Stavanger <i>amt</i> (county), formed by the Bratland
+river, a powerful torrent issuing into Lake Suldal. A remarkable
+road traverses the gorge by means of cuttings and a tunnel,
+and the scenery is among the most magnificent in Norway. It
+is usually approached from Stavanger by way of Sand and Lake
+Suldal, and the road divides above the gorge, branches running
+north to Odde and south-east through Telemarken. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span>
+junction of the roads is near Breifond, 13 m. above Naes at the
+mouth of the river, on the west shore of Lake Roldal, which
+is fed by the snowfield to the west, north and east, and is drained
+by the Bratland river.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRATTISHING,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brandishing</span> (from the Fr. <i>bretèche</i>), in
+architecture, a sort of crest or ridge on a parapet, or species
+of embattlement. The term, however, is generally employed
+to describe the ranges of flowers which form the crests of so
+many parapets in the Tudor period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRATTLEBORO,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a village of Windham county, Vermont,
+U.S.A., in a township (pop. 1910, 7541) of the same name, in the
+south-east part of the state, 60 m. N. of Springfield, Massachusetts,
+on the Connecticut river. Pop. (1890) 5467; (1900)
+5297 (686 foreign-born); (1910) 6517. It is served by the Central
+Vermont and the Boston &amp; Maine railways. Situated in a hilly,
+heavily wooded country, it is an attractive place, with a few
+houses dating from the 18th century. Among the manufactures
+are toys, furniture, overalls and organs, the Estey and the
+Carpenter organs being made there. First settled about 1753,
+Brattleboro took its name from one of the original patentees,
+William Brattle (1702-1776), a Massachusetts loyalist. It was
+incorporated ten years later.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Burnham, <i>Brattleboro</i> (Brattleboro, 1880), and H.M.
+Burt, <i>The Attractions of Brattleboro, Glimpses of Past and Present</i>
+(Brattleboro, 1866).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAUNAU<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (Czech <i>Broumov</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
+139 m. E.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7622, chiefly
+German. The town is built on a rocky eminence on the right
+bank of the Steine. It has an imposing Benedictine abbey, once
+a castle, but converted into a religious house in 1322, when
+Ottakar I. gave the district to the Benedictines. Noteworthy
+also is the great church of Saints Wenceslaus and Adalbert,
+built between 1683 and 1733. This stands on the site where, in
+1618, the Protestants attempted to build a church, the forcible
+prevention of which by Abbot Wolfgang Solander was the
+immediate cause of the protest of the Bohemian estates and the
+&ldquo;defenestration&rdquo; of the ministers Martinic and Slavata, which
+opened the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. After the battle of the White
+Hill, near Prague (1620), the town was deprived of all its privileges,
+which were, however, in great part restored nine years
+later. It is now a manufacturing centre (cloth, woollen and
+cotton stuffs, &amp;c.) and has a considerable trade.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAUNSBERG,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
+38 m. by rail S.W. of Königsberg, on the Passarge, 4 m. from its
+mouth in the Frisches Haff. Pop. (1900) 12,497. It possesses
+numerous Roman Catholic institutions, of which the most
+important is the Lyceum Hosianum (enjoying university rank),
+founded in 1564 by the cardinal bishop Stanislaus Hosius.
+Brewing, tanning, and the manufactures of soap, yeast, carriages
+and bricks are the most important industries of the town, which
+also carries on a certain amount of trade in corn, ship timber and
+yarn. The river is navigable for small vessels. The castle of
+Braunsberg was built by the Teutonic knights in 1241, and the
+town was founded ten years later. Destroyed by the Prussians
+in 1262, it was restored in 1279. The town, which was the seat
+of the bishops of Ermeland from 1255 to 1298, was granted the
+&ldquo;law of Lübeck&rdquo; by its bishop in 1284, and admitted to the
+Hanseatic League. After numerous vicissitudes it fell into
+the hands of the Poles in 1520, and in 1626 it was captured
+by Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedes kept possession till 1635.
+It fell to Prussia by the first partition of Poland in 1772.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAVO<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (Ital. for &ldquo;brave&rdquo;), the name for hired assassins
+such as were formerly common in Italy. The word had at first
+no evil meaning, but was applied to the retainers of the great
+noble houses, or to the cavalier-type of swashbucklers familiar in
+fiction. In later Italian history, especially in that of Venice,
+the <i>bravi</i> were desperate ruffians who for payment were ready
+to commit any crime, however foul.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAWLING<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (probably connected with Ger. <i>brallen</i>, to roar,
+shout), in law, the offence of quarrelling, or creating a disturbance
+in a church or churchyard. During the early stages
+of the Reformation in England religious controversy too often
+became converted into actual disturbance, and the ritual lawlessness
+of the parochial clergy very frequently provoked popular
+violence. To repress these disturbances an act was passed in
+1551, by which it was enacted &ldquo;that if any person shall, by
+words only, quarrel, chide or brawl in any church or churchyard,
+it shall be lawful for the ordinary of the place where the same
+shall be done and proved by two lawful witnesses, to suspend
+any person so offending, if he be a layman, from the entrance of
+the church, and if he be a clerk, from the ministration of his
+office, for so long as the said ordinary shall think meet, according
+to the fault.&rdquo; An act of 1553 added the punishment of
+imprisonment until the party should repent. The act of 1551
+was partly repealed in 1828 and wholly repealed as regards
+laymen by the Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860.
+Under that act, which applies to Ireland as well as to England,
+persons guilty of riotous, violent or indecent behaviour, in
+churches and chapels of the Church of England or Ireland, or in
+any chapel of any religious denomination, or in England in any
+place of religious worship duly certified, or in churchyards or
+burial-grounds, are liable on conviction before two justices to a
+penalty of not more than £5, or imprisonment for any term not
+exceeding two months. This enactment applies to clergy as well
+as to laity, and a clergyman of the Church of England convicted
+under it may also be dealt with under the Clergy Discipline Act
+of 1892 (<i>Girt v. Fillingham</i>, 1901, L.R. Prob. 176). When Mr
+J. Kensit during an ordination service in St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral
+&ldquo;objected&rdquo; to one of the candidates for ordination, on grounds
+which did not constitute an impediment or notable crime within
+the meaning of the ordination service, he was held to have
+unlawfully disturbed the bishop of London in the conduct of the
+service, and to be liable to conviction under the act of 1860
+(<i>Kensit</i> v. <i>Dean and Chapter of St Paul&rsquo;s</i>, 1905, L.R. 2 K.B. 249).
+The public worship of Protestant Dissenters, Roman Catholics
+and Jews in England had before 1860 been protected by a series
+of statutes beginning with the Toleration Act of 1689, and ending
+with the Liberty of Religious Worship Act 1855. These enactments,
+though not repealed, are for practical purposes superseded
+by the summary remedy given by the act of 1860. In Scotland
+disturbance of public worship is punishable as a breach of the
+peace (<i>Dougall</i> v. <i>Dykes</i>, 1861, 4 Irvine 101).</p>
+
+<p>In British possessions abroad interference with religious worship
+is usually dealt with by legislation, and not as a common-law
+offence. In India it is an offence voluntarily to cause disturbance
+to any assembly lawfully engaged in the performance
+of religious worship or religious ceremonies (Penal Code, s. 296).
+Under the Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (s. 207) penalties
+are imposed on persons who wilfully and without lawful justification
+or excuse (the proof of which lies on them) disquiet or
+disturb any meeting of persons lawfully assembled for religious
+worship, or assault any forces lawfully officiating at such meeting,
+or any of the persons there assembled.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States disturbance of religious worship is treated
+as an offence under the common law, which is in many states
+supplemented by legislation (see Bishop, <i>Amer. Crim. Law</i>,
+8th ed. 1892, vol. i. s. 542, vol. ii. ss. 303-305; California
+Penal Code, s. 302; <i>Revised Laws of Massachusetts</i>, 1902,
+chap. 212, s. 30.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAY, SIR REGINALD<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (d. 1503), British statesman and
+architect, was the second son of Sir Richard Bray, one of the
+privy council of Henry VI. Reginald was born in the parish
+of St John Bedwardine, near Worcester, but the date of his
+birth is uncertain. He was receiver-general and steward of the
+household to Sir Henry Stafford, second husband of Margaret,
+countess of Richmond, whose son afterwards became King
+Henry VII. The accession of the king Henry VII. favoured
+the fortunes of Reginald Bray, who was created a knight of the
+Bath at the coronation and afterwards a knight of the Garter.
+In the first year of Henry VII.&rsquo;s reign he was given a grant
+of the constableship of Oakham Castle in Rutland, and was
+appointed joint chief justice with Lord Fitz Walter of all the forest
+south of Trent and chosen of the privy council. Subsequently
+he was made high treasurer and chancellor of the duchy of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span>
+Lancaster. In October 1494 he became high steward of the
+university of Oxford, and he was a member of the parliament
+summoned in the 11th year of Henry VII&rsquo;s reign. In June
+1497 he was at the battle of Blackheath, and his services in
+repressing the Cornish rebels were rewarded with a gift of estates
+and the title of knight banneret. His taste and skill in architecture
+are attested by Henry VII.&rsquo;s chapel at Westminster
+and St George&rsquo;s chapel at Windsor. He directed the building
+of the former, and the finishing and decoration of the latter,
+to which, moreover, he was a liberal contributor, building at
+his own expense a chapel still called by his name and ornamented
+with his crest, the initial letters of his name, and a device representing
+the hemp-bray, an instrument used by hemp manufacturers.
+He died in 1503, before the Westminster chapel was
+completed, and was interred in St George&rsquo;s chapel.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAY, THOMAS<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1656-1730), English divine, was born at
+Marton, Shropshire, in 1656, and educated at All Souls&rsquo; College,
+Oxford. After leaving the university he was appointed vicar
+of Over-Whitacre, and rector of Sheldon in Warwickshire,
+where he wrote his famous <i>Catechetical Lectures</i>. Henry Compton,
+bishop of London, appointed him in 1696 as his commissary to
+organize the Anglican church in Maryland, and he was in that
+colony in 1699-1700. He took a great interest in colonial
+missions, especially among the American Indians, and it is to
+his exertions that the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
+owes its existence. He also projected a successful scheme
+for establishing parish libraries in England and America, out
+of which grew the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
+From 1706 till his death in February 1730 he was rector of St
+Botolph-Without, Aldgate, London, being unceasingly engaged
+in philanthropic and literary pursuits.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAY,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division
+of Berkshire, England, beautifully situated on the west (right)
+bank of the Thames, 1 m. S. of Maidenhead Bridge. Pop. (1901)
+2978. There are numerous riverside residences in the locality.
+The church of St Michael has portions of various dates from
+the Early English period onward, and is much restored. It
+contains a number of brasses of the 14th, 15th, 16th and 17th
+centuries. A well-known ballad, &ldquo;The Vicar of Bray,&rdquo; tells
+how a vicar held his position by easy conversions of faith according
+to necessity, from the days of Charles II. until the accession
+of George I. and the foundation of &ldquo;the illustrious house of
+Hanover&rdquo; (1714). One Francis Carswell, who is buried in the
+church, was vicar for forty-two years, approximately during
+this period, dying in 1709; but the legend is earlier, and the name
+of the vicar who gave rise to it is not certainly known. That of
+Simon Aleyn, who held the office from c. 1540 to 1588, is generally
+accepted, as, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary
+and Elizabeth, he is said to have been successively Papist,
+Protestant, Papist and Protestant. The name of Simon Simonds
+is also given on the authority of the vicar of the parish in 1745;
+Simonds died a canon of Windsor in 1551, but had been vicar of
+Bray. Tradition ascribes the song to a soldier in Colonel Fuller&rsquo;s
+troop of dragoons in the reign of George I.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAY,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a seaport and watering-place of Co. Wicklow,
+Ireland, 12 m. S.S.E. of Dublin on the Dublin &amp; South-Eastern
+railway, situated on both sides of the river Bray. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 7424. For parliamentary purposes it is divided
+between the eastern division of county Wicklow and the southern
+of county Dublin. A harbour was constructed by the urban
+district council (the harbour authority) which accommodates
+ships of 400 tons. There is some industry in brewing, milling
+and fishing, but the town, which is known as the &ldquo;Irish Brighton,&rdquo;
+is almost wholly dependent for its prosperity on visitors from
+Dublin and elsewhere. It therefore possesses all the equipments
+of a modern seaside resort; there is a fine sea-wall with esplanade
+upwards of a mile in length; the bathing is good, and race
+meetings are held. The town is rapidly increasing in size.
+The coast, especially towards the promontory of Bray Head,
+offers beautiful sea-views, and some of the best inland scenery
+in the county is readily accessible, such as the Glens of the Dargle
+and the Downs, the demesne of Powerscourt, the Bray river,
+with its loughs, and the pass of the Scalp. The demesne of
+Kilruddery, the seat of the earls of Meath, is specially beautiful.
+About 1170 Bray was bestowed by Richard de Clare or Strongbow,
+earl of Pembroke and Strigul, on Walter de Reddesford,
+who took the title of baron of Bray, and built a castle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1773-1854), English
+antiquary and topographer, was born at Lambeth, London, in
+1773. He was apprenticed to the enamelling trade, but early
+developed literary tastes. He formed a close friendship with
+John Britton, which lasted for sixty-five years. They entered
+into a literary partnership, and after some small successes at
+song and play writing they became joint editors of <i>The Beauties
+of England and Wales</i>, themselves writing many of the volumes.
+Long after he had become famous as a topographer, Brayley
+continued his enamel work. In 1823 he was elected a fellow of
+the Society of Antiquaries. He died in London on the 23rd of
+September 1854. His other works include <i>Sir Reginalde or the
+Black Tower</i> (1803); <i>Views in Suffolk, Norfolk and Northamptonshire,
+illustrative of works of Robt. Bloowifield</i> (1806);
+<i>Lambeth Palace</i> (1806);
+<i>The History of the Abbey Church of Westminster</i> (2 vols., 1818);
+<i>Topographical Sketches of Brighthelmstone</i> (1825);
+<i>Historical and Descriptive Accounts of Theatres of London</i> (1826);
+<i>Londiniana</i> (1829); <i>History of Surrey</i> (5 vols., 1841-1848).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZIER<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>brasier</i>, which comes from <i>braise</i>,
+hot charcoal), a metal receptacle for holding burning coals or
+charcoal, much used in southern Europe and the East for
+warming rooms. Braziers are often elegant in form, and highly
+artistic in ornamentation, with chased or embossed feet and
+decorated exteriors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brasil</span>, a legendary island in the Atlantic Ocean.
+The name connects itself with the red dye-woods so called in the
+middle ages, possibly also applied to other vegetable dyes, and
+so descending from the <i>Insulae Purpurariae</i> of Pliny. It first
+appears as the <i>I. de Brazi</i> in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco
+(1436), where it is found attached to one of the larger islands
+of the Azores. When this group became better known and was
+colonized, the island in question was renamed Terceira. It is
+probable that the familiar existence of &ldquo;Brazil&rdquo; as a geographical
+name led to its bestowal upon the vast region of South
+America, which was found to supply dye-woods kindred to those
+which the name properly denoted. The older memory survived
+also, and the Island of Brazil retained its place in mid-ocean,
+some hundred miles to the west of Ireland, both in the traditions
+of the forecastle and in charts. In J. Purdy&rsquo;s <i>General Chart of
+the Atlantic</i>, &ldquo;corrected to 1830,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Brazil Rock (high)&rdquo; is
+marked with no indication of doubt, in 51° 10&prime; N. and 15° 50&prime; W.
+In a chart of currents by A.G. Findlay, dated 1853, these names
+appear again. But in his 12th edition of Purdy&rsquo;s <i>Memoir
+Descriptive and Explanatory of the N. Atlantic Ocean</i> (1865), the
+existence of Brazil and some other legendary islands is briefly
+discussed and rejected. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Atlantis</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a republic of South America, the largest political
+division of that continent and the third largest of the western
+hemisphere. It is larger than the continental United States
+excluding Alaska, and slightly larger than the great bulk of
+Europe lying east of France. Its extreme dimensions are 2629 m.
+from Cape Orange (4° 21&prime; N.) almost due south to the river
+Chuy (33° 45&prime; S. lat.), and 2691 m. from Olinda (Ponta de Pedra,
+8° 0&prime; 57&Prime; S., 34° 50&prime; W.) due west to the Peruvian frontier (about
+73° 50&prime; W.). The most northerly point, the Serra Roraima on
+the Venezuela and British Guiana frontier (5° 10&prime; N.), is 56 m.
+farther north than Cape Orange. The area, which was augmented
+by more than 60,000 sq. m. in 1903 and diminished slightly in
+the boundary adjustment with British Guiana (1904), is estimated
+to have been 3,228,452 sq. m. in 1900 (A. Supan, <i>Die Bevölkerung
+der Erde</i>, Gotha, 1904). A subsequent planimetric calculation,
+which takes into account these territorial changes, increases the
+area to 3,270,000 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boundaries.</i>&mdash;Brazil is bounded N. by Colombia, Venezuela
+and the Guianas, N.E., E. and S.E. by the Atlantic, S. by
+Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia, and W. by Argentina, Paraguay,
+Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. Its territory
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span>
+touches that of every South American nation, except Chile,
+and with each one there has been a boundary dispute at some
+stage in its political life. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns
+attempted to define the limits between their American colonies
+in 1750 and 1777, and the lines adopted still serve in great part
+to separate Brazil from its neighbours. Lack of information
+regarding the geographical features of the interior, however, led
+to some indefinite descriptions, and these have been fruitful
+sources of dispute ever since. The Portuguese were persistent
+trespassers in early colonial times, and their land-hunger took
+them far beyond the limits fixed by Pope Alexander VI. In the
+boundary disputes which have followed, Brazil seems to have
+pursued this traditional policy, and generally with success.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning at the mouth of the Arroyo del Chuy, at the southern
+extremity of a long sandbank separating Lake Mirim from the
+Atlantic (33°45&prime; S. lat.), the boundary line between Brazil and
+Uruguay passes up that rivulet and across to the most southerly
+tributary of Lake Mirim, thence down the western shore of that
+lake to the Jaguarão and up that river to its most southerly
+source. The line then crosses to the hill-range called Cuchilla
+de Sant&rsquo; Anna, which is followed in a north-west direction to the
+source of the Cuareim, or Quarahy, this river becoming the
+boundary down to the Uruguay. This line was fixed by the
+treaty of 1851, by which the control of Lake Mirim remains with
+Brazil. Beginning at the mouth of the Quarahy, the boundary
+line between Brazil and Argentina ascends the Uruguay, crosses
+to the source of the Santo Antonio, and descends that small
+stream and the Iguassú to the Paraná, where it terminates.
+This line was defined by the treaty of 1857, and by the decision
+of President Cleveland in 1895 with regard to the small section
+between the Uruguay and Iguassú rivers. The boundary with
+Paraguay was definitely settled in 1872. It ascends the Paraná
+to the great falls of Guayrá, or Sete Quedas, and thence westward
+along the water-parting of the Sierra de Maracayú to the <i>cerro</i>
+of that name, thence northerly along the Sierra d&rsquo;Amambay to
+the source of the Estrella, a small tributary of the Apá, and
+thence down those two streams to the Paraguay. From this
+point the line ascends the Paraguay to the mouth of the Rio
+Negro, the outlet of the Bahia Negra, where the Bolivian boundary
+begins. As regards the Peruvian boundary, an agreement was
+reached in 1904 to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the
+president of Argentina in case further efforts to reach an amicable
+settlement failed. The provisional line, representing the
+Brazilian claim, begins at the termination of the Bolivian
+section (the intersection of the 11th parallel with the meridian
+of 72° 26&prime; W. approx.) and follows a semicircular direction
+north-west and north to the source of the Javary (or Yavary),
+to include the basins of the Purús and Juruá within Brazilian
+jurisdiction. The line follows the Javary to its junction with the
+Amazon, and runs thence north by east direct to the mouth of
+the Apaporis, a tributary of the Yapurá, in about 1° 30&prime; S. lat.,
+69° 20&prime; W. long., where the Peruvian section ends. The whole of
+this line, however, was subject to future adjustments, Peru
+claiming all that part of the Amazon valley extending eastward
+to the Madeira and lying between the Beni and the east and
+west boundary line agreed upon by Spain and Portugal in 1750
+and 1777, which is near the 7th parallel. With regard to the
+section between the Amazon and the Apaporis river, already
+settled between Brazil and Peru, the territory has been in
+protracted dispute between Peru, Ecuador and Colombia;
+but a treaty of limits between Brazil and Ecuador was signed in
+1901 and promulgated in 1905. The boundary with Colombia,
+fixed by treaty of April 24, 1907, follows the lower rim of
+the Amazon basin, as defined by Brazil. The Colombian claim
+included the left bank of the Amazon eastward to the Auahy
+or Avahy-paraná channel between the Amazon and Yapurá,
+whence the line ran northward to the Negro near the intersection
+of the 66th meridian. The Brazilian line ran north and north-west
+from the mouth of the Apaporis to the 70th meridian, which
+was followed to the water-parting south of the Uaupés basin,
+thence north-east to the Uaupés river, which was crossed close
+to the 69th meridian, thence easterly along the Serra Tunaji
+and Isana river to Cuyari, thence northerly up the Cuyari and
+one of its small tributaries to the Serra Capparro, and thence
+east and south-east along this range to the Cucuhy rock (Pedra
+de Cucuhy) on the left bank of the Negro, where the Colombian
+section ends. Negotiations for the settlement of this controversy,
+which involved fully one-third of the state of Amazonas, were
+broken off in 1870, but were resumed in 1905. The boundary
+with Venezuela, which was defined by a treaty of 1859, runs
+south-eastward from Cucuhy across a level country intersected
+by rivers and channels tributary to both the Negro and Orinoco,
+to the Serra Cupuy watershed which separates the rivers of
+the Amazon and Orinoco valleys. This watershed includes the
+ranges running eastward and northward under the names of
+Imeri, Tapiira-peco, Curupira, Parima and Pacaraima, the
+Venezuelan section terminating at Mt. Roraima. On the 9th
+of December 1905 protocols were signed at Caracas accepting
+the line between Cucuhy and the Serra Cupuy located in 1880,
+and referring the remainder, which had been located by a
+Brazilian commission in 1882 and 1884, to a mixed commission
+for verification.</p>
+
+<p>The disputed boundary between Brazil and British Guiana,
+which involved the possession of a territory having an estimated
+area of 12,741 sq. m., was settled by arbitration in 1904 with
+the king of Italy as arbitrator, the award being a compromise
+division by which Great Britain received about 7336
+sq. m. and Brazil about 5405. The definite boundary line
+starts from Mt. Roraima and follows the water-parting east and
+south to the source of the Ireng or Mahu river, which with the
+Takutú forms the boundary as far south as 1° N. to enclose the
+basin of the Essequibo and its tributaries, thence it turns east
+and north of east along the Serra Acaria to unite with the
+unsettled boundary line of Dutch Guiana near the intersection
+of the 2nd parallel north with the 56th meridian. Negotiations
+were initiated in 1905 for the definite location of the boundary
+with Dutch Guiana. Running north-east and south-east to
+enclose the sources of the Rio Paru, it unites with the French
+Guiana line at 2° 10&prime; N., 55° W., and thence runs easterly along
+the water-parting of the Serra Tumuc-Humac to the source of the
+Oyapok, which river is the divisional line to the Atlantic coast.
+The boundary with French Guiana (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guiana</a></span>), which had
+long been a subject of dispute, was settled by arbitration in
+1900, the award being rendered by the government of Switzerland.
+The area of the disputed territory was about 34,750 sq. m.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>&mdash;A relief map of Brazil shows two very
+irregular divisions of surface: the great river basins, or plains, of
+the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata, which are practically connected
+by low elevations in Bolivia, and a huge, shapeless mass of
+highlands filling the eastern projection of the continent and extending
+southward to the plains of Rio Grande do Sul and westward to
+the Bolivian frontier. Besides these there are a narrow coastal
+plain, the low plains of Rio Grande do Sul, and the Guiana highlands
+on the northern slope of the Amazon basin below the Rio Negro.</p>
+
+<p>The coastal plain consists in great part of sandy beaches, detritus
+formations, and partially submerged areas caused by uplifted
+beaches and obstructed river channels. Mangrove swamps,
+lagoons and marshes, with inland canals following the
+<span class="sidenote">Relief.</span>
+coast line for long distances, are characteristic features of a large
+extent of the Brazilian coast. Parts of this coastal plain, however,
+have an elevation of 100 to 200 ft., are rolling and fertile in character,
+and terminate on the coast in a line of bluffs. In the larger depressions,
+like that of the Reconcavo of Bahia, there are large
+alluvial areas celebrated for their fertility. This plain is of varying
+width, and on some parts of the coast it disappears altogether.
+In Rio Grande do Sul, where two large lakes have been created
+by uplifted sand beaches, the coastal plain widens greatly, and is
+merged in an extensive open, rolling grassy plain, traversed by
+ridges of low hills (<i>cuchillas</i>), similar to the neighbouring republic of
+Uruguay. The western part of this plain is drained by the Uruguay
+and its tributaries, which places it within the river Plate (La Plata)
+basin.</p>
+
+<p>The two great river basins of the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata
+comprise within themselves, approximately, three-fifths of the total
+area of Brazil. Large areas of these great river plains are annually
+flooded, the flood-plains of the Amazon extending nearly across
+the whole country and comprising thousands of square miles. The
+Amazon plain is heavily forested and has a slope of less than one
+inch to the mile within Brazilian territory&mdash;one competent authority
+placing it at about one-fifth of an inch per mile. The La Plata basin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span>
+is less heavily wooded, its surface more varied, and its Brazilian
+part stands at a much higher elevation.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two highland regions of Brazil, that of the northern slope
+of the Amazon basin belongs physically to the isolated mountain
+system extending eastward from the Negro and Orinoco to the
+Atlantic, the water-parting of which forms the boundary line between
+the Guianas and Brazil. The culminating point is near the western
+extremity of this chain and its altitude is estimated at 8500 ft.
+The ranges gradually diminish in elevation towards the east, the
+highest point of the Tumuc-Humac range, on the frontier of French
+Guiana, being about 2600 ft. The Brazilian plateau slopes southward
+and eastward, traversed by broken ranges of low mountains
+and deeply eroded by river courses. The table-topped hills of
+Almeyrin (or Almeirim) and Ereré, which lie near the lower Amazon
+and rise to heights of 800 and 900 ft., are generally considered the
+southernmost margin of this plateau, though Agassiz and others
+describe them as remains of a great sandstone sheet which once
+covered the entire Amazon valley. Its general elevation has been
+estimated to be about 2000 ft. It is a stony, semi-arid region,
+thinly wooded, having good grazing <i>campos</i> in its extreme western
+section. Its semi-arid character is due to the mountain ranges on
+its northern frontier, which extract the moisture from the north-east
+trades and leave the Brazilian plateau behind them with a very
+limited rainfall, except near the Atlantic coast. The more arid
+districts offer no inducement for settlement and are inhabited only
+by a few roving bands of Indians, but there were settlements of
+whites in the grazing districts of the Rio Branco at an early date,
+and a few hundreds of adventurers have occupied the mining districts
+of the east. In general, Brazilian Guiana, as this plateau region is
+sometimes called, is one of the least attractive parts of the republic.</p>
+
+<p>The great Brazilian plateau, which is the most important physical
+division of Brazil, consists of an elevated tableland 1000 to 3000 ft.
+above the sea-level, traversed by two great mountain systems, and
+deeply eroded and indented by numerous rivers. A thick sandstone
+sheet once covered the greater part if not all of it, remains of which
+are found on the elevated <i>chapadas</i> of the interior and on isolated
+elevations extending across the republic toward its western frontier.
+These chapadas and elevations, which are usually described as
+mountain ranges, are capped by horizontal strata of sandstone and
+show the original surface, which has been worn away by the rivers,
+leaving here and there broad flat-topped ridges between river basins
+and narrower ranges of hills between river courses. From the
+valleys their rugged, deeply indented escarpments, stretching away
+to the horizon, have the appearance of a continuous chain of mountains.
+The only true mountain systems, however, so far as known,
+are the two parallel ranges which follow the contour of the coast,
+and the central, or Goyana, system. The first consists of an almost
+continuous range crossing the northern end of Rio Grande do Sul
+and following the coast northward to the vicinity of Cape Frio, and
+thence northward in broken ranges to the vicinity of Cape St Roque,
+and a second parallel range running from eastern São Paulo northeast
+and north to the eastern margin of the São Francisco basin in
+northern Bahia, where that river turns eastward to the Atlantic.
+The first of these is generally known as the Serra do Mar, or Coast
+Range, though it is locally known under many names. Its culminating
+point is in the Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgãos), near
+Rio de Janeiro, which reaches an elevation of 7323 ft. The inland
+range, which is separated from the Coast Range in the vicinity of
+Rio de Janeiro by the valley of the Parahyba do Sul river, is known
+as the Serra da Mantiqueira, and from the point where it turns
+northward to form the eastern rim of the São Francisco basin, as the
+Serra do Espinhaço. This range is also known under various local
+names. Its culminating point is toward the western extremity of
+the Mantiqueira range where the Itatiaya, or Itatiaia-assu, peak
+rises to an elevation of 8898 ft. (other measurements give 9823 ft.),
+probably the highest summit in Brazil. This range forms the true
+backbone of the maritime mountainous belt and rises from the
+plateau itself, while the Coast Range rises on its eastern margin and
+forms a rim to the plateau. North of Cape Frio the Coast Range
+is much broken and less elevated, while the Serra do Espinhaço
+takes a more inland course and is separated from the coast by
+great gently-sloping, semi-barren terraces. The second system&mdash;the
+Central or Goyana&mdash;consists of two distinct chains of mountains
+converging toward the north in the elevated <i>chapadão</i> between the
+Tocantins and São Francisco basins. The eastern range of this
+central system, which crosses western Minas Geraes from the so-called
+Serra das Vertentes to the valley of the Paracatú, a western tributary
+of the São Francisco, is called the Serra da Canastra and Serra da
+Matta da Corde. Its culminating point is toward its southern extremity
+in the Serra da Canastra, 4206 ft. above sea-level. The
+western range, or what is definitely known of it, runs across southern
+Goyaz, south-west to north-east, and forms the water-parting
+between the Paraná and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. Its culminating
+point is in the Montes Pyreneos, near the city of Goyaz, and
+is about 4500 ft. above sea-level.</p>
+
+<p>The great part of this immense region consists of <i>chapadões</i>, as
+the larger table-land areas are called, <i>chapadas</i> or smaller sections
+of the same, and broadly excavated river valleys. How extensive
+this work of erosion has been may be seen in the Tocantins-Araguaya
+basin, where a great pear-shaped depression, approximately 100 to
+500 m. wide, 700 m. long, and from 1000 to 1500 ft. deep, has
+been excavated northward from the centre of the plateau. Southward
+the Paraná has excavated another great basin and eastward
+the São Francisco another. Add to these the eroded river basins of
+the Xingú, Tapajós and Guaporé on the north and west, the Paraguay
+on the south-west, and the scores of smaller rivers along the
+Atlantic coast, and we may have some conception of the agencies
+that have been at work in breaking down and shaping this great
+table-land, perhaps the oldest part of the continent. The most
+southern of these <i>chapadões</i>, that of the Paraná basin, in which may
+be included the northern part of the Uruguay and eastern part of
+the Paraguay basins, includes the greater part of the states of Rio
+Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Paraná and São Paulo, the south-western
+corner of Minas Geraes, a part of southern Goyaz, and the
+south-eastern corner of Matto Grosso. The greatest elevation is on
+its eastern or Atlantic margin where the average is about 3280 ft.
+above sea-level. The plateau breaks down abruptly toward the sea,
+and slopes gradually some hundreds of feet toward the south and
+west. There has been considerable denudation toward the west,
+the eastern tributaries of the Paraná rising very near the coast.
+The northern and western parts of this plateau have an average
+elevation a little less than that of the Atlantic margin, and their
+slopes are toward the south and east, those of Goyaz and Matto
+Grosso being abrupt and deeply eroded. This great <i>chapadão</i> is in
+many respects the best part of Brazil, having a temperate climate,
+extensive areas of fertile soil, rich forests and a regular rainfall.
+Its Atlantic slopes are heavily wooded, but the western slopes exhibit
+grass-covered <i>campos</i> between the river courses. The São Francisco
+<i>chapadão</i>, which has a general elevation of about 2600 ft., covers
+the greater part of the states of Minas Geraes and Bahia, and a small
+part of western Pernambuco, and might also be considered continuous
+with those of the Parnahyba and Tocantins-Araguaya
+basins. This region is more tropical in character, partially barren,
+and has an uncertain rainfall, a large part of the São Francisco basin
+and the upper Atlantic slope of its eastern rim being subject to
+long-continued droughts. This region is well wooded along the
+river courses of Minas Geraes, the lower Atlantic slopes of Bahia,
+which are perhaps outside the plateau proper, and on the weather
+side of some of the elevated ridges where the rainfall is heavy and
+regular. It has extensive <i>campos</i> and large areas of exposed rock
+and stony steppes, but is richly provided with mineral deposits. It
+breaks down less abruptly toward the Atlantic, the slopes in Bahia
+being long and gradual. The Parnahyba <i>chapadão</i> covers the state
+of Piauhy, the southern part of Maranhão, and the western part of
+Ceará. Its general elevation is less than that of the São Francisco
+region, owing to the slope of the plateau surface toward the Amazon
+depression and to denudation. It resembles the São Francisco region
+in its uncertain rainfall and exposure to droughts, and in having large
+areas of <i>campos</i> suitable for grazing purposes. It is thinly wooded,
+except in the north, where the climatic conditions approach those
+of the Amazon valley. Its climate is more tropical and its development
+has gone forward less rapidly than in the more temperate
+regions of the south. The Amazonian <i>chapadão</i>, which includes the
+remainder of the great Brazilian plateau west of the São Francisco
+and Parnahyba regions and which appears to be the continuation
+of these tablelands westward, is much the largest of these plateau
+divisions. It covers the greater part of the states of Matto Grosso
+and Goyaz, a large part of southern Pará, the southern margin of
+Amazonas, and a considerable part of western Maranhão. It includes
+the river basins of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingú, Tapajós,
+and the eastern tributaries of the Guaporé-Madeira. A considerable
+part of it has been excavated by these rivers to a level which gives
+their valleys the elevation and character of lowlands, though isolated
+hills and ranges with the characteristic overlying horizontal sandstone
+strata of the ancient plateau show that it was once a highland
+region. The southern margin of this plateau breaks down abruptly
+toward the south and overlooks the Paraná and Paraguay basins
+from elevations of 2600 to 3000 ft. There is great diversity in the
+character and appearance of this extensive region. It lies wholly
+within the tropics, though its more elevated districts enjoy a temperate
+climate. Its <i>chapadas</i> are covered with extensive <i>campos</i>,
+its shallow valleys with open woodlands, and its deeper valleys
+with heavy forests. The rainfall is good, but not heavy. The
+general slope is toward the Amazon, and its rivers debouch upon the
+Amazonian plain through a succession of falls and rapids.</p>
+
+<p>There remains only the elevated valley of the Parahyba do Sul,
+lying between the so-called Serra das Vertentes of southern Minas
+Geraes and the Serra do Mar, and extending from the Serra da
+Bocaina, near the city of São Paulo, eastward to Cape Frio and the
+coastal plain north of that point. It includes a small part of eastern
+São Paulo, the greater part of the state of Rio de Janeiro, a small
+corner of Espirito Santo, and a narrow strip along the southern
+border of Minas Geraes. It is traversed by two mountain chains,
+the Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar, and the broad, fertile
+valley of the Parahyba do Sul which lies between them, and which
+slopes gently toward the east from a general elevation exceeding
+2000 ft. in São Paulo. This region is the smallest of the <i>chapadão</i>
+divisions of the great plateau, and might be considered either a
+southward extension of the São Francisco or an eastward extension
+of the Paraná <i>chapadão</i>. It is one of the most favoured regions of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span>
+Brazil, having an abundant rainfall, extensive forests of valuable
+timber, and large areas of fertile soil. The mountain slopes are still
+masses of dense forest, though their lower elevations and neighbouring
+valleys have been cleared for cultivation and by dealers in
+rosewood and other valuable woods. This elevated valley is noted
+for its fertility and was once the principal coffee-producing district
+of Brazil.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:900px; height:676px" src="images/img440.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img440a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Outside the two great river systems of the Amazon and river
+Plate (Rio de la Plata), which are treated under their respective
+titles, the rivers of Brazil are limited to the numerous
+small streams and three or four large rivers which flow
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+eastward from the plateau regions directly into the Atlantic. The
+Amazon system covers the entire north-western part of the republic,
+the state of Amazonas, nearly the whole of Pará and the greater
+part of Matto Grosso being drained by this great river and its
+tributaries. If the Tocantins-Araguaya basin is included in the
+hydrographic system, the greater part of Goyaz and a small part of
+Maranhão should be added to this drainage area. The Tocantins is
+sometimes treated as a tributary of the Amazon because its outlet,
+called the Rio Pará, is connected with that great river by a number
+of inland channels. It is an entirely separate river, however, and the
+inland communication between them is due to the slight elevation
+of the intervening country above their ordinary levels and to the
+enormous volume of water brought down by the Amazon, especially
+in the flood season. As the outlet of the Tocantins is so near to
+that of the Amazon, and their lower valleys are conterminous, it
+is convenient to treat them as parts of the same hydrographic
+basin.</p>
+
+<p>In the extreme north-east corner of the republic where the
+Brazilian Guiana plateau slopes toward the Atlantic there is a small
+area lying outside the drainage basin of the Amazon. Its rivers flow
+easterly into the Atlantic and drain a triangular-shaped area of the
+plateau lying between the northern frontier and the southern and
+western watersheds of the Araguary, whose extreme limits are about
+0° 30&prime; N. lat. and 53° 50&prime; W. long. The more important of these
+rivers are the Araguary, Amapá, Calçoene, Cassiporé and Oyapok.
+The Araguary rises in the Tumuc-Humac mountains, in about
+2° 30&prime; N. lat., 52° 10&prime; W. long., and follows a tortuous course south
+and north-east to the Atlantic. Its largest tributary, the Amapary,
+rises still farther west. Little is known of the country through
+which it flows, and its channel is broken by rapids and waterfalls
+where it descends to the coastal plain. The Amapá is a short river
+rising on the eastern slopes of the same range and flowing across a
+low, wooded plain, filled with lagoons. The Calçoene and Cassiporé
+enter the Atlantic farther north and have a north-east course across
+the same plain. All these small rivers are described as auriferous
+and have attracted attention for this reason. The Oyapok, or
+Vicente Pinzon, is the best-known of the group and forms the boundary
+line between Brazil and French Guiana under the arbitration
+award of 1900. It rises in about 2° 05&prime; N., 53° 48&prime; W., and flows
+easterly and north-easterly to the Atlantic. Its course is less tortuous
+than that of the Araguary.</p>
+
+<p>The rivers of the great Brazilian plateau which flow directly to the
+Atlantic coast may be divided into two classes: those of its northward
+slope which flow in a northerly and north-easterly direction
+to the north-east coast of the republic, and those which drain its
+eastern slope and flow to the sea in an easterly direction. The former
+reach the coastal plain over long and gradual descents, and are
+navigable for considerable distances. The latter descend from the
+plateau much nearer the coast, and are in most cases navigable for
+short distances only. In both classes navigation is greatly impeded
+by sandbars at the mouths of these rivers, while in the districts of
+periodical rainfall it is greatly restricted in the dry season. The
+more important rivers of the first division, which are described in
+more detail under the titles of the Brazilian states through which
+they flow, are the following: the Gurupy, Tury-assú, Mearim,
+Itapicurú and Balsas, in the state of Maranhão; the Parnahyba
+and its tributaries in Piauhy; Jaguaribe in Ceará; and the Apody
+and Piranhas in Rio Grande do Norte. Of these the Parnahyba is
+the most important, having a total length of about 900 m., broken
+at intervals by rapids and navigable in sections. It receives only
+one important tributary from Maranhão&mdash;the Rio das Balsas,
+447 m. long&mdash;and five from Piauhy, the Urussuhy-assú, Gurgueia,
+Canindé, Poty and Longa. Piauhy is wholly within its drainage
+basin, although the river forms the boundary line between that state
+and Maranhão throughout its entire length. All the rivers in this
+division are influenced by the periodical character of the rainfall,
+their navigable channels being greatly shortened in the dry season
+(August-January). In Ceará the smaller rivers become dry channels
+in the dry season, and in protracted droughts the larger ones disappear
+also.</p>
+
+<p>The rivers of the second division are included in a very great
+extension of coast and are influenced by wide differences in climate.
+Their character is also determined by the distance of the Serra do
+Mar from the coast, the more southern rivers having short precipitous
+courses. The more northern rivers are subject to periodical variations
+in volume caused by wet and dry seasons, but the greater distance
+of the coast range and the more gradual breaking down of
+the plateau toward the sea, give them longer courses and a greater
+extent of navigable water. North of the São Francisco the watershed
+projecting from the plateau eastward toward Cape St Roque, known
+as the Serra da Borborema in Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte
+where its direction becomes north-east, leaves a triangular section
+of the easterly slope in which the river courses are short and much
+broken by rapids. The rainfall, also, is limited and uncertain. The
+largest of this group of small rivers is the Parahyba do Norte, belonging
+to the state of Parahyba, whose length is said to be less than
+200 m., only 5 or 6 m. of which are navigable for small steamers.
+The São Francisco, which belongs to the inland plateau region, is
+the largest river of the eastern coast of Brazil and exists by virtue
+of climatic conditions wholly different from those of the coast where
+it enters the Atlantic. The tributaries of the lower half of this great
+river, which belong to the Atlantic coast region, are small and often
+dry, but the upper river where the rainfall is heavier and more regular
+receives several large affluents. The river is navigable up to the
+Paulo Affonso falls, 192 m. from the coast, and above the falls there
+is a much longer stretch of navigable water.</p>
+
+<p>From the São Francisco to Cape Frio there are many short rivers
+rising on the slopes of the plateau and crossing the narrow coastal
+plain to the sea. There are also a few of greater length which rise
+far back on the plateau itself and flow down to the plain through
+deeply cut, precipitous courses. The navigable channels of these
+rivers are restricted to the coastal plain, except where a river has
+excavated for itself a valley back into the plateau. The more important
+of these rivers are the Itapicurú, Paraguassú, Contas or
+Jussiape, Pardo or Patype, and Jequitinhonha, of Bahia; the
+Mucury, and Doce, of Espirito Santo; and the Parahyba do Sul of
+the state of Rio de Janeiro. Of the Bahia group, the Jequitinhonha,
+sometimes called the Belmonte on its lower course, is the longest
+and most important, rising near Serro in the state of Minas Geraes
+and flowing in a curving north-east direction for a distance of about
+500 m., 84 of which are navigable inland from the sea. The Mucury
+and Doce also rise in Minas Geraes, and are much broken in their
+descent to the lower plains, the former having a navigable channel
+of 98 m. and the latter of 138 m. The Parahyba, or Parahyba do
+Sul, which enters the sea about 30 m. north of Cape S. Thomé, is the
+largest and most important of the Atlantic coast rivers south of the
+São Francisco. It rises on an elevated tableland in the state of São
+Paulo and flows across the state of Rio de Janeiro from west to east,
+through a broad fertile valley producing coffee in its most elevated
+districts and sugar on its alluvial bottom-lands nearer the sea. It has
+a total length of 658 m., 57 of which are navigable between S. Fidelis
+and its mouth, and about 90 m. of its upper course.</p>
+
+<p>South of Cape Frio there are no large rivers along the coast because
+of the proximity of the Serra do Mar&mdash;the coastal plain being very
+narrow and in places disappearing altogether. There are many short
+streams along this coast, fed by heavy rainfalls, but they have no
+geographic importance and no economic value under existing conditions.
+The largest of these and the only one of commercial value
+is the Ribeira de Iguape, which has its source on the tablelands of
+Paraná and after receiving several affluents west of the Serra do
+Mar breaks through a depression in that range and discharges into
+the Atlantic some miles below Santos on the southern boundary of
+the state of São Paulo. This river has a navigable channel of 118 m.
+below Xiririca, and communicates with an inland canal or waterway
+extending for many miles along this coast and known as the Iguape,
+or Mar Pequeno. In Rio Grande do Sul the Atlantic coastal plain
+extends westward more than half-way across the state, and is well
+watered by numerous streams flowing eastward to the Lagôa dos
+Patos. Of these only two are of large size&mdash;the Guayba and Camaquam.
+The first is formed by the confluence of the Jacuhy, Cahy,
+Sinos and Gravatahy, and is known under this name only from
+Porto Alegre to the Ponta de Itapuã, where it enters the Lagôa dos
+Patos. This river system drains a large part of the northern mountainous
+region of the state, and has a considerable extension of
+navigable channels between the plateau margin and the lake. In
+the extreme southern part of the state, the Lagôa Mirim empties
+into the Lagôa dos Patos through a navigable channel 61½ m. long,
+called the Rio São Gonçalo.</p>
+
+<p>The Brazilian rivers of the Rio de la Plata system are numerous
+and important. Those of the Paraguay drain the south-western
+part of Matto Grosso, and the tributaries of the Paraná cover the
+western slopes of the Serra do Mar from Rio Grande do Sul north
+to the south-west part of Minas Geraes, and include the south-east
+part of Matto Grosso and the south part of Goyaz within their
+drainage basin. This is one of the most important fluvial systems
+of Brazil, but its economic value is impaired by the great waterfalls
+of Guayrá, or Sete Quedas, and Uribú-punga, and by the rapids and
+waterfalls in the majority of its affluents near their junction with the
+main stream. Between the two great waterfalls of the Paraná there
+is an open channel of 276 m., passing through a rich and healthy
+country, and receiving large tributaries from one of the most fertile
+regions of Brazil. Among the larger of these are the great falls of
+the Iguassú, near the junction of that river with the Paraná. Though
+the Uruguay plays a less important part, its relations to the
+country are similar to those of the Paraná, and its tributaries from
+the plateau region are similarly broken by falls and rapids. The
+Paraguay is in great part a lowland river, with a sluggish current,
+and is navigable by large river steamers up to Corumbá, and by
+smaller steamers to Cuyabá and the mouth of the Jaurú.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span></p>
+
+<p>Compared with the number, length and volume of its rivers,
+Brazil has very few lakes, only two of which are noticeable for their
+size. There are a number of lakes in the lowland region
+of the Amazon valley, but these are mainly overflow
+<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span>
+reservoirs whose areas expand and contract with the rise and fall
+of the great river. The coastal plain is also intersected by lagoons,
+lakes and inland channels formed by uplifted beaches. These inland
+channels often afford many miles of sheltered navigation. The lakes
+formed in this manner are generally shallow, and are sometimes
+associated with extensive swamps, as in southern Bahia. The lakes
+of the Alagôas coast, however, are long, narrow and deep, occupying
+valleys which were deeply excavated when the land stood at a higher
+level, and which were transformed into lakes by the elevation of the
+coast. The largest of these are the Lagôa do Norte, on whose margin
+stands the city of Maceió, and the Lagôa do Sul, a few miles south of
+that city. Both have outlets to the sea, and the former is salt
+There is a large number of these lakes along the coasts of Espirito
+Santo and Rio de Janeiro, some of them of considerable size. The
+two largest lakes of this class are on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul
+and are known as the Lagôa dos Patos and Lagôa Mirim. Both of
+these lakes lie nearly parallel with the coast line, are separated from
+the ocean by broad sand beaches filled with small lakes, and communicate
+with the ocean through the same channel. The Lagôa dos
+Patos is about 124 m. long with a maximum width of 37 m., and
+Lagôa Mirim is 108 m. long with a maximum width of 15 m. Both
+are navigable, though comparatively shallow and filled with sandbanks.
+So far as known, there are no lakes of noteworthy size in the
+interior of the country. There are a few small lakes in Maranhão
+and Piauhy, some in Goyaz in the great valley of the Araguaya,
+and a considerable number in Matto Grosso, especially in the Paraguay
+basin, where the sluggish current of that river is unable to carry
+away the rainfall in the rainy season.</p>
+
+<p>The coast of Brazil is indented with a number of almost landlocked
+bays, forming spacious and accessible harbours. The larger
+and more important of these are Todos os Santos, on
+which is located the city of São Salvador or Bahia, and
+<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span>
+Rio de Janeiro or Guanabara, beside which stands the capital of the
+republic. These two are freely accessible to the largest ships afloat.
+The bays of Espirito Santo, Paranaguá and São Francisco have
+similar characteristics, but they are smaller and more difficult of
+access. The first is the harbour for the city of Victoria, and the other
+two for ports of the same name in southern Brazil. The port of
+Pernambuco, or Recife, is formed by a stone reef lying across the
+entrance to a shallow bay at the mouth of two small rivers, Beberibe
+and Capibaribe, and is accessible to steamers of medium draught.
+Santa Catharina and Maranhão have well-sheltered harbours formed
+by an island lying in the mouth of a large bay, but the latter is
+shallow and difficult of access. Pará, Parnahyba, Parahyba, Santos
+and Rio Grande do Sul are river ports situated near the sea on rivers
+having the same name; but, with the exception of Pará and Santos,
+they are difficult of access and are of secondary importance. There
+are still other bays along the coast which are well adapted for commercial
+purposes but are used only in the coasting trade. Many
+of the Atlantic coast rivers would afford excellent port facilities if
+obstructions were removed from their mouths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Brazil is a region which has been free from violent
+disturbances since an early geological period. It has, indeed, been
+subject to oscillations, but the movements have been regional in
+character and have not been accompanied by the formation of any
+mountain chain or any belt of intense folding. From the Devonian
+onwards the beds lie flat or dip at low angles. They are faulted but
+not sharply folded. The mountain ranges of the east of Brazil, from
+Cape St Roque to the mouth of the river Plate, are composed chiefly
+of crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Some of the metamorphic
+rocks may belong to the older Palaeozoic period, but the greater part
+of the series is probably Archaean. Similar rocks cover a large area
+in the province of Goyaz and in the south of the Matto Grosso, and
+they form, also, the hills which border the basin of the Amazon on
+the confines of Venezuela and Guiana. They constitute, in fact, an
+incomplete rim around the basin of sedimentary beds which occupies
+the Amazonian depression. In a large part of this basin the covering
+of sedimentary deposits is comparatively thin. The crystalline floor
+is exposed in the valleys of the Madeira, Xingú, &amp;c. Some of the
+rocks thus exposed are, however, eruptive (<i>e.g.</i> in the Tapajoz), and
+probably do not belong to the Archaean. The crystalline rocks are
+succeeded by beds which have been referred to the Cambrian and
+Silurian systems. In the valley of the Trombetas, one of the northern
+tributaries of the Amazon, fossils have been found which indicate
+either the top of the Ordovician or the bottom of the Silurian. In
+the Maecuru, another northern affluent, graptolites of Ordovician
+age have been discovered, and Silurian fossils are said to have been
+found in the Maraca. Elsewhere the identification of the Silurian
+and older systems does not rest on palaeontological evidence.
+Devonian beds cover a much more extensive area. They crop out
+in a band some 25 to 50 m. north of the lower Amazon and in another
+band at a still greater distance south of that river. These bands are
+often concealed by more recent deposits, but it is clear that in this
+region the Devonian beds form a basin or synclinal with the Amazon
+for its axis. Devonian beds also lie upon the older rocks in the Matto
+Grosso and other provinces in the interior of Brazil, where they
+generally form plateaux of nearly horizontal strata. Fossils have
+been found in many localities. They belong to either the lower or the
+middle division of the Devonian system. The fauna shows striking
+analogies with that of the Bokkeveld beds of South Africa on the one
+hand and of the Hamilton group of North America on the other.
+The Carboniferous system in Brazil presents itself under two facies,
+the one marine and the other terrestrial. In the basin of the Lower
+Amazon the Carboniferous beds lie within the Devonian synclinal
+and crop out on both sides of the river next to the Devonian bands.
+There is a lower series consisting of sandstone and an upper series
+of limestone. The former appears to be almost unfossiliferous, the
+latter has yielded a rich marine fauna, which belongs to the top
+of the Carboniferous or to the Permo-carboniferous. In southern
+Brazil, on the other hand, in Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, &amp;c., the
+beds of this period are of terrestrial origin, containing coal seams and
+remains of plants. Some of the plants are European forms, others
+belong to the Glossopteris flora characteristic of India and South
+Africa. The beds are homotaxial with the Karharbári series of India,
+and represent either the top of the Carboniferous or the base of the
+Permian of Europe. The only Mesozoic system which is represented in
+Brazil by marine beds is the Cretaceous, and the marine facies, is
+restricted to the coasts and the basin of the Amazon. In the province
+of Sergipe, on the east coast, the beds are approximately on
+the horizon of the Cenomanian; in the valley of the Amazon they
+belong to the highest parts of the Cretaceous system, and the fauna
+shows Tertiary affinities. In the interior of Brazil, the Palaeozoic
+beds are directly overlaid by a series of red sandstones, &amp;c., which
+appear to be of continental origin and of which the age is uncertain.
+Tertiary beds cover a considerable area, especially in the Amazonian
+depression. They consist chiefly of sands and clays of aeolian and
+freshwater origin. Of the Pleistocene and recent deposits the most
+interesting are the remains of extinct animals (<i>Glyptodon</i>, <i>Mylodon</i>,
+<i>Megatherium</i>, &amp;c.) in the caves of the São Francisco.</p>
+
+<p>From the above account it will appear that, excepting near the
+coast and in the basin of the Amazon, there is no evidence that any
+part of Brazil has been under the sea since the close of the Devonian
+period. During the Triassic and Jurassic periods even the basin of
+the Amazon appears to have been dry land. Eruptive rocks occur
+in the Devonian and Carboniferous beds, but there is no evidence
+of volcanic activity since the Palaeozoic epoch. The remarkable
+&ldquo;stone reefs&rdquo; of the north-east coast are ancient beaches hardened
+by the infiltration of carbonate of lime. They are quite distinct in
+their formation from the coral reefs of the same coast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Brazil lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, less than
+one-twelfth of its area lying south of the tropic of Capricorn. In
+general terms, it is a tropical country, with sub-tropical and temperate
+areas covering its three southern states and a great part of
+the elevated central plateau. The forest-covered, lowland valley
+of the Amazon is a region of high temperatures which vary little
+throughout the year, and of heavy rainfall. There is no appreciable
+change of seasons, except that produced by increased rainfall in the
+rainy season. The average temperature according to Castelnau is
+about 78°F., or 82.40° to 84.20° F. according to Agassiz. There is
+an increase in the rainfall from August to October, and again from
+November to March, the latter being the regular rainy season, but the
+time varies considerably between the valley of the upper Amazon
+and those of the upper Madeira and Negro. There is usually a short
+dry season on the upper Amazon in January and February, which
+causes two annual floods&mdash;that of November-December, and the
+great flood of March-June. The subsidence of the latter usually
+lasts until October. The average rainfall throughout the whole
+Amazon valley is estimated by Reclus as &ldquo;probably in excess of
+2 metres&rdquo; (78.7 in.), and the maximum rise of the great flood is about
+45 ft. The prevailing winds in the Amazon valley are easterly and
+westerly (or south-westerly), the former warm and charged with
+moisture, the latter dry and cold. The easterly winds, which are
+deflections of the trade winds, blow upstream with great regularity
+and force, more especially in the winter or dry season, and are felt
+as far inland as the mouths of the Madeira and Negro. Above these
+they are less regular and are attracted northward by the heated
+<i>llanos</i> of Venezuela in winter, or southward by the heated <i>campos</i> of
+Matto Grosso in summer. The cold south-westerly winds are felt
+when the sun is north of the equator, and are most severe, for
+a few days, in the month of May, when a <i>tempo da friagem</i> (cold
+period) causes much discomfort throughout the upper Amazon region.
+There are winter winds from the Andes, but in the summer season
+there are cold currents of air from up-river (<i>ventos da cima</i>) which are
+usually followed by downpours of rain.</p>
+
+<p>The coastal plain as far south as Santos is a region of high temperatures
+and great humidity. The year is usually divided into a
+winter (<i>inverno</i>) and summer (<i>verão</i>), corresponding approximately
+to a dry and wet season. The &ldquo;dry&rdquo; season, however, is a season of
+moderate rainfall, except on the north-east coast where arid conditions
+prevail. Another exception is that of the Pernambuco coast,
+where the rainy season comes between March and August, with the
+heaviest rainfall from May to July, which is the time of the southern
+winter. Going southward there is also a gradual decrease in the
+mean annual temperature, the difference between Rio de Janeiro
+and the Amazon being about 5°. The north-east coast, which is
+sandy and barren, shows an average mean annual temperature (at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span>
+Fortaleza) of nearly 80° F., which is slightly higher than those of
+Maranhão and Pará. At Pernambuco the mean summer temperature
+is 79.5° and that of winter 76.8°, which are about 3° lower than the
+mean temperature of Bahia in summer, and 5° higher than the Bahia
+mean in winter. South of Bahia there is a gradual increase in the
+rainfall, that of Rio de Janeiro exceeding 43 in. per annum. At
+Santos the rainfall is exceptionally heavy and the mean temperature
+high, but below that point the climatic conditions are considerably
+modified, the range in temperature being greater, the mean annual
+temperature lower, and the rainfall more evenly distributed throughout
+the year. The winds are more variable, and the seasons are more
+sharply defined. In Rio Grande do Sul the range in temperature is
+from 26° to 80°, the climate being similar to that of Uruguay. At
+Pelotas, a sea-level port on Lagôa dos Patos, the mean annual temperature
+is about 63° and the annual rainfall about 42 in. Extreme
+variations in temperature are often produced by cold south-west
+storms from the Argentine pampas, which sweep across southern
+Brazil as far north as Cape Frio, the fall in temperature sometimes
+being 22° to 27°. These storms usually last from two to three days
+and cause much discomfort. Winter rains are more frequent in
+southern Brazil, and violent storms prevail in August and September.
+At Blumenau, on the Santa Catharina coast, the annual rainfall is
+53 in.</p>
+
+<p>The climatic conditions of the Brazilian plateau are widely different
+from those of the coast in many respects. There is less uniformity
+in temperature, and the elevated <i>chapadas</i> are generally hotter during
+the day and cooler at night than are localities of the same latitude
+on the coast. The Brazilian Guiana plateau, lying immediately
+north of the equator, is in great part a hot, stony desert. Geographically
+it belongs to the Amazon basin, as its western and
+southern slopes are drained by tributaries of that great river.
+Climatically, however, it is a region apart. It lies in the north-east
+trade winds belt, but the mountain chain on its northern frontier
+robs these winds of their moisture and leaves the greater part of
+the Brazilian plateau rainless. Its eastern and western extremities,
+however, receive more rain, the former being well forested, while
+the latter is covered with grassy <i>campos</i>. South of the Amazon
+valley and filling a great part of the eastern projection of the continent,
+is another arid, semi-barren plateau, lying within the south-east
+trade winds belt, and extending from Piauhy southward to
+southern Bahia. It covers the state of Piauhy and the western or
+inland parts of the states of Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Parahyba,
+Pernambuco and Bahia. The year is divided into a dry and wet
+season, the first from June to December, when rain rarely falls, the
+streams dry up and the <i>campos</i> are burned bare, and the second
+from January to May when the rains are sometimes heavy and the
+<i>campos</i> are covered with luxuriant verdure. The rains are neither
+regular nor certain, however, and sometimes fail for a succession of
+years, causing destructive <i>sêccas</i> (droughts). The interior districts
+of Ceará, Pernambuco and Bahia have suffered severely from these
+<i>sêccas</i>. The sun temperature is high on these barren tablelands,
+but the nights are cool and refreshing. The prevailing winds are
+the south-east trades, which have lost some of their moisture in
+rising from the coastal plain. In summer, becoming warmed by the
+heated surface of the plateau, they sweep across it without a cloud
+or drop of rain. In winter the plateau is less heated, and cold
+currents of air from the west and south-west cause precipitation over
+a part if not all of this region. South and south-west of this arid
+plateau lie the inhabited tablelands of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo
+and Minas Geraes, where the climate is greatly modified by a luxuriant
+vegetation and southerly winds, as well as by the elevation.
+Minas Geraes is forested along its water courses and along its southern
+border only; its sun temperature, therefore, is high and the rainfall
+in its northern districts is comparatively light. São Paulo is partly
+covered by open <i>campos</i>, and these also serve to augment the maximum
+temperature. In both of these states, however, the nights are
+cool, and the mean annual temperature ranges from 68° to 77°, the
+northern districts of Minas Geraes being much warmer than the
+southern. In São Paulo and southern Minas Geraes there are sometimes
+frosts. In the Parahyba valley, which extends across the state
+of Rio de Janeiro, the mean temperature is somewhat higher than
+it is in São Paulo and Minas Geraes, and the nights are warmer, but
+the higher valleys of the Serra do Mar enjoy a delightfully temperate
+climate. The rainfall throughout this region is abundant, except in
+northern Minas Geraes, where the climatic conditions are influenced
+to some extent by the arid eastern plateau. South of São Paulo the
+tablelands of Paraná, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy
+a temperate climate, with an abundant rainfall. There are occasional
+frosts, but snow is never seen. Of Goyaz and Matto Grosso very
+little can be said. The lower river valleys of the Tocantins-Araguaya,
+Xingú, Tapajós and Paraguay are essentially tropical, their climate
+being hot and humid like that of the Amazon. The higher valleys
+of the Paraná and its tributaries, and of the rivers which flow northward,
+are sub-tropical in character, having high sun temperatures
+and cool nights. Above these, the <i>chapadas</i> lie open to the sun and
+wind and have a cool, bracing atmosphere even where high sun
+temperatures prevail. The mean annual temperature at Goyaz
+(city), according to a limited number of observations, is about 77°.
+There is no absolutely dry season in this part of the great Brazilian
+plateau, though the year is customarily divided into a dry and wet
+season, the latter running from September to April in Goyaz, and
+from November to April in Matto Grosso. The prevailing winds are
+from the north-west in this region, and westerly winds in the rainy
+season are usually accompanied by rain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The indigenous fauna of Brazil is noteworthy not only
+for the variety and number of its genera and species, but also for its
+deficiency in the larger mammals. Of this, one of the best authorities
+on the subject (H.W. Bates in <i>The Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>)
+says: &ldquo;Brazil, moreover, is throughout poor in terrestrial mammals,
+and the species are of small size.&rdquo; It is noteworthy, also, for the
+large number of species having arboreal habits, the density and extent
+of the Amazon forests favouring their development rather than
+the development of those of terrestrial habits. Of Quadrumana
+there are about fifty species in Brazil, all arboreal, thirty-eight of
+which inhabit the Amazon region. They belong mostly to the
+<i>Cebidae</i> family, and are provided with prehensile tails. The Carnivora
+are represented by six species of the <i>Felidae</i>, the best known of
+which is the onça, or jaguar (<i>F. onça, L</i>.), and the cougar, or puma
+(<i>F. concolor</i>); three species of the <i>Canidae</i>, the South American wolf
+(<i>C. jubatus</i>), and two small jackals (<i>C. brasiliensis</i> and <i>C. vetulus</i>);
+and a few species of the Mustelina including two of the otter, two
+<i>Galictis</i> and one <i>Mephitis</i>. Of the plantigrades, Brazil has no bears,
+but has the related species of raccoon (<i>Nasua socialis</i> and <i>N. solitaria</i>),
+popularly called <i>coatis</i>. The opossum (<i>Didelphis</i>) is represented by
+three or four species, two of which are so small that they are generally
+called wood rats. The rodents are numerous and include several
+peculiar species. Only one species of hare is found in Brazil, the
+<i>Lepus brasiliensis</i>, and but one also of the squirrel (<i>Scyurus</i>). Of
+the amphibious rodents, the prêá (<i>Cavia aperea</i>), mocó (<i>C. rupestris</i>),
+paca (<i>Coelogenys paca</i>), cutia (<i>Dasyprocta aguti</i>) and capybara
+(<i>Hydrochoerus capybara</i>) are noteworthy for their size and extensive
+range. Their flesh is used as an article of food, that of the paca being
+highly esteemed. Of the Muridae there are several genera and a
+large number of species, some of them evidently importations from
+the Old World. Brazil has three groups of animals similar to the
+common rat&mdash;the <i>Capromydae</i>, <i>Loncheridae</i> and <i>Psammoryctidae</i>&mdash;the
+best known of which is the &ldquo;tuco-tuco&rdquo; (<i>Clenomys brasiliensis</i>),
+a small burrowing animal of Rio Grande do Sul which excavates
+long subterranean galleries and lives on roots and bulbs. One of the
+characteristic orders of the Brazilian fauna is that of the Edentata,
+which comprises the sloth, armadillo and ant-eater. These animals
+are found only in the tropical regions of South America. The range
+of the sloth is from the Guianas south into Minas Geraes, the armadillo
+as far south as the Argentine pampas and the ant-eater from
+the Amazon south to Paraguay, though it is found in the Amazon
+region principally. The sloth (<i>Bradypus</i>) is an arboreal animal
+which feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of the Cecropias. It
+includes two recognized genera and half a dozen species, the best
+known of which is <i>B. didactylus</i>. The common name in Brazil is
+<i>preguiça</i>, which is equivalent to its English name. Of armadillos,
+commonly called <i>tatú</i> in Brazil, the largest species is the <i>Dasypus
+gigas</i>, but the best known is the <i>tatú-été</i> (<i>D. octocinctus</i>), which is
+highly esteemed for its flesh. The ant-eaters (<i>Myrmecophaga</i>) are
+divided into three or four species, one of which (<i>M. jubata</i>) is exclusively
+terrestrial, and the others arboreal. The popular name for
+the animal is <i>tamanduá</i>. The <i>M. jubata</i>, or <i>tamanduá bandeira</i>, is
+sometimes found as far south as Paraguay. Of the ruminants,
+Brazil has only four or five species of <i>Cervidae</i>, which are likewise
+common to other countries of South America. The largest of these
+is the marsh deer (<i>C. paludosus</i>), which in size resembles its European
+congeners. The others are the <i>C. campestris</i>, <i>C. nemorivagus</i>,
+<i>C. rufus</i> and a small species or variety called <i>C. nanus</i> by the Danish
+naturalist Dr P.W. Lund. The pachyderms are represented by
+three species of the peccary (<i>Dicotyles</i>) and two of the anta, or tapir
+(<i>Tapirus</i>). The former are found over a wide range of country,
+extending into Bolivia and Argentina, and are noted for their
+impetuous pugnacity. The tapir also has an extensive range between
+the coast and the foothills of the Andes, and from northern Argentina
+to south-eastern Colombia. It is the largest of the Brazilian
+mammals, and inhabits densely forested tracts near river courses.
+The two species are <i>T. americanus</i>, which is the larger and best
+known, and the <i>anta chure</i>, found in Minas Geraes, which is said to
+be identical with the <i>T. Roulini</i> of Colombia. Perhaps the most
+interesting mammal of Brazil is the <i>manati</i>, or sea-cow (<i>Manatus
+americanus</i>), which inhabits the lower Amazon and sometimes
+reaches a length of 15 to 20 ft. It is taken with the harpoon and its
+oil is one of the commercial products of the Amazon valley.</p>
+
+<p>The avifauna of Brazil is rich in genera, species and individuals,
+especially in species with brilliantly-coloured plumage. It is estimated
+that more than half the birds of Brazil are insectivorous, and
+that more than one-eighth are climbers. The range in size is a wide
+one&mdash;from the tiny humming-bird to the ema, rhea, or American
+ostrich. Although the order which includes song-birds is numerous
+in species and individuals, it is noticeably poor in really good
+songsters. On the other hand it is exceptionally rich in species
+having strident voices and peculiar unmusical calls, like the <i>pacô</i>
+(<i>Coracina scuttata</i>) and the <i>araponga</i> (<i>Chasmorhynchus nudicollis</i>).
+Two species of vultures, twenty-three of falcons and eight of owls
+represent the birds of prey. The best known vulture is the common
+<i>urubú</i> (<i>Cathartes foetens</i>, Illig), which is the universal scavenger of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span>
+tropics. The climbers comprise a large number of species, some of
+which, like those of the parrot (<i>Psittacidae</i>) and woodpecker (<i>Picus</i>),
+are particularly noticeable in every wooded region of the country.
+One of the most striking species of the former is the brilliantly-coloured
+<i>arara</i> (<i>Macrocercus</i>, L.), which is common throughout
+northern Brazil. Another interesting species is the toucan (<i>Ramphastos</i>),
+whose enormous beak, awkward flight and raucous voice
+make it a conspicuous object in the great forests of northern Brazil.
+In strong contrast to the ungainly toucan is the tiny humming-bird,
+whose beautiful plumage, swiftness of flight and power of wing are
+sources of constant wonder and admiration. Of this smallest of
+birds there are fifty-nine well-known species, divided into two
+groups, the <i>Phaethorninae</i>, which prefer the forest shade and live
+on insects, and the <i>Trochilinae</i>, which frequent open sunny places
+where flowers are to be found. One of the Brazilian birds whose
+habits have attracted much interest is the <i>João de Barro</i> (Clay John)
+or oven bird (<i>Furnarius rufus</i>), which builds a house of reddish clay
+for its nest and attaches it to the branch of a tree, usually in a fork.
+The thrush is represented by a number of species, one of which, the
+<i>sabiá</i> (<i>Mimus</i>), has become the popular song-bird of Brazil through
+a poem written by Gonçalves Dias. The dove and pigeon have also
+a number of native species, one of which, the <i>pomba jurity</i> (<i>Peristera
+frontalis</i>), is a highly-appreciated table luxury. The gallinaceous
+birds are well represented, especially in game birds. The most
+numerous of these are the <i>perdiz</i> (partridge), the best known of which
+is the <i>Tinamus maculosa</i> which frequents the <i>campos</i> of the south,
+the <i>inhambú</i> (<i>Crypturus</i>), <i>capoeira</i> (<i>Odontophorus</i>), and several
+species of the penelope family popularly known as the <i>jacutinga,
+jacú</i> and <i>jacú-assú</i>. The common domesticated fowl is not indigenous.
+Among the wading and running birds, of which the <i>ema</i>
+is the largest representative, there are many species of both descriptions.
+In the Amazon lowlands are white herons (<i>Ardea candidissima</i>),
+egrets (<i>A. egretta</i>), bitterns (<i>A. exilis</i>), blue herons (<i>A. herodias</i>)
+scarlet ibises (<i>Ibis rubra</i>), roseate spoonbills (<i>Platalea ajaja</i>);
+on higher ground the beautiful peacock heron (<i>A. helias</i>)
+which is easily domesticated; and on the dry elevated <i>campos</i> the
+<i>ceriema</i> (<i>Dicholophus cristatus</i>) which is prized for its flesh, and the
+<i>jacamin</i> (<i>Psophia crepitans</i>) which is frequently domesticated.
+Prominent among the storks is the great black-headed white crane,
+called the <i>jaburú</i> (<i>Mycteria americana</i>), which is found along the
+Amazon and down the coast and grows to a height of 4½ ft. Of the
+swimmers, the number of species is smaller, but some of them are
+widely distributed and numerous in individuals. There are but few
+species of ducks, and they are apparently more numerous in southern
+Brazil than on the Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>The reptilian fauna exhibits an exceptionally large number of
+interesting genera and species. A great part of the river systems
+of the country with their flooded areas are highly favourable to the
+development of reptilian life. Most prominent among these is the
+American alligator, of which there are, according to Netterer, two
+genera and eight species in Brazil. They are very numerous in the
+Amazon and its tributaries and in the Paraguay, and are found in
+all the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Three of the Brazilian species
+are voracious and dangerous. The largest of the Amazon species
+are the <i>jacaré-assú</i> (<i>Caïman niger</i>), <i>jacaré</i> (<i>C. fissipes</i>) and
+<i>jacaré-tinga</i> (<i>C. sclerops</i>). The Amazon is also the home of one of the
+largest fresh-water turtles known, the <i>Emys amazonica</i>, locally called
+the <i>jurará-assú</i> or <i>tartaruga grande</i>. These turtles are so numerous
+that their flesh and eggs have long been a principal food supply for
+the Indian population of that region. Another Amazon species, the
+<i>E. tracaxa</i>, is still more highly esteemed for its flesh, but it is smaller
+and deposits fewer eggs in the sandy river beaches. Lagartos
+(<i>Iguanas</i>) and lizards are common everywhere. The ophidians are
+also numerous, especially in the wooded lowlands valleys, and the
+poisonous species, though less numerous than others, include some
+of the most dangerous known&mdash;the rattlesnake <i>surucucú</i> (<i>Lachesis
+rhombeatus</i>), and <i>jararáca</i> (<i>Bothrops</i>). The Amazon region is
+frequented by the <i>giboia</i> (boa constrictor), and the central plateau by
+the <i>sucuriú</i> (<i>Eunectes murinus</i>), both distinguished for their enormous
+size. The batrachians include a very large number of genera and
+species, especially in the Amazon valley.</p>
+
+<p>The fauna of the rivers and coast of Brazil is richer in species and
+individuals than that of the land. All the rivers are richly stocked,
+and valuable fishing grounds are to be found along the coast, especially
+that of southern Bahia and Espirito Santo where the <i>garoupa</i>
+(<i>Serranus</i>) is found in large numbers. Some of the small fish along
+the coast are highly esteemed for their flavour. Whales were once
+numerous between Capes St Roque and Frio, but are now rarely
+seen. Of the edible river fish, the best known is the <i>pirarucú</i> (<i>Sudis
+gigas</i>), a large fish of the Amazon which is salted and dried for
+market during the low-water season. Fish is a staple food of the
+Indian tribes of the Amazon region, and their fishing season is during
+the period of low water. The visit of Professor Louis Agassiz to the
+Amazon in 1865 resulted in a list of 1143 species, but it is believed
+that no less than 1800 to 2000 species are to be found in that great
+river and its tributaries.</p>
+
+<p>In strong contrast to the poverty of Brazil in the larger mammals
+is the astonishing profusion of insect life in every part of the country.
+The Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are especially numerous, both in
+species and individuals. A striking illustration of this extraordinary
+profusion was given by the English naturalist H.W. Bates, who
+found 7000 species of insects in the vicinity of only one of his collecting
+places on the Amazon (Ega), of which 550 species were of butterflies.
+Within an hour&rsquo;s walk of Pará are to be found, he says, about
+700 species of butterflies, &ldquo;whilst the total number found in the
+British Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports
+only 321.&rdquo; (H.W. Bates, <i>The Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>.)
+One of the rare species of the Amazon <i>Morphos</i> (<i>M. hecuba</i>) measures
+8 to 9 in. across its expanded wings. Dipterous insects are also very
+numerous in species, especially in those of sanguinary habits, such
+as the mosquito, <i>pium</i>, <i>maroim</i>, <i>carapan&#257;</i>, <i>borochudo</i>, &amp;c. In some
+places these insects constitute a veritable plague, and the infested
+regions are practically uninhabitable. The related species of the
+<i>Oestridae</i> family, which include the widely disseminated <i>chigoe</i> or
+<i>bicho do pé</i> (<i>Pulex penetrans</i>), and the equally troublesome <i>berne</i>
+(<i>Cutiterebra noxialis</i>), which is so injurious to animals, are equally
+numerous. The most numerous of all, however, and perhaps the
+most harmful to civilized man, are the termites and ants, which are
+found everywhere in the uninhabited campo and forest regions, as
+well as in the cultivated districts. Nature has provided several
+species of animals, birds and reptiles, to feed upon these insects, and
+various poisonous and suffocating compounds are used to destroy
+them, but with no great degree of success. It is not uncommon to
+find once cultivated fields abandoned because of their ravages and
+to see large <i>campos</i> completely covered with enormous ant-hills.
+The termites, or &ldquo;white ants,&rdquo; are exceptionally destructive because
+of their habit of tunnelling through the softer woods of habitations
+and furniture, while some species of ants, like the <i>saúba</i>, are equally
+destructive to plantations because of the rapidity with which they
+strip a tree of its foliage. Spiders are represented by a very large
+number of species, some of which are beautifully coloured. The
+largest of these is the <i>Mygale</i> with a body 2 in. in length and outstretched
+legs covering 7 in., a monster strong enough to capture
+and kill small birds. A large <i>Mygale</i> found on the island of Siriba, of
+the Abrolhos group, feeds upon lizards, and has been known to
+attack and kill young chickens. One of the most troublesome pests
+of the interior is a minute degenerate spider of the genus <i>Ixodes</i>,
+called <i>carrapato</i>, or bush-tick, which breeds on the ground and then
+creeps up the grass blades and bushes where it waits for some passing
+man or beast. Its habit is to bury its head in its victim&rsquo;s skin and
+remain there until gorged with blood, when it drops off. Scorpions
+are common, but are considered less poisonous than some European
+species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;Brazil not only is marvellously rich in botanical species,
+but included at the beginning of the 20th century the largest area
+of virgin forest on the surface of the earth. The flora falls naturally
+into three great divisions: that of the Amazon basin where exceptional
+conditions of heat and moisture prevail; that of the coast
+where heat, varying rainfall, oceanic influences and changing seasons
+have greatly modified the general character of the vegetation; and
+that of the elevated interior, or <i>sertão</i>, where dryer conditions,
+rocky surfaces, higher sun temperatures and large open spaces
+produce a vegetation widely different from those of the other two
+regions. Besides these, the flora of the Paraguay basin varies widely
+from that of the inland plateau, and that of the Brazilian Guiana
+region is essentially distinct from the Amazon. The latter region
+is densely forested from the Atlantic to the Andes, but with a varying
+width of about 200 m. on the coast to about 900 m. between
+the Bolivian and Venezuelan <i>llanos</i>, and thus far civilization has
+made only a very slight impression upon it. Even where settlements
+have been located, constant effort is required to keep the vegetation
+down. Along the coast, much of the virgin forest has been
+cut away, not only for the creation of cultivated plantations,
+but to meet the commercial demand for Brazil-wood and furniture
+woods.</p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristic of the Amazonian forest, aside from its
+magnitude, is the great diversity of genera and species. In the
+northern temperate zone we find forests of a single species, others of
+three or four species; in this great tropical forest the habit of growth
+is solitary and an acre of ground will contain hundreds of species&mdash;palms,
+myrtles, acacias, mimosas, cecropias, euphorbias, malvaceas,
+laurels, cedrellas, bignonias, bombaceas, apocyneas, malpigias,
+lecythises, swartzias, &amp;c. The vegetation of the lower river-margins,
+which are periodically flooded, differs in some particulars from that
+of the higher ground, and the same variation is to be found between
+the forests of the upper and lower Amazon, and between the Amazon
+and its principal tributaries. The density of the forest is greatly
+augmented by the <i>cipós</i>, or lianas, which overgrow the largest trees
+to their tops, and by a profusion of epiphytes which cover the highest
+branches. As a rule the trees of the Amazon forest are not conspicuously
+high, a few species rarely reaching a height of 200 ft.
+The average is probably less than one-half that height. This is
+especially true of the flood plains where the annual inundations
+prevent the formation of humus and retard forest growth. The
+largest of the Amazon forest trees are the <i>massaranduba</i> (<i>Mimusops
+elata</i>), called the cow-tree because of its milky sap, the <i>samaúma</i>
+(<i>Eriodendron samauma</i>) or silk-cotton tree, the <i>páu d&rsquo; arco</i> (<i>Tecoma
+speciosa</i>), <i>páu d&rsquo; alho</i> (<i>Catraeva tapia</i>), <i>bacori</i> (<i>Symphonea coccinea</i>),
+<i>sapucaia</i> (<i>Lecythis ollaria</i>), and <i>castanheira</i> or brazil-nut tree (<i>Bertholletia
+excelsa</i>). The Amazon region has a comparatively narrow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span>
+frontage on the Atlantic. In Maranhão, which belongs to the coast
+region, open spaces or <i>campos</i> appear, though the state is well
+wooded and its forests have the general characteristics of the lower
+Amazon. South-east of the Parnahyba the coast region becomes
+dryer and more sandy and the forests disappear. The coast and
+tide-water rivers are fringed with mangrove, and the sandy plain
+reaching back to the margin of the inland plateau is generally bare
+of vegetation, though the carnahuba palm (<i>Copernicia cerifera</i>) and
+some species of low-growing trees are to be found in many places.
+The higher levels of this plain are covered with shrubs and small
+trees, principally mimosas. The slopes of the plateau, which receive
+a better rainfall, are more heavily forested, some districts being
+covered with deciduous trees, forming <i>catingas</i> in local parlance.
+This dry, thinly-wooded region extends south to the states of Parahyba,
+where a more regular rainfall favours forest growth nearer the
+coast. Between Parahyba and southern Bahia forests and open
+plains are intermingled; thence southward the narrow coastal plain
+and bordering mountain slopes are heavily forested. The sea-coast,
+bays and tide-water rivers are still fringed with mangrove, and on
+the sandy shores above Cape Frio grow large numbers of the exotic
+cocoa-nut palm. Many species of indigenous palms abound, and
+in places the forests are indescribably luxuriant. These are made
+up, as Prince Max zu Neuwied found in southern Bahia in 1817, &ldquo;of
+the genera <i>Cocos</i>, <i>Melastoma</i>, <i>Bignonia</i>, <i>Rhexia</i>, <i>Mimosa</i>, <i>Ingá</i>,
+<i>Bombax</i>, <i>Ilex</i>, <i>Laurus</i>, <i>Myrthus</i>, <i>Eugenia</i>, <i>Jacarandá</i>, <i>Jatropha</i>,
+<i>Visinia</i>, <i>Lecythis</i>, <i>Ficus</i>, and a thousand other, for the most part,
+unknown species of trees.&rdquo; Further inland the higher country
+becomes more open and the forests are less luxuriant. Giant cacti
+and spiny scrub abound. Then come the <i>catinga</i> tracts, and, beyond
+these, the open <i>campos</i> of the elevated plateau, dotted with clumps
+of low growing bushes and broken by tracts of <i>carrasco</i>, a thick,
+matted, bushy growth 10 to 12 ft. in height. Formerly this coast
+region furnished large quantities of Brazil-wood (<i>Caesalpinia
+echinata</i>), and the river valleys have long been the principal source
+of Brazil&rsquo;s best cabinet-wood&mdash;rosewood (<i>Dalbergia nigra</i>), jacarandá
+(<i>Machaeriumfirmum</i>, Benth.), vinhatico (<i>Plathymenia foliosa</i>, Benth.),
+peroba (<i>Aspidosperma peroba</i>), cedro, &amp;c. The exotic <i>mangabeira</i>
+(mango) is found everywhere along the coast, together with the
+bamboo, orange, lemon, banana, cashew, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Of the great inland region, which includes the arid campos of the
+north, the partially-wooded plateaus of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and
+Matto Grosso, the temperate highlands of the south, and the tropical
+lowlands of the Paraguay basin, no adequate description can be given
+without taking each section in detail, which can be done to better
+advantage in describing the individual states. In general, the
+<i>carrasco</i> growth extends over the whole central plateau, and heavy
+forests are found only in the deep river valleys. Those opening
+northward have the characteristic flora of the Amazon basin. The
+Paraguay basin is covered with extensive marshy tracts and open
+woodlands, the palms being the conspicuous feature. The vegetation
+is similar to that of Paraguay and the Chaco, and aquatic
+plants are specially numerous and luxuriant. On the temperate
+uplands of the southern states there are imposing forests of South
+American pine (<i>Araucaria brasiliensis</i>), whose bare trunks and
+umbrella-like tops give to them the appearance of open woodland.
+These forests extend from Paraná into Rio Grande do Sul and
+smaller tracts are also found in Minas Geraes. Large tracts of <i>Ilex
+paraguayensis</i>, from which <i>maté</i>, or Paraguay-tea, is gathered, are
+found in this same region.</p>
+
+<p>The economic plants of Brazil, both indigenous and exotic, are
+noticeably numerous. Coffee naturally occupies first place, and
+is grown wherever frosts are not severe from the Amazon south to
+Paraná. The states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes
+are the largest producers, but it is also grown for export in Espirito
+Santo, Bahia and Ceará. The export in 1905 was 10,820,604 bags
+of 132 &#8468; each, with an official valuation of £21,420,330. Sugar
+cane, another exotic, has an equally wide distribution, and cotton is
+grown along the coast from Maranhão to São Paulo. Other economic
+plants and fruits having a wide distribution are tobacco, maize, rice,
+beans, sweet potatoes, bananas, cacáo (<i>Theobroma cacao</i>), mandioca
+or cassava (<i>Manihot utilitissima</i>), <i>aipim</i> or sweet mandioca (<i>M. aipi</i>),
+guavas (<i>Psidium guayava</i>, Raddi), oranges, lemons, limes, grapes,
+pineapples, <i>mamão</i> (<i>Carica papaya</i>), bread-fruit (<i>Artocarpus incisa</i>),
+jack fruit (<i>A. integrifolia</i>), and many others less known outside the
+tropics. Among the palms there are several of great economic value,
+not only as food producers but also for various domestic uses. The
+fruit of the <i>pupunha</i> or peach palm (<i>Guilielma speciosa</i>) is an important
+food among the Indians of the Amazon valley, where the
+tree was cultivated by them long before the discovery of America.
+Humboldt found it among the native tribes of the Orinoco valley,
+where it is called <i>pirijao</i>. The ita palm, <i>Mauritia</i>, <i>flexuosa</i> (a fan-leaf
+palm) provides an edible fruit, medullary meal, drink, fibre,
+roofing and timber, but is less used on the Amazon than it is on the
+lower Orinoco. The <i>assaí</i> (<i>Euterpe oleracea</i>) is another highly-prized
+palm because of a beverage made from its fruit along the lower
+Amazon. A closely-related species or variety (<i>Euterpe edulis</i>) is the
+well-known palmito or cabbage palm found over the greater part
+of Brazil, whose terminal phylophore is cooked and eaten as a
+vegetable. Another highly useful palm is the <i>carnauba</i> or <i>carnahuba</i>
+(<i>Copernicia cerifera</i>) which supplies fruit, medullary meal, food for
+cattle, boards and timber, fibre, wax and medicine. The fibre of
+the <i>piassava (Leopoldinia piassava</i>, or <i>Attalea funifera</i>) is widely
+used for cordage, brushes and brooms. There are many other palms
+whose fruit, fibre and wood enter largely into the domestic economy
+of the natives, but the list given shows how important a service these
+trees rendered to the aboriginal inhabitants of tropical America,
+and likewise how useful they still are to the people of tropical Brazil.
+Another vegetable product of the Amazon region is made from the
+fruit of the <i>Paullinia sorbilis</i>, Mart., and is known by the name of
+<i>guaraná</i>. It is largely consumed in Bolivia and Matto Grosso,
+where it is used in the preparation of a beverage which has excellent
+medicinal properties. The Brazilian flora is also rich in medicinal
+and aromatic plants, dye-woods, and a wide range of gum and
+resin-producing shrubs and trees. The best known of these are
+sarsaparilla, ipecacuanhá, cinchona, jaborandi and copaiba; vanilla,
+tonka beans and cloves; Brazil-wood and anatto (<i>Bixa orellana</i>);
+india-rubber and balata. India-rubber is derived principally from
+the <i>Hevea guayanensis</i>, sometimes called the <i>Siphonia elastica</i>, which
+is found on the Amazon and its tributaries as far inland as the foothills
+of the Andes. Other rubber-producing trees are the <i>maniçoba</i>
+(<i>Jatropha Glasiovii</i>) of Ceará, and the <i>mangabeira</i> (<i>Hancornia
+speciosa</i>), of the central upland regions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The first explorers of Brazil reported a numerous
+Indian population, but, as the sea-coast afforded a larger and
+more easily acquired food supply than did the interior, the
+Indian population was probably numerous only in a comparatively
+small part of this immense territory, along the sea-coast.
+Modern explorations have shown that the unsettled inland
+regions of Brazil are populated by Indians only where the conditions
+are favourable. They are to be found in wooded districts
+near rivers, and are rarely found on the elevated <i>campos</i>. The
+immediate result of European colonization was the enslavement
+and extermination of the Indians along the coast and in all those
+favoured inland localities where the whites came into contact
+with them. The southern districts and the Amazon and its
+tributaries were often raided by slave-hunting expeditions,
+and their Indian populations were either decimated, or driven
+farther into the inaccessible forests. But there is no record
+that the inland districts of western and north-western Brazil
+were treated in this manner, and their present population may
+be assumed to represent approximately what it was when the
+Europeans first came. According to the census of 1890 the Indian
+population was 1,295,796, but so far as the migratory tribes are
+concerned the figures are only guesswork. A considerable
+number of these Indians have been gathered together in <i>aldeas</i>
+under the charge of government tutors, but the larger part still
+live in their own villages or as nomads.</p>
+
+<p>Down to the beginning of the 19th century the white colonists
+were almost exclusively Portuguese. The immigration from
+countries other than Portugal during the first half of that century
+was small, but before its close it increased rapidly, particularly
+from Italy. Fully nine-tenths of these immigrants, including
+those from the mother country, were of the Latin race. The
+introduction of African slaves followed closely upon the development
+of agricultural industries, and continued nominally until
+1850, actually until 1854, and according to some authors until
+1860. About 1826 it was estimated that the negro population
+numbered 2,500,000 or three times the white population of that
+period. The unrestricted intermixture of these three races
+forms the principal basis of the Brazilian population at the beginning
+of the 20th century. Brazil has never had a &ldquo;colour line,&rdquo;
+and there has never been any popular prejudice against
+race mixtures. According to the census of 1872 the total population
+was 9,930,478, of which 1,510,806 were slaves; the race
+enumeration gave 3,787,289 whites, 1,959,452 Africans, 386,955
+Indians, and 3,801,782 mixed bloods. The Indian population
+certainly exceeded the total given, and the white population
+must have included many of mixed blood, the habit of so describing
+themselves being common among the better classes of South
+American mestizos. The census of 1890 increased the total
+population to 14,333,915, which, according to an unofficial
+analysis (<i>Statesman&rsquo;s Year Book</i>, 1905), was made up of 6,302,198
+whites, 4,638,495 mixed bloods, 2,097,426 Africans, and 1,295,796
+Indians. This analysis, if correct, indicates that the vegetative
+increase of the whites has been greater than that of the Africans
+and mixed races. This is not the conclusion of many observers,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span>
+but it may be due to the excessive infant mortality among the
+lower classes, where an observance of the simplest sanitary laws
+is practically unknown. The census of the 31st of December
+1900 was strikingly defective; it was wholly discarded for the
+city of Rio de Janeiro, and had to be completed by office
+computations in the returns from several states. The compilation
+of the returns was not completed and published until May 1908,
+according to which the total population was 17,318,556, of which
+8,825,636 were males and 8,492,920 females. Not including
+the city of Rio de Janeiro, whose population was estimated
+at 691,565 in conformity with a special municipal census of 1906,
+the total population was 16,626,991, of which 15,572,671 were
+Roman Catholics, 177,727 Protestants, 876,593 of other faiths.
+The returns also show a total of 3,038,500 domiciles outside
+the federal capital, which gives an average of 5.472 to the domicile.
+These returns will serve to correct the exaggerated estimate
+of 22,315,000 for 1900 which was published in Brazil and accepted
+by many foreign publications.</p>
+
+<p>The racial character of the people is not uniform throughout
+the republic, the whites predominating in the southern states, the
+Indians in Amazonas and, probably, Matto Grosso, and the
+mixed races in the central and northern coast states. The
+excess of whites over the
+coloured races in the southern
+states is due to their smaller
+slave population and to the
+large number of immigrants
+attracted to them. Slavery
+was not abolished until the
+13th of May 1888, but a number
+of successful colonies had
+already been founded in these
+states. Other colonies were
+founded in Bahia, Espirito
+Santo and Rio de Janeiro
+during the same period, but
+they were unsuccessful, partly
+because of the competition of
+slave labour. Since the abolition
+of slavery immigration
+has poured a large number of
+labourers into the coffee-producing
+states, and with beneficial
+results. This strengthening
+of the white population
+of the South with fresh
+European blood must eventually divide Brazil into two distinct
+sections: the white states of the south, and the mixed or coloured
+states of the north. The introduction of European immigrants
+dates from 1818 when a Swiss colony was located at Nova Friburgo,
+near Rio de Janeiro, and it was continued under the direction
+and with the aid of the imperial government down to the creation
+of the republic. Since then the state governments have assumed
+charge of immigration, and some of them are spending large
+sums in the acquisition of labourers. The old system of locating
+immigrants in colonies, or colonial nuclei, which involved an
+enormous outlay of money with but slight benefit to the country,
+has been superseded by a system of locating the immigrants
+on the large plantations under formal contracts. In some of
+the coffee districts these contracts have resulted very profitably
+to the Italian labourers. The total number of colonists and immigrants
+entering Brazil between 1804 and 1902, inclusive,
+according to official returns, was 2,208,353. The arrivals
+fluctuate greatly in number from year to year, influenced by
+the prevailing economic conditions in the country. At first
+the Portuguese outnumbered all other nationalities in the immigration
+returns, but since the abolition of slavery the Italians
+have passed all competitors and number more than one-half the
+total arrivals. Of the 700,211 immigrants located in the state of
+São Paulo from 1827 to the end of 1896, no less than 493,535
+were Italians, and their aggregate throughout the republic
+was estimated in 1906 at more than 1,100,000. The German
+immigration, of which so much has been written for political ends,
+has been greatly over-estimated; trustworthy estimates in 1906
+made the German contingent in the population vary from
+350,000 to 500,000. They are settled chiefly in colonies in the
+southern states, and form a most desirable body of settlers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Divisions and Towns.</i>&mdash;The republic is divided into twenty
+states and one federal district, which are the same as the provinces
+and &ldquo;municipio neutro&rdquo; of the empire. Their names also remain
+unchanged, except that of the federalized district in which the
+national capital is located, which is called the &ldquo;districto federal.&rdquo;
+The republic has no territories, although Amazonas, Matto
+Grosso, Pará and Goyaz cover an immense region of uninhabited
+and only partially explored territory. The states are subdivided
+into <i>comarcas</i>, or judicial districts, and into <i>municipios</i>, or
+townships, which is the smallest autonomous division. The
+constitution provides for the autonomy of the municipalities in
+order to safeguard the permanence of representative institutions.
+The <i>parochia</i>, or parish, an ecclesiastical division, is often used
+for administrative purposes, but it has no political organization.
+The names, areas, and populations of the states, together
+with the names and populations of their capitals, are as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">States.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Area,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a><br />Sq. miles.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Population<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td>
+<td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">State Capitals.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Population,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a><br />Census<br />1890.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Census<br />1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Census<br />1900.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alagôas</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,584</td> <td class="tcr rb">511,440</td> <td class="tcr rb">649,273</td> <td class="tcl rb">Maceió</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,498</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Amazonas</td> <td class="tcr rb">742,123</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,915</td> <td class="tcr rb">249,756</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manáos</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,720</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bahia</td> <td class="tcr rb">164,650</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,919,802</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,117,956</td> <td class="tcl rb">São Salvador<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">174,412</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ceará</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,253</td> <td class="tcr rb">805,687</td> <td class="tcr rb">849,127</td> <td class="tcl rb">Fortaleza</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,902</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Espirito Santo</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,313</td> <td class="tcr rb">135,997</td> <td class="tcr rb">209,783</td> <td class="tcl rb">Victoria</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,887</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Federal District</td> <td class="tcr rb">538</td> <td class="tcr rb">522,651</td> <td class="tcr rb">691,565</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rio de Janeiro</td> <td class="tcr rb">522,651</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Goyaz</td> <td class="tcr rb">288,549</td> <td class="tcr rb">227,572</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,284</td> <td class="tcl rb">Goyaz<a href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">17,181</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Maranhão</td> <td class="tcr rb">177,569</td> <td class="tcr rb">430,854</td> <td class="tcr rb">499,308</td> <td class="tcl rb">S. Luiz do Maranhão<a href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">29,308</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Matto Grosso</td> <td class="tcr rb">532,370</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,827</td> <td class="tcr rb">118,025</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cuyabá</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,815</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minas Geraes</td> <td class="tcr rb">221,961</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,184,099</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,594,471</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ouro Preto<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">59,249</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pará</td> <td class="tcr rb">443,922</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,455</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,356</td> <td class="tcl rb">Belem<a href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">50,064</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Parahyba</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,855</td> <td class="tcr rb">457,232</td> <td class="tcr rb">490,784</td> <td class="tcl rb">Parahyba</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,645</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paraná</td> <td class="tcr rb">85,455</td> <td class="tcr rb">249,491</td> <td class="tcr rb">327,136</td> <td class="tcl rb">Curityba</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,553</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pernambuco</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,575</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,030,224</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,178,150</td> <td class="tcl rb">Recife<a href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">111,556</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Piauhy</td> <td class="tcr rb">116,529</td> <td class="tcr rb">267,609</td> <td class="tcr rb">334,328</td> <td class="tcl rb">Therezina</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,523</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rio de Janeiro</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,635</td> <td class="tcr rb">276,884|</td> <td class="tcr rb">274,317</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nictheroy</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,269</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rio Grande do Norte</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,196</td> <td class="tcr rb">268,273</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,149,070</td> <td class="tcl rb">Natal</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,725</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rio Grande do Sul</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,337</td> <td class="tcr rb">897,455</td> <td class="tcr rb">926,035</td> <td class="tcl rb">Porto Alegre</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,421</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Santa Catharina</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,633</td> <td class="tcr rb">283,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">320,289</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desterro<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">30,637</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">São Paulo</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,312</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,384,753</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,282,279</td> <td class="tcl rb">São Paulo</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,934</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sergipe</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,093</td> <td class="tcr rb">310,926</td> <td class="tcr rb">356,264</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ararajú</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,336</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,228,452</td> <td class="tcr allb">14,333,915</td> <td class="tcr allb">17,318,556</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Railway construction in Brazil dates from 1852,
+when work was initiated on the Mauá railway running from the head
+of the bay of Rio de Janeiro to the foot of the Serra where Petropolis
+is situated. The road is 10 m. long, and its first section was opened
+to traffic on April 30, 1854, and its second December 16, 1856.
+The mountain section, 5½ m. long, which uses the Riggenbach system
+from the terminal to Petropolis, was constructed between 1881 and
+1883. The development of railway construction in Brazil has been
+impeded to a great extent by two unfavourable conditions&mdash;by the
+chain of mountains or plateau escarpments which follow the coast
+line and obstruct communication with the interior, and by the detached
+positions of the settlements along the Atlantic, which compel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span>
+the building of lines from many widely separated points on the coast
+into a sparsely populated hinterland. A majority of the ports, from
+which these roads are built, are small and difficult of access, and the
+coasting trade is restricted to vessels carrying the Brazilian flag.
+The only ports having a rich and well-populated country behind
+them are Rio de Janeiro and Santos, and these are the terminals
+of long lines of railway which are being slowly extended farther into
+the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The total mileage under traffic at the beginning of 1905 was
+10,600 m., divided into 94 separate lines. There were also 745 m.
+under construction, 1740 m. under survey, and about 1600 m.
+projected. Of the 94 lines under traffic, 45 were operating by virtue
+of national and 49 by provincial and state concessions. They were
+grouped in the official reports of 1905 as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Government lines (21):&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">Miles.</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Administered by the state  (6)</td> <td class="tcr">2228</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Leased to private parties (15)</td> <td class="tcr">2174</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">4402</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Private lines (24)&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;With national interest guarantees (12)</td> <td class="tcr">1290</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Without such guarantees (12)</td> <td class="tcr">815</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">2105</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Private and state lines operated by virtue of state</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;concessions, with and without interest guarantees (49)</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">4093</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">10,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">======</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The policy of the national government has been gradually to
+lease all its lines except the Estrada de Ferro Central do Brazil,
+which is retained for sentimental reasons. This great railway runs
+from the city of Rio de Janeiro westward to the city of São Paulo
+and northward into the interior of Minas Geraes, with a total length
+at the beginning of 1905 of 1002 m., and an extension of about 104 m.
+to Pirapora, on the São Francisco river. It was formerly known as
+the &ldquo;E. de F. Dom Pedro II.,&rdquo; in honour of the sovereign who
+encouraged its construction. The main line has a gauge of 63 in.
+(1.60 m.) and affords an outlet for a number of inland metre-gauge
+lines. The first two sections of this great railway, which carry it
+across the coast range, were opened to traffic in 1858 and 1864.
+The series of trunk lines terminating at the port of Santos are owned
+by private companies and are formed by the São Paulo, Paulista and
+Mogyana lines, the first owned by an English company, and the
+other two by Brazilian companies. The Mogyana carries the system
+entirely across the state of São Paulo into the western districts of
+Minas Geraes. The principal trunk lines (the São Paulo and
+Paulista) have a broad gauge, while their extensions and feeders
+have a narrow gauge. The comparatively short lines extending
+inland from the ports of São Salvador (Bahia), Pernambuco, Maceió,
+Victoria and Paranaguá serve only a narrow zone along the coast.
+To encourage the investment of private capital in the construction of
+railways, the general railway law of 1853 authorized the national
+government to grant guarantees of interest on the capital invested.
+Under this law companies were organized in England for building
+the São Paulo railway, and the lines running from Bahia and Pernambuco
+toward the São Francisco river. Political considerations also
+led to the construction of similar lines in the states of Rio Grande do
+Norte, Parahyba, Alagôas, Sergipe, Espirito Santo, Paraná, Santa
+Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul. The result was that the national
+treasury became burdened with a heavy annual interest charge,
+payable abroad in gold, which did not tend to diminish, and had a
+long period to run before the expiration of the contracts. The
+government finally determined to take over these guaranteed lines
+from the foreign companies owning them, and a statement issued
+in October 1902 showed that 1335 m. had been acquired at a cost of
+£14,605,000 in bonds, the interest on which is £584,200 a year against
+an aggregate of £831,750 in interest guarantees which the government
+had been paying. In addition to this economy it was calculated
+that the lines could be leased for £132,000 a year. The loan
+finally issued in London to cover the purchase of these railways
+aggregated £16,619,320. All but three of these lines had been leased
+in 1905.</p>
+
+<p>The use of tramways for the transportation of passengers in cities
+dates from 1868, when the first section of the Botanical Garden line
+of Rio de Janeiro was opened to traffic. The line was completed
+with its surplus earnings and continued under the control of the
+American company which built it until 1882, when it was sold to a
+Brazilian company. Subsequently the tramways of the city have
+been mostly concentrated in the hands of a single Canadian company.
+All the large cities of Brazil are liberally provided with
+tramways, those of the city of São Paulo, where electric traction is
+used, being noticeably good. The substitution of electricity for
+animal traction was begun in São Salvador in 1906. Mules are
+universally employed for animal traction, and narrow gauge lines with
+single-mule trams are generally used where the traffic is light.</p>
+
+<p>Brazil is lamentably deficient in steamship communication
+considering its importance in a country where the centres of population
+are separated by such distances of coasts and river. Previous
+to the creation of the republic, the coastwise service was performed
+by two national companies (now united), and partially by foreign
+lines calling at two or more ports. A considerable number of foreign
+sailing vessels also carried on an important coasting trade. The
+coastwise service centres at Rio de Janeiro, from which port the
+Lloyd Brazileiro sends steamers regularly south to Montevideo, and
+north to Pará and Manáos, calling at the more important intermediate
+ports. From Montevideo river steamers are sent up the
+Paraná and Paraguay rivers to Corumbá and Cuyabá, in the state of
+Matto Grosso. The company receives a heavy subsidy from the
+national government. Parts of this coastwise traffic are covered by
+other companies, two of which receive subsidies. There were also
+six lines of river steamers receiving subsidies from the national
+government in 1904, and the aggregate paid to these and the coastwise
+lines was 2,830,061 milreis. The largest of the river lines is the
+Amazon Steam Navigation Co. (an English corporation), whose service
+covers the main river and several of its principal tributaries.
+Two subsidized companies maintain services on the São Francisco
+river&mdash;one below the Paulo Affonso falls, and the other above, the
+latter covering 854 m. of navigable channel between Joazeiro and
+Pirapora. Besides these there are other companies engaged in the
+coasting and river traffic, either with subsidies from the state
+governments, as feeders for railway lines, or as private unsubsidized
+undertakings.</p>
+
+<p>The telegraph lines, which date from 1852, are owned and operated
+by the national government, with the exception of the lines
+constructed by private railway companies, and the cable lines of the
+Amazon and the coast. The government lines extend from Pará to
+the Argentine and Uruguayan frontiers, where they connect with
+the telegraph systems of those republics, and from Rio de Janeiro
+westward across country, in great part unsettled, to the capitals
+of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. At Pará connexion is made with the
+cable laid in the bed of the Amazon to Manáos, which is owned and
+operated by a subsidized English company. At Vizeu, Pará,
+connexion is made with a French cable to the West Indies and the
+United States, and at Pernambuco with two cable lines to Europe. A
+coastwise cable runs from Pará to Montevideo with double cables
+between Pernambuco and Montevideo. There were in 1903 a total of
+15,150 m. of land lines, with 29,310 m. of wire and 1102 telegraph
+offices. The government maintains reciprocal rates with most of
+the private railway lines.</p>
+
+<p>The Brazilian postal service is under the general supervision of the
+minister of communications and public works, and is administered
+by a director-general. Owing to the size of the country and the
+sparsely-populated state of a large part of the interior, the
+transportation of the mails is attended with much difficulty and expense.
+Although the postal rates are high, the service is not self-sustaining,
+the receipts for 1904 being 7,018,344 milreis, against a total
+expenditure of 10,099,545 milreis. There were 2847 post offices
+(<i>agencias</i>), of which 2166 were of the 4th or lowest grade. Brazil is
+a member of the Postal Union, and like Argentina exacts higher
+nominal rates of postage upon outgoing mail than those agreed upon
+to cover the depreciation in her own currency. The letter rate was
+at first 200 reis (nearly 5½ d.), but it has been increased to 300 reis,
+which is equivalent to 8 d. at par and 4½ d. at 15 d. exchange. An
+inland parcel post was in operation long before the overthrow of the
+monarchy, and a similar service with Portugal has been successfully
+maintained for a number of years, notwithstanding the difficulties
+interposed by customs regulations. National and international
+money order systems are also in operation.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution of Brazil provides that the coastwise trade shall
+be carried on by national vessels, but this provision did not go into
+effect until 1896. And even then, because of the insufficient number
+of Brazilian vessels it was provided in the regulations that foreign
+vessels could be enrolled in that trade by using the Brazilian flag
+and employing a certain proportion of Brazilians on the crew. One
+of the purposes of this restrictive provision was that of creating a
+national merchant marine, but the disinclination of Brazilians for
+maritime pursuits has been a serious obstacle to its realization. In
+1901 the merchant navy included 228 steamers of 91,465 tons net,
+and 343 sailing vessels of 76,992 tons net. These vessels are all
+engaged in the coasting and river trade of the country. Efforts
+have been made, however, to engage in foreign trade, and subsidies
+were offered for a passenger and freight service to the United States.
+On the 23rd of February 1906 the government completed a new
+contract with the Lloyd Brazileiro Company for its coastwise and
+river service, and included clauses providing for a line to the United
+States. This foreign service (monthly) began in August 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Although the coast of Brazil shows a large number of bays and
+tide-water river channels which are apparently suitable for commercial
+ports, a close examination of them reduces the number of good
+ports to less than a dozen. The others are either difficult of access,
+or are rendered practically useless by dangerous reefs, sand bars and
+shoals. Important improvements have been undertaken in some of
+these ports. Those at Santos and Manáos, for example, have produced
+good results. In many cases, as at Rio de Janeiro, Santos and
+Manáos, the cost and maintenance of the new port-works are met
+by an additional tax on merchandise, though the immediate
+expenditures are met by advances from the national treasury, and at
+Rio de Janeiro by a foreign loan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;The imports, exports and domestic trade of Brazil
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span>
+are by reason of their magnitude and peculiar character the most
+important in South America, though the <i>per capita</i> aggregate is
+less than that of Argentina. Although an agricultural country,
+Brazil does not produce all its own bread and meat, and the imports
+of wheat, wheat flour, rice, fish, jerked beef and preserved meats,
+lard, butter, beans, potatoes, packed fruits and vegetables, Indian
+corn and other food-stuffs, are surprisingly large. Since the creation
+of the republic, extreme protective measures have caused the
+creation of a large number of cotton factories and other manufactures,
+but these are able to supply only a part of the consumption,
+and the importation of cotton and woollen fabrics, silks, ready-made
+clothing, boots and shoes, &amp;c., is large. Modern industrial
+development in some of the states has greatly increased the importation
+of machinery, electric supplies, materials for construction,
+coal, &amp;c. Kerosene oil also figures among the principal imports,
+and beef cattle are imported for consumption by some cities. The
+exports cover a wide range of agricultural, pastoral and natural
+productions, including coffee, rubber, sugar, cotton, cocoa, Brazil nuts,
+<i>maté</i> (Paraguay tea), hides, skins, fruits, gold, diamonds, manganese
+ore, cabinet woods and medicinal leaves, roots and resins. Coffee
+and rubber, however, represent from 80 to 90% of the official
+valuation of all exports. High import duties are imposed by the
+national government and export duties by the states. The exchange
+of domestic products between the states is greatly restricted through
+lack of cheap transportation facilities, and by the suicidal imposition
+of import and export duties by the states, either for revenue or for
+the protection of home industries.</p>
+
+<p>According to a summary for the six years 1901 to 1906, derived
+from official sources and published in the annual <i>Retrospecto</i> of the
+<i>Jornal do Commercio</i>, of Rio de Janeiro, the values of the imports
+and exports for those years (exclusive of coin), reduced to pounds
+sterling at the average rate of exchange (or value of one milreis)
+for each year, were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average<br />Value of<br />the Milreis<br />in Pence.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Imports in<br />Pounds Ster.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exports in<br />Pounds Ster.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">21,377,270</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,621,993</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,279,418</td> <td class="tcc rb">36,437,456</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.99</td> <td class="tcc rb">24,207,811</td> <td class="tcc rb">36,883,175</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,915,423</td> <td class="tcc rb">39,430,136</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,830,050</td> <td class="tcc rb">44,643,113</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.17</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">33,204,041</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">53,059,480</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Nearly 76½% of the exports of 1906 were of coffee and rubber,
+the official valuations of these being: coffee 245,474,525 milreis
+gold (£27,615,884), and rubber (including maniçoba and mangabeira),
+124,941,433 milreis gold (£14,055,911).</p>
+
+<p>Brazil is essentially an agricultural country. No other country has
+been able to equal Brazil in the production of coffee, and under
+better labour conditions the country might compete with the
+foremost in the production of cane sugar, cotton and tobacco.
+Besides these it might easily excel in producing many of the tropical
+fruits for which there is a commercial demand. During the colonial
+period sugar cane was cultivated from Parahyba S. to the vicinity
+of Santos, and sugar was the principal export of the colony. Before
+the middle of the 19th century coffee became one of the leading
+exports, and its cultivation in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro
+and Minas Geraes has been so increased since that time that it
+represents over four-fifths in value of the total export of agricultural
+produce. The principal sugar-producing states are Alagôas, Sergipe,
+Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, and the production is
+between 200,000 and 300,000 tons, the greater part of which is
+consumed in the country. Cotton has been widely cultivated since
+early colonial days, principally in the northern Atlantic states.
+Tobacco is also widely cultivated, and the product of some states,
+such as Bahia, Minas Geraes and Goyaz, has a high local reputation
+for its excellence. Cacáu (cocoa) is cultivated extensively in the
+Amazon Valley and along the coast as far south as southern Bahia,
+and forms one of the leading exports. In 1906 São Paulo offered
+premiums for its cultivation in the state. Rice has been cultivated
+in places, but without much success, although the quality produced
+compared favourably with the imported article. Indian corn grows
+luxuriantly everywhere, but it does not mature well in the humid
+regions of the Amazon region and the coast. The product of the
+elevated inland regions is good, but the costs of transportation and
+the small profits afforded have prevented its extensive cultivation,
+and it is imported from the La Plata republics for consumption along
+the coast. Much has been said in regard to the production of wheat,
+and efforts have been made in various places to promote its cultivation.
+It was once cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul with some success,
+and it has been grown in Minas Geraes and São Paulo, but in no case
+have the returns been sufficient to give it a permanent standing
+among the productions of the country. The great majority of the
+people are unused to wheaten bread, using the coarse flour of the
+mandioca root instead, consequently the demand for wheat and
+flour is confined to the large cities, which can obtain them from
+Argentina more cheaply than they can be produced in the country.
+One of the most common and important productions of Brazil is
+<i>mandioca</i> (<i>Manihot</i>), of which there are two well-known species,
+<i>M. utilissima</i> and <i>M. aipi</i>. The first named, which is poisonous
+in its native state, is the <i>cassava</i> of Spanish America. From it is
+made <i>farinha de mandioca</i>, which is the bread of the common people of
+Brazil, and tapioca. The poison is extracted by soaking the bruised
+or grated roots in water, after which the coarse flour is roasted.
+Mandioca was cultivated by the natives before the discovery of
+America, and the wide area over which it has been distributed
+warrants the conclusion that the discovery of its value as a food
+and the means of separating its poisonous properties must have
+occurred at a very remote period. The peanut, or ground-nut
+(<i>Arachis hypogaea</i>), is another widely-cultivated plant, dating from
+pre-Columbian times. Very little attention has thus far been given
+to the cultivation of fruit for exportation, the exceptions being
+bananas for the Argentine and Uruguayan markets, and oranges and
+pineapples for European markets. The coast region from Ceará to
+Rio de Janeiro is adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of
+fruits of a superior quality. Ceará, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro are
+celebrated for their oranges, and Pernambuco for its delicious
+pineapples. Tangerines, lemons, limes, grapes, guavas, figs, cashews or
+cajús (<i>Anacardium occidentale</i>), mangabas (<i>Hancornia speciosa</i>),
+joboticabas (<i>Eugenia cauliflora</i> and <i>E. jaboticaba</i>, Mart.),
+cocoa-nuts, mangos, <i>fruitas de conde</i> (<i>Anona squamosa</i>), plantains, &amp;c.
+are produced in abundance and with little labour. In some parts of southern
+Brazil the fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone do well, but
+within the tropics they thrive well only at a considerable elevation
+above sea-level. Apples, peaches, quinces, raspberries, strawberries,
+&amp;c., are produced under such conditions, but the flavour of their
+kind grown in colder climates is usually wanting. The vegetable
+productions are less numerous, but they include sweet potatoes,
+cabbages, cauliflower, lettuce, beans, peas, onions, garlic, tomatoes,
+okra, radishes, cucumbers, couve, chuchu (<i>Sechium edule</i>), and aipim
+(<i>Manihot aipi</i>). The white potato, known as &ldquo;batata inglez&rdquo;
+(English potato), is grown in elevated localities, but it deteriorates
+so greatly after the first planting that fresh imported seed is necessary
+every second or third year.</p>
+
+<p>The pastoral industries, which date from early colonial times,
+have suffered many vicissitudes, and their development has failed
+to keep pace with the country&rsquo;s growth in population. Horses are
+used to some extent for riding, but very little for carriage and
+draught purposes, consequently there has been no great incentive
+for their breeding. They are largely used and raised in Rio Grande
+do Sul, but in the warmer regions of the north only to a limited
+extent. The hardier mules are generally employed for draught, carriage,
+and saddle purposes in every part of the country, and their breeding
+is a lucrative industry in the southern states. Cattle-raising is the
+principal industry in Rio Grande do Sul, and receives considerable
+attention in Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, Santa Catharina, Paraná,
+Piauhy and Rio Grande do Norte. It was estimated that there
+were 30,000,000 head of cattle in the republic in 1904, but the estimate
+was unquestionably too large. A very large part of the jerked beef
+consumed in Brazil is imported from Argentina and Uruguay, and
+some beef cattle also are imported. These importations at Rio de
+Janeiro in 1906 were 12,464,170 kilograms of jerked beef and
+12,575 head of cattle. In the Rio Branco region of Amazonas and in
+Piauhy, where the national government has long been the owner of
+extensive cattle ranges, the industry is in a state of decadence.
+This is partly due to such pests as the vampire bat and bush ticks
+(<i>carrapatos</i>), and partly to the unprogressiveness of the cattlemen.
+Cattle-raising was once a flourishing industry on the island of
+Marajó, at the mouth of the Amazon, and it is followed to some extent
+at Alemquer and other points along the Amazon, but the cattle
+are small, and commonly in bad condition. In southern Bahia the
+industry has been nearly extinguished through increasing aridity
+and droughts, but in the state of Rio de Janeiro the planters are
+increasing their herds. Minas Geraes produces cheese, butter and
+milk, as well as beef cattle for neighbouring cities. Matto Grosso
+classifies cattle-raising as a principal industry, but under present
+conditions the accessible markets are too small for any large
+development. In Rio Grande do Sul, where it has attained its greatest
+development, about 400,000 beeves are slaughtered annually for
+the manufacture of jerked beef (<i>xarque</i>), beef extract, &amp;c. Little
+attention has been given to sheep in Brazil except in the southern
+states, and even there the flocks are small. They were to be found
+in Ceará and Piauhy in colonial times, and small flocks are still to be
+seen in the latter state, but no use is made of their wool, and the
+market for mutton is extremely limited because of popular prejudices.
+Woollen manufactures have been established in Rio de Janeiro, São
+Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. The exportation of wool amounted
+to 1,130,160 &#8468; in 1906. Goats have been found highly profitable
+in many of the middle Atlantic states, where the long dry seasons
+render the campos unsuitable for cattle pasturage. The export of
+goat skins from these states is large. Swine do well in all parts of
+the country, especially in Minas Geraes, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro,
+Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul, and domestic pork and lard are
+slowly supplanting the heavily-taxed foreign products.</p>
+
+<p>Although the coast and river fisheries of Brazil are numerous and
+valuable, cured fish is one of the staple imports, and foreign products
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span>
+are to be found even along the Amazon. In the Amazon valley fish
+is a principal article of food, and large quantities of <i>pirarucú</i> (<i>Sudis
+gigas</i>) are caught during the season of low water and prepared for
+storage or market by drying in the sun. This and the collection of
+turtle eggs for their oil, or butter, are chiefly Indian industries, and
+contribute largely to the support of the native population of that
+region. Along the coast the best known fisheries are among the
+Abrolhos islands and in the shallow waters of Espirito Santo, where
+the garoupa, pargo and vermelho (species of <i>Serranus</i>) abound in
+great numbers.</p>
+
+<p>The extractive or forest industries of Brazil were among the first
+to engage the attention of Europeans, and have always been considered
+a principal source of colonial and national wealth. The varied
+uses of india-rubber in modern times, however, have given them a
+greatly enhanced importance and value. Of the exports of 1905,
+36% were of this class, while those of the pastoral and mining
+industries combined were not quite 6½%. In 1906 the percentages
+were 31 and 6.67, showing a considerable loss for the former
+and a slight gain for the latter. The principal products of this class
+are india-rubber, maté, Brazil nuts, vegetable wax, palm fibre,
+cabinet woods, and medicinal leaves, roots, resins, &amp;c. Before the
+discovery of the cheaper aniline colours, dye-woods were among the
+most valuable products of the country; in fact, Brazil derives her
+name from that of a dye-wood (Brazil-wood&mdash;<i>Caesalpinia echinata</i>),
+known as <i>bresill, brasilly, bresilji, braxilis</i>, or <i>brasile</i> long before the
+discovery of America (see Humboldt&rsquo;s <i>Géographic du nouveau
+continent</i>, tom. ii. p. 214), which for many generations was the most
+highly prized of her natural productions. Of the total exports of
+this group (1905) very nearly 90% was of india-rubber, which
+percentage was reduced to 85 in the following year. The exportation
+for 1906 was 69,761,123 &#8468; of Hevea, 5,871,968 &#8468; of maniçoba, and
+1,440,131 &#8468; of mangabeira rubber, the whole valued at 124,941,433
+milreis gold. The dried leaves and smaller twigs of maté (Paraguayan
+tea&mdash;<i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>) are exported to the southern Spanish
+American republics, where (as in Rio Grande do Sul) the beverage
+is exceedingly popular. The export in 1906 amounted to 127,417,950
+&#8468;, officially valued at 16,502,881 milreis gold. The collection of
+Brazil nuts along the Amazon and its tributaries is essentially a
+poor man&rsquo;s industry, requiring no other plant than a boat. The
+harvest comes in January and February, in the rainy season, and
+the nut-gatherers often come one or two hundred miles in their boats
+to the best forests. The nuts are the fruit of the <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>,
+one of the largest trees of the Amazon forest region, and are enclosed,
+sixteen to eighteen in number, in a hard, thick pericarp. Another
+nut-producing tree is the <i>sapucaia</i> (<i>Lecythis ollaria</i>), whose nuts are
+enclosed in a larger pericarp, and are considered to be better flavoured
+than those first described. The crop is a variable one, the export
+in 1905 having been 198,226 hectolitres, while that of 1906 was
+96,770 hectolitres. It could undoubtedly be largely increased.
+Vegetable wax, which is an excellent substitute for beeswax, is a
+product of the <i>carnahuba</i> palm (<i>Copernicia cerifera</i>), and is an important
+export from Ceará. Palm, or piassava fibre, derived from
+the <i>piassava</i> palm, is used in the manufacture of brooms, brushes, &amp;c.
+It is found as far south as southern Bahia, and the export could be
+very largely increased. The export of cabinet woods is not large,
+considering the forest area of Brazil and the variety and quality
+of the woods. This is principally due to the cost and difficulties
+of transporting timbers to the coast. The export is confined principally
+to rosewood. Of the medicinal plants, the best-known products
+are ipecacuanhá, sarsaparilla, copaiba, jaborandi and cinchona, but
+this is only a part of the list. Besides these, tonka beans, anatto,
+vanilla, and castor-oil seeds form a part of the exports.</p>
+
+<p>The mineral exports are surprisingly small. Gold was discovered
+by the Portuguese soon after their settlement of the coast in the
+16th century, but the washings were poor and attracted little attention.
+The richer deposits of Minas Geraes were discovered about
+1693, and those of Matto Grosso early in the following century.
+Abandoned placer mines are to be found in every part of the unsettled
+interior, showing how thoroughly it had been explored by gold-hunters
+in those early days. Some good mines, like Morro Velho
+and the abandoned Gongo Soco, have been developed in Minas
+Geraes, but the great majority are small and not very productive.
+Diamonds were discovered in Minas Geraes, near the town now called
+Diamantina, during the first half of the 18th century, the dates
+given ranging from 1725 to 1746, but the productiveness of the
+district has greatly decreased. Diamonds have also been found in
+Bahia, Goyaz and Paraná. Other precious stones found in Brazil
+are the topaz, ruby aquamarine, tourmaline, chrysoberyl, garnet
+and amethyst. Among the minerals are silver, platinum, copper,
+iron, lead, manganese, chromium, quicksilver, bismuth, arsenic and
+antimony, of which only iron and manganese have been regularly
+mined. The copper deposits of Minas Geraes are said to be promising.
+Manganese is mined in Minas Geraes for export. Iron ores have been
+found in most of the states, and are especially abundant in Minas
+Geraes. The Ypanema mine and ironworks, near Sorocaba, São
+Paulo, which belong to the national government, have been in
+operation since 1810 and small charcoal forges were in operation in
+colonial times and supplied the mines with a considerable part of
+the iron needed by them. Many of the richer deposits have never
+been developed because of a lack of fuel and limestone. Bituminous
+coal of an inferior quality is mined to a limited extent in Rio Grande
+do Sul, and another mine has been opened in Santa Catharina.
+These coal deposits extend from Rio Grande do Sul north into the
+state of São Paulo. Salt, which does not figure in the list of exports,
+is produced along the coast between Pernambuco and Cape St Roque.
+The annual production is about 240,000 tons.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate the comparative productiveness and relationship of
+these sources of national wealth and industry, the following official
+returns of export for the years 1905 and 1906 are arranged in the
+four general classes previously discussed, the values being in
+Brazilian gold milreis, worth 2s. 3d. or 54.6 cents to the milreis:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Agricultural.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">1905.<br />Milreis, gold.</td> <td class="tcc">1906.<br />Milreis, gold.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Coffee</td> <td class="tcr">190,404,576</td> <td class="tcr">245,474,525</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cotton</td> <td class="tcr">10,290,790</td> <td class="tcr">14,726,492</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cacau</td> <td class="tcr">9,240,313</td> <td class="tcr">12,323,922</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tobacco</td> <td class="tcr">7,335,163</td> <td class="tcr">8,283,150</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sugar</td> <td class="tcr">3,608,476</td> <td class="tcr">5,388,596</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bran<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a></td> <td class="tcr">1,490,312</td> <td class="tcr">1,128,761</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cottonseed</td> <td class="tcr">964,074</td> <td class="tcr">1,084,742</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mandioca flour</td> <td class="tcr">692,079</td> <td class="tcr">789,913</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fruits</td> <td class="tcr">606,678</td> <td class="tcr">714,332</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Castor-oil seeds</td> <td class="tcr">214,016</td> <td class="tcr">333,250</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">224,846,477</td> <td class="tcr">290,247,683</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Natural and Forest.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="3">Rubber:</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Mangabeira</td> <td class="tcr">1,286,672</td> <td class="tcr">1,376,014</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Maniçoba</td> <td class="tcr">7,418,559</td> <td class="tcr">7,335,870</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Hevea (Pará)</td> <td class="tcr">119,434,947</td> <td class="tcr">116,229,549</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Maté (Paraguay tea)</td> <td class="tcr">11,088,108</td> <td class="tcr">16,502,881</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Brazil nuts</td> <td class="tcr">2,064,049</td> <td class="tcr">1,190,177</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Palm wax (Carnahuba)</td> <td class="tcr">1,847,273</td> <td class="tcr">3,733,478</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cabinet woods</td> <td class="tcr">390,070</td> <td class="tcr">318,873</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Piassaya fibre</td> <td class="tcr">336,668</td> <td class="tcr">347,323</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Medicinal leaves, roots, resins, &amp;c</td> <td class="tcr">191,534</td> <td class="tcr">263,137</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">143,331,142</td> <td class="tcr">147,297,302</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Pastoral and Animal.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Salted hides</td> <td class="tcr">7,010,498</td> <td class="tcr">9,691,180</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dry hides</td> <td class="tcr">5,330,440</td> <td class="tcr">7,675,715</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Skins</td> <td class="tcr">4,117,590</td> <td class="tcr">4,639,512</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Horse hair</td> <td class="tcr">307,505</td> <td class="tcr">403,541</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Horns</td> <td class="tcr">276,172</td> <td class="tcr">277,488</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Wool</td> <td class="tcr">142,414</td> <td class="tcr">354,045</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Beef extract, &amp;c</td> <td class="tcr">81,607</td> <td class="tcr">110,925</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">17,266,226</td> <td class="tcr">23,152,406</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Mineral Products.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gold, in bars</td> <td class="tcr">3,734,469</td> <td class="tcr">4,379,160</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Manganese ore</td> <td class="tcr">2,958,462</td> <td class="tcr">1,594,486</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Monazite sand</td> <td class="tcr">889,231</td> <td class="tcr">881,289</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Precious stones</td> <td class="tcr">633,916</td> <td class="tcr">1,480,260</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">8,216,078</td> <td class="tcr">8,335,195</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Miscellaneous.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Old metals<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a>.       263,506</td> <td class="tcr">382,073</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sundry products</td> <td class="tcr">2,177,512</td> <td class="tcr">2,225,163</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">2,441,018</td> <td class="tcr">2,607,236</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Total, all products</td> <td class="tcr">396,827,679</td> <td class="tcr">471,639,822</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Manufactures.</i>&mdash;Before the establishment of the republic very
+little attention had been given to manufacturing industries beyond
+what was necessary to prepare certain crude products for market.
+Sugar and rum were essentially plantation products down to the
+last ten years of the empire, when central usines using improved
+machinery and methods were introduced as a means of saving the
+sugar plantations from ruin. The crude methods of preparing jerked
+beef were also modified to some extent by better equipped abattoirs
+and establishments for preparing beef extract, preserved meats, &amp;c.
+There were also mills for crushing the dried maté leaves, cigar and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span>
+cigarette factories, small chocolate factories, hat factories, brick and
+tile yards, potteries, tanneries, saddleries, and many other small
+industries common to all large communities. Considerable protection
+was afforded to many of these industries by the customs tariff
+of that time, but protection did not become an acknowledged
+national policy until after 1889. After that time the duties on
+imports were repeatedly and largely increased, both as a means of
+raising larger revenues and as an encouragement to manufacturing
+enterprise. Although the protective tariffs thus imposed have
+resulted in a large increase in manufacturing industries, some of
+them have been antagonistic to the productive interests of the
+country, as in the case of weaving mills which use imported yarns.
+Other industries are carried on entirely with imported materials, and
+are national only in name. Among these are flour mills, factories
+for the cutting of wire nails and making hollow ware from sheet iron,
+and factories for the manufacture of umbrellas, boots and shoes, &amp;c.
+The greatest progress has been made in the manufacture of cotton
+fabrics, principally of the plainer and coarser grades used by the
+common people. There were 155 of these factories in 1895, but in
+1905 only 108 were in operation, with 715,000 spindles, and about
+37,000 operatives. Nearly one-half of these were weaving mills,
+using imported yarn. The factories are widely distributed, and
+some are favoured by state legislation in addition to the national
+tariff. The largest and best equipped of them are located in the
+federal states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, though the greater
+part of the raw cotton used comes from the northern states and pays
+high freight rates. The manufacture of woollen blankets, cashmeres,
+flannels, &amp;c., had also undergone noteworthy development and is
+carried on in fifteen factories, located principally in Rio Grande do
+Sul, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Biscuit-making is represented
+by a large number of factories, for the most part in Rio de Janeiro
+and São Paulo, and there are a number of breweries of the most
+modern type in the same two states. The manufacture of boots
+and shoes has also received much attention, but the materials used
+are for the most part imported. Among other manufactures are
+butter and cheese, canned fruits and vegetables, glass and earthenware,
+printing and wrapping paper, furniture, matches, hats,
+clothing, pharmaceutical products, soaps and perfumery, ice,
+artificial drinks, cigars and cigarettes, fireworks and candles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;The overthrow of the monarchy by a military
+revolt in Rio de Janeiro on 15th November 1889, resulted in the
+creation of a federal republic under the name of United States
+of Brazil (Estados Unidos do Brazil). The constitution under
+which the republic is governed was drafted by a constituent
+assembly convened on the 15th of November 1890, and was
+adopted on the 24th of February 1891. The supreme powers of
+the nation are vested in three partially independent branches of
+government&mdash;executive, legislative, and judicial&mdash;represented
+by the president and his cabinet, a national congress of two
+chambers, and a supreme tribunal. The states forming the
+federation consist of the twenty provinces and municipal district
+of the empire, but the number may be increased or diminished
+by the states concerned with the approval of the national
+congress. The states are self-governed, and have exclusive
+control of the public lands, mines, industries, and all local
+affairs. They have the sole right also to impose duties on
+exports and taxes upon real estate, industries and professions,
+and transfers of property. Among other things they are charged
+with the supervision and support of primary education, with
+the maintenance of order, and with the organization and support
+of a system of state courts. Both the national and state governments
+exercise the right to impose stamp and consumption
+taxes, and the municipalities likewise are permitted to impose
+licence and consumption taxes. The national government
+reserves for itself the exclusive right to direct the foreign affairs
+of the republic, to maintain an army and navy, to impose
+duties on imports, to regulate foreign commerce, to collect port
+dues, to issue money and create banks of issue, and to maintain
+a postal and national telegraph service. It also supervises
+secondary and superior education, issues patents, and provides
+federal courts for the trial of cases amenable to federal laws.
+The national government is forbidden to interfere in the peculiar
+affairs of the states except to repel foreign invasion, to maintain
+a republican form of government, to re-establish order at the
+request of a state, or to enforce federal laws and sentences.
+The states are forbidden, likewise, to tax federal property, to
+tax inter-state commerce, to impose duties of their own on
+foreign imports, or to resist the execution of judicial sentences
+originating in other states. The separation of church and state
+is provided for by the constitution, and both the nation and the
+states are forbidden to establish, subsidize or restrict the
+exercise of any religious worship. Foreigners are eligible to
+Brazilian citizenship, and the right of suffrage is conferred upon
+all male citizens over twenty-one years of age, except beggars,
+illiterates, the rank and file of the armed forces, members of
+monastic orders, &amp;c., bound by private vows, and all unregistered
+citizens.</p>
+
+<p>The executive power of the nation is vested in a president,
+elected for a term of four years by a direct vote of the electors.
+He must be a native Brazilian over thirty-five years of age, in
+the full enjoyment of his political rights, and is ineligible for the
+next succeeding term. A vice-president is elected at the same
+time and under the same conditions, who is president of the
+senate <i>ex officio</i>, and succeeds to the presidency in case the
+office becomes vacant during the last two years of the presidential
+term. Should the vacancy occur during the first two years of
+the term, a new election must be held. The president receives a
+salary of 120,000 milreis and the vice-president of 36,000 milreis.
+The president is advised and assisted by a cabinet of six ministers,
+viz. foreign affairs; finance; agriculture, industry and commerce;<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+communications (<i>Viacao</i>) and public works;<a href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> war;
+and marine. The ministers are appointed and removed by the
+president, take no part in the sessions of congress, and are
+responsible to the president alone for their advisory acts. The
+president sanctions and promulgates, or vetoes, or ignores the
+laws, and resolutions voted by congress, and issues decrees and
+regulations for their execution. His veto may be over-ridden
+by a two-thirds vote in each chamber, and permitting ten days
+to pass without signing an act is considered as acquiescence
+and it is promulgated by congress. The president is charged
+with the duties (among others) of commanding the armed forces
+of the republic, appointing the prefect of the national capital,
+designating members of the supreme tribunal and diplomatic
+representatives for the approval of the senate, to negotiate
+treaties, &amp;c., <i>ad referendum</i> to congress, and maintain relations
+with foreign powers, to declare war in case of invasion and to
+declare martial law in case of grave internal disorder, and to
+advise congress at the opening of the annual session of the progress
+and state of public affairs. He may be impeached before
+the senate for his official acts and suspended from office, or tried
+by the supreme tribunal for criminal offences.</p>
+
+<p>The legislative power is vested in a national congress of two
+chambers, elected by direct suffrage, and convened on the 3rd
+of May each year. The regular annual sessions are of four months&rsquo;
+duration, but they may be extended to complete necessary
+legislation. The senate consists of sixty-three members (three
+from each state and the federal district) elected for a period of
+nine years, one-third of each delegation being renewed every
+three years. The senators must be not less than thirty-five
+years of age, and are exempt from all legal processes not previously
+authorized by the senate during their term of office,
+except in cases of arrest <i>in flagrante delicto</i> for a capital crime.
+The chamber of deputies contains 212 members, the membership
+being distributed among the states on a basis of one for each
+70,000 of population, but with a minimum representation of four
+for each state. The deputies are elected by direct suffrage for
+the legislative session of three years, and have the same immunities
+from legal process as the senators. The chamber has
+the right of initiative in the organization of the annual budget
+laws and those relative to the numerical strength of the army
+and navy. The members of both houses receive a <i>per diem</i>
+subsidy.</p>
+
+<p>The judicial system of the republic consists of a supreme
+federal tribunal of fifteen judges in the national capital, and a
+district tribunal in the capital of each state, which forms a federal
+judicial district. The judges are appointed for life and can
+be removed only by judicial sentence and impeachment.
+One member of the supreme tribunal holds the position of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span>
+solicitor-general of the republic. The judges and solicitor-general
+are appointed by the president with the approval of the senate,
+but the tribunal chooses its own presiding officers and secretaries
+and, nominally, is independent of executive control. The
+supreme tribunal has original and appellate jurisdiction, but its
+power to pass on the constitutionality of federal laws and
+executive acts seems to fall short of that of the United States
+Supreme Court. It has authority, however, to review the acts
+and laws of state governments and to decide upon their constitutionality.
+The district federal court has but one judge
+(<i>juiz de secção</i>) and a solicitor of the republic, and has original
+jurisdiction in federal causes. Each state has its own local laws
+and courts, independent of federal control, but subject to the
+review of the supreme tribunal, and with rights of appeal to that
+tribunal in specified cases. The federal district, which has a
+municipal council instead of a legislature, has a system of
+municipal and higher courts peculiar to itself. Limited judicial
+powers are exercised by chiefs of police, and by certain department
+commissions, or boards, of an executive character. The
+members of the army and navy are governed by special laws,
+enjoy immunities from civil process, and are subject to the
+jurisdiction of military courts. The civil code of the republic
+is based upon Roman law.</p>
+
+<p><i>Army.</i>&mdash;The nominal strength of the army in 1906 was
+29,489, including the officers of the general and subordinate
+staffs and the officers and cadets of the military schools.
+This total represents the nominal strength of the army in
+times of peace. Its actual strength, however, is about 15,000
+men, some of the regimental and battalion organizations
+being skeletons. Its organization consists of 40 battalions
+of infantry with one transport and one depot company, 14
+regiments of cavalry of 4 squadrons each, 6 regiments of
+field artillery with 24 batteries and 6 battalions of heavy
+artillery with 24 batteries, and two battalions of engineers.
+Efforts to organize a national guard have been unsuccessful,
+although officers have been appointed and the organization
+perfected, on paper. The police force, however, is organized on
+a military footing and armed, and is available for service in case
+of necessity. It is credited with 20,000 men. According to law
+military service is obligatory, but the government has been
+unable to enforce it. Impressment is commonly employed to
+fill the ranks, and in cases of emergency the prison population
+is drawn upon for recruits. The president is nominally
+commander-in-chief of the army, but the actual command is
+vested in a general staff in the national capital, and in the general
+commanding each of the seven military districts into which the
+republic is divided. The most important of these districts is
+that of Rio Grande do Sul, where a force of 11,226 men is
+stationed. The principal war arsenal is in Rio de Janeiro.
+The rifle used by the infantry is a modified Mauser of the German
+1888 model. Military instruction is given at the Eschola Militar
+of Rio de Janeiro. The military organization is provided with
+an elaborate code and systems of military courts, which culminate
+in a supreme military tribunal composed of 15 judges
+holding office for life, of which 8 are general army officers,
+4 general naval officers and 3 civil judges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Navy.</i>&mdash;The naval strength of the republic consisted in 1906
+of a collection of armoured and wooden vessels of various ages
+and types of construction, of which three armoured vessels
+(including the two designed for coast defence), four protected
+cruisers, five destroyers and torpedo-cruisers, and half a dozen
+torpedo boats represented what may be termed the effective
+fighting force. The loss of the armoured turret ship &ldquo;Aquidaban&rdquo;
+by a magazine explosion in the bay of Jacarepagua, near Rio de
+Janeiro, in 1905, had left Brazil with but one fighting vessel (the
+&ldquo;Reachuelo&rdquo;) of any importance. Many of the wooden and
+iron vessels listed in the Naval Annual, 1906, though obsolete
+and of no value whatever as fighting machines, are used for
+river and harbour service, and in the suppression of trifling
+insurrections. The Annual describes 21 vessels of various
+types, and mentions 23 small gunboats used for river and
+harbour service. Besides these there are a number of practice
+boats (small school-ships), transports, dispatch boats and
+launches. A considerable part of the armament is old, but the
+more modern vessels are armed with Armstrong rifled guns.
+The naval programme of the republic for 1905 provided for the
+prompt construction of 3 battleships of the largest displacement,
+3 armoured cruisers, 6 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and 3 submarine
+boats; and by 1909 the reorganization of the navy was
+far advanced. The principal naval arsenal is located at Rio de
+Janeiro. The government possesses dry docks at Rio de Janeiro.
+The naval school, which has always enjoyed a high reputation
+among Brazilians, is situated on the island of Enxadas in the
+bay of Rio de Janeiro. There are smaller arsenals at Pará,
+Pernambuco, São Salvador and Ladario (Matto Grosso) and a
+shipbuilding yard of considerable importance at the Rio de
+Janeiro arsenal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Education is in a backward condition, and it is
+estimated that 80% of the population can neither read nor
+write. The lowest rate of illiteracy is to be found in the southern
+half of the republic. Public instruction, is, by constitutional
+provision, under secular control, but religious denominations
+are permitted to have their own schools. Primary instruction
+is free but not compulsory, and the schools are supported and
+supervised by the states. An incomplete return in 1891 gave
+8793 schools and 376,399 pupils. Secondary and higher education
+are under both federal and state control, the former being
+represented by lyceums in the state capitals, and by such
+institutions as the Gymnasio Nacional (formerly Collegio Dom
+Pedro II.) in Rio de Janeiro. Many of the states also maintain
+normal schools of an inferior type, that of São Paulo being the
+best and most modern of the number. Higher, or superior, instruction
+is confined almost exclusively to professional schools&mdash;
+the medical schools of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, the law schools
+of São Paulo and Pernambuco, the polytechnic of Rio de Janeiro,
+and the school of mines of Ouro Preto. There are many private
+schools in all the large cities, from the primary schools maintained
+by the church and various corporations and religious associations
+to schools of secondary and collegiate grades, such as the Protestant
+mission schools of Petropolis, Piracicaba, Juiz de Fóra, São
+Paulo and Paraná, the Lyceu de Artes e Ofiicios (night school) of
+Rio de Janeiro, and the Mackenzie College of São Paulo. Perhaps
+the best educational work in Brazil is done in these private
+schools. In addition to these there are a number of seminaries
+for the education of priests, where special attention is given to
+the classics and belles-lettres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The revolution of 1889 and the constitution adopted
+in 1891 not only effected a radical change in the form of government,
+but also brought about the separation of church and state.
+Before that time the Roman Catholic Church had been recognized
+and supported by the state. Not only are the national and state
+governments forbidden by the constitution to establish or
+subsidize religious worship, but its freedom is guaranteed by a
+prohibition against placing obstructions upon its exercise.
+The relations of the state with the disestablished church since
+1889 have been somewhat anomalous, the government having
+decided to continue during their lives the stipends of the church
+functionaries at the time of disestablishment. The census of
+1890 divided the population into 14,179,615 Roman Catholics,
+143,743 Protestants, 3300 of all other faiths, 7257 of no religious
+profession, and 600,000 unchristianized Indians. The increase
+of population through immigration is overwhelmingly Catholic,
+and the nation must, therefore, continue Roman Catholic whether
+the church is subsidized by the state or not. The moral character
+of churchmen in Brazil has been severely criticized by many
+observers, and the ease with which disestablishment was effected
+is probably largely due to their failings. The church had
+exercised a preponderating influence in all matters relating to
+education and the social life of the people, and it was felt that
+no sweeping reforms could be secured until its domination had
+been broken. The immediate results of disestablishment were
+civil marriage, the civil registry of births and deaths, and the
+secularization of cemeteries; but the church retains its influence
+over all loyal churchmen through the confessional, the last rites
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span>
+of the church, and their sentiment against the profanation of
+holy ground. Formerly Brazil constituted an ecclesiastical
+province under the metropolitan jurisdiction of an archbishop
+residing at Bahia, with 11 suffragan bishops, 12 vicars-general
+and about 2000 curates. In 1892 the diocese of Rio de Janeiro
+was made an archbishopric, and four new dioceses were created.
+Three more have been added since, making twenty dioceses in
+all. In 1905 the archbishop of Rio de Janeiro was made a
+cardinal. The church has eleven seminaries for the education
+of priests, and maintains a large number of private schools,
+especially for girls, which are patronized by the better classes.
+The church likewise exercises a far-reaching influence over the
+people through the beneficent work of its lay orders, and through
+the hospitals and asylums under its control in every part of the
+country. A Misericordia hospital is to be found in almost every
+town of importance, and <i>recolhimentos</i> for orphan girls in all the
+large cities. In no country have these charities received more
+generous support than in Brazil. The Protestant contingent
+consists of a number of small congregations scattered throughout
+the country, a few Portuguese Protestants from the Azores, a
+part of the German colonists settled in the central and southern
+states, and a large percentage of the North Europeans and
+Americans temporarily resident in Brazil. The Positivists are
+few in number, but their congregations are made up of educated
+and influential people.</p>
+
+<p><i>Art, Science and Literature.</i>&mdash;The Brazilian people have the
+natural taste for art, music and literature so common among
+the Latin nations of the Old World. The emperor Dom Pedro II.
+did much to encourage these pursuits, and many promising
+young men received their education in Europe at his personal
+expense. Still earlier in the century (1815) the regent Dom
+John VI. brought out a number of French artists to educate
+his subjects in the fine arts, and the <i>Escola Real de Sciencias,
+Artes e Officios</i> was founded in the following year. From this
+beginning resulted the <i>Academia de Bellas Artes</i> of a later date,
+to which was added a conservatory of music in 1841. The
+institution is now called the <i>Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes</i>.
+Free instruction in the fine arts has been given in this school.
+The higher results of artistic training, however, are less marked
+than a widespread dilettantism. The Brazilian composer Carlos
+Gomes (1839-1896) is the best known of those who have adopted
+music as a profession, his opera <i>Il Guarani</i> having been produced
+at most of the European capitals. The most prominent among
+Brazilian painters is Pedro Americo, and in sculpture Rodolpho
+Bernardelli has done good work. In science Brazil has accomplished
+very little, although many eminent foreign naturalists
+have spent years of study within her borders. João Barbosa
+Rodrigues has done some good work in botany, especially in
+the study of the palms of the Amazon, and João Baptista de
+Lacerda has made important biological investigations at the
+national museum of Rio de Janeiro. There are several scientific
+societies and institutions in the country, but they rarely undertake
+original work. The most active are the geographical
+societies, but very little has been done in the direction of scientific
+exploration. Some interesting results have been obtained from
+the boundary surveys, from Dr E. Cruls&rsquo;s exploration of a section
+of the Goyaz plateau in 1892 in search of a site for the future
+capital of the republic, and from some of the river and railway
+surveys. In 1875 a geological commission was organized under
+the direction of Professor Charles Frederick Hartt, but it was
+disbanded two years later. In 1906 Congress resolved to undertake
+a national geological survey under the direction of Mr
+Orville A. Derby, one of Professor Hartt&rsquo;s assistants. The coal
+resources of the southern states were investigated in 1904, under
+the auspices of the national government, by Dr J.C. White, of
+the U.S. Geological Survey, who found strata of fairly good coal
+at depths of 100 to 200 ft. extending from Rio Grande do Sul
+north to São Paulo. The more important contributions to our
+present knowledge of Brazil, however, have been obtained through
+the labours of foreign naturalists. Beginning with the German
+mineralogist W.L. von Eschwege, who spent nineteen years
+in Brazil (1809-1828), the list includes A. de Saint-Hilaire (1816-1820
+and 1830), J.B. von Spix and C.F. von Martins (1817-1820),
+Prince Max zu Neuwied (1815-1817), P.W. Lund (1827-1830,
+and 1830 to 1880, the year of his death), George Gardner (1836-1841),
+A.R. Wallace (1848-1852), H.W. Bates (1848-1859),
+Hermann Burmeister (1850-1852), Louis Agassiz (1865-1866),
+Charles Frederick Hartt (1865-1866, 1872 and 1875-1878)
+and Karl von den Steinen (1884-1885 and 1887-1888). These
+explorations cover every branch of natural science and resulted
+in publications of inestimable scientific value. There should also
+be mentioned the monumental work of C.F.P. von Martius
+on the <i>Flora Braziliensis</i>, and the explorations of Agassiz and
+Lund. Among other scientists of a later date who have published
+important works on Brazil are the American geologists O.A.
+Derby and J.C. Branner, the Swiss naturalist E.A. Goeldi,
+the German botanist J. Huber, the German ethnologist H. von
+Ihring, and&rsquo;the German geographer Fried. Katzer. The <i>Instituto
+Historico e Geographico Brazileiro</i>, though devoted chiefly
+to historical research, has rendered noteworthy service in its
+encouragement of geographical exploration and by its publication
+of various scientific memoirs. The Museu Nacional at Rio de
+Janeiro, which has occupied the imperial palace of São Christovão
+since the overthrow of the monarchy, contains large collections
+of much scientific value, but defective organization and apathetic
+direction have rendered them of comparatively slight service.
+The Observatorio Nacional at Rio de Janeiro is another prominent
+public institution. The botanical gardens of Brazil are developing
+into permanent exhibitions of the flora of the regions in which
+they are located. That of Rio de Janeiro is widely celebrated
+for its avenues of royal palms, but it has also rendered an important
+service to the country in the dissemination of exotic
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>Brazilian literature has been seriously prejudiced by partisan
+politics and dilettantism. The colonial period was one of
+strict repression, the intellectual life of the people being jealously
+supervised by the church to protect itself against heresy, and
+their progress being restricted by the Portuguese crown to
+protect its monopoly of the natural resources of the country.
+The arrival of Dom John VI. in 1808 broke down some of these
+restrictions, and the first year of his residence in Rio de Janeiro
+saw the establishment of the first printing press in Brazil and
+the publication of an official gazette. There was no freedom of
+the press, however, until 1821, when the abolition of the censorship
+and the constitutional struggle in Portugal gave rise to
+a political discussion that marked the opening of a new era in
+the development of the nation, and aroused an intellectual
+activity that has been highly productive in journalistic and
+polemical writings. In no country, perhaps, has the press
+exercised a more direct and powerful influence upon government
+than in Brazil, and in no other country can there be found so
+high a percentage of journalists in official life. Some of the
+political writers have played an important part in moulding
+public opinion on certain questions, as in the case of A.C.
+Tavares Bastos, whose <i>Cartas do Solitario</i> were highly instrumental
+in causing the Amazon to be thrown open to the world&rsquo;s
+commerce and also in preparing the way for the abolition of
+slavery; and in that of Joaquim Saldanha Marinho, whose
+discussions in 1874-1876 of the relations between church and
+state prepared the way for their separation. The personal
+element is conspicuous in the Brazilian journalism, and for a
+considerable period of its history libellous attacks on persons,
+signed by professional sponsors, popularly called <i>testas de ferro</i>
+(iron heads), were admitted at so much a line in the best
+newspapers.</p>
+
+<p>The singular adaptability of the Portuguese language to
+poetical expression, coupled with the imaginative temperament
+of the people, has led to an unusual production and appreciation
+of poetry. The percentage of educated men who have written
+little volumes of lyrics is surprisingly large, and this may be
+accounted for by the old Portuguese custom of reciting poetry
+with musical accompaniment. The most popular of the Brazilian
+poets are Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, Antonio Gonçalves Dias
+and Bernardo Guimarães. Among the dramatists and novelists
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span>
+may be mentioned Joaquim Manoel de Macedo, José Martiniano
+de Alencar, Bernardo Guimarães, A. de Escrangnolle Taunay
+and J.M. Machado de Assis. José M. de Alencar is usually
+described as the greatest of Brazilian novelists. The most
+popular of his romances are <i>Iracema</i> and <i>O Guarany</i>. In
+historical literature Brazil has produced one writer of high
+standing&mdash;Francisco Adolpho Varnhagen (Visconde de Porto Seguro),
+whose <i>Historia Geral do Brazil</i> is a standard authority on that
+subject. The two English authorities, Robert Southey&rsquo;s <i>History
+of Brazil</i>, covering the colonial period, and John Armitage&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Brazil</i>, covering the period between the arrival of the
+Braganza family (1808) and the abdication of Dom Pedro I.
+(1831), have been translated into Portuguese. Another Brazilian
+historian of recognized merit is João Manoel Pereira da Silva,
+whose historical writings cover the first years of the empire, from
+its foundation to 1840. Among the later writers João Capistrano
+de Abren has produced some short historical studies of great
+merit. In the field of philosophic speculation, Auguste Comte
+has had many disciples in Brazil.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;The national revenue is derived largely from the duties
+on imports, the duties on exports having been surrendered to the
+states when the republic was organized. Other sources of revenue
+are stamp taxes on business transactions, domestic consumption
+taxes (usually payable in stamps) on manufactured tobaccos,
+beverages, boots and shoes, textiles, matches, salt, preserved foods,
+hats, pharmaceutical preparations, perfumeries, candles, vinegar,
+walking sticks and playing cards, and taxes on lotteries, passenger
+tickets, salaries and dividends of joint-stock companies. Formerly
+import duties were payable in currency, but in 1899 it was decided
+to collect 10% of them in gold to provide the government with
+specie for its foreign remittances. The revenues and expenditures
+have since then been calculated in gold and currency together,
+to the complete mystification of the average citizen, and the gold
+percentage of the duties on imports has been increased to 35 and
+50% (in 1907), the higher rate to apply to specified articles and rule
+when exchange on London is above 14 pence per milreis, and the
+lower when it is below. The service of the national debt absorbs
+a very large part of the expenditure, about 45% of the estimates
+for 1907 being assigned to the department of finance. The department
+of industry, communications and public works takes the next
+highest proportion, but about half its expenditures are met by
+special taxes, as in the case of port works and railway inspection,
+and by the revenues of the state railways, telegraph lines and post
+office. The depreciation and unstable character of the paper
+currency render it difficult to give a clear statement of receipts and
+expenditures for a term of years, the sterling equivalents often showing
+a decrease, through a fall in the value of the milreis, where there
+has been an actual increase in currency returns. This was most
+noticeable between 1889 and 1898, when exchange, which represents
+the value of the milreis, fell from a maximum of 27¾ pence (27d.
+being the par value of the milreis) to a minimum of 5<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> pence.
+Since 1898 there has been an upward movement of exchange, the
+average rate for 1905 having been very nearly 16 pence. In this
+period the increase in the sterling equivalents would be proportionately
+greater than that of the currency values. The gold and
+currency receipts and expenditures for the six years 1900 to 1905,
+inclusive, according to official returns, were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Average Rate<br />of Exchange.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Expenditure.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Pence.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Gold<br />Milreis.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Currency<br />Milreis.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Gold<br />Milreis.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Currency<br />Milreis.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">49,955,522</td> <td class="tcc rb">263,687,253</td> <td class="tcc rb">41,892,150</td> <td class="tcc rb">372,753,986</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">44,041,302</td> <td class="tcc rb">239,284,702</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,493,241</td> <td class="tcc rb">261,629,212</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">42,904,844</td> <td class="tcc rb">266,584,912</td> <td class="tcc rb">34,574,643</td> <td class="tcc rb">236,458,862</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">12 &emsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">45,121,844</td> <td class="tcc rb">327,370,063</td> <td class="tcc rb">48,324,642</td> <td class="tcc rb">291,198,960</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">50,566,572</td> <td class="tcc rb">342,782,191</td> <td class="tcc rb">48,476,413</td> <td class="tcc rb">352,292,147</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.89</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">64,207,004</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">243,355,396</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">51,606,272</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">265,699,281</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Reducing gold to a currency basis at 15d. per milreis (the official
+valuation adopted in 1906), the budget for 1907 provided for a
+revenue of 353,590,593 milreis and an expenditure of 409,482,284
+milreis, showing a deficit of 55,891,691 milreis. These deficits were
+common enough under the monarchy, but they have become still
+more prominent under the republic. According to the &ldquo;Retrospecto
+Commercial&rdquo; for 1906 of the <i>Jornal do Commercio</i> (Rio de Janeiro,
+March 5, 1907), the aggregate deficits for the eleven years 1891 to
+1904 were 692,000,000 milreis, or, say, £43,250,000.</p>
+
+<p>The natural result of such a regime is increasing indebtedness.
+In 1888, a year before the republic was proclaimed, the internal
+and external national debts amounted to £74,000,000 sterling, with
+the currency at par. Ten years later, when the currency had fallen
+to 5<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> pence per milreis, the government found itself unable to meet
+the interest obligations on its debt and railway guarantees, and an
+arrangement was made with its creditors in London for the issue of a
+5% funding loan to an amount not to exceed £10,000,000, and the
+suspension of all amortization for thirteen years. On the other
+hand the government agreed to withdraw currency, which had reached
+a total of 788,364,614 ½-milreis, <i>pari passu</i> with the issue of
+the loan, the milreis being computed at 18 pence. The purpose of
+this condition was in order to improve the value of the paper milreis
+in order to increase the specie value of the revenues. The scheme
+came into operation in June 1898, and not only was a complete
+suspension of payments avoided but the financial situation was
+greatly improved. The government even withdrew more of its
+currency issues than required by the agreement, and the value of the
+milreis steadily improved. At the same time the government carried
+out the forced conversion of the national loans into lower
+interest-bearing issues, which greatly reduced the annual interest
+charges. These measures would have put the financial affairs of the
+nation on a solid footing in a very few years had the government been
+able to keep its expenditure within its income. The naval revolt of
+1893-1894, however, had aroused the spirit of militarism in the
+ruling classes, and the effort to perfect the organization and equipment
+of the army, strengthen the fortifications of Rio de Janeiro,
+and increase the navy, have kept expenditures in excess of
+the revenues. The purchase of guaranteed railways owned by
+foreign companies likewise added largely to the bonded
+indebtedness, though the onus was in existence in another form.
+The result of these measures was a large addition to the public
+debt, which on 31st December 1906 was approximately as follows
+(<i>apolices</i> being the name given to bonds inscribed to the holder):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">External debt:</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;£&emsp;&emsp;s.&emsp;d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Loans of 1883, 1888 and 1889.</td> <td class="tcl">26,478,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Oestede Minas R.R. loan</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;3,388,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Loan of 1898</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;7,331,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Funding loan of 1898</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;8,613,717&emsp;9&emsp;9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Railway rescission loan of 1901</td> <td class="tcl">15,467,015&ensp;16&emsp;1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Port works loan of 1903</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;8,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">£69,778,933&ensp;5&emsp;10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">==============</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Internal debt, funded:</td> <td class="tcr">Milreis&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;5 % apolices, Law of 1827</td> <td class="tcr">483,546,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;4½%&emsp;&rdquo;&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;1879</td> <td class="tcr">20,548,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;6 &ensp;%&emsp;&rdquo;&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;1897</td> <td class="tcr">37,082,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;5 &ensp;%&emsp;&rdquo;&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;1903</td> <td class="tcr">17,300,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total, funded</td> <td class="tcr">558,476,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">(at 15d. £34,904,787)</td> <td class="tcr">=========</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Internal debt, not funded:</td> <td class="tcr">Milreis&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Paper money</td> <td class="tcr">664,792,960</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Savings bank and other deposits:</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;In paper</td> <td class="tcr">246,812,407</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;In gold, 19,053,861 r (say)</td> <td class="tcr">34,296,950</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Floating indebtedness (a/cs current, bills, &amp;c.)</td> <td class="tcr">?&emsp;&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total, not funded, approx.</td> <td class="tcr">945,902,317</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">(at 15d. £59,118,895 stg.)</td> <td class="tcr">=========</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Approximate total indebtedness</td> <td class="tcr">£163,802,675</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In addition to these, the government was still responsible for interest
+guarantees on fourteen railways, or sections
+of existing lines, with an aggregate capital
+of about £4,900,000 held in Europe and
+12,055,440 milreis held in Brazil, on which
+the national treasury paid in interest £191,324
+and 1,398,493 milreis.</p>
+
+<p>The paper currency of Brazil consists of
+both treasury issues and bank-notes, the
+latter issued under government supervision.
+Its fluctuations in value have been not only
+a serious inconvenience in commercial transactions,
+but also the cause of heavy loss to
+the people. Under the provisions of the
+funding loan of 1898 a scheme for the
+withdrawal of the paper money was carried into effect, and by
+the end of December 1906 the amount in circulation had been
+reduced from 788,364,614 ½-milreis (the outstanding circulation 31st
+August 1898) to 664,792,960 ½-milreis. Two funds were created
+for the redemption and guarantee of paper issues, the latter receiving
+5% of the import duties payable in gold. Up to 1906 the Caixa
+da Amortisação (redemption bureau), which has charge of the service
+of the internal funded debt, superintended the redemption of the
+currency, but in that year (December 6, 1906) a Caixa de Conversão
+(conversion bureau) was created for this special service. It is
+modelled after the Argentine Conversion office, and is authorized
+to issue notes to bearer against deposits of gold at the rate of 15
+pence per milreis although exchange was above 17d. when the
+scheme was proposed. The notes are to be redeemable in gold at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span>
+sight, the Caixa de Conversão to keep the gold paid in for that
+express purpose. The coffee producers of São Paulo and other
+states found that the appreciation in value of the milreis was reducing
+their profits, and they advocated this measure (at first with a valuation
+of 12d.) to check the upward movement in exchange. Metallic
+money is limited to nickel and bronze coins, but in 1906 the government
+was authorized to purchase bar silver for the coinage of
+pieces of the denomination of two milreis, one milreis and 500 reis
+(½-milreis). Gold is the nominal standard of value, the monetary unit
+being the gold milreis worth 2s. 2½d. at par. The 10-milreis gold
+piece weighs 8.9648 grammes, 916 fine, and contains 8.2178 grammes
+of pure gold. There is no gold in circulation, however, and gold
+duties are paid with gold cheques purchased at certain banks with
+paper money. The banking facilities of the republic have undergone
+many changes under the new regime. A fruitful cause of disaster
+has been the practice of issuing agricultural and industrial loans
+under government authorization. Commercial business at the
+principal ports is largely transacted through foreign banks, of
+which there are a large number.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the indebtedness of the national government, the
+individual states have also incurred funded debts of their own.
+The aggregate of these debts in 1904 was £20,199,440, and the
+several loans made during the next two years, including those of
+the municipalities of Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia and Manáos,
+add fully two and a half millions more to the total.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p>
+
+<p>Brazil was discovered in February 1499 (o.s.) by Vicente
+Yañez Pinzon, a companion of Columbus. He descried the land
+near Cape St Augustine, and sailed along the coast as
+far as the river Amazon, whence he proceeded to the
+<span class="sidenote">The Portuguese in Brazil.</span>
+mouth of the Orinoco. He made no settlement, but
+took possession of the country in the name of the
+Spanish government, and carried home, as specimens of its
+natural productions, some drugs, gems and Brazil-wood. Next
+year the Portuguese commander, Pedro Alvares Cabral, appointed
+by his monarch to follow the course of Vasco da Gama
+in the East, was driven by adverse winds so far from his track,
+that he reached the Brazilian coast, April 24, and anchored in
+Porto Seguro (16° S. lat.) on Good Friday. On Easter day an
+altar was erected, mass celebrated in presence of the natives,
+the country declared an apanage of Portugal, and a stone cross
+erected in commemoration of the event. Cabral despatched a
+small vessel to Lisbon to announce his discovery, and, without
+forming any settlement, proceeded to India on the 3rd of May.
+On the arrival of the news in Portugal, Emanuel invited Amerigo
+Vespucci to enter his service, and despatched him with three
+vessels to explore the country. The navigator&rsquo;s first voyage
+was unsuccessful; but, according to his own account, in a second
+he discovered a safe port, to which he gave the name of All-Saints
+and where he erected a small fort. Vespucci&rsquo;s narrative
+is, however, suspected of being apocryphal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vespucci,
+Amerigo</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The poor and barbarous tribes of Brazil, and their country,
+the mineral riches of which were not immediately discovered,
+offered but few attractions to a government into the coffers of
+which the wealth of India and Africa was flowing. For nearly
+thirty years the kings of Portugal paid no further attention
+to their newly-acquired territory than what consisted, in combating
+the attempts of the Spaniards to occupy it, and dispersing
+the private adventurers from France who sought its shores for
+the purposes of commerce. The colonization of Brazil was
+prosecuted, however, by subjects of the Portuguese monarchy,
+who traded thither chiefly for Brazil-wood. The government
+also sought to make criminals of some use to the state, by placing
+them in a situation where they could do little harm to society,
+and might help to uphold the dominion of their nation.</p>
+
+<p>The first attempt on the part of a Portuguese monarch to
+introduce an organized government into his dominions was made
+by John III. He adopted a plan which had been
+found to succeed well in Madeira and the Azores,&mdash;
+<span class="sidenote">First organization in Brazil.</span>
+dividing the country into hereditary captaincies, and
+granting them to such persons as were willing to
+undertake their settlement, with unlimited powers of jurisdiction,
+both civil and criminal. Each captaincy extended along fifty
+leagues of coast. The boundaries in the interior were undefined.
+The first settlement made under this new system was that of
+São Vicente Piratininga, in the present province of São Paulo.
+Martim Affonso de Sousa, having obtained a grant, fitted out a
+considerable armament and proceeded to explore the country
+in person. He began to survey the coast about Rio de Janeiro,
+to which he gave that name, because he discovered it on the
+1st of January 1531. He proceeded south as far as La Plata,
+naming the places he surveyed on the way from the days on
+which the respective discoveries were made. He fixed upon an
+island in 24½° S. lat., called by the natives Guaibe, for his settlement.
+The Goagnazes, or prevailing tribe of Indians in that
+neighbourhood, as soon as they discovered the intentions of the
+new-comers to fix themselves permanently there, collected for
+the purpose of expelling them. Fortunately, however, a shipwrecked
+Portuguese, who had lived many years under the protection
+of the principal chief, was successful in concluding a
+treaty of perpetual alliance between his countrymen and the
+natives. Finding the spot chosen for the new town inconvenient,
+the colonists removed to the adjoining island of São Vicente,
+from which the captaincy derived its name. Cattle and the
+sugar-cane were at an early period introduced from Madeira,
+and here the other captaincies supplied themselves with both.</p>
+
+<p>Pero Lopes de Sousa received the grant of a captaincy, and
+set sail from Portugal at the same time as his brother, the founder
+of São Vicente. He chose to have his fifty leagues in two
+allotments. That to which he gave the name of Santo Amaro
+adjoined São Vicente, the two towns being only three leagues
+asunder. The other division lay much nearer to the line between
+Parahyba and Pernambuco. He experienced considerable difficulty
+in founding this second colony, from the strenuous opposition
+of a neighbouring tribe, the Petiguares; at length he
+succeeded in clearing his lands of them, but not long afterwards
+he perished by shipwreck.</p>
+
+<p>Rio de Janeiro was not settled till a later period; and for a
+considerable time the nearest captaincy to Santo Amaro, sailing
+along the coast northwards, was that of Espirito Santo. It was
+founded by Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, who having acquired a
+large fortune in India, sank it in this scheme of colonization.
+He carried with him no less than sixty fidalgos. They named
+their town by anticipation, Our Lady of the Victory (Victoria);
+but it cost them some hard fighting with the Goagnazes to
+justify the title.</p>
+
+<p>Pedro de Campo Tourinho, a nobleman and excellent navigator,
+received a grant of the adjoining captaincy of Porto Seguro.
+This, it will be remembered, is the spot where Cabral first took
+possession of Brazil. The Tupinoquins at first offered some
+opposition; but having made peace, they observed it faithfully,
+notwithstanding that the oppression of the Portuguese obliged
+them to forsake the country. Sugar-works were established, and
+considerable quantities of the produce exported to the mother
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Jorge de Figueiredo, <i>Escrivam da Fazenda</i>, was the first donatory
+of the captaincy Ilhéos, 140 m. south of Bahia. His office
+preventing him from taking possession in person, he deputed the
+task to Francisco Romeiro, a Castilian. The Tupinoquins, the
+most tractable of the Brazilian tribes, made peace with the
+settlers, and the colony was founded without a struggle.</p>
+
+<p>The coast from the Rio São Francisco to Bahia was granted
+to Francisco Pereira Coutinho; the bay itself, with all its creeks,
+was afterwards added to the grant. When Coutinho formed
+his establishment, where Villa Velha now stands, he found a
+noble Portuguese living in the neighbourhood who, having been
+shipwrecked, had, by means of his fire-arms, raised himself to
+the rank of chief among the natives. He was surrounded by a
+patriarchal establishment of wives and children; and to him
+most of the distinguished families of Bahia still trace their lineage.
+The regard entertained by the natives for Caramuru (signifying
+<i>man of fire</i>) induced them to extend a hospitable welcome to his
+countrymen, and for a time everything went on well. Coutinho
+had, however, learned in India to be an oppressor, and the
+Tupinambas were the fiercest and most powerful of the native
+tribes. The Portuguese were obliged to abandon their settlement;
+but several of them returned at a later period, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span>
+Caramuru, and thus a European community was established
+in the district.</p>
+
+<p>Some time before the period at which these captaincies were
+established, a factory had been planted at Pernambuco. A ship
+from Marseilles took it, and left seventy men in it as a garrison;
+but she was captured on her return, and carried into Lisbon, and
+immediate measures were taken for reoccupying the place. The
+captaincy of Pernambuco was granted to Don Duarte Coelho
+Pereira as the reward of his services in India. It extended
+along the coast from the Rio São Francisco, northward to the
+Rio de Juraza. Duarte sailed with his wife and children, and
+many of his kinsmen, to take possession, of his new colony, and
+landed in the port of Pernambuco. To the town which was
+there founded he gave the name of Olinda. The Cabetes, who
+possessed the soil, were fierce and pertinacious; and, assisted
+by the French, who traded to that coast, Coelho had to gain
+by inches what was granted him by leagues. The Portuguese
+managed, however, to beat off their enemies; and, having
+entered into an alliance with the Tobayanes, followed up their
+success.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts were made about this time to establish two other
+captaincies, but without success. Pedro de Goes obtained a
+grant of the captaincy of Parahyba between those of São Vicente
+and Espirito Santo; but his means were too feeble to enable
+him to make head against the aborigines, and the colony was
+broken up after a painful struggle of seven years. João de
+Barros, the historian, obtained the captaincy of Maranhão.
+For the sake of increasing his capital, he divided his grant with
+Fernão Alvares de Andrade and Aires da Cunha. They projected
+a scheme of conquest and colonization upon a large scale. Nine
+hundred men, of whom one hundred and thirteen were horsemen,
+embarked in ten ships under the command of Aires da Cunha.
+But the vessels were wrecked upon some shoals about one
+hundred leagues to the south of Maranhão; the few survivors,
+after suffering immense hardships, escaped to the nearest settlements,
+and the undertaking was abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>By these adventures the whole line of Brazilian coast, from
+the mouth of La Plata to the mouth of the Amazon, had become
+studded at intervals with Portuguese settlements, in all of which
+law and justice were administered, however inadequately.
+It is worthy of observation, that Brazil was the first colony
+founded in America upon an agricultural principle, for until then
+the precious metals were the exclusive attraction. Sufficient
+capital was attracted between the year 1531 (in which De Sousa
+founded the first captaincy) and the year 1548 to render these
+colonies an object of importance to the mother country. Their
+organization, however, in regard to their means of defence
+against both external aggression and internal violence, was
+extremely defective. Their territories were surrounded and
+partly occupied by large tribes of savages. Behind them the
+Spaniards, who had an establishment at Asuncion, had penetrated
+almost to the sources of the waters of Paraguay, and had succeeded
+in establishing communication with Peru. Orellana, on
+the other hand, setting out from Peru, had crossed the mountains
+and sailed down the Amazon. Nor had the French abandoned
+their hopes of effecting an establishment on the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The obvious remedy for these evils was to concentrate the
+executive power, to render the petty chiefs amenable to one
+tribunal, and to confide the management of the defensive force
+to one hand. In order to this the powers of the several captains
+were revoked, whilst their property in their grants was reserved
+to them. A governor-general was appointed, with full powers,
+civil and criminal. The judicial and financial functions in each
+province were vested in the <i>Ouvidor</i>, whose authority in the
+college of finance was second only to that of the governor. Every
+colonist was enrolled either in the <i>Milicias</i> or <i>Ordenanzas</i>. The
+former were obliged to serve beyond the boundaries of the
+province, the latter only at home. The chief cities received
+municipal constitutions, as in Portugal. Thome de Sousa was
+the first person nominated to the important post of governor-general.
+He was instructed to build a strong city in Bahia and
+to establish there the seat of his government. In pursuance
+of his commission he arrived at Bahia in April 1549, with a fleet
+of six vessels, on board of which were three hundred and twenty
+persons in the king&rsquo;s pay, four hundred convicts and about three
+hundred free colonists. Care had been taken for the spiritual wants
+of the provinces by associating six Jesuits with the expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Old Caramuru, who still survived, rendered the governor
+essential service by gaining for his countrymen the goodwill of
+the natives. The new city, to which the name of São Salvador
+was given, was established on the heights above the Bay of
+All Saints (Todos os Santos), from which its later name of Bahia
+is taken. Within four months one hundred houses were built,
+and surrounded by a mud wall. Sugar plantations were laid
+out in the vicinity. During the four years of Sousa&rsquo;s government
+there were sent out at different times supplies of all kinds.
+Female orphans of noble families were given in marriage to
+the officers, and portioned from the royal estates, and orphan
+boys were sent to be educated by the Jesuits. The capital rose
+rapidly in importance, and the captaincies learned to regard it
+as a common head and centre of wealth. Meanwhile the Jesuits
+undertook the moral and religious culture of the natives, and
+<span class="sidenote">First Jesuit missions.</span>
+of the scarcely less savage colonists. Strong opposition
+was at first experienced from the gross ignorance of
+the Indians, and the depravity of the Portuguese,
+fostered by the licentious encouragement of some
+abandoned priests who had found their way to Brazil. Over
+these persons the Jesuits had no authority; and it was not until
+the arrival of the first bishop of Brazil in 1552, that anything
+like an efficient check was imposed upon them. Next year Sousa
+was succeeded by Duarte da Costa, who brought with him a
+reinforcement of Jesuits, at the head of whom was Luis de Gran,
+appointed, with Nobrega the chief of the first mission, joint
+provincial of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>Nobrega&rsquo;s first act was one which has exercised the most
+beneficial influence over the social system of Brazil, namely,
+the establishment of a college on the then unreclaimed plains
+of Piratininga. It was named São Paulo, and has been at once
+the source whence knowledge and civilization have been diffused
+through Brazil, and the nucleus of a colony of its manliest and
+hardiest citizens, which sent out successive swarms of hardy
+adventurers to people the interior. The good intentions of the
+Jesuits were in part frustrated by the opposition of Costa the
+governor; and it was not until 1558, when Mem de Sa was sent
+out to supersede him, that their projects were allowed free scope.</p>
+
+<p>Rio de Janeiro was first occupied by French settlers. Nicholas
+Durand de Villegagnon, a bold and skilful seaman, having visited
+Brazil, saw at once the advantages which might accrue
+his country from a settlement there. In order to
+<span class="sidenote">Settlement of Rio de Janeiro.</span>
+secure the interest of Coligny, he gave out that his
+projected colony was intended to serve as a place of
+refuge for the persecuted Huguenots. Under the patronage of
+that admiral, he arrived at Rio de Janeiro in 1558 with a train
+of numerous and respectable colonists. As soon, however, as
+he thought his power secure, he threw off the mask, and began
+to harass and oppress the Huguenots by every means he could
+devise. Many of them were forced by his tyranny to return to
+France; and ten thousand Protestants, ready to embark for
+the new colony, were deterred by their representations.
+Villegagnon, finding his force much diminished in consequence of
+his treachery, sailed for France in quest of recruits; and during
+his absence the Portuguese governor, by order of his court,
+attacked and dispersed the settlement. For some years the
+French kept up a kind of bush warfare; but in 1567 the Portuguese
+succeeded in establishing a settlement at Rio.</p>
+
+<p>Mem de Sa continued to hold the reins of government in Brazil
+upon terms of the best understanding with the clergy, and to the
+great advantage of the colonies, for fourteen years. On the
+expiration of his power, which was nearly contemporary with
+that of his life, an attempt was made to divide Brazil into two
+governments; but this having failed, the territory was reunited
+in 1578, the year in which Diego Laurenço da Veiga was
+appointed governor. At this time the colonies, although not yet
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span>
+independent of supplies from the mother country, were in a
+flourishing condition; but the usurpation of the crown of
+Portugal by Philip II. changed the aspect of affairs. Brazil,
+believed to be inferior to the Spanish possessions in mines, was
+consequently abandoned in comparative neglect for the period
+intervening between 1578 and 1640, during which it continued an
+apanage of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner had Brazil passed under the Spanish crown, than
+English adventurers directed their hostile enterprises against
+its shores. In 1586 Witherington plundered Bahia;
+in 1591 Cavendish made an abortive attack on Santos;
+<span class="sidenote">English and French aggressions.</span>
+in 1595 Lancaster attacked Olinda. These exploits,
+however, were transient in their effects. In 1612 the
+French attempted to found a permanent colony in the
+island of Marajò, where they succeeded in maintaining themselves
+till 1618. This attempt led to the erection of Maranhão and
+Pará into a separate <i>Estado</i>. But it was on the part of the
+Dutch that the most skilful and pertinacious efforts were made for
+securing a footing in Brazil; and they alone of all the rivals of
+the Portuguese have left traces of their presence in the national
+spirit and institutions of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the Dutch East India Company led to the
+establishment of a similar one for the West Indies, to which a
+monopoly of the trade to America and Africa was
+granted. This body despatched in 1624 a fleet against
+<span class="sidenote">Struggle with the Dutch.</span>
+Bahia. The town yielded almost without a struggle.
+The fleet soon after sailed, a squadron being detached
+against Angola, with the intention of taking possession of that
+colony, in order to secure a supply of slaves. The fall of Bahia
+for once roused the Spaniards and Portuguese to joint action,
+and a great expedition speedily sailed from Cadiz and Lisbon for
+Bahia. Once more, though strongly garrisoned, the town was
+retaken without any serious fighting in May 1625. The honours
+bestowed upon the Indian chiefs for their assistance in this war
+broke down in a great measure the barrier between the two races;
+and there is at this day a greater admixture of their blood among
+the better classes in Bahia than is to be found elsewhere in Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>In 1630 the Dutch attempted again to effect a settlement;
+and Olinda, with its port, the Recife-Olinda, was destroyed,
+but the Recife was fortified and held, reinforcements
+and supplies being sent by sea from Holland. The
+<span class="sidenote">Dutch settlement in Brazil.</span>
+Dutch were unable, however, to extend their power
+beyond the limits of the town, until the arrival of
+Count John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen in 1636. His first step
+was to introduce a regular government among his countrymen;
+his second, to send to the African coast one of his officers, who
+took possession of a Portuguese settlement, and thus secured a
+supply of slaves. In the course of eight years, the limited period
+of his government, he succeeded in asserting the Dutch supremacy
+along the coast of Brazil from the mouth of São Francisco to
+Maranhão. The Recife was rebuilt and adorned with splendid
+residences and gardens and received from its founder the name
+of Mauritstad. He promoted the amalgamation of the different
+races, and sought to conciliate the Portuguese by the confidence
+he reposed in them. His object was to found a great empire; but
+this was a project at variance with the wishes of his employers&mdash;an
+association of merchants, who were dissatisfied because
+the wealth which they expected to see flowing into their coffers
+was expended in promoting the permanent interests of a distant
+country. Count Maurice resigned his post in 1644. His successors
+possessed neither his political nor his military talents,
+and had to contend with more difficult circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>In 1640 the revolution which placed the house of Braganza
+on the throne of Portugal restored Brazil to masters more inclined
+to promote its interests and assert its possession than the
+Spaniards. It was indeed high time that some exertion should be
+made. The northern provinces had fallen into the power of Holland;
+the southern, peopled in a great measure by the hardy descendants
+of the successive colonists who had issued on all sides from
+the central establishment of São Paulo, had learned from their
+habits of unaided and successful enterprise to court independence.
+They had ascended the waters of the Paraguay to their sources.
+They had extended their limits southwards till they reached
+the Spanish settlements of La Plata. They had reduced to
+slavery numerous tribes of the natives. They were rich in cattle,
+and had commenced the discovery of the mines. When, therefore,
+the inhabitants of São Paulo saw themselves about to be
+transferred, as a dependency of Portugal, from one master to
+another, they conceived the idea of erecting their country into
+an independent state. Their attempt, however, was frustrated
+by Amador Bueno, the person whom they had selected for their
+king. When the people shouted &ldquo;Long live King Amador,&rdquo; he
+cried out &ldquo;Long live John IV.,&rdquo; and took refuge in a convent.
+The multitude, left without a leader, acquiesced, and this
+important province was secured to the house of Braganza.</p>
+
+<p>Rio and Santos, although both evinced a desire of independence,
+followed the example of the Paulistas. Bahia, as capital
+of the Brazilian states, felt that its ascendancy depended upon
+the union with Portugal. The government, thus left in quiet
+possession of the rest of Brazil, had time to concentrate its
+attention upon the Dutch conquests. The crown of Portugal was,
+however, much too weak to adopt energetic measures. But
+the Brazilian colonists, now that the mother country had thrown
+<span class="sidenote">Revolt against the Dutch.</span>
+off the Spanish yoke, determined even without assistance
+from the homeland to rise in revolt against foreign
+domination. The departure of Count Maurice, moreover,
+had seriously weakened the position of the Dutch,
+for his successors had neither his conciliatory manners nor his
+capacity. João Fernandes Vieyra, a native of Madeira, organized
+the insurrection which broke out in 1645. This insurrection gave
+birth to one of those wars in which a whole nation, destitute
+of pecuniary resources, military organization and skilful leaders,
+but familiar with the country, is opposed to a handful of soldiers
+advantageously posted and well officered. But home difficulties
+and financial necessities prevented the West India Company
+from sending adequate reinforcements from Holland. In 1649
+a rival company was started in Portugal known as the Brazil
+Company, which sent out a fleet to help the colonists in
+Pernambuco. Slowly the Dutch lost ground and the outbreak of war
+with England sounded the knell of their dominion in Brazil.
+In 1654 their capital and last stronghold fell into the hands of
+Vieyra. It was not, however, till 1662 that Holland signed a
+treaty with Portugal, by which all territorial claims in Brazil
+were abandoned in exchange for a cash indemnity and certain
+commercial privileges. After this, except some inroads on the
+<span class="sidenote">French expedition to Brazil, 1710.</span>
+frontiers, the only foreign invasion which Brazil had
+to suffer was from France. In 1710 a squadron,
+commanded by Duclerc, disembarked 1000 men, and
+attacked Rio de Janeiro. After having lost half of
+his men in a battle, Duclerc and all his surviving companions
+were made prisoners. The governor treated them
+cruelly. A new squadron with 6000 troops was entrusted to the
+famous admiral Duguay Trouin to revenge this injury. They
+arrived at Rio on the 12th of September 1711. After four days of
+hard fighting the town was taken. The governor retreated to
+a position out of it, and was only awaiting reinforcements from
+Minas to retake it; but, Duguay Trouin threatening to burn it,
+he was obliged on the 10th of October to sign a capitulation, and
+pay to the French admiral 610,000 crusados, 500 cases of sugar,
+and provisions for the return of the fleet to Europe. Duguay
+Trouin departed to Bahia to obtain fresh spoils; but having
+lost in a storm two of his best ships, with an important part of
+the money received, he renounced this plan and returned directly
+to France.</p>
+
+<p>After this the Portuguese governed their colony undisturbed.
+The approach of foreign traders was prohibited, while the
+regalities reserved by the crown drained the country of a great
+proportion of its wealth.</p>
+
+<p>The important part which the inhabitants of São Paulo have
+played in the history of Brazil has been already adverted to.
+The establishment of the Jesuit college had attracted settlers
+to its neighbourhood, and frequent marriages had taken place
+between the Indians of the district and the colonists. A hardy
+and enterprising race of men had sprung from this mixture,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span>
+who, first searching whether their new country were rich in metals,
+soon began adventurous raids into the interior, making excursions
+also against the remote Indian tribes with a view to obtaining
+slaves, and from the year 1629 onwards repeatedly attacked
+the Indian reductions of the Jesuits in Paraguay, although both
+provinces were then nominally subject to the crown of Spain.
+Other bands penetrated into Minas and still farther north and
+westward, discovering mines there and in Goyaz and Cuyabá.
+New colonies were thus formed round those districts in which
+gold had been found, and in the beginning of the 18th century
+five principal settlements in Minas Geraes had been elevated
+by royal charter to the privileges of towns. In 1720 this district
+was separated from São Paulo, to which it had previously been
+dependent. As early as 1618 a code of laws for the regulation
+of the mining industry had been drawn up by Philip III., the
+executive and judicial functions in the mining districts being
+vested in a <i>provedor</i>, and the fiscal in a treasurer, who
+received the royal fifths and superintended the weighing of all
+the gold, rendering a yearly account of all discoveries and
+produce. For many years, however, these laws were little more
+than a dead letter. The same infatuated passion for mining
+speculation which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South
+America now began to actuate the Portuguese; labourers and capital
+were drained off to the mining districts, and Brazil, which had
+hitherto in great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank
+before the competition of the English and French. A new
+source of wealth was now opened up; some adventurers from
+Villa do Principe in Minas, going north to the Seria Frio, made
+the discovery of diamonds about the year 1710, but it was not till
+1730 that the discovery was for the first time announced to the
+government, which immediately declared them <i>regalia</i>. While
+the population of Brazil continued to increase, the moral and
+intellectual culture of its inhabitants was left in great measure
+to chance; they grew up with those robust and healthy sentiments
+which are engendered by the absence of false teachers,
+but with a repugnance to legal ordinances, and encouraged in
+their ascendancy over the Indians to habits of violence and
+oppression. The Jesuits from the first moment of their landing
+in Brazil had constituted themselves the protectors of the
+natives, and though strenuously opposed by the colonists and
+ordinary clergy, had gathered the Indians together in many
+<i>aldeas</i>, over which officials of their order exercised
+spiritual and temporal authority. A more efficacious stop, however,
+was put to the persecution of the Indians by the importation
+of large numbers of negroes from the Portuguese possessions in
+Africa, these being found more active and serviceable than the
+native tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese government, under the administration of
+Carvalho, afterwards marquis of Pombal, attempted to extend
+to Brazil the bold spirit of innovation which directed
+all his efforts. The proud minister had been resisted
+<span class="sidenote">Reforms of Pombal.</span>
+in his plans of reform at home by the Jesuits, and,
+determining to attack the power of the order, first deprived
+them of all temporal power in the state of Maranhão and
+Pará. These ordinances soon spread to the whole of Brazil,
+and a pretext being found in the suspicion of Jesuit influence
+in some partial revolts of the Indian troops on the Rio Negro,
+the order was expelled from Brazil under circumstances of great
+severity in 1760. The Brazilian Company founded by Vieyra,
+which so materially contributed to preserve its South American
+possessions to Portugal, had been abolished in 1721 by John V.;
+but such an instrument being well suited to the bold spirit of
+Pombal, he established a chartered company again in 1755, to
+trade exclusively with Maranhão and Pará; and in 1759, in
+spite of the remonstrance of the British Factory at Lisbon,
+formed another company for Parahyba and Pernambuco. Pombal&rsquo;s
+arrangements extended also to the interior of the country,
+where he extinguished at once the now indefinite and oppressive
+claims of the original donatories of the captaincies, and
+strengthened and enforced the regulations of the mining districts.
+The policy of many of Pombal&rsquo;s measures is more than questionable;
+but his admission of all races to equal rights in the eye
+of the law, his abolition of feudal privileges, and the firmer
+organization of the powers of the land which he introduced,
+powerfully co-operated towards the development of the capabilities
+of Brazil. Yet on the death of his king and patron
+in 1777, when court intrigue forced him from his high station,
+he who had done so much for his country&rsquo;s institutions was
+reviled on all hands.</p>
+
+<p>The most important feature in the history of Brazil during
+the first thirty years following the retirement of Pombal was the
+conspiracy of Minas in 1789. The successful issue of the recent
+revolution of the English colonies in North America had filled
+the minds of some of the more educated youth of that province;
+and in imitation, a project to throw off the Portuguese yoke
+was formed,&mdash;a cavalry officer, Silva Xavier, nicknamed Tira-dentes
+(tooth-drawer), being the chief conspirator. But the plot
+being discovered during their inactivity, the conspirators were
+banished to Africa, and Tira-dentes, the leader, was hanged.
+Thenceforward affairs went on prosperously; the mining
+districts continued to be enlarged; the trading companies of
+the littoral provinces were abolished, but the impulse they had
+given to agriculture remained.</p>
+
+<p>Removed from all communication with the rest of the world
+except through the mother country, Brazil remained unaffected
+by the first years of the great revolutionary war in
+Europe. Indirectly, however, the fate of this isolated
+<span class="sidenote">Portuguese royal family in Brazil, 1807.</span>
+country was decided by the consequences of the French
+Revolution. Brazil is the only instance of a colony
+becoming the seat of the government of its own
+mother country, and this was the work of Napoleon.
+When he resolved upon the invasion and conquest of Portugal,
+the prince regent, afterwards Dom John VI., having no means
+of resistance, decided to take refuge in Brazil. He created
+a regency in Lisbon, and departed for Brazil on the 29th of
+November 1807, accompanied by the queen Donna Maria I.,
+the royal family, all the great officers of state, a large part of the
+nobility and numerous retainers. They arrived at Bahia on
+the 21st of January 1808, and were received with enthusiasm.
+The regent was requested to establish there the seat of his
+government, but a more secure asylum presented itself in Rio
+de Janeiro, where the royal fugitives arrived on the 7th of March.
+Before leaving Bahia, Dom John took the first step to emancipate
+Brazil, opening its ports to foreign commerce, and permitting
+the export of all Brazilian produce under any flag, the royal
+monopolies of diamonds and Brazil-wood excepted. Once
+established in Rio de Janeiro, the government of the regent
+was directed to the creation of an administrative machinery
+for the dominions that remained to him as it existed in Portugal.
+<span class="sidenote">Reorganization on Portuguese model.</span>
+Besides the ministry which had come with the regent,
+the council of state, and the departments of the four
+ministries of home, finances, war and marine then
+existing, there were created in the course of one year
+a supreme court of justice, a board of patronage and
+administration of the property of the church and military orders,
+an inferior court of appeal, the court of exchequer and royal
+treasury, the royal mint, bank of Brazil, royal printing-office,
+powder-mills on a large scale, and a supreme military court.
+The maintenance of the court, and the salaries of so large a
+number of high officials, entailed the imposition of new taxes
+to meet these expenses. Notwithstanding this the expenses
+continued to augment, and the government had recourse to
+the reprehensible measure of altering the money standard, and
+the whole monetary system was soon thrown into the greatest
+confusion. The bank, in addition to its private functions,
+farmed many of the <i>regalia</i>, and was in the practice of advancing
+large sums to the state, transactions which gave rise to extensive
+corruption, and terminated some years later in the breaking of the
+bank.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the government of the prince regent began its career
+in the new world with dangerous errors in the financial system;
+yet the increased activity which a multitude of new customers
+and the increase of circulating medium gave to the trade of
+Rio, added a new stimulus to the industry of the whole nation.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span>
+Numbers of English artisans and shipbuilders, Swedish iron-founders,
+German engineers and French manufacturers sought
+fortunes in the new country, and diffused industry by their
+example.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1809, in retaliation for the occupation of
+Portugal, an expedition was sent from Pará to the French
+colony of Guiana, and after some fighting this part of Guiana
+was incorporated with Brazil. This conquest was, however, of
+short duration; for, by the treaty of Vienna in 1815, the colony
+was restored to France. Its occupation contributed to the
+improvement of agriculture in Brazil; it had been the policy
+of Portugal up to this time to separate the productions of its
+colonies, to reserve sugar for Brazil, and spices to the East Indies,
+and to prohibit the cultivation of these in the African possessions.
+Now, however, many plants were imported not only from
+Guiana but from India and Africa, cultivated in the Royal
+Botanic Garden, and thence distributed. The same principle
+which dictated the conquest of French Guiana originated
+attempts to seize the Spanish colonies of Montevideo and Buenos
+Aires, Portugal being also at war with Spain. The chiefs of these
+colonies were invited to place them under the protection of the
+Portuguese crown, but these at first affecting loyalty to Spain
+declined the offer, then threw off the mask and declared themselves
+independent, and the Spanish governor, Elio, was afterwards
+defeated by Artigas, the leader of the independents.</p>
+
+<p>The inroads made on the frontiers of Rio Grande and São
+Paulo decided the court of Rio to take possession of Montevideo;
+a force of 5000 troops was sent thither from Portugal,
+together with a Brazilian corps; and the irregulars
+<span class="sidenote">Brazil declared an integral portion of the monarchy.</span>
+of Artigas, unable to withstand disciplined troops,
+were forced, after a total defeat, to take refuge beyond
+the River Uruguay. The Portuguese took possession
+of the city of Montevideo in January 1817, and the
+territory of Misiones was afterwards occupied. The importance
+which Brazil was acquiring decided the regent to give it the title
+of kingdom, and by decree of the 16th January 1815, the Portuguese
+sovereignty thenceforward took the title of the United
+Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves. Thus the old
+colonial government disappeared even in name. In March 1816
+the queen Donna Maria I. died, and the prince regent became
+king under the title of Dom John VI.</p>
+
+<p>Although Brazil had now become in fact the head of its own
+mother country, the government was not in the hands of
+Brazilians, but of the Portuguese, who had followed the court.
+The discontent arising among Brazilians from this cause was
+heightened by a decree assigning a heavy tax on the chief
+Brazilian custom houses, to be in operation for forty years, for
+the benefit of the Portuguese noblemen who had suffered during
+the war with France. The amiable character of the king preserved
+his own popularity, but the government was ignorant and
+profligate, justice was ill administered, negligence and disorder
+reigned in all its departments. Nor was the discontent less
+in Portugal on account of its anomalous position. These causes
+and the fermentation of liberal principles produced by the French
+Revolution originated a conspiracy in Lisbon in 1817, which was,
+however, discovered in time to prevent its success. A similar
+plot and rebellion took place in the province of Pernambuco,
+where the inhabitants of the important commercial city of
+Recife (Pernambuco) were jealous of Rio and the sacrifices they
+were compelled to make for the support of the luxurious court
+there. Another conspiracy to establish a republican government
+was promptly smothered in Bahia, and the outbreak in Pernambuco
+was put down after a republic had been formed there for
+ninety days. Still the progress of the republican spirit in Brazil
+caused Dom João to send to Portugal for bodies of picked troops,
+which were stationed throughout the provincial capitals. In
+Portugal the popular discontent produced the revolution of 1820,
+when representative government was proclaimed&mdash;the Spanish
+constitution of 1812 being provisionally adopted. In Rio, the
+Portuguese troops with which the king had surrounded himself
+as the defence against the liberal spirit of the Brazilians, took
+up arms on the 26th of February 1821, to force him to accept
+the system proclaimed in Portugal. The prince Dom Pedro,
+heir to the crown, who now for the first time took part in public
+affairs, actively exerted himself as a negotiator between the king
+and the troops, who were joined by bodies of the people. After
+attempting a compromise the king finally submitted, took the
+oath and named a new ministry. The idea of free government
+filled the people with enthusiasm, and the principles of a representative
+legislature were freely adopted, the first care being
+for the election of deputies to the Cortes of Lisbon to take part
+in framing the new constitution. As the king could not abandon
+Portugal to itself he determined at first to send the prince thither
+as regent, but Dom Pedro had acquired such popularity by his
+conduct in the revolution, and had exhibited such a thirst for
+glory, that the king feared to trust his adventurous spirit in
+Europe, and decided to go himself. The Brazilian deputies on
+arriving in Lisbon expressed dissatisfaction with the Cortes
+for having begun the framing of the constitution before their
+arrival, for Brazil could not be treated as a secondary part of the
+monarchy. Sharp discussions and angry words passed between
+the Brazilian and Portuguese deputies, the news of which excited
+great discontent in Brazil. An insulting decree was passed
+in the Cortes, ordering the prince Dom Pedro to come to Europe,
+which filled the Brazilians with alarm; they foresaw that without
+a central authority the country would fall back to its former
+colonial state subject to Portugal. The provisional government
+of São Paulo, influenced by the brothers Andrada, began a movement
+for independence by asking the prince to disobey the Cortes
+and remain in Brazil, and the council of Rio de Janeiro followed
+with a similar representation, to which the prince assented.
+The Portuguese troops of the capital at first assumed a coercive
+attitude, but were forced to give way before the ardour and
+military preparations of the Brazilians, and submitted to embark
+for Portugal. These scenes were repeated in Pernambuco, where
+<span class="sidenote">Pedro proclaims the independence of Brazil, 1822.</span>
+the Portuguese, after various conflicts, were obliged
+to leave the country; in Bahia, however, as well as in
+Maranhão and Pará, the Portuguese prevailed. In
+the agitation for independence continued. The
+two brothers Andrada were called to the ministry;
+and the municipal council conferred upon the prince
+regent the title of Perpetual Defender of Brazil. With great
+activity he set off to the central provinces of Minas and São Paulo
+to suppress disaffected movements and direct the revolution.
+In São Paulo, on the 7th of September 1822, he proclaimed the
+independence of Brazil. On his return to Rio de Janeiro on the
+l2th of October he was proclaimed constitutional emperor with
+great enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>The Cortes at Lisbon chose Bahia as a centre for resisting the
+independence, and large forces were sent thither. But the city
+was vigorously besieged by the Brazilians by land, and finally
+the Portuguese were obliged to re-embark on the 2nd of July
+1823. A Brazilian squadron, under command of Lord Cochrane,
+attacked the Portuguese vessels, embarrassed with troops, and
+took several of them. Taylor, another Englishman in Brazilian
+service, followed the vessels across the Atlantic, and even
+captured some of the ships in sight of the land of Portugal. The
+troops in Montevideo also embarked for Portugal, and the
+Banda Oriental remained a part of Brazil with the title of the
+<i>Provincia Cisplatina</i>. Before the end of 1823 the authority of
+the new emperor and the independence of Brazil were undisputed
+throughout the whole country.</p>
+
+<p>Republican movements now began to spread, to suppress
+which the authorities made use of the Portuguese remaining in
+the country; and the disposition of the emperor to consider
+these as his firmest supporters much influenced the course of his
+government and his future destiny. The two Andradas, who
+imagined they could govern the young emperor as a sovereign
+of their own creation, encountered great opposition in the
+constitutional assembly, which had been opened in Rio in May
+1823, to discuss the project of a new constitution. In July the
+emperor resolved to dismiss them and form a new ministry, but
+against this the brothers raised a violent opposition. In
+November the emperor put an end to the angry debates which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span>
+ensued in the assembly by dissolving it, exiling the Andradas to
+France, and convoking a new assembly to deliberate on a
+proposed constitution more liberal than the former project.
+The proclamation of a republic in the provinces of Pernambuco
+and Ceará, with the rebellion of the Cisplatina province, favoured
+by Buenos Aires and its ultimate loss to Brazil, were the result
+of the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of November 1823. The Brazilians were
+universally discontented&mdash;on one side fearing absolutism if
+they supported the emperor, on the other anarchy if he fell.
+Knowing the danger of an undefined position, the emperor
+caused the councils to dispense with their deliberations, and
+adopt, as the constitution of the empire, the project framed by
+the council of state. Accordingly, on the 25th of March 1824,
+<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1824.</span>
+the emperor swore to the constitution with great
+solemnity and public rejoicings. By this stroke of
+policy he saved himself and Brazil. Negotiations
+were opened in London between the Brazilian and
+Portuguese plenipotentiaries, treating for the recognition of the
+independence of Brazil; and on the 25th of August 1825 a
+treaty was signed by which the Portuguese king, Dom John VI.,
+assumed the title of emperor of Brazil, and immediately abdicated
+in favour of his son, acknowledging Brazil as an independent
+empire, but the treaty obliged Brazil to take upon herself
+the Portuguese debt, amounting to nearly two millions
+sterling.</p>
+
+<p>The rebellion of the Banda Oriental was followed by a declaration
+of war with Buenos Aires which had supported it, and
+operations by sea and land were conducted against that republic
+in a feeble way. Meanwhile the well-deserved popularity of the
+emperor began to decline. He had given himself up to the
+influence of the Portuguese; the most popular men who had
+worked for the independence were banished; and a continual
+change of ministry showed a disposition on the part of the
+sovereign to prosecute obstinately measures of which his advisers
+disapproved. His popularity was regained, however, to some
+extent, when, on the death of his father, he was unanimously
+acknowledged king of Portugal, and especially when he abdicated
+that crown in favour of his daughter, Donna Maria; but his
+line of policy was not altered, and commercial treaties entered
+into with European states conceding them favours, which were
+popularly considered to be injurious to Brazilian trade, met
+with bitter censure.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1827 the public debt was consolidated, and
+a department was created for the application of a sinking
+fund.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1828 was a calamitous one for Brazil. It began with
+the defeat of the Brazilian army by the Argentine forces, and
+this entirely through the incapacity of the commander-in-chief;
+and misunderstandings, afterwards compensated by humbling
+money-payments on the part of Brazil, arose with the United
+States, France and England on account of merchant vessels
+captured by the Brazilian squadron blockading Buenos Aires.
+Financial embarrassments increased to an alarming extent;
+the emperor was compelled by the British government to make
+peace with Buenos Aires and to renounce the Banda Oriental;
+and to fill the sum of disasters Dom Miguel had treacherously
+usurped the crown of Portugal. It was under these unlucky
+auspices that the elections of new deputies took place in 1829.
+As was expected the result was the election everywhere of ultra-liberals
+opposed to the emperor, and in the succeeding year
+people everywhere exhibited their disaffection. During the
+session of 1830 the chambers adopted a criminal code in
+which punishment by death for political offences was abolished.
+It was openly suggested in the journals to reform the constitution
+by turning Brazil into independent federal provinces,
+governed by authorities popularly elected, as in the United States.
+Alarmed at length at the ground gained by this idea in the
+provinces, the emperor set off to Minas to stir up the former
+enthusiasm in his favour from recollections of the independence,
+but was coldly received. On his return to Rio in March 1831
+scenes of disorder occurred, and great agitation among the
+Liberal party. Imagining himself sure of a brilliant destiny
+in Europe if he lost his Brazilian crown, the emperor attempted
+to risk a decisive attack against the Liberals, and to form a new
+<span class="sidenote">Abdication of Pedro I., 1831.</span>
+ministry composed of men favourable to absolutism.
+This step caused excited public meetings in the capital,
+which were joined in by the troops, and deputations
+went to ask the emperor to dismiss the unpopular
+ministry. He replied by dissolving the ministry without naming
+another, and by abdicating the crown in favour of the heir
+apparent, then only five years of age. Dom Pedro immediately
+embarked in an English ship, leaving the new emperor Dom
+Pedro II. and the princesses Januaria, Francisca and Paula.
+The subsequent career of this unfortunate prince belongs to the
+history of Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>A provisional and afterwards a permanent regency, composed
+of three members, was now formed in Brazil, but scenes of
+disorder succeeded, and discussions and struggles between the
+republican party and the government, and a reactionary third
+party in favour of the restoration of Dom Pedro, occupied the
+succeeding years. In 1834 a reform which was well received
+consisted in the alteration of the regency, from that of three
+members elected by the legislative chambers, to one regent
+chosen by the whole of the electors in the same manner as the
+deputies; and the councils of the provinces were replaced by
+legislative provincial assemblies. Virtually, this was a republican
+government like that of the United States, for no difference
+existed in the mode of election of the regent from that of a
+president. The ex-minister Feijoó was chosen for this office.
+With the exception of Pará and Rio Grande the provinces were
+at peace, but these were in open rebellion; the former was
+reduced to obedience, but in the latter, though the imperial
+troops occupied the town, the country was ravaged by its
+warlike inhabitants. The regent was now accused of conniving
+at this rebellion, and the opposition of the chamber of deputies
+became so violent as to necessitate his resignation. Araujo
+Lima, minister of the home department, who strove to give his
+government the character of a monarchical reaction against the
+principles of democracy, was chosen by a large majority in his
+stead. The experiment of republican government had proved
+so discreditable, and had so wearied the country of cabals,
+that men hitherto known for their sympathy with democratic
+principles became more monarchical than the regent himself;
+and under this influence a movement to give the regency into
+the hands of the princess Donna Januaria, now in her 18th year,
+was set on foot. It was soon perceived, however, that if the
+empire could be governed by a princess of eighteen it could be
+managed better by the emperor himself, who was then fourteen.</p>
+
+<p>A bill was accordingly presented to the legislature dispensing
+with the age of the emperor and declaring his majority, which
+after a noisy discussion was carried. The majority
+of the emperor Dom Pedro II. was proclaimed on the
+<span class="sidenote">Majority of Pedro II., 1840.</span>
+23rd of July 1840. Several ministries, in which
+various parties predominated for a time, now governed
+the country till 1848, during which period the rebellious province
+of Rio Grande was pacified, more by negotiation than force of
+arms. In 1848 hostilities were roused with the British government
+through the neglect shown by the Brazilians in putting
+in force a treaty for the abolition of the slave trade, which had
+been concluded as far back as 1826; on the other hand the
+governor of Buenos Aires, General Rosas, was endeavouring to
+stir up revolution again in Rio Grande. The appearance of
+yellow fever in 1849, until then unknown in Brazil, was attributed
+to the importation of slaves. Public opinion declared against
+the traffic; severe laws were passed against it, and were so
+firmly enforced that in 1853 not a single disembarkation took
+place. The ministry of the Visconde de Olinda in 1849 entered
+into alliances with the governors of Montevideo, Paraguay
+and the states of Entre Rios and Corrientes, for the purpose of
+maintaining the integrity of the republics of Uruguay and
+Paraguay, which Rosas intended to reunite to Buenos Aires,
+and the troops of Rosa&rsquo;s which besieged Montevideo were forced
+to capitulate. Rosas then declared war formally against Brazil.
+An army of Correntine, Uruguayan and Brazilian troops, under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span>
+General Urquiza, assisted by a Brazilian naval squadron, advanced
+on Buenos Aires, completely routed the forces of Rosas,
+and crushed for ever the power of that dictator. From 1844
+Brazil was free from intestine commotions, and had resumed
+its activity. Public works and education were advanced, and
+the finances rose to a degree of prosperity previously unknown.</p>
+
+<p>In 1855 the emperor of Brazil sent a squadron of eleven
+men-of-war and as many transports up the Paraná to adjust
+several questions pending between the empire and
+the republic of Paraguay, the most important of which
+<span class="sidenote">War with Paraguay.</span>
+was that of the right of way by the Paraguay river
+to the interior Brazilian province of Matto Grosso. This right
+had been in dispute for several years. The expedition was
+not permitted to ascend the river Paraguay, and returned completely
+foiled in its main purpose. Though the discord resulting
+between the states on account of this failure was subsequently
+allayed for a time by a treaty granting to Brazil the right to
+navigate the river, every obstacle was thrown in the way by
+the Paraguayan government, and indignities of all kinds were
+offered not only to Brazil but to the representatives of the
+Argentine and the United States. In 1864 the ambitious dictator
+of Paraguay, Francisco Solano Lopez, without previous declaration
+of war, captured a Brazilian vessel in the Paraguay, and
+rapidly followed up this outrage by an armed invasion of the
+provinces of Matto Grosso and Rio Grande in Brazil, and that of
+Corrientes in the Argentine Republic. A triple alliance of the
+invaded states with Uruguay ensued, and the tide of war was
+soon turned from being an offensive one on the part of Paraguay
+to a defensive struggle within that republic against the superior
+number of the allies. So strong was the natural position of
+Paraguay, however, and so complete the subjection of its inhabitants
+to the will of the dictator, that it was not until the year
+1870, after the republic had been completely drained of its manhood
+and resources, that the long war was terminated by the
+capture and death of Lopez with his last handful of men by the
+pursuing Brazilians. From its duration and frequent battles
+and sieges this war involved an immense sacrifice of life to Brazil,
+the army in the field having been constantly maintained at between
+20,000 and 30,000 men, and the expenditure in maintaining
+it was very great, having been calculated at upwards of fifty
+millions sterling. Large deficits in the financial budgets of the
+state resulted, involving increased taxation and the contracting
+of loans from foreign countries.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this the sources of public wealth in Brazil
+were unaffected, and commerce continued steadily to increase.
+A grand social reform was effected in the law passed in September
+1871, which enacted that from that date every child born of
+slave parents should be free, and also declared all the slaves
+belonging to the state or to the imperial household free from
+that time. The same law provided an emancipation fund, to
+be annually applied to the ransom of a certain number of slaves
+owned by private individuals.</p>
+
+<p>Under the long reign of Dom Pedro II. progress and material
+prosperity made steady advancement in Brazil. Occasional
+political outbreaks occurred, but none of very serious
+nature except in Rio Grande do Sul, where a long
+<span class="sidenote">Character of Pedro II.&rsquo;s reign.</span>
+guerrilla warfare was carried on against the imperial
+authority. The emperor occupied himself to a far
+greater extent with the economic development of his people
+and country than with active political life. Unostentatious
+in his habits, Dom Pedro always had at heart the true interests
+of the Brazilians. Himself a highly-educated man, he sincerely
+desired to further the cause of education, and devoted a large
+portion of his time to the study of this question. His extreme
+liberalism prevented his opposing the spread of Socialist doctrines
+preached far and wide by Benjamin Constant. Begun about 1880,
+this propaganda took deep root in the educated classes, creating
+a desire for change and culminating in the military conspiracy
+of November 1889, by which monarchy was replaced by a
+republican form of government.</p>
+
+<p>At first the revolutionary propaganda produced no personal
+animosity against the emperor, who continued to be treated by
+his people with every mark of respect and affection, but this
+state of things gradually changed. In 1864 the princess Isabella,
+the eldest daughter of the emperor and empress, had married
+the Comte d&rsquo;Eu, a member of the Orleans family. The marriage
+was never popular in the country, owing partly to the fact that
+the Comte d&rsquo;Eu was a reserved man who made few intimate
+friends and never attempted to become a favourite. Princess
+Isabella was charitable in many ways, always ready to take her
+full share of the duties falling upon her as the future empress,
+and thoroughly realizing the responsibilities of her position;
+but she was greatly influenced by the clerical party and the
+priesthood, and she thereby incurred the hostility of the Progressives.
+When Dom Pedro left Brazil for the purpose of
+making a tour through Europe and the United States he appointed
+Princess Isabella to act as regent, and she showed herself
+so swayed in political questions by Church influence that
+Liberal feeling became more and more anti-dynastic. Another
+incident which gave strength to the opposition was the sudden
+abolition of slavery without any compensation to slave-owners.
+The planters, the principal possessors of wealth, regarded the
+measure as unnecessary in view of the act which had been
+passed in 1885 providing for the gradual freeing of all slaves.
+The arguments used were, however, of no avail with the regent,
+and the decree was promulgated on the 13th of May 1888. No
+active opposition was offered to this measure, but the feelings of
+unrest and discontent spread rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of 1888 the emperor returned and was
+received by the populace with every demonstration of affection
+and esteem. Even among the advocates of republicanism
+there was no intention of dethroning Dom
+<span class="sidenote">Establishment of the Republic, 1889.</span>
+Pedro, excepting a few extreme members of the party,
+now gained the upper hand. They argued that
+it would be much more difficult to carry out a successful
+coup <i>d&rsquo;état</i> when the good-natured, confiding emperor had
+been succeeded by his more suspicious and energetic daughter.
+Discontented officers in the army and navy rallied to this idea,
+and a conspiracy was organized to depose the emperor and
+declare a republic. On the 14th of November 1889 the palace
+was quietly surrounded, and on the following morning the
+emperor and his family were placed on board ship and sent
+off to Portugal. A provisional government was then formed
+and a proclamation issued to the effect that the country would
+henceforth be known as the United States of Brazil, and that in
+due time a republican constitution would be framed. The only
+voice raised in protest was that of the minister of war, and he
+was shot at and severely wounded as a consequence. Dom Pedro,
+completely broken down by the ingratitude of the people whom
+he had loved so much and laboured for so strenuously, made no
+attempt at resistance. The republican government offered to
+compensate him for the property he had held in Brazil as emperor,
+but this proposal was declined. His private possessions
+were respected, and were afterwards still held by Princess
+Isabella.</p>
+
+<p>The citizen named as president of the provisional government,
+was General Deodoro da Fonseca, who owed his advancement
+to the personal friendship and assistance of Dom Pedro. Second
+in authority was placed General Floriano Peixoto, an officer also
+under heavy obligations to the deposed monarch, as indeed were
+nearly all of those who took active part in the conspiracy.</p>
+
+<p>Though the overthrow of the imperial dynasty was totally
+unexpected throughout, the new regime was accepted without
+any disturbances. Under the leadership of General
+Deodoro da Fonseca a praetorian system of government,
+<span class="sidenote">Brazil under the Republic.</span>
+in which the military element was all-powerful, came
+into existence, and continued till February 1891, when
+a national congress assembled and formulated the constitution
+for the United States of Brazil. The former provinces were
+converted into states, the only right of the federal government
+to interfere in their administration being for the purposes of
+national defence, the maintenance of public order or the enforcement
+of the federal laws. The constitution of the United States
+of America was taken as a model for drawing up that of Brazil,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span>
+and the general terms were as far as possible adhered to (see
+above, section <i>Government</i>).</p>
+
+<p>General da Fonseca and General Floriano Peixoto were
+elected to fill the offices of president and vice-president until
+the 15th of November 1894. This implied the continuance of
+praetorian methods of administration. The older class of more
+conservative Brazilians, who had formerly taken part in the
+administration under the emperor, withdrew altogether from
+public life. Many left Brazil and went into voluntary exile,
+while others retired to their estates. In the absence of these
+more respectable elements, the government fell into the hands
+of a gang of military adventurers and unscrupulous politicians,
+whose only object was to exploit the national resources for their
+own benefit. As a consequence, deep-rooted discontent rapidly
+arose. A conspiracy, of which Admiral Wandenkolk was the
+prime instigator, was discovered, and those who had taken part
+in it were banished to the distant state of Amazonas. Disturbances
+then broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, in consequence of
+disputes between the official party and the people living in the
+country districts. Under the leadership of Gumercindo Saraïva
+the country people broke into open revolt in September 1891.
+This outbreak was partially suppressed, but afterwards it
+again burst into flame with great vigour. In view of the discontent,
+conspiracies and revolutionary movements, President da
+Fonseca declared himself dictator. This act, however, met with
+such strong opposition that he resigned office on the 23rd of
+November 1891, and Vice-President Floriano Peixoto assumed
+the presidency.</p>
+
+<p>Floriano Peixoto had been accustomed all his life to use harsh
+measures. For the first year of his term of office he kept seditious
+attempts in check, but discontent grew apace. Nor was this
+surprising to those who knew the corruption in the administration.
+Concessions and subsidies were given broadcast for worthless
+undertakings in order to benefit the friends of the president.
+Brazilian credit gave way under the strain, and evidences were
+not wanting at the beginning of 1893 that an outburst of public
+opinion was not far distant. Nevertheless President Peixoto
+made no effort to reform the methods of administration. Meanwhile,
+the revolution in Rio Grande do Sul had revived; and in
+July 1893 the federal government was forced to send most of the
+available regular troops to that state to hold the insurgents
+in check.</p>
+
+<p>On the 6th of September prevailing discontent took definite
+shape in the form of a naval revolt in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro.
+Admiral Custodio de Mello took command of the naval
+forces, and demanded the resignation of the president.
+<span class="sidenote">Naval revolt and civil war, 1893.</span>
+General Peixoto replied by organizing a defence
+against any attack from the squadron. Admiral
+Mello, finding that his demands were not complied with,
+began a bombardment of the city, but did not effect his
+purpose of compelling Peixoto to resign. The foreign ministers
+then arranged a compromise between the contending parties,
+according to which President Peixoto was to place no artillery
+in the city, while Admiral Mello was to refrain from bombarding
+the town, which was thus saved from destruction.
+Shortly afterwards the cruiser &ldquo;Republica&rdquo; and a transport
+ran the gauntlet of the government forts at the entrance of the
+bay, and proceeded south to the province of Santa Catharina,
+taking possession of Desterro, its capital. A provisional government
+was proclaimed by the insurgents, with headquarters at
+Desterro, and communication was opened with Gumercindo
+Saraïva, the leader of the insurrection in Rio Grande do Sul.
+It was proposed that the army of some 10,000 men under
+his command should advance northwards towards Rio de
+Janeiro, while the insurgent squadron threatened the city of Rio.
+In November Admiral Mello left Rio de Janeiro in the armoured
+cruiser &ldquo;Aquidaban&rdquo; and went to Desterro, the naval forces in
+Rio Bay being left in charge of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, an
+ardent monarchist, who had thrown in his lot with the insurgent
+cause. All was, apparently, going well with the revolt, Saraïva
+having invaded the states of Santa Catharina and Paraná, and
+defeated the government troops in several encounters. Meanwhile,
+President Peixoto had fortified the approaches to the city
+of Rio de Janeiro, bought vessels of war in Europe and the
+United States and organized the National Guard.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1894 dissensions occurred between Saraïva and Mello,
+which prevented any advance of the insurgent forces, and
+allowed Peixoto to perfect his plans. Admiral da Gama, unable
+to leave the Bay of Rio de Janeiro on account of lack of transport
+for the sick and wounded and the civilians claiming his protection,
+could do no more than wait for Admiral Mello to return from
+Desterro. In the meantime the ships bought by President
+Peixoto arrived off Rio de Janeiro and prevented da Gama from
+escaping. On the 15th of March 1894 the rebel forces evacuated
+their positions on the islands of Villegaignon, Cobras and
+Enxadas, abandoned their vessels, and were received on board
+two Portuguese warships then in the harbour, whence they were
+conveyed to Montevideo. The action of the Portuguese commander
+was prompted by a desire to save life, for had the rebels
+fallen into the hands of Peixoto, they would assuredly have been
+executed.</p>
+
+<p>When the news of the surrender of Saldanha da Gama reached
+Gumercindo Saraïva, then at Curitiba in Paraná, he proceeded
+to retire to Rio Grande do Sul. Government troops were
+despatched to intercept his retreat, and in one of the skirmishes
+which followed Saraïva was killed. The rebel army then
+dispersed. Admiral Mello made an unsuccessful attack on the
+town of Rio Grande, and then sailed to Buenos Aires, there
+surrendering the rebel squadron to the Argentine authorities,
+by whom it was immediately delivered to the Brazilian government.
+After six months of civil war peace was once more
+established, but there still remained some small rebel groups in
+Rio Grande do Sul. These were joined by Admiral da Gama
+and a number of the naval officers, who had escaped from Rio
+de Janeiro; but in June 1895 the admiral was killed in a fight
+with the government troops. After the cessation of hostilities,
+the greatest barbarities were practised upon those who, although
+they had taken no part in the insurrection, were known to have
+desired the overthrow of President Peixoto. The baron Cerro
+Azul was shot down without trial; Marshal de Gama Eza, an
+old imperial soldier of eighty years of age, was murdered in cold
+blood, and numerous executions of men of lesser note took place,
+among these being two Frenchmen for whose death the Brazilian
+government was subsequently called upon to pay heavy compensation.</p>
+
+<p>General Peixoto was succeeded as president on the 15th of
+November 1894 by Dr Prudente de Moraes Barros. It was a
+moot question whether Peixoto, after the revolt was crushed,
+would not declare himself dictator; certainly many of his
+friends were anxious that he should follow this course, but he
+was broken down by the strain which had been imposed upon
+him and was glad to surrender his duties. He did not recover
+his health and died shortly afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>From the first day that he assumed office, President Moraes
+showed that he intended to suppress praetorian systems and
+reduce militarism to a minimum. This policy received the
+approval and sympathy of the majority of Brazilians, but
+naturally met with bitter opposition from the military element.
+The president gradually drew to him some members of the
+better conservative class to assist in his administration, and felt
+confident that he had the support of public opinion. Early in
+1895 murmurings and disorderly conduct against the authorities
+began to take place in the military school at Rio de Janeiro,
+which had always been a hotbed of intrigue. Some of the
+officers and students were promptly expelled, and the president
+closed the school for several months. This salutary lesson had
+due effect, and no more discontent was fomented from that
+quarter. Two great difficulties stood in the way of steering the
+country to prosperity. The first was the chaotic confusion of
+the finances resulting from the maladministration of the national
+resources since the deposition of Dom Pedro II., and the corruption
+that had crept into every branch of the public service.
+Much was done by President Moraes to correct abuses, but the
+task was of too herculean a nature to allow of accomplishment
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span>
+within the four years during which he was at the head of affairs.
+The second difficulty was the war waged by religious fanatics
+under the leadership of Antonio Maciel, known as &ldquo;Conselheiro,&rdquo;
+against the constituted authorities of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Conselheiro is a remarkable one. A native of
+Pernambuco, when a young man he married against the wishes
+of his mother, who took a violent dislike to the bride. Shortly
+after the marriage the mother assured her son that his wife held
+clandestine meetings with a lover, and stated that if he would
+go to a certain spot not far from the house that evening he would
+himself see that her assertion was true. The mother invented
+some plea to send the wife to the trysting-place, and then,
+dressing herself in male clothing, prepared to come suddenly on
+the scene as the lover, trusting to be able to make her escape
+before she was recognized. The three met almost simultaneously.
+Conselheiro, deeming his worst suspicions confirmed, shot and
+killed his wife and his mother before explanations could be
+offered. He was tried and allowed to go at liberty after some
+detention in prison. From that time Conselheiro was a victim
+of remorse, and to expiate his sin became a missionary in the
+<i>sertao</i> or interior of Brazil among the wild Jagunço people. He
+built places of worship in many different districts, and at length
+became the recognized chief of the people among whom he had
+thus strangely cast his lot. Eventually he formed a settlement
+near Canudos, situated about 400 m. inland from Bahia. Difficulty
+arose between the governor of Bahia and this fanatical
+missionary, with the result that Conselheiro was ordered to leave
+the settlement and take away his people. This order was met
+with a sturdy refusal to move. Early in 1897 a police force was
+sent to eject the settlers, but encountered strong resistance, and
+suffered heavy loss without being able to effect the purpose
+intended. In March 1897 a body of 1500 troops, with four guns,
+was despatched to bring the Jagunçoes to reason, but was totally
+defeated. An army comprising some 5000 officers and men was
+then sent to crush Conselheiro and his people at all costs. Little
+progress was made, the country being difficult of access and the
+Jagunçoes laying ambuscades at every available place. Finally
+strong reinforcements were sent forward, the minister of war
+himself proceeding to take command of the army, now numbering
+nearly 13,000 men. Canudos was besieged and captured in
+September 1897, Conselheiro being killed in the final assault.
+The expense of these expeditions was very heavy, and prevented
+President Moraes from carrying out many of the retrenchments
+he had planned.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the Canudos affair a conspiracy was hatched to
+assassinate the president. He was watching the disembarkation
+of some troops when a shot was fired which narrowly missed him,
+and killed General Bitencourt, the minister of war. The actual
+perpetrator of the deed, a soldier, was tried and executed, but
+he was apparently ignorant of the persons who procured his
+services. Three other men implicated in the conspiracy were
+subsequently sentenced to imprisonment for a term of thirty
+years. The remainder of the presidency of Dr Moraes was
+uneventful; and on the 15th of November 1898 he was succeeded
+by Dr Campos Salles, who had previously been governor of the
+state of São Paulo. President Salles publicly promised political
+reform, economy in the administration, and absolute respect
+for civil rights, and speedily made efforts to fulfil these pledges.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties in the reorganization of the finances of the
+state, which Dr Campos Salles had to face on his accession to
+power, were very great. The heavy cost involved in
+the suppression of internal disorders, maladministration,
+<span class="sidenote">Reform under President Campos Salles.</span>
+and the hindrances placed in the way of economical
+development by the semi-independence of the federal
+states had seriously depreciated the national credit.
+The president-elect accordingly undertook with the full approval
+of Dr Moraes, who was still in office, the task of visiting Europe
+with the object of endeavouring to make an arrangement with
+the creditors of the state for a temporary suspension of payments.
+He was successful in his object, and an agreement was made by
+which bonds should be issued instead of interest payments
+from the 1st of July 1898, the promise being given that every
+effort should be made for the resumption of cash payments in
+1901. President Campos Salles entered upon his tenure of
+office on the 15th of November 1898, and at once proceeded to
+initiate fiscal legislation for the purpose of reducing expenditure
+and increasing the revenue. He had to face opposition from
+sectional interests and from the jealousy of interference with
+their rights on the part of provincial administrations, but he
+was able to achieve a considerable measure of success and to lay
+the foundation of a sounder system under which the financial
+position of the republic has made steady progress. The chief
+feature of the administration of Dr Campos Salles was the
+statesmanlike ability with which various disputes with foreign
+powers on boundary questions were seriously taken in hand and
+brought to a satisfactory and pacific settlement. There had for a
+long period been difficulties with France with regard to the
+territory which lay between the mouth of the Amazon and
+Cayenne or French Guiana. The language of various treatises
+was doubtful and ambiguous, largely owing to the ignorance
+of the diplomatists who drew up the articles of the exact geography
+of the territory in question. Napoleon had forced the
+Portuguese government to cede to him the northernmost arm
+of the mouth of the Amazon as the southern boundary of French
+Guiana with a large slice of the unexplored interior westwards.
+A few years later the Portuguese had in their turn conquered
+French Guiana, but had been compelled to restore it at the
+peace of Paris. The old ambiguity attaching to the interpretation
+of earlier treaties, however, remained, and in April 1899 the
+question by an agreement between the two states was referred
+to the arbitration of the president of the Swiss confederation.
+The decision was given in December 1900 and was entirely in
+favour of the Brazilian contention. A still more interesting
+boundary dispute was that between Great Britain and Brazil,
+as to the southern frontier line of British Guiana. The dispute
+was of very old standing, and the settlement by arbitration in
+1899 of the acute misunderstanding between Great Britain and
+Venezuela regarding the western boundary of British Guiana,
+and the reference to arbitration in that same year of the Franco-Brazilian
+dispute, led to an agreement being made in 1901
+between Brazil and Great Britain for the submission of their
+differences to the arbitration of the king of Italy. The district
+in dispute was the site of the fabled Lake of Parima and the
+Golden City of Manoa, the search for which in the early days
+of European settlement attracted so many adventurous expeditions,
+and which fascinated the imagination of Raleigh and drew
+him to his doom. The question was a complicated one involving
+the historical survey of Dutch and Portuguese exploration and
+control in the far interior of Guiana during two centuries; and
+it was not until 1904 that the king of Italy gave his award,
+which was largely in favour of the British claim, and grants to
+British Guiana access to the northern affluents of the Amazon.
+Before this decision was given Senhor Rodrigues Alves had been
+elected president in 1902. Dr Campos Salles had signalized his
+administration, not only by the settlement of disputes with
+European powers, but by efforts to arrive at a good understanding
+with the neighbouring South American republics. In July
+1899 President Roca had visited Rio de Janeiro accompanied
+by an Argentine squadron, this being the first official visit that
+any South American president had ever paid to one of the
+adjoining states. In October 1900 Dr Campos Salles returned
+the visit and met with an excellent reception at Buenos Aires.
+The result was of importance, as it was known that Brazil was on
+friendly terms with Chile, and this interchange of courtesies
+had some effect in bringing about a settlement of the controversy
+between Chile and Argentina over the Andean frontier question
+without recourse to hostilities. This was indeed a time when
+questions concerning boundaries were springing up on every
+side, for it was only through the moderation with which the
+high-handed action of Bolivia in regard to the Acré rubber-producing
+territory was met by the Brazilian government that
+war was avoided. Negotiations were set on foot, and finally
+by treating the matter in a give-and-take spirit a settlement
+was reached and a treaty for an amicable exchange of territories
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span>
+in the district in question, accompanied by a pecuniary indemnity,
+was signed by President Alves at Petropolis on the 17th of
+November 1903. During the remainder of the term of this
+president internal and financial progress were undisturbed save
+by an outbreak in 1904 in the Cunani district, the very portion
+of disputed territory which had been assigned to Brazil by the
+arbitration with France. This province, being difficult of access,
+was able for a time to assert a practical independence. In 1906
+Dr Affonso Penna, three times minister under Pedro II., and at
+that time governor of the state of Minas-Geraes, of which he had
+founded the new capital, Bello Horizonte, was elected president,
+a choice due to a coalition of the other states against São Paulo,
+to which all the recent presidents had belonged. Penna&rsquo;s
+presidency was distinguished by his successful efforts to place
+the finances on a sound basis. He died in office on the 14th of
+June 1909.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. J.; C. E. A.; G. E.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;History: Capistrano de Abreu, <i>Descobrimento do
+Brazil e seu desenvolvimento no seculo xix</i>. (Rio de Janeiro, 1883);
+John Armitage, <i>History of Brazil from 1808 to 1831</i> (2 vols., London,
+1836); Moreira de Azevedo, <i>Historia do Brazil de 1831 à 1840</i> (Rio de
+Janeiro, 1841); V.L. Basil, <i>L&rsquo;Empire du Brésil</i> (Paris, 1862); Caspar
+Barlaeus, <i>Rerun per octennium in Brasiliâ ... sub praefecturâ
+Mauritii Nassovii... historia</i> (Amsterdam, 1647); F.S. Constancio,
+<i>Historia do Brazil</i> (Pernambuco, 1843); Anfonso Fialho,
+<i>Historia d&rsquo;estabelecimento da republica &ldquo;Estados Unidos do Brazil&rdquo;</i>
+(Rio de Janeiro 1890); P. Gaffarel, <i>Histoire du Brésil français</i>
+(Paris, 1878); E. Grosse, <i>Dom Pedro I.</i> (Leipzig, 1836); E. Levasseur,
+<i>L&rsquo;Abolition de I&rsquo;esclavage en Brésil</i> (Paris, 1888); J.M. de Macedo,
+<i>Anno biographico brazileiro</i> (3 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1876); A.J.
+Mello Moraes, <i>Brazil historico</i> (4 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1839); <i>Chorographia
+historica, chronographica genealogica, nobiliaria e politica do
+Brazil</i> (5 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1858-1863); <i>A Independencia e o
+imperio do Brazil</i> (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); B. Mossé, <i>Dom Pedro II.,
+empereur du Brésil</i> (Paris, 1889); P. Netscher, <i>Les Hollandais au
+Brésil</i> (Hague, 1853); J.M. Pereira da Silva, <i>Varões illustres do
+Brazil</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1888); <i>Historia da fundação do imperio brazileiro</i>
+(Rio de Janeiro, 1877); <i>Segundo Periodo do reinado de D. Pedro I.</i>
+(Paris, 1875); <i>Historia do Brazil de 1831 à 1840</i> (Rio de Janeiro,
+1888); J.P. Oliveira Martins, <i>O Brazil e as colonias Portuguezas</i>
+(Lisbon, 1888); S. da Rocha Pitta, <i>Historia da America Portugueza</i>
+(Lisbon, 1730); C. da Silva. <i>L&rsquo;Oyapock et I&rsquo;Amazone</i> (2 vols., Paris,
+1861); R. Southey, <i>History of Brazil</i> (3 vols., London, 1810-1819);
+J.B. Spix and C.F. von Martius, <i>Reise in Brasilien</i>, 1817-1820 (3
+parts, Munich, 1823-1831); F.A. de Varnhagen, <i>Historia geral
+do Brazil</i> (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877); <i>Historia das luctas com os
+Hollandeses</i> (Vienna, 187:); C.E. Akers, <i>Hist. of South America,
+1854-1904</i> (1904); the <i>Revista trimensal do Instituto Historico e
+Geographico do Brazil</i> (1839-1908), one or two volumes annually, is
+a storehouse of papers, studies and original documents bearing on
+the history of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>Geography, &amp;c.: Elisée Reclus, <i>Universal Geography</i> (1875-1894),
+vol. xix. pp. 77-291; J.E. Wappãus, <i>Geographica physica do Brazil</i>
+(Rio de Janeiro, 1884); A. Moreira Pinto, <i>Chorographia do Brazil</i>
+(5th ed., Rip de Janeiro, 1895); Therese Prinzessin von Bayern,
+<i>Meine Reise indenbrasilianischen Tropen</i> (Berlin, 1897); M. Lamberg,
+<i>Brasilien, Land und Leute</i> (Leipzig, 1899); L. Hutchinson, <i>Report</i>
+on Trade in Brazil (Washington, 1906); F. Katzer, <i>Grundzüge der
+Geologie des unteren Amazonegebietes</i> (Leipzig, 1903); J.C. Branner,
+<i>A Bibliography of the Geology, Mineralogy and Paleontology of Brazil</i>
+(Rio de Janeiro, 1903); J.W. Evans, &ldquo;The Rocks of the Cataracts
+of the River Madeira and the adjoining Portions of the Beni and
+Mamoré,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, London, vol. lxii., 1906, pp. 88-124,
+pl. v.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The areas are reduced from the planimetrical calculations made
+at Gotha and used by A. Supan in <i>Die Bevölkerung der Erde</i> (1904).
+They are corrected to cover all boundary changes to 1906.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The census of 1890 is the last one of which complete returns
+are published. That of 1900 was notoriously inaccurate in many
+instances.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The census returns are for municipalities, and not for cities
+proper. As a municipality covers a large extent of country, the
+population given is larger than that of the urban parishes, and is
+therefore not strictly correct according to European practice.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Brazilian official titles are given for the state capitals:
+Belem for Pará; São Luiz for Maranhão; São Salvador for Bahia;
+and Recife for Pernambuco.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The capital of Minas Geraes in 1890 was Ouro Preto; it has
+since been transferred to Bello Horizonte, or Cidade de Minas,
+which has an estimated population of 25,000.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Since the naval revolt of 1893-1894 the name of the capital of
+Santa Catharina has been changed from Desterro to Florianopolis
+in honour of President Floriano Peixoto.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The &ldquo;bran&rdquo; exported is from imported wheat and cannot be
+considered a national product.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The &ldquo;old metals&rdquo; consist of old iron, brass, &amp;c., derived from
+railway material, machinery, &amp;c., all imported, and should not be
+considered a Brazilian product.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;sundry products&rdquo; would probably be included in the four
+general classes were the items given.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Previous to 1907 these two departments were united in one under
+the designation of &ldquo;Industry, Communications and Public Works.&rdquo;
+The division was decreed December 29, 1906.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Clay county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., situated in the west central part of the state, about
+16 m. E. of Terre Haute and about 57 m. W.S.W. of Indianapolis.
+Pop. (1890) 5905; (1900) 7786 (723 foreign-born); (1910) 9340.
+It is served by the Central Indiana, the Chicago &amp; Eastern
+Illinois, the Evansville &amp; Indianapolis and the Vandalia railways,
+and is connected with Indianapolis, Terre Haute and other
+cities by an interurban electric line. The principal business
+thoroughfare is part of the old National Road. Brazil&rsquo;s chief
+industrial importance is due to its situation in the heart of the
+&ldquo;Brazil block&rdquo; coal (so named because it naturally breaks into
+almost perfect rectangular blocks) and clay and shale region;
+among its manufactures are mining machinery and tools,
+boilers, paving and enamelled building bricks, hollow bricks,
+tiles, conduits, sewer-pipe and pottery. The municipality owns
+and operates its water-works. The first settlement here was
+in 1844; and Brazil was incorporated as a town in 1866, and
+was chartered as a city in 1873.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL NUTS,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> the seeds of <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>, a gigantic
+tree belonging to the natural order Lecythidaceae, which grows
+in the valleys of the Amazons and generally throughout tropical
+America. The tree attains an average height of 130 ft., having a
+smooth cylindrical trunk, with a diameter of 14 ft. 50 ft. from
+the ground, and branching at a height of about 100 ft. The
+lower portion of the trunk presents a buttressed aspect, owing
+to the upward extension of the roots in the form of thin prop-like
+walls surrounding the stem. The fruit of the tree is globular,
+with a diameter of 5 or 6 in., and consists of a thick hard woody
+shell, within which are closely packed the seeds which constitute
+the so-called nuts of commerce. The seeds are triangular in
+form, having a hard woody testa enclosing the &ldquo;kernel&rdquo;; and
+of these each fruit contains from eighteen to twenty-five. The
+fruits as they ripen fall from their lofty position, and they are
+at the proper season annually collected and broken open by the
+Indians. Brazil nuts are largely eaten; they also yield in the
+proportion of about 9 oz. to each &#8468; of kernels a fine bland fluid
+oil, highly valued for use in cookery, and used by watchmakers
+and artists.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZIL WOOD,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a dye wood of commercial importance,
+obtained from the West Indies and South America, belonging
+to the genera <i>Caesalpinia</i> and <i>Peltophorum</i> of the natural order
+Leguminosae. There are several woods of the kind, commercially
+distinguished as Brazil wood, Nicaragua or Peach wood, Pernambuco
+wood and Lima wood, each of which has a different commercial
+value, although the tinctorial principle they yield is similar.
+Commercial Brazil wood is imported for the use of dyers in billets
+of large size, and is a dense compact wood of a reddish brown
+colour, rather bright when freshly cut, but becoming dull on
+exposure. The colouring-matter of Brazil wood, brazilin,
+C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, crystallizes with 1½ H<span class="su">2</span>O, and is freely soluble in water;
+it is extracted for use by simple infusion or decoction of the
+coarsely-powdered wood. When freshly prepared the extract
+is of a yellowish tint; but by contact with the air, or the addition
+of an alkaline solution, it develops a brick-red colour. This is
+due to the formation of brazilein, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">5</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, which is the
+colouring matter used by the dyer. Brazilin crystallizes in
+hexagonal amber yellow crystals, which are soluble in water and
+alcohol. The solution when free of oxygen is colourless, but on
+the access of air it assumes first a yellow and thereafter a reddish
+yellow colour. With soda-ley it takes a brilliant deep carmine
+tint, which colour may be discharged by heating in a closed
+vessel with zinc dust, in which condition, the solution is excessively
+sensitive to oxygen, the slightest exposure to air immediately
+giving a deep carmine. With tin mordants Brazil wood gives
+brilliant but fugitive steam reds in calico-printing; but on
+account of the loose nature of its dyes it is seldom used except
+as an adjunct to other colours. It is used to form lakes which
+are employed in tinting papers, staining paper-hangings, and
+for various other decorative purposes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZING AND SOLDERING,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> in metal work, termed respectively
+hard and soft soldering, are processes which correspond
+with soldering done at high and at low temperatures. The first
+embraces jointing effected with soldering mixtures into which
+copper, brass, or silver largely enter, the second those in which
+lead and tin are the only, or the principal, constituents. Some
+metals, as aluminium and cast iron, are less easily soldered than
+others. Aluminium, owing to its high conductivity, removes
+the heat from the solder rapidly. Aluminium enters into the
+composition of most of the solders for these metals, and the
+&ldquo;soldering bit&rdquo; is of pure nickel.</p>
+
+<p>The hard solders are the spelter and the silver solders. Soft
+spelter solder is composed of equal parts of copper and zinc,
+melted and granulated and passed through a sieve. As some of
+the zinc volatilizes the ultimate proportions are not quite equal.
+The proportion of zinc is increased if the solder is required to be
+softer or more fusible. A valuable property of the zinc is that
+its volatilization indicates the fusing of the solder. Silver
+solder is used for jewelry and other fine metal work, arid has the
+advantage of high fusing points. The hardest contains from
+4 parts of silver to 1 of copper; the softest 2 of silver to 1 of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span>
+brass wire. Borax is the flux used, with silver solder as with
+spelter.</p>
+
+<p>The soft solders are composed mainly of tin and lead. They
+occur in a large range. Common tinner&rsquo;s solder is composed of
+equal parts of tin and lead, and melts at 370° Fah. Plumber&rsquo;s
+solder has 2 of lead to 1 of tin. Excess of lead in plumber&rsquo;s
+solder renders the solder difficult to work, excess of tin allows
+it to melt too easily. Pewterers add bismuth to render the
+solder more fusible, <i>e.g.</i> lead 4, tin 3, bismuth 2; or lead 1,
+tin 2, bismuth 1. Unless these are cooled quickly the bismuth
+separates out.</p>
+
+<p>The essentials of a soldered joint are the contact of absolutely
+clean surfaces, free from oxide and dirt. The surfaces are therefore
+scraped, filed and otherwise treated, and then, in order to
+cleanse and preserve them from any trace of oxide which might
+form during subsequent manipulation, a fluxing material is used.
+The soldering material is compelled to follow the areas prepared
+for it by the flux, and it will not adhere anywhere else. There
+is much similarity between soldering and welding in this respect.
+A weld joint must as a rule be fluxed, or metal will not adhere
+to metal. There is not, however, the absolute need for fluxing
+that there is in soldered joints, and many welds in good fibrous
+iron are made without a flux. But the explanation here is that
+the metal is brought to a temperature of semifusion, and the
+shapes of joints are generally such that particles of scale are
+squeezed out from between the joint in the act of closing the
+weld. But in brazing and soldering the parts to be united are
+generally nearly cold, and only the soldering material is fused,
+so that the conditions are less favourable to the removal of
+oxide than in welding processes.</p>
+
+<p>Fluxes are either liquid or solid, but the latter are not efficient
+until they fuse and cover the surfaces to be united. Hydrochloric
+acid (spirits of salts) is the one used chiefly for soft
+soldering. It is &ldquo;killed&rdquo; by the addition of a little zinc, the
+resulting chloride of zinc rendering its action quiet. Common
+fluxes are powdered resin, and tallow (used chiefly by plumbers
+for wiped joints). These, with others, are employed for soft
+solder joints, the temperature of which rarely exceeds about
+600° Fah. The best flux for zinc is chloride of zinc. For brazed
+joints, spelter or powdered brass is employed, and the flux is
+usually borax. The borax will not cover the joint until it has
+been deprived of its water of crystallization, and this is effected
+by raising it to a full red heat, when it swells in bulk, &ldquo;boils,&rdquo;
+and afterwards sinks quietly and spreads over, or into the joint.
+There are differences in details of working. The borax is generally
+powdered and mixed with the spelter, and both with water.
+But sometimes they are applied separately, the borax first and
+over this the particles of spelter. Another flux used for copper
+is sal ammoniac, either alone or mixed with powdered resin.</p>
+
+<p>As brazed joints often have to be very strong, other precautions
+are frequently taken beyond that of the mere overlapping of
+the joint edges. In pipes subjected to high steam pressures,
+and articles subjected to severe stresses, the joints are &ldquo;cramped&rdquo;
+before the solder is applied. That is, the edges are notched in a
+manner having somewhat the appearance of the dovetails of the
+carpenter; the notched portions overlap the opposite edges,
+and on alternate sides. Such joints when brazed are stronger
+than plain overlapping joints would be. Steam dome coverings
+are jointed thus longitudinally as cylinders, and the crown is
+jointed thereto, also by cramping. Another common method
+of union is that of flanges to copper pipes. In these the pipe
+passes freely within a hole bored right through the flange, and
+the solder is run between. The pipe is suspended vertically,
+flange downwards, and the spelter run in from the back of the
+flange. The fused borax works its way in by capillary action,
+and the spelter follows.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;copper bit&rdquo; is used in soft soldering. Its end is a
+prismatic pyramid of copper, riveted to an iron shank in a
+wooden handle. It is made hot, and the contained heat is
+sufficient to melt the solder. It has to be &ldquo;tinned,&rdquo; by being
+heated to a dull red, filed, rubbed with sal ammoniac, and then
+rubbed upon the solder. It is wiped with tow before use. For
+small brazed work the blow-pipe is commonly employed; large
+works are done on the brazier&rsquo;s hearth, or in any clear coke fire.
+If coal is used it must be kept away from the joint.</p>
+
+<p>In &ldquo;sweating on,&rdquo; a variation in soldering, the surfaces to be
+united are cleaned, and solder melted and spread over them.
+They are then brought together, and the temperature raised
+sufficiently to melt the solder.</p>
+
+<p>A detail of first importance is the essential difference between
+the melting points of the objects to be brazed or soldered, and
+that of the solder used. The latter must always be lower than
+the former. This explains why soldering materials are used in
+a large range of temperatures. A few will melt at the temperature
+of boiling water. At the other extreme 2000° Fah. is required
+to melt a solder for brazing. If this point is neglected, it will
+often happen that the object to be soldered will fuse before the
+solder melts. This accident may occur in the soft Britannia and
+white metals at the one extreme, and in the softer brasses at
+the other. It would not do, for example, to use flanges of common
+brass, or even ordinary gun-metal, to be brazed to copper pipe,
+for they would begin to fuse before the joint was made. Such
+flanges must be made of nearly pure copper, to withstand the
+temperature, usually 98 of copper to 2 of tin (brazing metal).
+A most valuable feature in solder is that by varying the proportions
+of the metals used a great range in hardness and
+fusibility is obtainable. The useful solders therefore number
+many scores. This is also a source of danger, unless regard be
+had to the relative fusing points of solders, and of the parts
+they unite.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL FRANÇOIS CAMILLE SAVORGNAN DE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Count</span> (1852-1905), French explorer and administrator,
+founder of French Congo, was born on board ship in the harbour
+of Rio de Janeiro on the 26th of January 1852. He was of
+Italian parentage, the family name being de Brazza Savorgnani.
+Through the instrumentality of the astronomer Secchi he was
+sent to the Jesuit college in Paris, and in 1868 obtained authorization
+to enter as a foreigner the marine college at Brest. In
+the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 he took part in the operations
+of the French fleet. In 1874 when the warship on which
+he was serving was in the Gabun, Alfred Marche and the marquis
+de Compiègne arrived at Libreville from an expedition in the
+lower Ogowé district. Interested in the reports of these travellers,
+de Brazza conceived the idea of exploring the Ogowé, which he
+thought might prove to be the lower course of the Lualaba, a
+river then recently discovered by David Livingstone. Having
+meantime been naturalized as a Frenchman, de Brazza in 1875
+obtained permission to undertake his African scheme, and with
+the naval doctor, Noel Ballay, he explored the Ogowé river.
+Penetrating beyond the basin of that river, he discovered the
+Alima and Likona, but did not descend either stream. Thence
+turning northwards the travellers eventually regained the
+coast at the end of November 1878, having left Paris in August
+1875. On arrival in Paris, de Brazza learned of the navigation
+of the Congo by H.M. Stanley, and recognized that the rivers
+he had discovered were affluents of that stream.</p>
+
+<p>De Brazza was anxious to obtain for France some part of the
+Congo. The French ministry, however, determined to utilize
+his energies in another quarter of Africa. Their attention had
+been drawn to the Niger through the formation of the United
+African Company by Sir George Goldie (then Mr Goldie Taubman)
+in July 1879, Goldie&rsquo;s object being to secure Nigeria for
+Great Britain. A new expedition was fitted out, and de Brazza
+left Paris at the end of 1879 with orders to go to the Niger, make
+treaties, and plant French flags. When on the point of sailing;
+from Lisbon he received a telegram cancelling these instructions,
+and altering his destination to the Congo. This was a decision
+of great moment. Had the Nigerian policy of France been
+maintained the International African Association (afterwards
+the Congo Free State) would have had a clear field on the Congo,
+while the young British Company would have been crushed out
+by French opposition; so that the two great basins of the Niger
+and the Congo would have had a vastly different history.</p>
+
+<p>Acting on his new instructions, de Brazza, who was again
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span>
+accompanied by Ballay, reached the Gabun early in 1880.
+Rapidly ascending the Ogowé he founded the station of Franceville
+on the upper waters of that river and pushed on to the
+Congo at Stanley Pool, where Brazzaville was subsequently
+founded. With Makoko, chief of the Bateke tribe, de Brazza
+concluded treaties in September and October 1880, placing the
+country under French protection. With these treaties in his
+possession Brazza proceeded down the Congo, and at Isangila
+on the 7th of November met Stanley, who was working his way
+up stream concluding treaties with the chiefs on behalf of the
+International African Association. De Brazza spent the next
+eighteen months exploring the hinterland of the Gabun, and
+returned to France in June 1882. The ratification by the French
+chambers in the following November of the treaties with Makoko
+(described by Stanley as worthless pieces of paper) committed
+France to the action of her agent.</p>
+
+<p>Furnished with funds by the French government, de Brazza
+returned in 1883 to the Congo to open up the new colony, of
+which he was named commissioner-general in 1886. This post
+he held until January 1898, when he was recalled. During his
+period of office the work of exploration was systematically carried
+out by numerous expeditions which he organized. The incessant
+demands on the resources of the infant colony for these and other
+expeditions to the far interior greatly retarded its progress.
+De Brazza&rsquo;s administration was severely criticized; but that
+its comparative failure was largely due to inadequate support
+from the home authorities was recognized in the grant to him
+in 1902 of a pension by the chambers. Both as explorer and
+administrator his dealings with the natives were marked by
+consideration, kindness and patience, and he earned the title
+of &ldquo;Father of the Slaves.&rdquo; His efforts to connect the upper
+Congo with the Atlantic by a railway through French territory
+showed that he understood the chief economic needs of the colony.
+After seven years of retirement in France de Brazza accepted,
+in February 1905, a mission to investigate charges of cruelty
+to natives brought against officials of the Congo colony. Having
+concluded his inquiry he sailed for France, but died at Dakar,
+Senegal, on the 4th of September 1905. His body was taken to
+Paris for burial, but in 1908 was reinterred at Algiers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See D. Neuville et Ch. Bréard, <i>Les Voyages de Savorgnan de Brazza,
+Ogooué et Congo, 1875-1882</i> (Paris, 1884), and <i>Conférences et lettres
+de P. Savorgnan de Brazza sur ses trois explorations dans l&rsquo;ouest
+africain de 1875 à 1886</i> (Paris, 1887); A.J. Wauters, &ldquo;Savorgnan
+de Brazza et la conquête du Congo français,&rdquo; in <i>Le Mouvement
+geographique</i>, vol. xxii., No. 39 (Brussels, 1905). Giacomo or Jacques
+de Brazza (1859-1883), a younger brother of Savorgnan, and one
+of the men he employed in the work of exploration, published in
+collaboration with his companion A. Pecile, <i>Tre Anni e mezzo
+nella regione del Congo e dell&rsquo; Ogowe</i> (Rome, 1887).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. T. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRAZZA<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (Serbo-Croatian, <i>Bra&#269;;</i> Lat. <i>Brattia</i>), an island
+in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop.
+(1900) 24,408. With an area of 170 sq. m. Brazza is the largest
+of the Dalmatian Islands; it is also the most thickly populated,
+and one of the most fertile. Its closely cultivated surface though
+ragged and mountainous yields an abundance of olives, figs,
+almonds and saffron, while its wines are of good quality. The
+corn-crop, however, barely suffices for three months&rsquo; food. Other
+local industries are fishing and silkworm-rearing. The most
+important among twenty small villages on the island is Milná
+(pop. 2579), a steamship station, provided with shipwrights&rsquo;
+wharves. The early history of Brazza is obscure. In the first
+years of the 13th century it was ruled by the piratical counts of
+Almissa; but after a successful revolt and a brief period of
+liberty it came under the dominion of Hungary. From 1413 to
+1416 it was subject to Ragusa; and in 1420 it passed, with the
+greater part of Dalmatia, under Venetian sovereignty.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREACH<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (Mid. Eng. <i>breche</i>, derived from the common
+Teutonic root <i>brec</i>, which appears in &ldquo;break,&rdquo; Ger. <i>brechen</i>, &amp;c.),
+in general, a breaking, or an opening made by breaking; in
+law, the infringement of a right or the violation of an obligation
+or duty. The word is used in various phrases: <i>breach of close</i>,
+the unlawful entry upon another person&rsquo;s land (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trespass</a></span>);
+<i>breach of covenant or contract</i>, the non-fulfilment of an agreement
+either to do or not to do some act (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Damages</a></span>); <i>breach of the
+peace</i>, a disturbance of the public order (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peace, Breach of</a></span>);
+<i>breach of pound</i>, the taking by force out of a pound things lawfully
+impounded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pound</a></span>); <i>breach of promise of marriage</i>, the
+non-fulfilment of a contract mutually entered into by a man
+and a woman that they will marry each other (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span>);
+<i>breach of trust</i>, any deviation by a trustee from the duty imposed
+upon him by the instrument creating the trust (<i>q.v</i>.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREAD,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> the name given to the staple food-product prepared
+by the baking of flour. The word itself, O. Eng. <i>bréad</i>, is common
+in various forms to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. <i>Brot</i>,
+Dutch, <i>brood</i>, and Swed. and Dan. <i>bröt</i>; it has been derived
+from the root of &ldquo;brew,&rdquo; but more probably is connected with
+the root of &ldquo;break,&rdquo; for its early uses are confined to &ldquo;broken
+pieces, or bits&rdquo; of bread, the Lat. <i>frustum</i>, and it was not till
+the 12th century that it took the place, as the generic name of
+bread, of <i>hlaf</i>, &ldquo;loaf,&rdquo; which appears to be the oldest Teutonic
+name, cf. Old High Ger. <i>hleib</i>, and modern Ger. <i>Laib</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Bread-baking, or at any rate the preparation of
+cakes from flour or parched grain by means of heat, is one of
+the most ancient of human arts. At Wangen and Robenhausen
+have been found the calcined remains of cakes made from
+coarsely-ground grain in Swiss lake-dwellings that date back to
+the Stone Age. The cakes were made of different kinds of grain,
+barley and one-grained wheat (<i>Triticum monococcum</i>) being
+among the ingredients. This bread was made, not from fine
+meal, but from grain crushed between some hard surfaces, and
+in these lake-dwellings many round-shaped stones have been
+found, which were evidently used for pounding or crushing
+grain against the surface, more or less concave, of another stone
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour and Flour Manufacture</a></span>). Perhaps the earliest
+form of bread, if that word may be used, was prepared from
+acorns and beech nuts. To this day a sort of cake prepared
+from crushed acorns is eaten by the Indians of the Pacific
+slopes. The flour extracted from acorns is bitter and unfit to
+eat till it has been thoroughly soaked in boiling water. The
+saturated flour is squeezed into a kind of cake and dried in the
+sun. Pliny speaks of a similar crude process in connexion with
+wheat; the grain was evidently pounded, and the crushed
+remnant, soaked into a sort of pulp, then made into a cake and
+dried in the sun. Virgil (<i>Georgics</i>, i. 267) refers to the husbandman
+first torrefying and then crushing his grain between
+stones:&mdash;&rdquo;<i>Nunc torrete igni fruges, nunc frangite saxo.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The question naturally arises, how did the lake-dwellers bake
+their cakes of bruised grain? Probably the dough was laid on
+a flat or convex-shaped stone, which was heated, while the cake
+was covered with hot ashes. Stones have been found among
+prehistoric remains which were apparently used for this purpose.
+In ancient Egyptian tombs cakes of durra have been found, of
+concave shape, suggesting the use of such baking-slabs; here the
+cake was evidently prepared from coarsely-cracked grain. In
+primitive times milling and baking were twin arts. The housewife,
+and the daughters or handmaids, crushed or ground the
+grain and prepared the bread or cakes. When Abraham entertained
+the angels unawares (Genesis xviii.) he bade his wife
+Sarah &ldquo;make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead
+it, and make cakes upon the hearth.&rdquo; Professor Maspero says
+that an oven for baking bread was to be found in the courtyard
+of every house in Chaldaea; close by were kept the grinding
+stones. That bread prepared by means of leaven was known
+in the days of the patriarchs may be fairly inferred from the
+passage in Genesis ML, where it is said of Lot that he &ldquo;made a
+feast, and did bake unleavened bread.&rdquo; Whether the shew-bread
+of the Jewish tabernacle was leavened is an open question,
+but it is significant that the Passover cakes eaten by Jews to-day,
+known as Matzos, are innocent of leaven. Made from flour and
+water only, they are about 12 in. in diameter, and have somewhat
+the look of water biscuits.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Egyptians carried the art of baking to high
+perfection. Herodotus remarks of them, &ldquo;dough they knead
+with their feet, but clay with their hands.&rdquo; The practice of
+using the feet for dough kneading, however repulsive, long
+persisted in Scotland, if indeed it is yet defunct. The Egyptians
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span>
+used for their bread, wheat, spelt, barley and durra (sorghum).
+In the opinion of Dr Wallis Budge, barley was in Egypt the
+grain of most primitive culture. However that may be, it is
+certain that even in ancient Egypt white bread made from
+wheat was used by the rich. The form of the bread is revealed
+by ancient monuments. A common shape was a small, round
+loaf, something like the muffin of to-day. Other loaves were
+elongated rolls, and curiously enough were sprinkled on the top
+with seeds like modern Vienna bread.</p>
+
+<p>The history of baking in classical Greece and Italy can be
+clearly traced. Athenaeus in his <i>Deipnosophists</i> minutely
+describes many different kinds of bread, which may be assumed
+to have been currently used in Greece. According to Pliny
+(<i>Nat. Hist</i>, xviii. II. § 28) Rome had no public bakers till after
+the war with Perseus (171-168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). That long after public
+bakehouses came into use the Romans and other urban dwellers
+in Italy continued to make a great deal of bread at home is
+certain. In Pompeii several private houses had their own mill
+and bakehouse. That city must also have possessed bakers by
+trade, as loaves of bread have been found, round in form, and
+stamped with the maker&rsquo;s name, possibly to fix responsibility
+for weight and purity. In the time of the Republic, public
+bakehouses were under the control of the aediles. Grain was
+delivered to the public granaries by the <i>Saccarii</i>, while another
+body called <i>Catabolenses</i> distributed the grain to the bakers.
+The latter were known as <i>Pistores</i> or &ldquo;pounders,&rdquo; a reminiscence
+no doubt of the primitive time when grain was pounded by a
+pestle in a mortar. Slaves were largely employed in the irksome
+work of grinding, and when Constantine abolished slavery the
+staff of the <i>pistrinae</i> was largely recruited from criminals. The
+emperor Trajan incorporated about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100 the college of
+<i>Pistores</i> (millers and bakers), but its members were employers,
+not operatives. The work of a bakery is depicted in a set of
+bas-reliefs on the tomb of a master Pistor named Eurysaces,
+who flourished about a century before the foundation of the
+college. Here the grain is being brought and paid for; mills
+driven by horse and ass (or mule) power are busy; men are
+sieving out the bran from the flour by hand (bolters); bakers
+are moulding loaves on a board; an oven of domelike shape is
+being charged by means of a shovel (peel); and baskets of bread
+are being weighed on the one hand and carried off on men&rsquo;s
+backs on the other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Regulation of Sale.</i>&mdash;In the middle ages bakers were subjected
+to special regulations in all European lands. These regulations
+were supposed to be conceived in the interests of bread consumers,
+and no doubt were intended to secure fair dealing on the part of
+bread vendors. The legislators appear, however, to have been
+unduly biased against the baker, who was often beset by harassing
+restrictions. Bakers were formed into gilds, which were
+under the control, not only of their own officials, but of the
+municipality. In London the bakers formed a brotherhood as
+early as 1155, and were incorporated in 1307. There were two
+distinct corporate bodies concerned with bread-making, the
+Company of White Bakers and the Company of Brown Bakers;
+these were nominally united in 1509, but the union did not
+become complete till the middle of the 17th century. In Austria,
+bakers who offended against police regulations respecting the sale
+of bread were liable, until comparatively recent times, to fine,
+imprisonment and even corporal punishment. In Turkey the
+lot of the baker was very hard. Baron de Tott, writing of Constantinople
+in the 18th century, says that it was usual, when
+bread went to famine prices, to hang a baker or two. He would
+have us believe that it was the custom of master bakers to keep
+a second hand, who, in consideration of a small increase of his
+weekly wage, was willing to appear before the cadi in case a
+victim were wanted. A barbarous punishment, inflicted in
+Turkey and in Egypt on bakers who sold light or adulterated
+bread, consisted in nailing the culprit by his ear to the door-post
+of his shop. In France a decree of 1863 relieved bakers from
+many of the restrictions under which they previously suffered,
+but it did not touch the powers of the municipalities to regulate
+the quality and sale of bread. It left them the right conferred
+in 1791, to enforce the <i>taxe du pain</i>, the object of which was to
+prevent bakers from increasing the price of bread beyond a point
+justified by the price of the raw materials; but the right was
+exercised on their own responsibility, subject to appeal to higher
+authorities, and by a circular issued in 1863 they were invited
+to abolish this <i>taxe officielle</i>. In places where it exists it is
+fixed every week or fortnight, according to the average price of grain
+in the local markets.</p>
+
+<p>In England an act of parliament was passed in 1266 for
+regulating the price of bread by a public assize, and that system
+continued in operation till 1822 in the case of the city of London,
+and till 1836 for the rest of the country. The price of bread
+was determined by adding a certain sum to the price of every
+quarter of flour, to cover the baker&rsquo;s expenses and profit; and
+for the sum so arrived at tradesmen were required to bake and
+sell eighty quartern loaves or a like proportion of other sizes,
+which it was reckoned each quarter of flour ought to yield. The
+acts now regulating the manufacture and sale of bread in Great
+Britain are one of 1822 (Sale of Bread in the City of London and
+within 10 m. of the Royal Exchange), and the Bread Act of 1836,
+as to sale of bread beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange. The
+acts require that bread shall be sold by weight, and in no other
+manner, under a penalty not exceeding forty shillings. This
+does not, however, mean that a seller is bound to sell at any
+particular weight; the words quartern and half-quartern,
+though commonly used and taken to indicate a 4-&#8468; and 2-&#8468;
+loaf respectively, have no legal sanction. That is to say, a baker
+is not bound to sell a loaf weighing either 4 &#8468; or 2; all he has
+to do, when a customer asks for a loaf, is to put one on the scale,
+weigh it, and declare the weight. When bread is sold over the
+counter it is usual for the vendor to cut off and tender a piece
+of bread to make up any deficiency in the loaf. This is known
+as the &ldquo;overweight.&rdquo; There is little doubt the somewhat misty
+wording of the bread acts lends itself to a good deal of fraudulent
+dealing. For instance, when bread is sold over the counter, two
+loaves may be 5 or 6 oz. short, while the piece of makeweight
+may not reach an ounce. The customer sees the bread put on the
+scale, but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred does not trouble
+to verify the weight, and unless he expressly asks for 2 &#8468; or
+some specific weight of bread, it is very doubtful whether the
+seller, having satisfied the letter of the law by placing the bread
+on the scales, could be convicted of fraud. The provision as to
+selling by weight does not apply to fancy bread and rolls. No
+exact definition of &ldquo;fancy bread&rdquo; has ever been laid down, and
+it must be largely a question of fact in each particular case. All
+bakers or sellers of bread must use avoirdupois weight, and must
+provide, in a conspicuous place in the shop, beams, scales and
+weights, in order that all bread there sold may from time to time
+be weighed in the presence of the purchaser. The penalty for
+using any other weight than avoirdupois is a sum not exceeding
+£5 nor less than forty shillings, and for failing to provide beams
+and scales a sum not exceeding £5. Also every baker and seller
+of bread, delivering by cart or other conveyance, must be provided
+with scales and weights for weighing bread; but since the
+Weights and Measures Act 1889, no penalty is incurred by
+omission to weigh, unless there has been a request on the part of
+the purchaser. The acts also define precisely what ingredients
+may be employed in the manufacture of bread, and impose a
+penalty not exceeding £10 nor less than £5 for the adulteration
+of bread. (See further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Although the act of 1836 extends to the whole of the United
+Kingdom (Ireland excepted) out of the city of London and
+beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange, yet in many Scottish
+burghs this act is replaced by local acts on the sale of bread.
+These are in all cases of a much more stringent nature, requiring
+all batch or household bread to be stamped with the reputed
+weight. Any deficiency within a certain time from the withdrawal
+of the bread from the oven is an offence. The London
+County Council desired to introduce a similar system into the
+area under their jurisdiction, and promoted a bill to that effect
+in 1905, but it fell through. The bill was opposed not only by
+the National Association of Master Bakers, the London Master
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span>
+Bakers&rsquo; Protection Society, and by the West End metropolitan
+bakers in a body, but also by the Home Office, which objected
+to what it termed exceptional legislation.</p>
+
+<p>It may be noted that the acts of 1822 and 1836 define precisely
+what may and may not be sold as bread. It is laid down
+in section 2 that &ldquo;it shall and may be lawful ... to make and
+sell ... bread made of flour or meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats,
+buckwheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, rice or potatoes, or any of
+them, and with any (common) salt, pure water, eggs, milk, barm,
+leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in such proportions
+as they shall think fit, and with no other ingredients or matter
+whatsoever.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Sanitation of Bakehouses.</i>&mdash;The sanitary arrangements of
+bakehouses in England were first regulated by the Bakehouse
+Regulation Act 1863, which was repealed and replaced by the
+Factory and Workshop Act 1878; this act, with various amending
+acts, was in turn repealed and replaced by the Factory and
+Workshop Act 1901. By the act of 1901 a bakehouse is defined
+as a place in which are baked bread, biscuits or confectionery,
+from the baking or selling of which a profit is derived. The act
+of 1863 placed the sanitary supervision of bakehouses in the hands
+of local authorities; from 1878 to 1883 supervision was in the
+hands of inspectors of factories, but in 1883 the supervision of
+retail bakehouses was placed in the hands of local authorities.
+Under the act of 1901 the supervision of bakehouses which are
+&ldquo;workshops&rdquo; is carried out by local authorities, and for the
+purposes of the act every bakehouse is a workshop unless within
+it, or its close or curtilage or precincts, steam, water or other
+mechanical power is used in aid of the manufacturing process
+carried on there, in which case it is treated as a non-textile
+factory, and is under the supervision of factory inspectors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The more important regulations laid down by the act are: (1)
+No water-closet, &amp;c., must be within or communicate directly with
+the bakehouse; every cistern for supplying water to the bakehouse
+must be separate and distinct from any cistern supplying a water-closet;
+no drain or pipe for carrying off sewage matter shall have an
+opening within the bakehouse. (2) The interior of all bakehouses
+must be limewashed, painted or varnished at stated periods. (3)
+No place on the same level with a bakehouse or forming part of the
+same building may be used as a sleeping place, unless specially
+constructed to meet the requirements of the act. (4) No underground
+bakehouse (one of which the floor is more than 3 ft. below
+the surface of the footway of the adjoining street) shall be used
+unless certified by the district council as suitable for the purpose
+(see Redgrave, <i>Factory Acts</i>; Evans Austin, <i>Factory Acts</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Bread Sluffs.</i>&mdash;As compared with wheat-flour, all other
+materials used for making bread are of secondary importance.
+Rye bread is largely consumed in some of the northern parts of
+Europe, and cakes of maize meal are eaten in the United States.
+In southern Europe the meal of various species of millet is used,
+and in India and China durra and other cereal grains are baked
+for food. Of non-cereal flour, the principal used for bread-making
+is buckwheat (<i>Fagopyrum esculentum</i>), extensively employed in
+Russia, Holland and the United States. The flour of pease, beans
+and other leguminous seeds is also baked into cakes, and in South
+America the meal of the tapioca plant, <i>Jatropha Manihot</i>, is
+employed. But, excepting rye, none of these substances is used
+for making vesiculated or fermented bread.</p>
+
+<p>A normal sample of wheat-flour consists roughly of 10 parts
+of moisture, 72 of starch, 14 of nitrogenous matter, 2.25 of fatty
+matters, and 1.75% of mineral matter. Starch is thus
+the predominating component; it is not, however, the
+<span class="sidenote">Quality of flour.</span>
+dough-forming ingredient. By itself, starch, when
+saturated with water, forms a putty-like mass devoid of coherence,
+and it is the gluten of the nitrogenous matter which is the binding
+constituent in dough-making, because when wetted it forms a
+more or less elastic body. The proportion of gluten in wheat-flour
+varies from 7 to 15%, but the mere quantity of gluten is
+by no means the only standard of the commercial value of the
+flour, the quality also counting for much. One of the functions
+of gluten is to produce a high or well-piled loaf, and its value for
+this purpose depends largely on its quality. This is turn depends
+largely on the variety of wheat; certain races of wheat are much
+richer in nitrogenous elements than others, but such wheats
+usually only flourish in certain countries. Soil and climate are
+undoubtedly factors in modifying the character of wheat, and
+necessarily therefore of the flour. The same wheat grown in the
+same soil will show very varying degrees of strength (<i>i.e.</i> of gluten)
+in different seasons. For instance, the north-western districts
+of America grow a hard spring wheat which in a normal season
+is of almost unequalled strength. In 1904 an excess of moisture
+and deficiency in sun in the Red River Valley during the critical
+months of June and July caused a serious attack of red and black
+rust in these wheat fields, the disease being more virulent in
+the American than the Canadian side of the valley. The result
+was that the quality of the gluten of that season&rsquo;s American
+spring wheat was most seriously affected, its famed strength
+being almost gone. Wheat from the Canadian side was also
+affected, but not nearly to so great an extent. Flour milled
+from hard winter wheat in the American winter districts is
+sometimes nearly as strong as the spring wheat of the North-west.
+Hungarian flour milled from Theis wheat is also very strong,
+and so is the flour milled from some south Russian spring wheats.
+But here again the degree of strength will vary from season to
+season in a remarkable manner. In the main each land has its
+own clearly marked type of wheat. While the United States,
+Canada, Hungary and Russia are each capable of growing strong
+wheat, Great Britain, France and Germany produce wheat more
+or less weak. It follows that the bread baked from flour milled
+from wheat from British, French or German wheat alone would
+not make a loaf of sufficient volume, judged by present British
+standards. As a matter of fact, except in some country districts,
+British bakers either use strong foreign flour to blend with
+English country flour, or, more frequently, they are supplied
+with flour by British millers milled from a blend in which very
+often English wheat has a small, or no place at all. If the baker&rsquo;s
+trade calls for the making of household bread, especially of the
+London type, he must use a strong flour, with plenty of staple
+gluten in it, because it is this element which supplies the driving
+or lifting force, without which a high, bold loaf cannot be produced.
+If the demand is for tin or (as it is called in many parts
+of the north of England) pan bread, a weaker flour will suffice,
+as the tin will keep it up. A Vienna loaf should be made with at
+least a certain proportion of Hungarian patent flour, which is
+normally the highest-priced flour in the market, though probably
+the bulk of the Vienna rolls made in London contain no
+Hungarian flour. A cake of flat shape can be very well made
+with a rather weak flour, but any cake that is required to present
+a domed top cannot be prepared without a flour of some strength.</p>
+
+<p>It is a general opinion, though contested by some authorities,
+that soft, weak flours contain more flavour than strong, harsh
+flours. The strong wheats of the American and
+Canadian North-West make less flavoury flour than
+<span class="sidenote">Flavour of flour.</span>
+soft red winter from the American South-West. It
+would not, however, be correct to say that all strong wheats are
+necessarily less full of flavour than weak wheats. Hungarian
+wheat, for instance, is one of the strongest wheats of the world,
+but has a characteristic and pleasant flavour of its own. Indian
+wheats, on the other hand, are not particularly strong, but are
+liable to give a rather harsh flavour to the bread. English,
+French and German wheats, when harvested in good condition,
+produce flour of more or less agreeable flavour. None of these
+wheats could be classified as strong, though from each of those
+lands wheat of fair strength may be obtained under favourable
+meteorological conditions. The Australasian continent raises
+white wheat of fine quality which has much affinity with British
+wheat&mdash;it is the descendant in many cases of seed wheats
+imported from England&mdash;but it is occasionally stronger. The
+resultant flour is noted for its sweetness. Both millers and bakers
+who are concerned with the supply of high-class bread and flour
+make free use of what may be termed flavoury wheats. The
+proportion of English wheat used in London mills is very small,
+but millers who supply West-End bakeries with what is known
+as top-price flour are careful to use a certain amount of English
+wheat, if it is to be had in prime condition. They term this
+ingredient of their mixture &ldquo;sugar.&rdquo; London bakers again,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span>
+with customers who appreciate nicely flavoured bread, will
+&ldquo;pitch&rdquo; into their trough a certain proportion of English country
+flour, that is, flour milled entirely or chiefly from English wheat,
+which under such conditions is strengthened by a blend of strong
+flour, a patent flour for choice. It has been objected that as
+English wheat contains a large proportion of starch, and as
+starch is admittedly destitute of flavour, there is no reason why
+flour milled from English wheat should possess a sweeter flavour
+than any other starchy wheat flour. Experience, however, has
+amply proved that well-ripened English wheat produces bread
+with an agreeable flavour, though it does not follow that all
+English wheat is under all conditions capable of baking bread
+of the highest quality. But it would be as fallacious to hold that
+weak flour is necessarily flavoury, as that all strong flour is
+insipid and harsh. Different wheats are undoubtedly possessed
+of different flavours, but not all these flavours are of a pleasing
+character. In some cases the very reverse is true. Californian
+and Australian wheats have occasionally aromatic odours, due
+to the presence of certain seeds, that will impart an objectionable
+flavour to the resultant bread.</p>
+
+<p>While the essential character of particular wheats will account
+for a good deal of the flavour that may be detected in the bread
+made from them, the baking process must also be responsible to
+some extent for flavour. The temperature of the oven and the
+degree of fermentation must be factors in the question. It has
+been asserted that the same flour will bake into bread of very
+different flavour according as the fermentation is carried out
+slowly or quickly, or as the oven is hot or the reverse. A high
+temperature seems to have the effect of quickly drawing out the
+subtle essences which go to give flavour to the bread, but it is a
+question whether they are not subsequently rapidly volatilized
+and partially or wholly lost. The rapid formation of a solid crust
+is no doubt likely to retain some of these flavouring essences. A
+moist, or &ldquo;slack,&rdquo; sponge, or dough, appears distinctly favourable
+to the retention of flavour, the theory being that under such
+conditions the yeast, having more room to &ldquo;breathe,&rdquo; works
+more easily, and is therefore less likely to convert into food those
+soluble constituents of the flour which give flavour.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of flour is a valuable, though not an infallible,
+index to its baking qualities. Thus, a flour of good colour, by
+which bakers mean a flour of bright appearance, white,
+but not a dull dead white, will usually bake into a loaf
+<span class="sidenote">Colour of flour.</span>
+of good appearance. At the same time, a flour of
+pronounced white tint may bake into a dirty grey loaf. This
+has been particularly noted in the case of flours milled in Argentina.
+The colour of flour will vary from a rich, creamy white to a
+dull grey, according to its quality. The different shades are many
+and various, but the prevailing tints are comparatively few.
+Perhaps Blandy&rsquo;s classification of the colours as white, yellow,
+red, brown and grey is as serviceable as any. Each of these tints
+is directly caused by the presence of certain substances. White
+denotes the presence of a considerable proportion of starch, while
+a pronounced yellow tint proclaims gluten of more or less good
+quality. Red and brown are tints only found in flours of low
+grade, because they are sure proofs of an undue proportion of
+branny or fibrous particles. A greyish flour invariably contains
+impurities, such as crease dirt, from the wheat, the intensity of
+the tint varying in proportion to their amount. With regard to
+a yellow tint, though this always denotes the presence of gluten,
+it is difficult to estimate the baking quality of the flour by the
+shade of yellow. In the best Hungarian patent flour the whole
+sample will be suffused by an amber tint, known to Budapest
+and Vienna bakers as <i>gelblicher Stich</i>. Rolls baked from the best
+Hungarian flour will not infrequently cut yellow as if eggs had
+been used in making them up, though nothing more than flour,
+yeast and water has been employed. Strong flour milled from
+American or Canadian spring wheat is also yellowish in colour,
+but the tint is not so deep as with Hungarian flour. On the other
+hand, there are flours of no great strength, such as those from
+some Australian wheats, which are apt to look yellow. When
+the colour of flour is not maintained in the bread, the reason is
+generally to be found in the baking process employed. Colour
+is a fairly trustworthy, but not an absolute guide to the chemical
+composition of flour.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately not all flour of good colour is sound for bread-making
+purposes. Wheat which has been harvested in a damp
+condition, or has been thoroughly soaked, by drenching
+showers previous to cutting, or has got wet in the stook,
+<span class="sidenote">Damp and flour.</span>
+is liable, unless carefully handled, to produce flour
+that will only bake flat, sodden loaves. Wheat which has received
+too much rain as it is approaching maturity, and has then been
+exposed to strong sunlight, is peculiarly liable to sprout. This
+seems to happen not infrequently to La Plata wheat, and though
+wheat shippers in that country are usually careful to clean off
+the little green spikes, this outward cleansing does not remedy the
+mischief wrought to the internal constitution of the berry. Such
+wheat makes flour lacking in strength and stability. Its gluten
+is immature and low in percentage, while the soluble albuminoids
+are in high percentage and in a more or less active diastasic state.
+The starch granules are liable to have weakened or fissured walls,
+and the proportion of moisture and of soluble extract will be
+high. With regard to the beneficial action of kiln or other drying
+on damp flour, William Jago was convinced by a series of experiments
+that the gentle artificial drying of flour increases its water-absorbing
+capacity to about three times the amount of water lost
+by evaporation. On the other hand, a damp flour dried too
+quickly and at too great a heat is liable to be made more instead
+of less susceptible to diastasic changes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Alum.</i>&mdash;Strictly speaking, when employed with weak and unstable
+flours alum is a remedial agent. The popular idea that it acts as a
+kind of bleacher of flour, having the faculty of converting flour that
+is dark-coloured through containing a sensible proportion of branny
+particles and woody fibre, into white-coloured loaves, is erroneous.
+Its action as a producer of white bread is indirect, not direct, though
+it is none the less effective. It seems to act as a brace to or steadier
+of unstable gluten. If from the same wheat a certain proportion of
+gluten be extracted and divided into two parts, of which one is
+placed in a glass of water containing a strong solution of alum, and
+the other in a glass of plain water, the gluten in the latter case will
+become spent days and perhaps weeks before the sample in the
+alumed water is disintegrated. The place of alum in the process of
+fermentation is well marked. By holding together unstable gluten,
+it checks the diastasic action, and the proportion of starch converted
+into glucose (grape sugar) is reduced, with the result that a whiter
+and more porous loaf is produced. It is generally admitted that by
+the use of alum more or less eatable bread may be baked from flour
+which otherwise could hardly be made into bread at all. Strictly,
+therefore, this substance is not an adulterant, inasmuch as it is not a
+substitute in any sense for flour. But it is admittedly unwholesome,
+and therefore its legal interdiction for alimentary purposes is quite
+justifiable. Another aspect of the use of alum is that it is employed
+for the purpose of enabling bakers to use poor flour.</p>
+
+<p>A fairly satisfactory test for alum in bread (or flour) is afforded by
+an alkaline solution of logwood and a saturated solution of ammonium
+carbonate. The presence of alum is shown by a lavender or full blue
+colour. The depth of the tint is said to be a rough guide to the
+quantity of alum present. According to Jago this test is so sensitive
+that it has resulted in the detection of 7 grains of alum in a 4-&#8468; loaf.</p>
+
+<p>Besides alum, small quantities of copper sulphate have been used
+for checking diastasis and retarding fermentation. This substance
+has the same effect as alum, but as all copper salts are active poisons,
+the employment of copper sulphate is most strongly to be condemned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lime-water.</i>&mdash;The object of using either alum or copper sulphate
+is to check over-rapid diastasis during fermentation. Baron Liebig
+pointed out a much less objectionable means of attaining the same
+end by means of lime-water, about 1½ oz. of fresh quicklime being
+dissolved in the water used for doughing one sack of flour. Bread
+made in this way is said to be spongy in texture, of agreeable flavour,
+and perfectly free from acidity. In the baked loaf the lime is transformed
+into calcium carbonate (chalk) by the carbon dioxide resulting
+from the panary fermentation. It is said that an increased yield of
+bread may be obtained by the use of lime-water; the explanation
+may be that lime-water, by retarding the degradation of the gluten
+and the diastasis of the starch, increases the water-retaining power
+of the flour, so that the same weight of flour yields a greater volume
+of bread.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Unvesiculated and Vesiculated Bread.</i>&mdash;Wheaten bread may
+be divided into two main divisions, unvesiculated and vesiculated.
+The term vesiculated simply means provided with vesicles, or
+small membranous cavities, such as are found in all bread that
+has been treated by yeast, leaven or any other agent for rendering
+it spongiform in structure by the action of carbonic acid gas.
+Nearly all bread eaten by civilized folk is vesiculated, though
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span>
+there are different methods and processes for attaining this result.
+Into the category of unvesiculated bread enter such products
+as the Australian damper, a flat cake prepared from flour, water
+and salt, and baked in the hot ashes of a wood fire. The dough
+is spread on a flat stone and covered with a tin plate, while the
+hot ashes are heaped around and over it; the heat should not
+be much in excess of 212° Fahr. The scone, the bannock and
+other similar cakes, still much appreciated in Scotland and the
+north of England, are also examples of unvesiculated bread.
+They are baked on hot plates or &ldquo;griddles,&rdquo; on hearths, and
+sometimes in ovens. Biscuits differ from these cakes in the fact
+that they are baked by a high instead of a moderate heat. But
+they enter so far into the class of unvesiculated bread that they
+are generally prepared without the aid of any such aerating agent
+as carbon dioxide. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Biscuit</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Vesiculated bread is now the only article of diet made from
+flour to which the term bread is applied, and there are various
+ways of producing the spongiform texture by which it is characterized.
+The ordinary and doubtless the most satisfactory way
+is by developing the carbon dioxide within the dough itself by
+the use of yeast (<i>q.v.</i>) or leaven, which sets up alcoholic fermentation,
+splitting up the saccharine matters in the flour into
+alcohol and carbon dioxide. The latter is retained by the dough
+and distends it, causing the bread to &ldquo;rise.&rdquo; Or the carbon
+dioxide may be artificially introduced, as in the so-called
+&ldquo;aerated&rdquo; bread (see below), or it may be produced by the
+agency of certain chemicals, as for instance of baking powders.</p>
+
+<p>Such powders are mixtures which, under the influence of either
+water or heat, evolve carbon dioxide. These powders have been
+divided by Jago into three groups:&mdash;(1) <i>Tartrate</i>
+powders, in which the acid constituent is either free
+<span class="sidenote">Baking powders.</span>
+or partly combined tartaric acid; (2) <i>Phosphate</i>
+powders, in which the acid is some form of phosphoric acid;
+(3) <i>Alum</i> powders. All these powders have a more or less aperient
+action on the human system. Tartrate powders have the disadvantage
+that both commercial tartaric acid and cream of
+tartar frequently contain lead, a poisonous substance. Phosphate
+powders are less open to objection, as they are more easy
+to obtain free from lead and other metallic impurities. Alum
+powders contain potassium bisulphate and alum. It is somewhat
+remarkable that while the presence of alum in bread is regarded
+by the law of England as adulteration, its use in baking powder
+was pronounced legal in <i>James</i> v. <i>Jones</i>, 1894, 1, Q.B. 304, on the
+ground that baking powder is not food within the meaning of the
+Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1875. In making wholemeal bread,
+hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate are often used in such
+proportions that they neutralize each other. Carbon dioxide is
+evolved and raises the dough. In preparing wholemeal bread
+the use of this combination has the advantage that the acid
+acting rapidly on the sodium bicarbonate soon produces enough
+carbon dioxide to aerate the dough, and thus hasten its entry
+into the oven. Wholemeal flour contains so large a proportion
+of cerealin that diastasis is apt to proceed rapidly, the result
+being a clammy, sodden loaf. For this reason, perhaps the so-called
+aerated process is even more suitable for making wholemeal
+than white bread.</p>
+
+<p>Methods of dough-making differ in different countries, and
+even in different parts of the same land. In the <i>off hand</i> method
+the dough is made right off, without any preliminary
+stages of ferment or sponge. This plan is sometimes
+<span class="sidenote">Methods of making dough.</span>
+adopted for making tin bread, and occasionally for
+crusty loaves. For tin bread a strong flour would be
+used and made into a slack dough, and about 1½ &#8468; to 2 &#8468; of
+distillers&rsquo; yeast would be used for the sack (280 &#8468;) of flour,
+occasionally with the addition of a little brewers&rsquo; yeast. Salt
+is used in the proportion of 3 &#8468; to 3½ &#8468; per sack. Formerly
+also it was the custom to add 10-14 &#8468; of boiled potatoes, but the
+use of potatoes has greatly decreased. A tin-bread dough would
+be made slack, with about 70 quarts of water to the sack, and
+after being mixed, would be fermented at a temperature of
+76-80° Fahr. It should lie for about ten hours. A dough for
+crusty bread such as cottage loaves, would be made much tighter,
+not more than 60 quarts of water being allowed to the sack. It
+would be fermented at a higher temperature, and would not lie
+more than about six hours. A slack dough is much less laborious
+to work (when the dough is hand-made) than a tight dough, for
+which a mechanical kneader is very suitable, but as a matter of
+fact the use of machinery (see below) is still the exception, not
+the rule. When a stiff dough is made by hand, it is usually
+made somewhat slack to begin with, and then &ldquo;cut back&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;dusted&rdquo; at regular intervals, that is to say, more and more
+flour is added till a dough of the required consistency has been
+obtained. (In the British baker&rsquo;s vocabulary &ldquo;dust&rdquo; means
+flour, and good dust stands for good flour.) This system, on the
+one hand, saves the labour involved for &ldquo;sponging&rdquo; and other
+operations, and the bread is produced in less time; but on the
+other hand more yeast is used, and bakers generally hold that
+the system sacrifices the colour and texture of the loaf to convenience
+of working and yield. The high porportion of yeast
+enables the dough to carry a large quantity of water, and about
+104 4-&#8468; loaves to the sack is said by Jago to be a not unusual
+yield in the case of slack doughs. But such a result would only
+be possible with very strong flour. In an ordinary way 96 loaves
+to the sack is a very high yield, unattainable except with strong
+flour, and probably the average yield is not more than 90 loaves
+to the sack. In London the manager of a &ldquo;tied&rdquo; shop is usually
+held to account for 92 loaves to the sack.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>ferment and dough</i> system, the ferment usually consists of
+10 to 14 &#8468; of potatoes to the sack of flour, boiled or steamed,
+and mashed with water, so as to yield about 3 gallons of
+liquor. There are several substitutes for potatoes, including
+raw and scalded flour, malt, malt extracts, &amp;c.; brewers&rsquo; or
+distillers&rsquo; yeast may also be used. A ferment should contain
+saccharine matters and yeast stimulants in such a form as to
+favour the growth and reproduction of yeast in a vigorous
+condition. Hence it should not be too concentrated. About
+six hours are required for its preparation. It is added, together
+with 2 to 3 &#8468; of salt, to the dough, which is prepared with
+about 56 quarts of water to the sack, and worked at a temperature
+of 80-84° Fahr. The dough is allowed to lie from two to five
+hours according to the flour used, the character of the ferment,
+and the working temperature. In this system the proportion
+of strong flour is usually reduced to 40% of the dough, and no
+doubt in some cases only soft or weak flours are used. Naturally
+the yield of bread is not so high as in the case of an off hand
+dough made entirely from strong flour, and it will probably not
+exceed 90 loaves to the sack. This method has many advantages.
+After the ferment is made the labour required is not much greater
+than with the off hand doughs, and less yeast is required, while
+potatoes, which are somewhat troublesome, from the necessary
+cleaning, can be replaced by the substitutes already mentioned.
+The method produces good-looking and palatable bread, though
+the loaves should be eaten within some twelve hours of leaving
+the oven.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sponge and dough</i> system, which is probably in widest use
+in England, is adapted to almost every kind of bread, and has
+the advantage that any kind of flour can be employed. The
+stronger flours which need long fermentation can be and usually
+are used in the &ldquo;sponge&rdquo; stage, while soft flours are utilized
+in the dough. (The sponge is a certain proportion, varying from
+a quarter to one-half, of the flour necessary for making the batch.)
+In London the baker often uses for the sponge a bag (140 &#8468;) of
+American spring wheat flour, and for the dough a sack (280 &#8468;)
+of British milled flour, which, whether it be country flour milled
+largely from English wheat or London milled, is always softer
+and weaker than that used for the sponge. The sponge is made
+very slack, 26 to 32 quarts of water being used to say 100 &#8468; of
+flour. Yeast, either distillers&rsquo; or brewers&rsquo;, must be added, in
+proportions varying according to its character and strength.
+Of distillers&rsquo; yeast 6 to 10 oz. may be used for 280 &#8468; of flour
+(including sponge and dough). Salt is added to the sponge
+sparingly, at the rate of about ½ &#8468; to the sack of 280 &#8468; The
+object of making the sponge so slack is to quicken the fermentation.
+When set the sponge is allowed to ferment from six to ten
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span>
+hours, according to temperature and other conditions. Sometimes
+all the water it is intended to use is put into the sponge,
+which is then known as a &ldquo;batter&rdquo; sponge. The sponge, when
+ready, is incorporated with the rest of the flour to which the
+necessary amount of water and salt is added. The whole mass
+is then doughed up into the requisite consistency, the dough
+being allowed to lie for about two hours. Bread made by this
+method, always assuming that over-fermentation has been
+avoided, is of good appearance, presenting a bold loaf, with even
+texture and a nice sheen. Owing to the use of soft flours, the
+flavour should be agreeable, and the loaves ought to keep much
+longer than bread made by ferment and dough. The yield may
+rise as high as 96 loaves per sack, if strong flour has been used
+in the sponge.</p>
+
+<p>A combination of the above two methods, known as the
+<i>ferment, sponge and dough</i> system, is often used with brewers&rsquo;
+yeast. In this case the yeast is not added to the sponge direct,
+but goes into the ferment. This method is rather in favour with
+bakers who make their own yeast.</p>
+
+<p>The system of bread-making generally used in Scotland is
+known as the <i>flour barm, sponge and dough</i>. The barm is a combination
+of a malt and hop yeast, with a slow, scalded flour
+ferment. To make the so-called &ldquo;virgin&rdquo; barm a Scottish baker
+would use a 30-gallon tub; a smaller vessel for malt-mashing;
+10 &#8468; malt; 3 oz. hops and a jar for infusing them; 40 lb
+flour; 2 to 3 oz. malt; 8 to 12 oz. sugar, and 18 gallons of boiling
+water. With these materials a powerful ferment is produced,
+which it is considered best to use in the sponge the fourth or fifth
+day after brewing. The sponges used in Scotland are &ldquo;half&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;quarter.&rdquo; About 6 &#8468; of malt go to the sack, one-sixth going
+into the sponge. As in England, strong flours are used for the
+sponge, but rather stronger flours are used for the dough than
+is usual in England. Scottish loaves are largely of the &ldquo;brick&rdquo;
+type, high and narrow. Such bread has an attractive appearance
+and keeps well. It has a rather sharp flavour, approaching
+acidity but avoiding sourness, while the large quantity of malt
+used adds a characteristic taste. The yield rises in some Glasgow
+bread factories to 100 loaves to the sack.</p>
+
+<p>In many parts of Europe bread is still made from leaven,
+which, properly speaking, consists of a portion of dough held
+over from the previous baking. This substance,
+known to French bakers as <i>levain</i>, is called in Germany
+<span class="sidenote">Leavened bread.</span>
+<i>Sauerteig</i> (<i>anglice</i> &ldquo;sour dough&rdquo;). The lump of old
+dough, placed aside in a uniform temperature for some eight
+hours, swells and acquires an alcoholic odour, becoming the
+<i>levain de chef</i> of the French bakers. It is then worked up with
+flour and water to a firm paste double its original volume, when
+it becomes the <i>levain de première</i>. Six hours later, by the addition
+of more flour and water its amount is again doubled, though its
+consistency is made rather softer, and it becomes the <i>levain de
+seconde</i>. Finally, by another addition of flour and water, the
+amount is again doubled, and the <i>levain de tous points</i> is obtained.
+This mass is divided into two parts; one is baked yielding
+rather dark sour bread, while the other is mixed with more flour
+and water. This second portion is in turn halved, part is baked,
+and part again mixed with more flour, this last batch yielding
+the best and whitest bread. In North Germany leaven is generally
+used for making rye bread, and loaves baked from a mixture
+of wheat and rye flour. In the bakery of the Krupp works at
+Essen, each batch of the so-called Paderborn bread is prepared
+entirely with leaven from 270 kilos of rye flour (patent quality),
+100 of wheat flour (seconds), 2 of buckwheat meal, 6 of salt, 5 of
+leaven, and one litre of oil. In Vienna leaven is never used for
+making the rolls and small goods for which that city is famous.
+Viennese bakers use either brewers&rsquo; yeast or a ferment, prepared
+by themselves, of which the basis is an infusion of hops. Brewers&rsquo;
+yeast is added to the ferment, which takes the form of a very
+slack dough. With 100 kilos (220.46 &#8468;) of flour about 17 litres
+or nearly 2 gallons of ferment are used.</p>
+
+<p>In the original Dauglish process for the manufacture of aerated
+bread, which was brought into operation in Great Britain in 1859,
+carbonic acid gas was evolved in a generating vessel by the
+action of sulphuric acid on chalk, and after purification was
+<span class="sidenote">Aerated bread.</span>
+forced at high pressure into water, which was then used for
+doughing the flour. In this process the flour that had
+to be made into bread was submitted to the action of
+the super-aerated water by direct transference. It was
+found, however, in practice that much difficulty occurred in
+making the gas admix readily with the flour and water, great
+pressure being required, and to lessen the difficulties a new
+process, called the &ldquo;wine whey,&rdquo; was introduced. To carry
+this out, a vat placed on the upper storey of the factory is charged
+with a portion of malt and flour, which is mashed and allowed
+to ferment until a weak and slightly acid thin wine is produced;
+this after passing through the coolers is stored until it is transformed
+into a vinous whey. This whey is then introduced into
+a strong cylinder partly filled with water, and is aerated by letting
+in the gas (now stored in a highly compressed form in bottles),
+the pressure required being only a quarter of that necessary
+with the original method. The flour having been placed in the
+mixers, which are of globular form containing revolving arms,
+the aerated fluid is admitted, and in a short period the flour and
+fluid are completely incorporated. By means of an ingenious
+appliance termed a dough cock, the exact amount of dough for
+a single loaf of bread is forced out under the pressure of the gas,
+and by reversing the lever the dough, which expands as it falls
+into a baking tin, is cut off. Two sacks of flour can be
+converted with ease into 400 2-lb loaves in forty minutes,
+whereas the ordinary baker&rsquo;s process would require about ten
+hours. At first a difficulty was encountered in the fact that the
+dough became discoloured by the action of the &ldquo;wine whey&rdquo;
+on the iron, but it was overcome by Killingworth Hedges, who
+discovered a non-poisonous vitreous enamel for coating the
+interior of the mixers, &amp;c. It has been claimed for the Dauglish
+process that it saves the baker risks attendant on the production
+of carbon dioxide by the ordinary process of fermentation, in that
+he is no longer liable to have his dough spoilt by variations of
+temperature and other incalculable factors, the results being
+certain and uniform. A further claim is the saving of the proportion
+of starch consumed by conversion into glucose during
+the process of fermentation. The original objection, that, by
+the absence of fermentation, those subtle changes which help
+to produce flavour are lost, is annulled by the use of the wine
+whey process. The Dauglish process is well suited for producing
+small goods, such as cakes and scones, where flavour can be
+artificially imparted by means of currants, flavouring essences,
+&amp;c. An undoubted advantage of the aerating process of bread-making
+is adaptability for utilizing flour with unstable gluten,
+which can thus be made into an excellent quality of bread.
+For wholemeal bread, too, there is probably no more suitable
+process than the Dauglish. The strong diastasic action of the
+cerealin, inevitable in fermentation, is entirely avoided. The
+Aerated Bread Company have about a hundred depots in
+London, which are supplied from a central factory.</p>
+
+<p>The essence of the bread-making process recently invented
+by Serge Apostolov is the combination of a flour mill and bakery.
+The wheat, after a preliminary cleaning, is ground into
+flour by a mill composed of metal disks dressed, that
+<span class="sidenote">Apostolov process.</span>
+is furrowed, very much like the surfaces of a pair of
+mill-stones. The disks are not set to grind very close, because
+it is desired, by minimizing friction, to keep the meal cool. From
+the middlings obtained by this milling process about 10% of
+bran is separated, and the remainder of the middlings is treated
+by a peculiar process, akin to mashing, termed &ldquo;lixiviation.&rdquo;
+The middlings are saturated with tepid water containing a small
+proportion of yeast, which causes a certain amount of fermentation.
+It is claimed that by this process a solution is obtained
+of the floury constituents of the middlings. From the vats the
+solution is poured on an inclined sieve which has a gentle reciprocating
+motion. The floury particles pass through the meshes,
+while the bran tails over the sieve; the proportion of the wheat
+berry thus rejected is given as about 2½%. On the other hand,
+the milky-looking solution, called &ldquo;lactus,&rdquo; is caught in a special
+vessel, and delivered by a shoot into a trough, which may be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span>
+either a mechanical kneader of an ordinary trough. This lactus
+takes the place of the ordinary sponge. The flour is added in
+the proportion necessary to make the required batch and the
+whole mass is doughed, either by hand or power. The resultant
+dough is moulded in the ordinary way into loaves, which are
+baked in due course. The advantages claimed for the process
+are that it permits of the utilization in bread-making of about
+87½% of the wheat berry, that the resultant bread is fairly white
+in colour and is agreeable in flavour, and that it is extremely
+simple and provides a ready and cheap means of flour-making.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Machine Bakeries.</i>&mdash;Bread-baking, though one of the most important
+of human industries, was long carried out in a most primitive
+manner, and machinery is still practically unknown in the bulk of
+British bakehouses. The reasons for this apparently anomalous
+condition of things are not very far to seek. Bread, unlike biscuits,
+is a food quite unfitted for long storage, and must be consumed
+within a comparatively short time of being drawn from the oven.
+Hence the bread-baker&rsquo;s output is necessarily limited to a greater
+or lesser degree. This will be the more apparent when it is considered
+that the cost of distributing bread is high relatively to the profits to
+be realized. A baker&rsquo;s bread trade is therefore usually limited to
+local requirements, and trading on a small scale he has less inducement
+to lay out capital on the installation of machinery than other
+classes of manufacturers. But there are now many machine bakeries
+(known in Scotland as bread factories), both in London and in other
+parts of Great Britain, where the manufacture of bread is carried
+out more or less on a large scale. The evolution of the machine
+bakery has been slow, and the mechanical operations of the bakehouse
+were long limited to the mixing of the sponge and the kneading
+of the dough, but now the work of the bakery engineer extends over
+almost every operation of bread-making.</p>
+
+<p>A bread-baking plant should be installed in a building of at least
+two storeys. The ground floor may be used for the shop, with
+possibly a bread-cooling and delivery room at the rear. The flour
+may be hoisted to an attic at the top of the building, or to the top
+floor; in any case there must be sufficient floor space to accommodate
+the flour sacks and bags. Underneath the floor of the flour store
+should be installed a flour sifter, a simple apparatus consisting
+essentially of a hopper through which the flour enters a cylinder
+with a spiral brush, by which it is thoroughly agitated previously to
+passing through one or more sieves placed under the brush. A sack
+of flour may be passed through this sifter in a couple of minutes,
+the operation freeing the flour from lumps and pieces of string or
+other foreign substances which may have found their way into the
+sack. The sifter may also be combined with a blender or mixer,
+so that the baker may by its means thoroughly blend different flours
+in any desired proportion. The operation of blending is usually
+effected by a revolving blade of suitable design or by a worm conveyor
+placed underneath the sieve or sleeve. From the sifter and
+blender the flour descends by a sleeve into the dough kneading
+machine on the floor below. But in cases where it is desired merely
+to sift and blend flour ready for future use, it may be received in a
+worm and elevated again to the storage floor by an ordinary belt
+and bucket elevator. The water required for doughing purposes is
+contained in an iron tank, fixed to the wall in convenient proximity
+to the dough kneader. This tank, known as a water attemperating
+and measuring tank, is provided with a gauge and thermometer,
+and from it the exact quantity of water needed for doughing can be
+rapidly drawn off at the desired temperature. The cold water supply
+may be let into the tank at the top, and the hot water supply at
+the bottom, the idea being that each supply shall permeate the
+whole mass by gravity, the hot water ascending and the cold descending.
+The chief types of dough kneader will be described subsequently,
+but here it should be noted that not only have machines
+been devised for cutting out the exact sizes of dough required for
+small goods, such as buns and tartlets, but that the operations of
+weighing and dividing dough for quartern and half-quartern loaves
+can also be neatly and economically effected by machinery. Further,
+at least two machines have been built which successfully mould
+loaves (of simple shape), and the problem of moulding household
+bread by machinery has certainly been solved, but whether delicate
+twists and other fancy shapes could be equally well moulded
+mechanically is less certain.</p>
+
+<p>The machine bakery, however complete, is not likely ever to be
+quite automatic and continuous like a modern flour mill, where the
+plant is connected throughout and virtually forms one machine (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour and Flour Manufacture</a></span>), and though the engineer has
+at least managed to effect every operation of the bakehouse by
+mechanical means, it is not yet possible to shoot a sack of flour
+into the hopper of the sifter on the top floor, and to turn it into
+bread, without any human intervention whatever, though as things
+are, the moulded dough can be put into the oven without undergoing
+actual contact with human hands. In practice, some of the machines
+mentioned above are often dispensed with, even in so-called machine
+bakeries. The flour sifter and blender is indeed found in many
+bakeries where mechanical kneaders are unknown, while not in all
+machine bakeries would be found dough weighers and dividers, still
+less moulding machines. The economical side of the argument on
+behalf of machinery is presented in the familiar shape that a properly
+equipped machine bakery can turn out better work at a lower cost
+(by dispensing with labour), or at any rate can carry on a bigger
+trade with the same staff. There is plausibility in this argument,
+but it must be admitted that innumerable bakeries of capacities
+varying from 10 to 20 sacks per week are carried on more or
+less successfully without machinery of any kind, beyond perhaps a
+sifter or blender. Moreover, some of these bakehouses produce bread
+which can hardly be improved on.</p>
+
+<p>One advantage claimed for flour sifters, besides removing the
+impurities, is that by thoroughly aerating flour they cause it to
+become more &ldquo;lively,&rdquo; in which condition it kneads more readily.
+It is also quite possible that the air which is thus incorporated with
+the dough has a stimulating effect on the yeast, causing a more
+energetic fermentation. A strong argument in favour of dough
+kneaders is their hygienic aspect. It is agreed that the operation
+of dough stirring by hand, since it involves severe labour conducted
+in a heated atmosphere, must be liable to cause contamination of
+the dough through emanations from the bodies of the operatives. In
+well-managed bakeries the utmost personal cleanliness on the part
+of the staff is exacted, but the unpleasant contingency alluded to is
+certainly possible. It is also contended that the use of machinery
+for dough kneading and batter whisking will ensure better work, in
+the sense that the mass under treatment will be more thoroughly
+worked by mechanically driven arms of iron or steel than by human
+limbs, liable to weariness and fatigue. The better worked the dough,
+the greater its power of expansion, and consequently the greater its
+bread-making value.</p>
+
+<p>The most widely known machine used in connexion with bread-baking,
+next to the sifter, is the dough kneadcr. The dough kneader
+is no new invention. As far back as 1760, a kind of dough
+kneader was constructed in France by one Salignac. It
+<span class="sidenote">Dough kneaders.</span>
+is described as consisting of a trough, inside which the
+dough was agitated by arms shaped somewhat like harrows. This
+machine is said to have been tested before a committee of the
+Academy of Sciences, who reported that in their presence dough
+had been prepared in fourteen to fifteen minutes. The bread baked
+from this dough is said to have been most satisfactory, but for some
+reason the machine never came into general use. For one thing,
+the power problem would have been almost insuperable to a baker
+in the France of those days. In general design this kneader approximated
+to the machines which have since done good work in bakeries
+all the world over. Salignac was quickly followed by another
+inventor, Cousin, also a Frenchman, who brought out in 1761, or
+thereabouts, a dough-kneading machine, which, however, had no
+better success than its predecessor. The first kneading machine
+which appears to have been in actual use in a bakery was constructed
+by a Paris baker of the name of Lembert, after whom it was called
+the Lembertine. Lembert is said to have been experimenting with
+this apparatus as early as 1796. Be that as it may, it was not brought
+out till 1810, when a prize of 1500 francs (£60) was offered by the
+Société d&rsquo;Encouragement pour l&rsquo;Industrie Nationale. This reward
+was won by Lembert, and his machine thereupon came into a certain
+amount of use in France. It is remarkable that France long remained
+the only country in which dough kneaders were employed,
+but even there their use was limited.</p>
+
+<p>The Fontaine, another French kneader, called after its inventor,
+was first made in 1835. It had a certain success, but has long passed
+out of use. It appears to have been a copy to a great extent of the
+Lembertine. The objection against both these machines was that
+their blades, while exercising a mixing action, were deficient in
+kneading effect. Probably the first machine which achieved the
+task of efficiently replacing the work of human arms in sponge
+breaking and dough kneading was the Boland kneader. This was
+also a French machine, and dates back to about the middle of the
+19th century. It is believed to have been first used in the Scipion
+bakery in Paris. It consists essentially of a trough, inside which
+revolve a pair of blades so arranged as to work somewhat like
+alternate screws: it is claimed for these blades that their action
+has the effect of tossing the dough backwards and forwards when it
+is slack, and of drawing it out when it happens to be stiff. It is
+further claimed that the blades are so shaped that their revolution
+has the effect of moving the dough from right to left and left to right
+in the trough. The machine is geared to give two speeds, the faster
+being suitable for sponge setting, while the slow and most powerful
+speed is intended for the doughing. The Boland machine has been
+widely adopted in other countries than France, and was certainly
+one of the first dough kneaders to be used in the United Kingdom.
+It was installed in the great Boland bakery in Dublin, where it
+proved a great success. The proprietor of this bakery, with which
+was also connected a flour mill, is said to have had his attention
+first drawn to this machine by the fact that its inventor was his
+namesake, though no relative.</p>
+
+<p>The Deliry-Desboves dough kneader, also of French origin, and
+in general use in France, consists essentially of a cast iron trough,
+shaped somewhat like a basin, and turning on a vertical axis. The
+kneading arms inside the trough are shaped after the pattern of a
+lyre, and have the effect of first working up and then dividing the
+dough right through the kneading process. Two helical blades,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span>
+which also form part of the mechanism, serve to draw out and aerate
+the dough, as effectively, it is claimed, as can be done by the most
+skilled operative. The force of the kneading operations can be
+regulated without stopping the machine. A thoroughly kneaded dough
+can, it is said, be made in this machine in twelve to fifteen minutes.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain the type of machine that used to be most in
+favour was the trough within which the kneading arms worked on
+horizontal axis. The trough was either open or provided with a lid.
+The kneading blades were variously shaped, but generally were
+more or less straight, and were designed to both mix and aerate the
+dough. In some cases the kneading blades were worked on a single
+axis, in others two different sets of arms worked on two axes running
+parallel to one another. Generally the kneader was geared to two
+speeds, the fast motion being most suitable for sponge setting, and
+the earlier stages of dough-making, while the slower motion was
+intended to draw out and thoroughly aerate the dough. To discharge
+the dough, the trough was tilted by means of a worm and
+worm wheel, the latter being secured to the trough. Several variations
+of this type of kneader are still in use. The machine known as
+the &ldquo;Universal&rdquo; kneader consists of a trough set horizontally,
+within which rotate on horizontal axes a pair of blades lying in the
+same plane. These blades are curved and are geared together by
+means of differential spur wheels, with the object of running the two
+spindles at unequal speeds. The bottom of the trough is divided
+into two semi-cylindrical cavities, separated by a ridge. Each blade
+plunges into its own cavity, and the action of these arms tends,
+while pressing the dough against the sides and base of the trough,
+to bring it quickly back towards the centre. The differential speed
+has the advantage of effecting a more thorough mixing of the dough,
+as it brings together pieces of dough which have not yet been mingled,
+the blades pushing the dough from one cavity to the other. To
+hasten the kneading process it is desirable occasionally to reverse
+the motion by a turn of a hand wheel on the same shaft as the two
+pulleys. This wheel governs all the motions of the blades. The
+trough, which is set low, is tilted over, when the dough is ready,
+by an endless chain operated by a hand winch. The effort required
+for this operation is very slight, as the trough is balanced by two
+weights. The action of tilting does not interfere with the blades,
+which continue rotating until stopped by the hand wheel. The
+Universal kneader was designed to imitate as closely as possible the
+action of a pair of skilled human arms and hands, but of course
+works at a much greater speed.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of dough mixer which is extensively used consists
+simply of a drum made of sheet steel supported by two A-shaped
+standards at a sufficient height from the floor to allow a trough to be
+run underneath to receive the dough when ready for the moulding
+board. In this drum are two tight-fitting doors. The interior is
+fitted with no blades or knives, but presents a free cylindrical space,
+with the sole exception that, set not very far from the circumference,
+there are several fixed rods passing from one side of the drum to the
+other. These act as mixers of the dough. The door is opened and
+the flour and water poured in, whereupon the door is again fastened
+and the drum is made to rotate. As the rotation proceeds, the
+dough begins to form, and being lifted up by the revolving drum
+falls by its own weight. In this process, which is repeated again and
+again, the dough is caught by and tumbled over by the rods, which
+act as mixers and take the place of the revolving arms of the trough
+kneader. The kneading action of the rotating arms is absent, but
+the steady tumbling over these rods appears to have a thorough
+mixing effect, and the dough is discharged from the drum in good
+condition for moulding. The time occupied for making a dough by
+this apparatus varies from four to six minutes. The advantages
+claimed for this machine are that it consumes comparatively little
+power, and that there is not so much danger of &ldquo;felling&rdquo; or over-kneading
+dough as in some of the machines with revolving blades.
+The compactness of this rotating drum mixer, often known as the
+Rotary mixer, recommends it on shipboard and in other places
+where space is limited.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier days of machine bakeries the accurate dividing of
+dough, and still more the moulding of loaves by mechanical means,
+was considered an unattainable ideal. The first step in
+this direction was made by the Lewis-Pointon dough
+<span class="sidenote">Dough dividers and moulders.</span>
+divider and weigher, which was intended for dividing and
+weighing out dough ready for the moulding table. In an
+ordinary way a baker who wishes to bake a batch of half-quartern
+or 2-&#8468; loaves scales off 2 &#8468; 2 oz. of dough for each loaf.
+The 2 oz. are a sort of insurance against light weight. The evaporation
+of moisture from dough in the oven is bound to reduce to some
+extent the weight of the baked loaf, but with normally baked bread,
+2 &#8468; 2 oz. in the case of half-quarterns, and 4 &#8468; 4 oz. in the case of
+quartern loaves, is sufficient to ensure full weight. As the accurate
+scaling of dough requires some pains and trouble, it would be surprising
+if hand scaling were always accurate. The Lewis-Pointon
+machine can, it is claimed, be set to turn out lumps of dough of the
+exact weight required either for 1-&#8468;, 2-&#8468;, or 4-&#8468; loaves. The
+apparatus does not measure the dough by weight but by volume
+by an ingenious piston arrangement. The machine when first put
+on the market was a little complicated, but its mechanism has since
+been simplified. It has been successfully worked on doughs of all
+descriptions, ranging from the tightest to those made with 20
+gallons of water to the sack. The same firm which brought out this
+dough divider has also produced a dough-moulding machine, which
+has a wide range of work. In this apparatus the dough is introduced
+between a trough and a revolving table at a point on the outer
+periphery of the latter. The order of things observed in hand
+moulding is here reversed, as the trough, unlike the hand, is fixed,
+while the table revolves around a vertical axis. This table is sharply
+coned, and can be made to work the dough as much or as little as
+may be required. In working dough for tin or Coburg loaves only
+one trough is used, but for cottage loaves two parallel troughs are
+fitted, one taking the lower and the other the upper half of the loaf.
+In the latter case, a single piece of dough is fed into the machine
+and passed through an automatic splitter, the two portions being
+automatically carried into the troughs and simultaneously delivered
+at the other side of the machine ready to be put together. With
+doughs which require &ldquo;handing-up,&rdquo; two machines may be used
+for moulding, the dough being automatically fed from the divider
+to the handing-up machine, and after a short proof passed through
+the finisher. But the moulding machine may also be used as a
+&ldquo;hander-up.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another ingenious dough moulder, known as the Baker-Callow,
+works on a rather different principle. Here the pieces of dough
+coming from the divider are fed into the moulder by a canvas band,
+and are worked between a large cylindrical roller and a vertically
+running canvas and leather belt. To prevent pieces from dropping
+through, and to assist the moulding process, a smaller roller is
+placed under and between the cylindrical roller and canvas belt.
+A wooden puncher also assists in working the loaves, which are
+finished by being rolled between a band and a special shaped wooden
+moulding. This machine delivers the dough in spherical shaped
+pieces. If intended for cottage bread they are at once placed on
+the dough table at the side, and one piece is put on the top of the
+other ready for the oven. It is claimed the machine will deal equally
+well with large and small pieces at the same time, so that the tops
+and bottoms can be made together. Should the machine be intended
+for tinned bread, a special attachment is used, into which the
+spherical pieces are delivered from the machine and rolled into
+cylindrical shapes, ready to be dropped into the pan. A capacity of
+sixty loaves per minute is claimed for this moulder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovens.</i>&mdash;The ordinary baker&rsquo;s oven is a vaulted chamber, about
+10 ft. in length, by 8 ft. in width and 30 in. in height; it is constructed
+of brick or stone, and has a small door in front through which the
+oven is charged (by means of a &ldquo;peel&rdquo; or long wooden shovel) and
+the batch withdrawn. The furnace and fire-grate are often placed
+at the side of the oven door, but with the oldest ovens, which were
+heated by wood, there generally was only one door for the fuel and
+for the bread. Whether the furnace is heated by coal, as is usual in
+England, or by coke, as is often the case in Scotland, the oven
+mouth remains in the bakehouse itself; hence the stoking and
+scuffling must be carried out within the bakehouse. This is in many
+ways objectionable. For one thing, the fuel must almost of necessity
+be kept in the bakehouse itself, and it is obvious that the products
+of combustion are liable to get into the oven. In the old type of
+oven a flue was frequently placed on the other side of the furnace
+door, both furnace and flue being on the front of the oven. After
+firing the furnace, the oven is allowed to &ldquo;lie down&rdquo; for a certain
+time, and secure an even distribution of heat. The furnace and flue
+are then shut, and the oven charged, the batch being baked by the
+heat stored within the oven chamber. With ovens of this type,
+each batch of bread requires a separate firing. This kind of oven
+has undergone several improvements of detail, but the principle of
+internal heating, that is, of firing the furnace inside the bakehouse,
+has remained unchanged.</p>
+
+<p>A new era in bakers&rsquo; ovens began about the middle of the 19th
+century with the introduction of the &ldquo;Perkins&rdquo; oven, a system
+which, with slight modifications, has persisted till to-day. In this
+oven the baking chamber is heated by steam pipes. The latter
+consist of tubes of iron or mild steel which are partly filled with
+water and are hermetically sealed by welded ends. The pipes are
+arranged in two parallel rows, the one at the crown and the other
+at the sole of the oven. The pipes project at one end into the furnace,
+which is set at the back of the oven and is usually outside the bakehouse.
+This is termed an externally heated oven. As the ends of
+the pipes get red hot the water is converted into superheated steam,
+which being under high pressure soon raises the chamber to baking
+heat, say 450° to 500° F. In an oven of this description the heat
+can be continuously maintained, and batch after batch can be baked
+without refiring. The only drawback is that a flash heat cannot be
+raised. In another type of externally fired oven the heat is conveyed
+by flues placed at the bottom and top of the oven, which discharge
+into a chimney. Excellent results have been attained with ovens
+of this kind. The distribution of the heat can be well regulated;
+for instance, it is quite possible to build ovens to be cooler at the
+back than front, an arrangement which is useful when the bread is
+withdrawn by means of a hand peel. As the baker has to withdraw
+each loaf one at a time, it is clear that the withdrawal of the batch
+through the oven door must take time, probably not less than
+half-an-hour.
+Hence the bread drawn from near the oven&rsquo;s mouth may
+be underbaked as compared with that at the back of the chamber. The
+latter, on the other hand, may be overbaked and deficient in weight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span></p>
+
+<p>By means of a draw-plate, however, an oven can be expeditiously
+charged. This appliance consists of a sliding plate or tray, mounted
+on wheels running on rails, which is drawn out of the oven loaded
+with bread, and then returned. The plate itself is often made of
+iron, but one well-known oven is fitted with a withdrawable iron
+frame, in which are laid, edge to edge, tiles of a special make, which
+are cemented in place, and form a continuous baking surface. This
+seems an excellent arrangement, as the baker has all the advantages
+of a brick oven, that is to say, his bread is baked both on top and
+bottom by heat evolved from tiled surfaces, and the undoubted
+drawbacks incidental to baking bread on an iron surface are avoided.
+A draw-plate fitted to an oven capable of baking a batch made from
+a sack (280 &#8468;) of flour can be run out, charged and run in again, in
+about two minutes. The draw-plate has the incidental advantage,
+by expediting the loading and discharge of the oven, of ensuring a
+more uniform baking of the batch, and therefore of minimizing the
+loss of weight. Some bakers have gone so far as to estimate the
+saving in this respect from the use of a draw-plate at half an ounce
+per 2-lb loaf. With decker ovens a double draw-plate may be used,
+the feet of the pedestal supporting the upper draw-plate running
+on a rail outside, but parallel to the rail on which the lower draw-plate
+runs. This arrangement, however, is more applicable to small
+than large ovens. Or the lower oven may be fitted with a draw-plate
+while the upper oven is served with a peel. The draw-plate being at
+a lower level than the sole of an ordinary oven, the upper deck may
+be worked with a peel without much difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>decker</i> oven is, as its name implies, an oven built over another
+oven: in fact, sometimes a tier of three ovens is employed, placed
+one above the other. The object is to secure a double or treble baking
+surface without a very much larger outlay on fuel than would be
+necessary for one oven. It is easy to understand that a double or
+three decker oven might be constructed under conditions where it
+would be impossible to place two or three ordinary ovens side by side.
+Practical bakers are somewhat divided as to the actual economy of
+the decker system; possibly it is a question of management. The
+upper oven is heated by the gases which have passed under the oven
+beneath. A double-decker oven on the flue principle could be heated
+by three flues, one beneath the lower oven, another passing between
+the crown of the lower and the sole of the top oven, and the third
+over the crown of the upper oven. If a third oven were built over
+the second, then a fourth flue would pass over the crown of the third
+and top oven. In such an arrangement of flues the distribution of
+heat to the ovens would be fairly equal, but no doubt the lower
+oven would be the hottest. In addition to the flues, which should be
+straight and accessible for cleaning, there ought also to be auxiliary
+flues by which heat may be allowed to pass dampers to the upper
+portions of the series of ovens. In this way the heat of the upper
+oven or ovens can be regulated independently to a great extent of
+the bottom oven. The power of regulating the heat of the ovens
+is very necessary, because a baker doing what is called a mixed trade,
+that is to say, producing cakes and pastry in addition to bread, must
+work his ovens at varying temperatures. Cakes cannot be baked at
+the heat (about 450° F.) required by a batch of household bread.
+The richest fancy goods, such as wedding and Christmas cakes,
+require the coolest ovens. Flue ovens are best worked with coke,
+as coal is apt to choke the flues; retort coke is recommended in
+place of oven coke. An oven should be fitted with some kind of
+thermal register, and both high-temperature thermometers and
+pyrometers are used for this purpose.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. F. Z.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (<i>c.</i> 1636-1717),
+son of Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, Bart., and of the
+Lady Mary Graham, daughter of William, earl of Airth and
+Menteith, was born about 1636. He took part in the abortive
+royalist rising under Glencairn in 1654, and was one of those who
+urged Monk to declare a free parliament in England to facilitate
+the restoration. He sat in the Scottish parliament as member for
+Argyllshire from 1669 to 1674. As principal creditor he obtained
+in October 1672, from George, 6th earl of Caithness, a conveyance
+of his dignities, lands and heritable jurisdictions; and after the
+latter&rsquo;s death he was created on the 28th of June 1677 earl of
+Caithness and viscount of Breadalbane. In 1678 he married
+the widowed countess of Caithness, an economical step which
+saved him the alimentary provision of 12,000 merks a year he
+had covenanted to pay. In 1680 he invaded Caithness with a
+band of 700 men and defeated and dispossessed the earl&rsquo;s heir
+male. The latter, however, was subsequently confirmed in his
+lands and titles, and Campbell on the 13th of August 1681
+obtained a new patent with the precedency of the former one,
+creating him earl of Breadalbane and Holland, viscount of Tay
+and Paintland, Lord Glenorchy, Benederaloch, Ormelie and
+Weick in the peerage of Scotland, with special power to nominate
+his successor from among the sons of his first wife. In 1685
+he was a member of the Scottish privy council. Though nominally
+a Presbyterian he had assisted the intolerant and despotic
+government of Lauderdale in 1678 with 1700 men. He is
+described as having &ldquo;neither honour nor religion but where
+they are mixed with interest,&rdquo; as of &ldquo;fair complexion, of the
+gravity of the Spaniard, cunning as a Fox, wise as a Serpent and
+supple as an Eel.&rdquo;<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He was reputed the best headpiece in Scotland.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+His influence, owing to his position and abilities, was
+greater than that of any man in Scotland after Argyll, and it
+was of high moment to King William to gain him and obtain
+his services in conciliating the Highlanders. Breadalbane at
+first carried on communications with Dundee and was implicated
+in the royalist intrigue called the &ldquo;Montgomery plot,&rdquo; but after
+the battle of Killiecrankie in July 1689 he made overtures to the
+government, subsequently took the oath of allegiance, and was
+entrusted with a large sum of money by the government to secure
+the submission of the clans. On the 30th of June 1691 he met
+the Jacobite chiefs and concluded with them secret articles by
+which they undertook to refrain from acts of hostility till October,
+gaining their consent by threats and promises rather than by the
+distribution of the money entrusted to him, the greater part of
+which, it was believed, he retained himself. When asked to give
+an account of the expenditure he replied: &ldquo;The money is spent,
+the Highlands are quiet, and this is the only way of accounting
+between friends.&rdquo;<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>On the 27th of August a proclamation was issued offering
+indemnity to all those who should submit and take the oath of
+allegiance before the 1st of January 1692, and threatening all
+those who should refuse with a military execution and the
+penalties of treason. All the chiefs took the oath except MacIan,
+the chief of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, who postponed his
+submission till the 31st of December, and was then prevented
+from taking the oath till the 6th of January 1692 through the
+absence of a magistrate at Fort William, whither he had repaired
+for the purpose. This irregularity gave Breadalbane an
+immediate opportunity of destroying the clan of thieves which
+had for generations lived by plundering his lands and those of
+his neighbours. Accordingly, together with Argyll and Sir John
+Dalrymple (afterwards Lord Stair), Breadalbane organized the
+atrocious crime known as the &ldquo;Massacre of Glencoe,&rdquo; when the
+unfortunate MacDonalds, deceived by assurances of friendship,
+and at the moment when they were lavishing their hospitality
+upon their murderers, were butchered in cold blood on the 13th
+of February 1692. Breadalbane&rsquo;s astuteness, however, prevented
+the disclosure of any evidence against him in the inquiry afterwards
+instituted in 1695, beyond the deposition of a person who
+professed to have been sent on Breadalbane&rsquo;s behalf to obtain
+a declaration of his innocence from MacIan&rsquo;s sons, who had
+escaped. The discovery of his former negotiations with the
+Jacobite chiefs caused his imprisonment in Edinburgh Castle
+in September, but he was released when it was known that he had
+been acting with William&rsquo;s knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Breadalbane did not vote for the Union in 1707, but was chosen
+a representative peer in the parliament of Great Britain of 1713-1715.
+His co-operation with the English government in securing
+the temporary submission of the Highlands was inspired by no
+real loyalty or allegiance, and he encouraged the attempted
+French descent in 1708, refusing, however, to commit himself
+to paper. On the occasion of the Jacobite rising in 1715 he
+excused himself on the 19th of September from obeying the
+summons to appear at Edinburgh on the ground of his age and
+infirmities; but nevertheless the next day visited Mar&rsquo;s camp
+at Logierait and afterwards the camp at Perth, his real business
+being, according to the Master of Sinclair, &ldquo;to trick others,
+not to be trickt,&rdquo; and to obtain a share of the French subsidies.
+He had taken money for the whole 1200 men he had promised and
+only sent 300. His 300 men were withdrawn after the battle
+of Sheriffmuir, and his death, which took place on the 19th of
+March 1717, rendered unnecessary any inquiry into his conduct.
+He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry Rich, 1st earl of Holland,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span>
+by whom he had two sons, Duncan, styled Lord Ormelie, who was
+passed over in the succession, and John, and earl of Breadalbane;
+(2) Mary, daughter of Archibald, marquis of Argyll, and widow
+of George, 6th earl of Caithness, by whom he had one son,
+Colin. By Mrs Mildred Littler, who has sometimes but probably
+in error been named as his third wife, he had a daughter, Mary.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">John Campbell</span>, 2nd earl of Breadalbane (1662-1752), an
+eccentric nobleman, who was known as &ldquo;Old Rag,&rdquo; was succeeded
+by his only son, John (<i>c.</i> 1696-1782). This earl was a
+diplomatist, being British ambassador to Denmark and to
+Russia, and a politician, being for a long time a member of the
+House of Commons and a supporter of Sir Robert Walpole,
+in addition to holding several official positions. All his sons
+having predeceased their father, the title passed on his death,
+on the 26th of January 1782, to a cousin, John (1762-1834),
+who became 4th earl and was created a British peer as marquess
+of Breadalbane in 1831. His son John, the 2nd marquess (1796-1862),
+a prominent leader of the Free Church during the ecclesiastical
+disputes in Scotland, died without sons in November 1862.
+The marquessate now became extinct, but the Scottish earldom
+passed to a cousin John Alexander (1824-1871), whose son and
+successor, Gavin (b. 1851), was created marquess of Breadalbane
+in 1885.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Memoirs</i> of John Macky (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 121.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Corr. of Col. N. Hooke</i> (Roxburghe, Club, 1870), i. 49.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a>  Note by Sir W. Scott in Sinclair&rsquo;s <i>Mem. of Insurrection in
+Scotland</i> (Abbotsford Club, 1858), 185.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREADALBANE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span>, a large district of Perthshire, Scotland,
+bordered N. by Atholl, E. by Strathtay, S. by Strathearn and
+W. by the districts of Argyll and Lorne, and occupying some
+1020 sq. m. Most of the surface is mountainous, Ben Lawers
+(3984 ft.), Ben More (3843), and Ben Lui (3708), being the principal
+hills. Loch Tay is the chief lake, and among the rivers are
+the Orchy, Dochart, Lochay, Lyon, Almond and the Tay (during
+the early part of its course). Population mostly centres in
+Aberfeldy, Fortingal, Kenmore and Killin. The soil is not
+cultivable excepting in some of the glens and straths. Game
+is plentiful, the lakes and rivers afford good sport, and the deer
+forests and shootings are valuable. The district has given the
+titles of earl and marquess to the Campbells of Glenorchy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREAD-FRUIT<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span>. This most important food staple of the
+tropical islands in the Pacific Ocean is the fruit of <i>Artocarpus
+incisa</i> (nat. ord. Moraceae). The tree attains a moderate height,
+has very large, acutely lobed, glossy leaves, the male flowers
+in spikes, and the female flowers in a dense head, which by consolidation
+of their fleshy carpels and receptacles form the fruit.
+The fruit is globular in shape, about the size of a melon, with a
+tuberculated or (in some varieties) nearly smooth surface. Many
+varieties of the tree are cultivated, the fruits of some ripening
+numerous seeds, which are eaten as chestnuts; but in the best
+kinds the seeds are aborted, and it is only these that are highly
+prized as vegetables. The tree is a native of the South Sea
+Islands, where its fruit occupies the important position that is
+held by cereals in temperate latitudes. The fruit, which on distinct
+varieties ripens at different periods, affording a nearly
+constant supply throughout the year, is gathered for use just
+before it ripens, when it is found to be gorged with starchy
+matter, to which its esculent value is due. It may be cooked
+and prepared for use in a great variety of ways, the common
+practice in the South Sea Islands being to bake it entire in hot
+embers, and scoop out the interior, which when properly cooked
+should have a soft smooth consistence, fibrous only towards
+the heart, with a taste which has been compared to that of
+boiled potatoes and sweet milk. Of this fruit A.R. Wallace,
+in his <i>Malay Archipelago</i>, says: &ldquo;With meat and gravy it is a
+vegetable superior to anything I know either in temperate or
+tropical countries. With sugar, milk, butter or treacle it is a
+delicious pudding, having a very slight and delicate but characteristic
+flavour, which, like that of good bread and potatoes, one
+never gets tired of.&rdquo; In the Pacific Islands the fruit is preserved
+for use by storing in pits, where the fruits ferment and resolve
+themselves into a mass similar in consistency to new cheese,
+in which state they emit an offensive odour; but after baking
+under hot stones they yield a pleasant and nutritious food.
+Another and more common method of preserving the fruit
+for use consists in cutting it into thin slices, which are dried
+in the sun. From such dried slices a flour is prepared which is
+useful for the preparation of puddings, bread and biscuits, or
+the slices are baked and eaten without grinding. The tree
+yields other products of economic value, such as native cloth
+from the fibrous inner bark of young trees; the wood is used
+for canoes and articles of furniture; and a kind of glue and
+caulking material are obtained from the viscid milky juice
+which exudes from incisions made in the stem.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:527px; height:647px" src="images/img474.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>Artocarpus incisa</i>, the Bread-fruit tree.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>Fig. 1. Branch reduced about a 6th
+natural size, with cuneate-ovate
+pinnatifid leaves, male flowers in a
+club-shaped deciduous catkin, and
+female flowers in rounded clusters.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 2. Transverse section of the
+male spike with numerous flowers.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 3. Male flowers.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 4. Single male flower separated,
+with a perianth in 2 segments and
+a single stamen.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>Fig. 5. Female flowers.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 6. Single female flower
+separated, with ovary,
+style and bifid stigma.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 7. Ovary.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 8. Ovary laid open to
+show the ovule.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 9. A variety of the ovary
+with 2 loculaments.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 10. Transverse section of
+a bilocular ovary.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The bread-fruit is found throughout the tropical regions of
+both hemispheres, and its first introduction into the West Indies
+is connected with the famous mutiny of the &ldquo;Bounty,&rdquo; and the
+remarkable history of a small company of the mutineers at
+Pitcairn Island. Attention was directed to the fruit in 1688 by
+Captain Dampier, and later by Captain Cook, who recommended
+its transplantation to the West Indian colonies. In 1787 the
+&ldquo;Bounty&rdquo; was fitted out under command of Lieutenant
+William Bligh (<i>q.v.</i>) to proceed to Tahiti to carry plants thence
+to the West Indian Islands; and it was after the cargo had been
+secured and the vessel was on her way that the mutiny broke
+out, and Lieutenant Bligh and some of his crew were turned
+adrift in a small boat in the open sea. The mutineers returned
+with the vessel to Tahiti, whence a number of them, with a few
+native men and women, sailed to the desolate and lone islet of
+Pitcairn. Lieutenant Bligh ultimately reached England, and was
+again commissioned to undertake the work of transplanting the
+plants, which in the year 1792-1793 he successfully accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat similar but inferior fruit is produced by an allied
+species, the Jack or Jak, <i>Artocarpus integrifolia</i>, growing in
+India, Ceylon and the Eastern Archipelago. The large fruit
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span>
+is from 12 to 18 in. long by 6 to 8 in. in diameter, and is much
+eaten by the natives in India. This tree is chiefly valuable on
+account of its timber, which has a grain very similar to mahogany,
+and although at first light-coloured it gradually assumes much
+of the appearance of that wood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREAKING BULK<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span>, a nautical term for the taking out of a
+portion of the cargo of a ship, or the beginning to unload; and
+used in a legal sense for taking anything out of a package or
+parcel, or in any way destroying its entirety. It was thus
+important in connexion with the subject of bailment, involving
+as it did the curious distinction that where a bailee received
+possession of goods in a box or package, and then sold them as a
+whole, he was guilty only of a breach of trust, but if he &ldquo;broke
+bulk&rdquo; or caused a separation of the goods, and sold a part or
+all, he was guilty of felony. This distinction was abolished by
+the Larceny Act 1861, which enacted that whoever, being a
+bailee of any chattel, money or valuable security, should fraudulently
+take or convert the same to his own use, or the use of any
+person other than the owner, although he should not break bulk
+or otherwise determine the bailment, should be guilty of larceny
+(s. 3).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREAKWATER.<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> When a harbour (<i>q.v.</i>) is proposed to be
+established on an exposed coast, whether for naval or commercial
+purposes, to provide a protected approach to a port or river,
+or to serve as a refuge for vessels from storms, the necessary
+shelter, so far as it is not naturally furnished by a bay or projecting
+headlands, has to be secured by the construction of one or
+more &ldquo;breakwaters.&rdquo; These breakwaters, having to prevent
+the waves that beat upon the coast from reaching the site which
+they are designed to protect, must be made sufficiently strong
+to withstand the shocks of the waves during the worst storms
+to which they are exposed. It is therefore essential, before
+constructing a breakwater, to investigate most carefully the
+force, periods and duration of the winds from the quarters to
+which the work will be exposed, the distance of any sheltering
+land from the site in the most stormy direction, the slope of the
+beach and the depth of the sea in the neighbourhood of the
+shore, and the protection, if any, afforded by outlying shoals
+or sandbanks. In a tidal sea, the height required for a breakwater
+is affected by the amount of tidal range; and the extent
+of breakwater exposed to breaking waves depends upon the
+difference in level between low and high water. The existence,
+also, of any drift of sand or shingle along the shore must be
+ascertained, and its extent; for the projection of a solid breakwater
+out from the shore is certain to affect this littoral drift,
+which, if large in amount, may necessitate important modifications
+in the design for the harbour.</p>
+
+<p>Observations of the force and prevalence of the winds from the
+different quarters at the various periods of the year, and the
+instruments by which they are recorded, belong to the
+science of meteorology; but such records are very
+<span class="sidenote">Winds.</span>
+valuable to the maritime engineer in indicating from which
+directions, open to the sea, the worst storms, and, consequently,
+the greatest waves, may be expected, and against which the most
+efficient shelter has to be provided. Moreover, it is necessary,
+for constructing or repairing a breakwater, to know the period
+of the year when the calmest weather may be safely anticipated,
+and also the stormy season during which no work should be
+attempted, and in preparation for which unfinished works have
+to be guarded by protective measures. In the parts of the
+world subject to periodical winds, such as the monsoons, the
+direction and force of the winds vary with remarkable regularity
+according to the seasons; and even such uncertain occurrences
+as hurricanes and cyclones generally visit the regions in their
+track at definite periods of the year, according to the locality.
+Even in western Europe, where the winds are extremely variable,
+violent gales are much more liable to beat upon the western and
+northern coasts in the winter months than at any other period
+of the year; whilst the calmest weather may be expected
+between May and August.</p>
+
+<p>The size of waves depends upon the force of the wind, and the
+distance along which it blows continuously, in approximately
+the same direction, over a large expanse of ocean. The greatest
+waves are, accordingly, encountered where the maximum distance
+<span class="sidenote">Waves.</span>
+in a certain direction from the nearest land, or, as it is
+termed, the &ldquo;fetch,&rdquo; coincides with the line travelled
+by the strongest gales. The dimensions, indeed, of waves in
+the worst storms depend primarily on the extent of the sea in
+which they are raised; though in certain seas they are occasionally
+greatly increased by the exceptional velocities attained by
+hurricanes and typhoons, which, however, are fortunately
+restricted to fairly well defined and limited regions. Waves
+have been found to attain a maximum height of about 10 ft.
+in the Lake of Geneva, 17 ft. in the Mediterranean Sea, 23 ft. in
+the Bay of Biscay, and 40 ft. in the Atlantic Ocean; whilst
+waves of 50 to 60 ft. in height have been observed in the Pacific
+Ocean off the Cape of Good Hope, where the expanse of sea
+reaches a maximum, and the exposure to gales is complete. The
+length of large waves bears no definite relation to their height,
+and is apparently due, in the long waves often observed in
+exposed situations, to the combination of several shorter waves
+in their onward course, which is naturally dependent on the
+extent of the exposure. Thus waves about 560 ft. in length
+have been met with during severe gales in the Atlantic Ocean;
+whilst waves from 600 to 1000 ft. long are regarded as of common
+occurrence in the Pacific Ocean during storms.</p>
+
+<p>The rate of transmission of the undulation also varies with
+the exposure; for the ordinary velocity of the apparent travel
+of waves in storms has been found to amount to about 22 m.
+an hour in the Atlantic Ocean, and to attain about 27 m. an hour
+off Cape Horn. The large waves, however, observed in mid-ocean
+do not reach the coast, because their progress is checked, and
+their height and length reduced, by encountering the shelving
+sea-bottom, which diminishes the depth of water on approaching
+the shore; and the actual waves which have to be arrested by
+breakwaters depend on the exposure of the site, the existence
+of continuous deep water close up to the shore, and the depth
+in which the breakwater is situated. On the other hand, the
+height, and, consequently, the destructive force of waves, is
+increased on running up a funnel-shaped bay, by the increasing
+concentration of the waves in the narrowing width, just as the
+tidal range of a moderate tidal current is much augmented by
+its passage up the Bay of Fundy, or up the Bristol Channel into
+the Severn estuary, or by filling the shallow enclosed bay of
+St Malo. This effect is intensified when the bay faces the
+direction of the strongest winds. Thus at Wick a mass of
+masonry weighing 1350 tons, placed at the head of the breakwater
+projecting half-way across the bay and facing the entrance,
+was moved by the waves during a violent storm; and a portion
+of Peterhead breakwater, weighing 3300 tons, was shifted 2 in.
+in 1898, indicating a wave-stroke of 2 tons per sq. ft. Southwesterly
+gales, blowing up the Gulf of Genoa, cause large waves
+to roll into the bay, reaching a height of about 21 ft. in the
+worst storms.</p>
+
+<p>Where outlying sandbanks stretch in front of a coast, as for
+instance the Stroombank in front of Ostend and the adjacent
+shore, and the sandbanks opposite Yarmouth sheltering Yarmouth
+Roads, large waves cannot approach the land, for they
+break on the sandbanks outside. Waves, indeed, always break
+when, on running up a shoaling beach, they reach a depth
+approximately equal to their height; and the largest waves
+which can reach a shore protected by intervening sandbanks,
+are those which are low enough to pass over the banks without
+breaking.</p>
+
+<p>The force of the wind, as transmitted by degrees to the sea,
+is manifested as a series of progressing undulations without any
+material displacement of the body of water, each undulation
+transmitting its accumulated force to the next in the direction
+the wind is blowing, till at last, on encountering an obstacle to
+its onward course, each wave, no longer finding any water to
+which to communicate its energy, deals a blow against the
+obstacle proportionate to its size and rate of transmission; or
+on reaching shoal water near the shore, the undulation is finally
+transformed into a breaking wave rushing up the sloping beach.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span>
+till, on its energy being spent, it recoils back to the sea down the
+beach. A breaking wave concentrates its transmitted force on
+a portion of the water forming the undulation, which, consequently,
+strikes a more powerful blow over a limited area
+against any structure than the more distributed shock of a
+simple undulation beating against a vertical wall. Moreover,
+the recoil of broken waves down a sloping beach or rubble
+mound produces a greater scour than the simple reflection of an
+undulation from a vertical wall, especially where the depth is
+sufficient to provide a cushion of water below the undulation,
+protecting the toe of the wall from the wash of recoil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Types of Breakwaters</i>.&mdash;There are three distinct types of
+breakwaters:&mdash;(1) A simple rubble or concrete-block mound;
+(2) a mound for the bottom portion, surmounted on the top
+by a solid superstructure of masonry or concrete; and (3) an
+upright-wall breakwater, built up solid from the sea-bottom to
+the top. The second type forms a sort of combination of the
+first and third types; and each type presents several varieties.
+In a few harbours, two different types have been adopted for
+different situations at the same place; but generally the choice
+of type is determined by the materials available at the site for
+the construction of the breakwater, the nature of the sea-bottom
+and the depth into which the breakwater has to be carried.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Rubble and Concrete-Block Mound Breakwaters.</i>&mdash;A rubble
+mound consists merely of a mass of rubble stone, just as it is obtained
+from a neighbouring quarry, tipped into the sea along a
+predetermined line, till the mound emerges out of water.
+<span class="sidenote">Rubble mound.</span>
+The rubble stone is deposited, either from barges, as
+adopted for the construction of the detached breakwater sheltering
+Plymouth Bay, or from wagons, having hinged opening flaps at the
+bottom for dropping their load, run out from the shore along staging
+erected in the proposed line, according to the method employed for
+the outer breakwater enclosing Portland Harbour, and the north-east
+breakwater at Colombo Harbour. The mound thus deposited is
+gradually consolidated under the action of the sea; and a tolerably
+stable form is by degrees attained by continued deposits of stone.
+This system of construction is very wasteful of materials, and can
+only be resorted to where extensive quarries close at hand are able
+to furnish readily and cheaply very large quantities of stone, especially
+where, as at Portland and Table Bay, convict labour has been
+advantageously utilized in quarrying. When the site is very exposed,
+the large waves in storms, dashing over a rubble-mound breakwater,
+carry the stones on the top, if unprotected, over on to the harbour
+slope, and in recoiling down the outer slope, draw down the stones
+on the face, so that the top and sea slope of the mound need replenishing
+with a fresh deposit of stones after severe storms.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:805px; height:152px" src="images/img476a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Table Bay Breakwater</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Under the action of the breaking and recoiling waves, the mound
+assumes a very flat slope on the sea side, from a few feet above high-water
+down to several feet below low-wafer level (fig. 1). The flatness
+of the sea slope depends on the exposure of the site, and the limited
+size of the stones covering the outer portion of the mound; and
+its extent increases with the range of tide, as a large tidal rise exposes
+a greater length of slope to the action of the waves. This flattening
+of the sea slope greatly increases the amount of stone required for
+a rubble-mound breakwater, in proportion to the exposure and the
+range of tide; and the amount is also affected, but in a proportionately
+minor degree, by the depth in which the breakwater is situated.
+In order to avoid the injuries to which an ordinary rubble mound is
+subjected by waves, certain methods have been devised for protecting
+the top and sea slope of the mound. For instance, the upper portion
+of Plymouth breakwater has been covered over by granite paving
+set in cement, to diminish the displacement of the stones by the
+waves. Frequently, on the continent of Europe, rubble mounds
+have been formed of materials so sorted that the smallest stones are
+placed in the centre of the lower part of the mound, and covered
+over along the slopes and top by layers of larger stones, increasing
+in size towards the outer part of the mound, so that the largest stones
+obtainable are deposited on the outside, and especially on the top
+and sea slope of the mound. This is, no doubt, theoretically the
+correct method of construction of rubble mounds exposed to the
+sea; but it involves a considerable amount of trouble and expense.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:321px; height:146px" src="images/img476b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Alexandria Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Practically the chief point of importance is to cover the outer slope
+and the top of the mound with the largest stones that can be procured,
+and where large stones are not readily obtainable
+concrete blocks furnish a very convenient substitute.
+<span class="sidenote">Concrete blocks with rubble mound.</span>
+These blocks are generally deposited as the outer covering
+on the top and sea slope of a rubble mound, as for example
+at the mound breakwaters in deep water sheltering Algiers
+harbour, and at the French parts of Cette and Bona on
+the Mediterranean; whilst they furnish the protection of the top
+and upper part of the sea slope of the rubble-mound extension of
+Marseilles breakwater down to 20 ft. below sea-level. At Alexandria,
+concrete blocks compose the outer half of the mound, sheltering
+the inner half consisting of small rubble (fig. 2); at Biarritz the
+mound breakwater is
+formed mainly of concrete
+blocks, with rubble
+stone filling the interstices
+and on the top;
+whereas at the outer end
+of the western breakwater
+at Port Said, protecting
+the entrance to
+the Suez Canal, a bottom
+layer of rubble is surmounted
+by concrete
+blocks. These blocks are generally deposited at random; but at
+Cette (fig. 3), and at the breakwater in deep water at Civita Vecchia,
+the concrete blocks covering the rubble have been laid in stepped,
+horizontal courses. This arrangement necessitates more care and
+better appliances in construction; but, in compensation, the blocks
+so placed are less exposed to disturbance and injury by the waves.</p>
+
+<p>Concrete blocks possess the great advantages for breakwaters
+that they can be made wherever sand and shingle can be procured,
+and of a size only limited by the appliances which are available for
+handling them. In fact, in places where stone of any kind is difficult
+to procure at a reasonable cost, as for instance at Port Said, concrete
+blocks are indispensable for the construction of breakwaters. Large
+concrete blocks, moreover, by enabling a comparatively steep slope
+to be formed with them on the sea side of a mound breakwater,
+reduce considerably the amount of materials required, especially
+at exposed sites, and also for breakwaters extended into deep water,
+such as those of Algiers and Marseilles.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:133px" src="images/img476c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Cette Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:111px" src="images/img476d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span>4.&mdash;Port Said Western Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Occasionally, in the absence of suitable rubble stone, a mound
+breakwater has been formed
+entirely with concrete blocks;
+and of this the main
+portion of the western
+breakwater at Port
+Said furnishes a
+notable example (fig. 4). Sometimes,
+in exposed situations, the
+mounds of the composite type
+<span class="sidenote">Concrete block mound.</span>
+of breakwaters have been constructed
+exclusively with concrete
+blocks, such, for instance,
+as in the curved breakwater
+protecting the outer harbour at Leghorn, and in the central breakwater
+in deep water sheltering the harbour of St Jean de Luz, and
+directly facing the Bay of Biscay. These large concrete blocks are
+deposited by cranes from staging, tipped into the sea from a sloping
+platform on barges, or floated out between pontoons, or slung out
+from floating derricks. This last method proved so expeditious
+for the upper blocks at
+Alexandria, that, in conjunction
+with the tipping
+of the lower blocks from
+the inclined planes on the
+decks of barges and the
+deposit of the rubble from
+hopper barges, provided
+also with side flaps for the
+higher portions, the detached
+breakwater, nearly 2 m. long, sheltering a very spacious
+harbour, was constructed in two years (1870-1872). Sometimes,
+when a mound breakwater has been raised out of water, advantage
+is taken of a calm period of the year and a low tide to form large
+blocks of concrete within timber framing on the top of the mound,
+so as to provide a very efficient protection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span></p>
+
+<p>The large masses composing mound breakwaters give them great
+stability against the attacks of the sea; and, moreover, the wide
+base of the mounds enables them to be deposited on a sandy or silty
+sea-bottom, without any fear of settlement or undermining. A
+mound breakwater, however, has the disadvantages of requiring a
+large amount of material, and of occupying a wide space on the bed
+of the sea, more especially where the mound consists of rubble
+stone and is in deep water, so that the system, though simple, is
+costly, and is unsuited for harbours where the available space to be
+sheltered is limited. Nevertheless, a mound breakwater can be
+rapidly constructed by the employment of a large number of barges;
+and by the adoption of large concrete blocks, the quantity of
+materials and the space occupied by the mound can be considerably
+reduced. This form of breakwater, with its long outer slope exposed
+to breaking waves, particularly where the tidal range is considerable,
+is, indeed, more subject to frequent small injuries than the other
+types, but they are readily repaired; and a mound is not generally
+liable to the serious breaches which occasionally are formed in solid
+superstructures and upright walls in exceptional storms.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Breakwaters formed of a Mound surmounted by a Superstructure.</i>&mdash;The
+second type of breakwater consists of a mound, composed of
+rubble or concrete blocks, or generally a combination of the two,
+carried up from the sea-bottom, on the top of which some form of
+solid superstructure is erected. This superstructure reduces considerably
+the amount of materials required (which, on account of
+the slopes of the mound, increases rapidly with the height) in proportion
+to the depth at which the superstructure is founded; and
+the solid capping on the mound serves also to protect the top of the
+mound from the action of the waves. In the case, however, of a
+mound breakwater, portions of the highest waves generally pass
+over the top of the mound, and also to some extent expend their
+force in passing through the interstices between the blocks; whereas
+a superstructure presents a solid face to the impact of the waves.
+A superstructure, accordingly, must be very strongly built in
+proportion to the exposure, and also to the size of the waves liable
+to reach it, which depends upon the height and flatness of the slope
+of the mound just in front of it on the sea side. Special care, moreover,
+has to be taken to prevent the superstructure from being
+undermined; for the waves in storms, dashing up against this nearly
+vertical, solid obstacle, tend in their recoil down the face to scour
+out the materials of the mound at the outer toe of the superstructure,
+and thereby undermine it, especially where the superstructure is
+founded on the mound near low-water level, and there is, therefore,
+no adequate cushion of water above the mound to diminish the effect
+of the recoil on the foundation.</p>
+
+<p>The mound constituting the lower portion of the composite type
+of breakwater has been formed in the same varied way as simple
+mound breakwaters, namely, of rubble, sorted rubble, rubble
+protected by concrete blocks, and wholly of concrete blocks. The
+only differences introduced in the mound in this case are, that it is
+not carried up so high, that the top portion covered by the superstructure
+needs no further protection, and that special
+protection has to be provided on the slope of the
+mound adjacent to the outer toe of the superstructure.</p>
+
+<p>The forms of the superstructures exhibit considerable
+variations, ranging from a few concrete blocks
+laid in courses on the top of the mound, or
+a paving furnishing a quay protected by a
+narrow parapet wall on the sea side, up to
+a large, solid structure, only differing from an upright-wall
+<span class="sidenote">Superstructures.</span>
+breakwater in being founded upon a mound,
+instead of on the sea-bottom. Notwithstanding,
+however, this great variety in design, these breakwaters
+may be divided into two distinct classes,
+namely, breakwaters having their superstructures
+founded at or near low-water level, and breakwaters
+with superstructures founded some depth below low
+water. The object in the first case is to lay the foundations
+of the superstructure on the mound at the
+lowest level consistent with building a solid structure
+with blocks set in mortar, out of water, in the ordinary
+manner; and, in the second case, to stop the raising of the
+mound at such a depth under water as to secure it from displacement
+by the waves. In fact, the solidity and facility of
+construction of the superstructure were the primary considerations
+in the older form of breakwater; whereas the stability of the mound
+and the avoidance of the undermining of the superstructure have
+been regarded as the most important provisions in the more modern
+form.</p>
+
+<p>Well-known examples of breakwaters formed of a rubble mound
+surmounted by a superstructure founded at or near low water or
+sea-level, are furnished by Cherbourg and Holyhead
+breakwaters, the inner breakwater at Portland, and the
+<span class="sidenote">Superstructures at low-water level.</span>
+breakwaters at Marseilles, Genoa, Civita Vecchia, Naples,
+Trieste and other Mediterranean ports. The very exposed
+breakwater at Alderney was commenced on this
+principle about the middle of the 19th century; and the
+outer breakwaters at Leghorn and St Jean de Luz have superstructures
+founded at low water on concrete-block mounds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:415px; height:164px" src="images/img477a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Marseilles Breakwater, central portion.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The long, detached breakwater sheltering the series of basins
+formed by wide projecting jetties along the sea coast at Marseilles
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dock</a></span>), is a typical instance of a breakwater where a quay has
+been formed on the top of a sorted rubble mound, sheltered on the
+sea side by a high wall, or narrow superstructure, founded at sea-level,
+and protected on the sea slope of the mound from undermining
+by large concrete blocks deposited at random (fig. 5). In
+this case the quay has been rendered accessible for vessels on the
+harbour side by a quay wall, formed of concrete blocks deposited
+one above the other, providing a vertical face to a depth of about
+22¾ ft. below sea-level; and a similar arrangement has been adopted
+at Trieste, and in a less effective manner at Civita Vecchia and
+Naples. At Marseilles, however, when the breakwater reached great
+depths, the quay was abandoned on account of the increased exposure,
+and the extension made of a simple rubble mound, protected
+on the sea side, from the top down to 20 ft. below sea-level, by large
+concrete blocks deposited at random.</p>
+
+<p>The superstructures at Holyhead and Portland, being built on
+the old weak system of a sea wall and a harbour wall, with rubble
+filling between, are protected on the sea side by raising the rubble
+against them from low water up to high water of spring tides;
+whereas the superstructure of Cherbourg breakwater, being built
+solid and less exposed, is only protected on the sea side by large
+rubble and some concrete blocks, forming an apron raised slightly
+above low water. These three breakwaters are provided with a
+quay sheltered by a raised wall or promenade on the sea side; but
+as the mound on the harbour side is raised up to, or a little above
+low water, the quay is only accessible for vessels near high water.
+This, however, is of comparatively little importance, since these
+quays, though very useful for access to the end of the breakwater in
+fairly calm weather, are inaccessible in exposed situations with a
+rough sea; and quays for the accommodation of vessels are better
+provided well within the sheltered harbour.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:637px; height:264px" src="images/img477b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;San Vincenzo Breakwater, Naples.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The outer portions of the main breakwaters at Genoa and at
+Naples (fig. 6), extending into depths of about 75 ft. and 110 ft.
+respectively, have been provided with superstructures, similar in
+type, but more solid than the superstructure at Marseilles; and
+the sorted rubble mounds upon which the superstructures rest are
+protected on the sea slope by stepped courses of concrete blocks
+from a depth of 26 ft. below sea-level, covered over at the top by a
+masonry apron forming a prolongation of the superstructure. The
+outer extension of the main breakwater at Civita Vecchia furnishes
+an interesting example of a composite form of breakwater, in which
+the rubble mound has been protected, and greatly reduced in
+volume and extent in deep water, by stepped courses of concrete
+blocks carried up from near the bottom of the mound (fig. 7).</p>
+
+
+<p>The breakwaters in front of Havre, constructed in 1896-1907, for
+sheltering the altered entrance to the port, were formed of a sorted
+rubble mound, protected on the sea slope by concrete blocks, and
+raised a little above low water of spring tides, upon which large
+blocks of masonry, built on land, were deposited with their upper
+surfaces about 18 in. above low water of neap tides. As soon as
+settlement of the mound under the action of the sea appeared to
+have ceased, these masonry blocks were connected together by filling
+the spaces between them with masonry; and a solid masonry
+superstructure was built during low tide on this foundation layer, as
+shown in fig. 8.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:596px; height:283px" src="images/img478a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Civita Vecchia Outer Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The breakwaters constructed for forming harbours on the sea
+coast of the United States are almost all rubble-mound breakwaters.
+The two old detached breakwaters sheltering Delaware Harbour near
+the south-eastern extremity of Delaware Bay, were formed of simple
+rubble mounds raised about 13 ft. above low water; but in closing
+the gap between them towards the close of the 19th century, the
+rubble mound was stopped at low water, and a sort of superstructure,
+consisting of stepped courses of large rectangular blocks of stone
+on the sea and harbour sides, with tightly packed rubble between
+them and capped across the top for a width of 20 ft. with a course of
+large blocks, was raised to 14 ft. above low water, resembling, on a
+small scale, the upper part of the Civita Vecchia mound (fig. 7). A
+similar construction was adopted for the new breakwater formed in
+1897-1901 for providing a harbour of refuge at the mouth of Delaware
+Bay; but in this instance the mound was made considerably wider
+at the top, and had to be protected along the toe of the superstructure
+on the sea side by large stones. The same form of superstructure,
+also, on a narrower base, was resorted to for a breakwater in deeper
+water at San Pedro in California with satisfactory results. When,
+however, a breakwater of the Delaware type was in progress for
+forming a harbour of refuge in Sandy Bay, Massachusetts, in front of
+Rockport to the north of Boston, the upper 13 ft. of the 600 ft. of
+completed superstructure were carried away during a severe storm
+in 1898 leaving only a portion about 5 ft. in height above low water,
+the average rise of tide there being 8<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> ft. The design was, accordingly,
+modified in 1902, by commencing the stepped courses of large
+stones at 12 ft. below mean low water on each slope, instead of at
+low water raising this kind of superstructure to 22 ft. above low
+water in place of 18 ft., and capping the stepped courses at the top
+by large blocks of stone, 20 ft. long and 5 ft. deep, laid across the
+breakwater, which thus presented a marked resemblance to the upper
+section of the mound at Civita Vecchia.</p>
+
+<p>The breakwater at Sandy Bay just referred to, and the one at
+Civita Vecchia, which it somewhat resembles, approximate to that
+class of breakwater which has a superstructure founded
+below low-water level, so far as stepped courses of blocks
+<span class="sidenote">Superstructure below low-water level.</span>
+can be regarded as forming part of a superstructure;
+but as the protection afforded by these courses differs
+only in the arrangement of the blocks from that obtained
+by blocks deposited at random, it appears expedient
+to restrict this class to the more solid structures, resembling upright-wall
+breakwaters, founded on a mound at some depth below low
+water As the main object of this class of breakwater is to keep the
+mound below the zone of disturbance by waves in severe storms,
+it is evident that the depth at which the superstructure is founded
+should vary directly with
+the exposure of the site,
+and inversely with the
+size of the materials forming
+the mound.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:306px; height:165px" src="images/img478b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Havre Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The depth at which
+waves striking against a
+superstructure may affect
+a rubble mound near its
+toe by the recoil, has
+been only very gradually
+realized. Thus, in 1847,
+the Alderney breakwater,
+though fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, was begun with a superstructure
+founded at low water of spring tides upon a rubble mound;
+but within two years the foundations had to be carried down 12 it.
+below low water, and this was adhered to till close to the head,
+though the breakwater, completed in 1864, extended 4700 ft. from
+the shore into a depth of 130 ft. at low tide, the rise of springs being
+17 ft. The great recoil of the waves in storms from the promenade
+wall on the sea side of the superstructure, raised 33 ft. above low
+water, disturbed the sea slope of the mound along the outer portion,
+situated in depths of 80 to 130 ft. at low water, out to a distance of
+90 ft. from the superstructure and to a depth of 20 ft.; whilst the
+outer toe of the superstructure was only preserved from being
+undermined by frequent deposits of stone along the sea face.</p>
+
+<p>The south-west breakwater at Colombo Harbour, constructed in
+1876-1884, facing the seas raised by the south-west monsoon, extends
+into a depth of 39 ft. at low water, where the rise of tide is only
+2 ft. at springs, and was built with a superstructure founded upon a
+rubble mound at a depth of 20 ft. below low water, but raised only
+12 ft. above this level without any parapet, and protected along its
+sea face by an apron of concrete in bags. In this case, not only was
+the depth of the sea much less than at Alderney, but the small
+elevation of the superstructure above low water enabled a portion
+of the waves in storms to pass over it without materially
+impairing the shelter inside. These circumstances reduced
+the shock and recoil of the waves; and the greater depth
+of the foundations and the protection of the toe of the
+superstructure greatly diminished the danger of undermining.
+Consequently, the Colombo breakwater has been
+preserved from the injuries to which the outer part of the
+Alderney breakwater succumbed. Nevertheless, in subsequently
+constructing the north-west detached breakwater,
+less exposed to the south-west monsoon, but in somewhat
+deeper water (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Colombo</a></span>), the experience of the action
+of the sea on the south-west breakwater led to the laying of
+the foundations of the superstructure on the rubble mound
+at 30¾ ft. below low water (fig. 9).</p>
+
+<p>The breakwater for sheltering Peterhead Bay, where the
+rise of springs is 11¼ ft., was begun in 1888, and designed
+to extend into a depth of 9½ fathoms at low water (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>). It was built as an upright wall upon the rocky
+bottom for 1000 ft. from the shore; but owing to the
+increase in depth it was decided to construct the outer
+portion with a rubble base, surmounted by a superstructure
+originally designed to be founded 30 ft. below low water.
+As, however, during a storm in October 1898, the recoil of the waves
+from the breakwater, which is provided with a promenade wall rising
+about 35 ft. above low water, disturbed rubble to a depth of 36½ ft.,
+the superstructure has been founded 43 ft. below low water on the
+rubble base; and its outer toe is protected from being undermined
+by two rows of concrete blocks on the rubble mound.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:185px" src="images/img478c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Colombo North-West Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Formerly, in constructing a large superstructure upon a rubble
+mound, it was a common practice to build a sea wall and a harbour
+wall several feet apart, and to fill up the intermediate,.
+space between them with rubble, so as economically to
+<span class="sidenote">Construction of the superstructure.</span>
+form a wide structure on the top of the mound, and provide
+an adequate width for a quay along the top. A sheltering
+wall was also generally erected on the sea side. This, for
+instance, was the system of construction adopted for the superstructures,
+founded at low water, of Holyhead breakwater, Portland
+inner breakwater, and
+St Catherine&rsquo;s, Jersey,
+breakwater. Alderney
+breakwater, the Tyne
+breakwaters and Colombo
+south-west breakwater
+were also commenced
+with a precisely
+similar method of construction.
+The system,
+however, possesses a
+Very serious defect for
+exposed situations,
+namely, that if once
+the sea can force a small
+opening through the sea wall, the scooping out of the rubble
+filling, and the overthrow of the thinner harbour wall are rapidly
+accomplished if the storm continues or recurs before repairs
+can be effected. Experience soon proved at Alderney and Tynemouth
+the unsuitability of the system for very exposed situations;
+and the intermediate rubble filling was replaced by solid hearting
+down to a certain depth. At Colombo, after the first 1326 ft. of
+the south-west breakwater had been built with two walls and
+intermediate rubble for the superstructure, as the exposure proved
+greater than had been anticipated, and a slight displacement of part
+of the sea wall, 24 ft. wide, had occurred, the rubble filling was discontinued,
+and the two walls were united into a solid superstructure
+34 ft. in width.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:346px; height:245px" src="images/img479a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;Colombo North-West Breakwater with Titan Crane.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A difficulty experienced in constructing a solid superstructure
+on the top of a rubble mound consists in the settlement of the
+mound which takes place when the weight of the superstructure
+comes on it, in spite of the consolidation of the
+<span class="sidenote">sloping block system.</span>
+rubble under the action of the sea for one or two years
+before the erection of the superstructure on it is undertaken.
+When the superstructure is carried out in long stepped-forward
+courses, irregular settlement is particularly liable to occur,
+as the weight is progressively imposed in an uneven manner on the
+yielding rubble, in proportion to the height of the rubble base and
+its deficiency in compactness. The open joints between the blocks
+laid below low water enable the air to penetrate, on the recoil of
+the waves at low tide, into any internal fissures resulting from
+settlement; and the following wave, on striking the superstructure,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span>
+compresses the air inside, which, on its expansion when the wave
+recedes, forces out any unconnected face stones. The hole thus
+formed is rapidly enlarged by the sea if the storm continues; and a
+breach is eventually formed. The sloping-block system was, accordingly
+devised to provide against the dislocation of superstructures
+by the inevitable irregular settlement, by forming them of a series
+of sloping sections, composed of concrete blocks laid at an angle,
+free to settle independently on the mound, as shown in fig. 10.
+In the first superstructure thus constructed, in 1869-1874, at the
+entrance to Karachi harbour, founded 15 ft. below low water on a
+rubble mound and 24 ft. high, the blocks in each section, consisting
+of two rows of three superposed blocks laid at an inclination of 76°
+shorewards, were entirely unconnected; and, consequently, though
+the superstructure offered as little opposition as practicable to the
+waves by having its top slightly below high water, the waves in a
+storm forcing their way into the vertical joint between the two
+rows, threw some of the top 27-ton blocks of the inner row down on
+the harbour slope of the mound. This cause of damage was obviated
+in effecting the repairs, by connecting the top blocks with the next
+ones by stone dowels. The superstructures of the breakwaters
+forming Madras harbour, commenced in 1876, were similarly constructed
+in sloping, independent sections, 4½ ft. thick, composed of
+two distinct rows of four tiers of blocks founded upon a rubble
+mound 22 ft. below low water (the rise of tide at springs being 3<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft.),
+and raised 3½ ft. above high water. The blocks in each row were
+connected by a tenon, projecting at the top of each block, fitting
+into a mortise in the block above it. The retention of the vertical
+joint however, between the two rows led to the overthrow of the
+greater part of the superstructures of the outer arms at Madras,
+situated in a depth of 45 ft. and facing the Indian Ocean, during a
+cyclone of 1881. In the reconstruction of these superstructures,
+bond was introduced in the successive tiers of each sloping section;
+and the blocks of the two upper tiers were cramped together. Alter
+settlement on the
+mound had ceased, a
+thick capping of mass
+concrete was laid all
+along the top of the
+superstructure; and,
+finally, a mound of
+concrete blocks was
+deposited at random
+on the mound in
+front of the sea face
+of the superstructure
+to break the force of
+the waves and prevent
+undermining. A
+similar wave-breaker,
+with blocks somewhat
+specially arranged,
+was deposited in front
+of the sloping concrete-block superstructure of the breakwater sheltering
+the Portuguese harbour of Marmagao on the west coast of India,
+more particularly with the object of preventing the undermining of
+the superstructure founded only 18 ft. below low water of spring
+tides, on a layer of rubble spread on the muddy sea-bottom, the
+settlement in this case being occasioned by the yielding of the soft
+clay bed. This breakwater having been commenced in 1884, subsequently
+to the failure at Madras, the superstructure, formed of
+concrete blocks weighing 28½ to 37½ tons was built
+in accordance with the design adopted for the reconstructed
+outer arms at Madras, with the exceptions
+that the separate sections were given a
+slope of 70° instead of 76° shorewards to ensure
+greater stability, that the superstructure was made
+30 ft in width instead of 24 ft., that the top tier of
+blocks in each section was secured to the next tier
+by two dowels, each formed of a bundle of four rails,
+penetrating 3½ ft. into each tier, so as to enable the
+top courses to be more correctly aligned than with
+tenons and mortises, and that the outer side of the
+continuous concrete-in-mass capping was raised
+about 22 ft. above low water (fig. 11). The rise of
+spring tides at Marmagao is 6 ft.</p>
+
+
+<p>At Colombo the superstructures of both the
+south-west and north-west breakwaters were built
+on the sloping-block system in sections 5½ ft. thick,
+and built at an angle of 68° shorewards (fig. 10);
+and the blocks, from 16½ to 31 tons in weight, were
+laid in bonded courses across each section, with four
+tiers of blocks in the south-west breakwater founded
+20 ft. below low water on the rubble mound, and six
+tiers of blocks in the north-west breakwater, founded
+30¾ ft below low water. Five oblong grooves, moreover, were
+formed in moulding the blocks, in the adjacent faces of each sloping
+section, extending from top to bottom of the sections. These, when
+settlement on the mound had ceased, were filled with concrete in
+bags which not only connected the tiers of blocks in each section
+together, but also joined the several sections to one another, and
+effectually closed the transverse joints between the successive
+sections, which were further connected together by a continuous
+capping of concrete-in-mass along the whole length of the breakwater.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:163px" src="images/img479b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;Marmagao Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>These sloping blocks are laid by powerful overhanging, block-setting
+cranes, called Titans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cranes</a></span>), which travel along the
+completed portion of the breakwater, and lay the blocks in advance
+on the mound levelled by divers, as shown in fig. 10. The earlier
+Titans, employed for the sloping-block superstructures at Karachi
+and Madras, were constructed to travel only backwards and forwards
+on the completed work, with sufficient sideways movement of the
+little trolley travelling along the overhanging arm, from which the
+block is suspended at
+the proper angle, to lay
+the blocks for each side
+of the superstructure.
+In later forms, however,
+such for instance
+as the Titan laying the
+14-ton blocks at Peterhead
+breakwater in
+horizontal courses, the
+overhanging arm is
+supported centrally on
+a ring of rollers, placed
+on the top of the truck on which the Titan travels, so that it can
+revolve and deposit blocks at the side of the superstructure
+for protecting the mound, as well as in advance of the finished
+work. These Titans possess the important advantage over the
+timber staging formerly employed for such breakwaters, that, in
+exposed situations, they can be moved back into shelter on the
+approach of a storm, or for the winter or stormy months, instead of,
+as in the case of staging, remaining out exposed to the danger of being
+carried away during stormy weather, or necessitating loss of time in
+erection at the beginning of the working season.</p>
+
+<p>Though composite breakwaters are still occasionally constructed
+with a superstructure founded on a rubble mound at, or above, low-water
+level, these breakwaters are now almost always constructed
+with the superstructure founded at some depth below low water,
+even at harbours on the continent of Europe, where formerly broad
+quays founded at sea-level, protected by a parapet wall and outer
+concrete blocks, were the regular form of superstructure adopted.
+The breakwater for the extension of the harbour at Naples provides
+an interesting example of this change of design. A solid superstructure,
+formed of large concrete blocks capped with masonry,
+about 50 ft. wide at the base, is laid on a high rubble mound at a
+depth of 31 ft. below mean sea-level, and provides a quay on the top,
+24½ ft. wide, protected on the sea side by a promenade wall, 10 ft.
+high and 12½ ft. wide at the top, raised 19<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft. above sea-level (fig. 12).
+In view of the increased depth at which superstructures are now
+founded upon rubble mounds, causing the breakwaters to approximate
+more and more to the upright-wall type, it might seem at
+first sight that the rubble base might be dispensed with, and the
+superstructure founded directly on the bed of the sea. Two circumstances,
+however, still render the composite form of breakwater
+indispensable in certain cases: (1) the great depth into
+which breakwaters have sometimes to extend, reaching about
+56 ft. below low water at Peterhead, and 102 ft. below mean
+sea-level at Naples; and (2) the necessity, where the sea-bottom
+is soft or liable: to be eroded by scour, of interposing a wide
+base between the upright superstructure and the bed of the sea.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:640px; height:325px" src="images/img479c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;Naples Harbor Extension Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The injuries to which composite breakwaters appear to have been
+specially subject must be attributed to the greater exposure and
+depth of the sites in which they have been frequently constructed,
+as compared with rubble mounds or upright walls. The latter types,
+indeed, are not well suited for erection in deep water, in the first
+case, on account of the very large quantity of materials required
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span>
+for a high mound with flat slopes, and in the second, owing to the
+increased pressure of air under which divers have to work in laying
+blocks for an upright wall in deep water. The ample depth in which
+superstructures are founded, the due protection afforded to their
+outer toe, the adoption of the sloping-block system for their construction,
+and the dispensing in most cases with a high sheltering
+wall on the sea side of the superstructure, render modern superstructures
+as stable as upright-wall breakwaters of similar height.
+Nevertheless, superstructures require to be given a greater thickness
+than similar upright walls, because the greater depth of water in
+which such composite breakwaters are built causes them to be
+exposed to larger waves under similar conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The superstructures of composite breakwaters erected by the
+United States for harbours on the shores of Lake Superior were
+formerly in some cases composed of timber cribs floated into position
+and sunk by filling them with rubble stone. On account of the cheapness
+of timber several years ago in those regions, this simple mode of
+construction was also economical, even though the rapid decay of the
+timber in the portions of the cribs where it was alternately wet and
+dry involved its renewal about every fifteen years on the average.
+Owing, however, to the fact that the price of timber has increased
+considerably, whilst that of Portland cement has been reduced,
+durable concrete superstructures are beginning to be substituted
+for the rapidly decaying cribwork structures.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception perhaps of the Alderney breakwater, which,
+owing to its exceptional exposure and the unparalleled depth into
+which it extended, had its superstructure so often breached by the
+sea that, owing to the cost of maintenance, the inner portion only
+has been kept in repair, the composite breakwater of Bilbao harbour
+has probably proved the most difficult to construct on account
+of its great exposure. The original design consisted of a wide rubble
+mound up to about 16½ ft. below low water, a mound of large concrete
+blocks up to low water of equinoctial spring tides, and a solid masonry
+superstructure well protected at its outer toe by a projection of
+masonry, and raised several feet above high water, forming a quay
+sheltered by a promenade wall. The rise of equinoctial spring tides
+at the mouth of the river Nervion is 14¾ ft. In carrying out the work,
+however, the superstructure built in the summer months was for the
+most part destroyed by the following winter storms; and, accordingly,
+the superstructure was eventually constructed on a widened
+rubble base, so as to be sheltered to some extent by the outlying
+concrete-block mound already deposited, a system subsequently
+adopted in rebuilding the damaged portion of the North Pier at
+Tynemouth under shelter of the ruins of the previous work. The
+modified superstructure of the Bilbao breakwater was founded on
+the extended rubble mound at a depth of 16¼ ft. below low water,
+and formed of iron caissons partially filled with concrete and floated
+out, sunk in position, and filled up with concrete blocks and concrete.
+It thus consists of a continuous row of concrete blocks, each of them
+being 42<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft. in width across the breakwater, 23 ft. in length along
+the line of the breakwater, 23 ft. high, and weighing 1400 tons.
+These caisson blocks, raised 6¾ ft. above low water, form the base
+of the superstructure, upon which the upper part was built of concrete
+blocks on each face with mass concrete filling between them, forming
+a continuous quay, 24 ft. wide, raised 8 ft. above high tide, and
+slightly sheltered by a curved parapet block only 5 ft. high. The
+outer toe of the caisson blocks is protected from being undermined
+by two tiers of large concrete blocks laid flat on the rubble mound.
+This superstructure has successfully resisted the attacks of the
+Atlantic waves rolling into the bay. At this breakwater and at
+Tynemouth advantage has been taken of the protection unintentionally
+provided by previous failures, by which the waves are
+broken before reaching the superstructure and pier respectively;
+but instead of introducing a wave-breaker of concrete blocks, for a
+protection to the superstructure, as arranged at Marmagao (fig. 11)
+and the outer arms at Madras, it would appear preferable to increase
+the width of the solid superstructure, if necessary, as carried out at
+Naples (fig. 12). and to dispense with a parapet and keep the superstructure
+low, as being unsuitable for a quay in exposed situations,
+according to the plan adopted at Colombo (fig. 9).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Upright-Wall Breakwaters.</i>&mdash;The third type of breakwater
+consists of a solid structure founded directly on the sea-bottom,
+in the form of an upright wall, with only a moderate batter on each
+face. This form of breakwater is strictly limited to sites where the
+bed of the sea consists of rock, chalk, boulders, or other hard bottom
+not subject to erosion by scour, and where the depth does not exceed
+about 40 to 50 ft. If a solid breakwater were erected on a soft yielding
+bottom, it would be exposed to dislocation from irregular settlement;
+and such a structure, by obstructing or diverting the existing
+currents, tends to create a scour along its base; whilst the waves in
+recoiling from its sea face are very liable to produce erosion of the
+sea-bottom along its outer toe. Moreover, when the foundations
+for an upright-wall breakwater have to be levelled by divers, and
+the blocks laid under water by their help, the extension of such a
+breakwater into a considerable depth is undesirable on account of the
+increased pressure imposed upon diving operations.</p>
+
+<p>The Admiralty pier at Dover was begun about the middle of the
+19th century, and furnishes an early and notable example of an
+upright-wall breakwater resting upon a hard chalk bottom; and it
+was subsequently extended to a depth of about 42 ft. at low tide, in
+connexion with the works for forming a closed naval harbour at
+Dover. This breakwater, the Prince of Wales pier of the commercial
+harbour, and the eastern breakwater and detached south breakwater
+for the naval harbour, were all founded on a levelled bottom, carried
+down to the hard chalk underlying the surface layer, by means of
+men in diving-bells. The extension of the Admiralty pier and the
+other breakwaters of Dover harbour consist of bonded courses of
+concrete blocks, from 26 to 40 tons in weight, as shown in figs. 13
+and 14, the outer blocks above low water being formed on their
+exposed side with a facing of granite rubble. The blocks, composed
+of six parts of sand and stones to one part of Portland cement,
+moulded in frames, and left to set thoroughly in the block-yard
+before being used, are all joggled together, and above low-water
+level are bedded in cement and the joints filled with cement grout.
+The blocks were laid by Goliath travelling cranes running on
+temporary staging supported at intervals of 50¼ ft. by clusters of
+iron piles carried down into the chalk bottom. On each line of
+staging there were four Goliaths, preceded by a stage-erecting
+machine. The front Goliath was used for working a grab for excavating
+the surface layer of chalk, which was finally levelled by
+divers, the second for carrying the diving-bell, the third for laying
+the blocks below low water, and the fourth for setting the blocks
+above low water. This succession of Goliaths enabled more rapid
+progress to be made than with a single Titan at the end of a breakwater;
+but it involved a considerable increase in the cost of the plant,
+owing to the temporary staging required. The foundations were
+carried down from 4 to 6 ft. into the chalk bottom, the deepest being
+53 ft. below low water of spring tides, and the average 47 ft. With
+a rise of tide at springs of 18¾ ft., the average depth is thus approximately
+66 ft. at high tide, necessitating a pressure of 29 &#8468; on the
+square inch, which is the limit at which men can work without inconvenience
+in the diving-bells. The breakwaters are raised about
+11 ft. above high water of springs. The detached southern breakwater
+was finished off at this level; but the extended western breakwater,
+or Admiralty pier, is provided with a promenade parapet on its
+exposed side, rising 13 ft. above the quay; and the eastern breakwater
+also has a parapet on its exposed eastern side, raised, however,
+only 9 ft. above its quay. The breakwaters are protected from scour
+along their outer toe by an apron of concrete blocks, extending 25 ft.
+out from their sea face.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:517px; height:286px" src="images/img480.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Dover Breakwater.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.<br />South Breakwater.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.<br />Admiralty Pier Extension.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The levelling of the foundations for laying the courses of an
+upright-wall breakwater is costly and tedious, even in chalk; and
+the expense and delay are considerably enhanced where
+the bottom is hard rock. Accordingly, in constructing
+<span class="sidenote">Concrete-bag foundations.</span>
+two breakwaters at the entrance to Aberdeen harbour
+on a bottom of granite in 1870-1877, concrete bags were
+laid on the sea-bed; and these bags, by adapting themselves
+to the rocky irregularities, obviated levelling the bottom. They
+formed the foundation for the concrete blocks in the south breakwater;
+and by the deposit of successive layers of 50-ton concrete
+bags till they rose above low water, they constituted the whole of the
+submerged portion of the north breakwater. The 50-ton bags were
+deposited from hopper barges towed out to the site; and the portions
+of both breakwaters above low water were carried up with mass
+concrete. Subsequently, the breakwater at Newhaven was constructed
+on a foundation of chalk, with lop-ton concrete bags up
+to low water, and mass concrete above. Still later, the two breakwaters
+sheltering the approach to the river Wear (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>)
+and the Sunderland docks were built with a foundation mound
+of concrete in bags, 56 to 116 tons in weight, on the uneven sea-bottom,
+raised slightly above low water of spring tides, on which
+a solid upright wall was erected, formed of concrete blocks on each
+side faced with granite, filled in the centre and capped on the top
+with mass concrete. The most exposed northern Roker breakwater,
+raised about 11 ft. above high water of springs where the rise is 14 ft.
+5 in., is devoid of a parapet; but a subway formed near the top
+in each breakwater gives access to the light on the pierhead in stormy
+weather (fig. 15). These concrete bags are made by lining the hopper
+of the barge with jute canvas, which receives the concrete and is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span>
+sewn up to form a bag whilst the barge is being towed to the site.
+The concrete is thus deposited unset, and readily accommodates
+itself to the irregularities of the bottom or of the mound of bags;
+and sufficient liquid grout oozes out of the canvas when the bag is
+compressed, to unite the bags into a solid mass, so that with the
+mass concrete on the top, the
+breakwater forms a monolith.
+This system has been extended
+to the portion of the superstructure
+of the eastern, little-exposed
+breakwater of Bilbao
+harbour below low water, where
+the rubble mound is of moderate
+height; but this application of
+the system appears less satisfactory,
+as settlement of the superstructure
+on the mound would
+produce cracks in the set concrete
+in the bags.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:172px" src="images/img481a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;Sunderland Southern Breakwater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Foundation blocks of 2500 to
+3000 tons have been deposited for raising the walls on each side
+of the wide portion of the Zeebrugge breakwater (fig. 16) from
+the sea-bottom to above low water, and also 4400-ton
+<span class="sidenote">Foundations with large blocks.</span>
+blocks along the narrow outer portion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>),
+by building iron caissons, open at the top, in the dry
+bed of the Bruges ship-canal, lining them with concrete,
+and after the canal was filled with water, floating them
+out one by one in calm weather, sinking them in position by
+admitting water, and then filling them with concrete under water
+from closed skips which open at the bottom directly they begin
+to be raised. The firm sea-bed is levelled by small rubble for
+receiving the large blocks, whose outer toe is protected from
+undermining by a layer of big blocks of stone extending out for
+a width of 50 ft.; and then the breakwater walls are raised above
+high water by 55-ton concrete blocks, set in cement at low tide;
+and the upper portions are completed by concrete-in-mass within
+framing.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes funds are not available for a large plant; and in such
+cases small upright-wall breakwaters may be constructed in a
+moderate depth of water on a hard bottom of rock, chalk
+or boulders, by erecting timber framing in suitable
+<span class="sidenote">Concrete monoliths.</span>
+lengths, lining it inside with jute cloth, and then depositing
+concrete below low water in closed hopper skips lowered to the
+bottom before releasing the concrete, which must be effected with
+great care to avoid allowing the concrete to fall through the water.
+The portion of the breakwater above low water is then raised
+by tide-work with mass concrete within frames, in which large
+blocks of stone may be bedded, provided they do not touch one
+another and are kept away from the face, which should be formed
+with concrete containing a larger proportion of cement. As long
+continuous lengths of concrete crack across under variations in
+temperature, it is advisable to form fine straight divisions across
+the upper part of a concrete breakwater in construction, as substitutes
+for irregular cracks.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:531px; height:176px" src="images/img481b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;Zeebrugge Harbour Breakwater with Quay.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Upright-wall breakwaters should not be formed with two narrow
+walls and intermediate filling, as the safety of such a breakwater
+depends entirely on the sea-wall being maintained intact. A warning
+of the danger of this system of construction, combined with a high
+parapet, was furnished by the south breakwater of Newcastle
+harbour in Dundrum Bay, Ireland, which was breached by a storm
+in 1868, and eventually almost wholly destroyed; whilst its ruins
+for many years filled up the harbour which it had been erected
+to protect. In designing its reconstruction in 1897, it was found
+possible to provide a solid upright wall of suitable strength with
+the materials scattered over the harbour, together with an extension
+needed for providing proper protection at the entrance. This work
+was completed in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Upright-wall breakwaters and superstructures are generally made
+of the same thickness throughout, irrespective of the differences
+in depth and exposure which are often met with in different parts
+of the same breakwater. This may be accounted for by the general
+custom of regarding the top of an upright wall or superstructure
+as a quay, which should naturally be given a uniform width; and
+this view has also led to the very general practice of sheltering the
+top of these structures with a parapet. Generally the width is
+proportioned to the most exposed part, so that the only result is
+an excess of expenditure in the inner portion to secure uniformity.
+When, however, as at Madras, the width of the structure is reduced
+to a minimum, the action of the sea demonstrates that the strength
+of the structure must be proportioned to the depth and exposure.
+In small fishery piers, where great economy is essential to obtain
+the maximum shelter at limited expense, it appears expedient to
+make the width of the breakwater proportionate to the depth. This
+was done in Babbacombe Bay; and in reconstructing the southern
+breakwater at Newcastle, Ireland, advantage was taken of a change
+in direction of the outer half to introduce an addition to the width,
+so as to make the strength of the breakwater proportionate to the
+increase in depth and exposure. In large structures, however,
+uniformity of design may be desirable for each straight length of
+breakwater; though where two or more breakwaters or outer arms
+enclose a harbour, the design should obviously be modified to suit
+the depth and exposure. At Colombo harbour, the superstructure
+of the less exposed north-west breakwater has been made slightly
+narrower than that of the south-west breakwater; and a simple
+rubble mound shelters the harbour from the moderate north-east
+monsoon. In special cases, where a breakwater has to serve as a
+quay, like the Admiralty pier at Dover, a high parapet wall is
+essential; but in most cases, where a parapet merely enables the
+breakwater to be more readily accessible in moderate weather,
+it would be advisable to keep it very low, or to dispense with it
+altogether, as at the southern Dover breakwater, the northern
+breakwater at Sunderland, and the Colombo western breakwaters.
+This course is particularly expedient in very exposed sites, as a high
+parapet intensifies the shock of the waves against a breakwater
+and their erosive recoil. Moreover, when a light has to be attended
+to at the end of a breakwater, sheltered access can be provided by
+a subway, as at Sunderland.</p>
+
+<p>Structures in the sea almost always require works of maintenance;
+and when a severe storm has caused any injury, it is most important
+to carry out the repairs at the earliest available moment, as the
+waves rapidly enlarge any holes that they may have formed in weak
+places.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. F. V.-H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRÉAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1832-   &emsp;&emsp;), French
+philologist, was born on the 26th of March 1832, at Landau
+in Rhenish Bavaria, of French parents. After studying at
+Weissenburg, Metz and Paris, he entered the École Normale
+in 1852. In 1857 he went to Berlin, where he studied Sanskrit
+under Bopp and Weber. On his return to France he obtained
+an appointment in the department of oriental MSS. at the
+Bibliothèque Impériale. In 1864 he became professor of comparative
+grammar at the Collège de France, in 1875 member of
+the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, in 1879 <i>inspecteur-général</i>
+of public instruction for higher schools until the abolition
+of the office in 1888. In 1890 he was made commander of the
+Legion of Honour. Among his works, which deal mainly with
+mythological and philological subjects, may be mentioned:
+<i>L&rsquo;Étude des origines de la religion Zoroastrienne</i> (1862), for which
+a prize was awarded him by the Académie des Inscriptions;
+<i>Hercule et Cacus</i> (1863), in which he disputes the principles of
+the symbolic school in the interpretation of myths; <i>Le Mythe
+d&rsquo;Oedipe</i> (1864); <i>Les Tables Eugubines</i> (1875); <i>Mélanges de
+mythologie et de linguistique</i> (2nd. ed., 1882); <i>Leçons de mots</i> (1882,1886),
+<i>Dictionnaire étymologique latin</i> (1885) and <i>Grammaire latine</i>
+(1890). His <i>Essai de Sémantique</i> (1897), on the signification of
+words, has been translated into English by Mrs H. Cust with
+preface by J.P. Postgate. His translation of Bopp&rsquo;s <i>Comparative
+Grammar</i> (1866-1874), with introductions, is highly valued. He
+has also written pamphlets on education in France, the teaching
+of ancient languages, and the reform of French orthography.
+In 1906 he published <i>Pour mieux connaître Homère</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREAM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (<i>Abramis</i>), a fish of the Cyprinid family, characterized
+by a deep, strongly compressed body, with short dorsal and long
+anal fins, the latter with more than sixteen branched rays, and
+the small inferior mouth. There are two species in the British
+Isles, the common bream, <i>A. brama</i>, reaching a length of 2 ft.
+and a weight of 12 &#8468;, and the white bream or bream flat, <i>A.
+blicca</i>, a smaller and, in most places, rarer species. Both occur in
+slow-running rivers, canals, ponds and reservoirs. Bream are
+usually despised for the table in England, but fish from large
+lakes, if well prepared, are by no means deserving of ostracism.
+In the days of medieval abbeys, when the provident Cistercian
+monks attached great importance to pond culture, they gave
+the first place to the tench and bream, the carp still being unknown
+in the greater part of Europe. At the present day, the
+poorer Jews in large English cities make a great consumption
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span>
+of bream&mdash;and other Cyprinids, most of them being imported
+alive from Holland and sold in the Jewish fish markets. In
+America the name bream is commonly given to the golden
+shiner minnow (<i>Abramis chrysoleucus</i>), to the pumpkin-seed
+sunfish (<i>Eupomotis gibbosus</i>), and to some kinds of porgy
+(<i>Sparidae</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREAST<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages, of the
+Ger. <i>Brust</i>, possibly connected with an O. Sax. <i>brustian</i>, to bud),
+the term properly confined to the external projecting parts of the
+thorax in females, which contain the mammary glands (for
+anatomy, and diseases, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mammary Gland</a></span>); more generally
+it is used of the external part of the thorax in animals, including
+man, lying between the neck and the abdomen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREAUTÉ, FALKES DE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (d. 1226), one of the foreign mercenaries
+of King John of England, from whom he received in marriage
+the heiress of the earldom of Devon. On the outbreak of the
+Barons&rsquo; War (1215) the king gave him the sheriffdoms of six
+midland shires and the custody of many castles. He fulfilled
+his military duties with as much skill as cruelty. The royalists
+owed to his daring the decisive victory of Lincoln (1217). But
+after the death of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, Falkes
+joined the feudal opposition in conspiring against Hubert de
+Burgh. Deprived in 1223 of most of his honours, he was drawn
+into a rebellion by the imprudence of his brother, who captured
+a royal justice and threw him into prison (1224). Falkes was
+allowed to go into exile after his submission, and endeavoured
+to obtain a pardon through the mediation of Pope Honorius III.
+But this was refused, and Falkes died at St Cyriac in 1226.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Shirley, <i>Royal Letters</i>, vol. i.; the <i>Patent</i> and <i>Close Rolls</i>;
+Pauli, <i>Geschichte von England</i>, vol. i. pp. 540-545.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRECCIA,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> in petrology, the name given to rocks consisting
+of angular fragments embedded in a matrix. They may be
+composed of volcanic rocks, limestones, siliceous charts, sandstones,
+in fact of any kind of material, and the matrix, which
+usually corresponds to some extent to the fragments it encloses,
+may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous, &amp;c. The distinctive
+character of the group is the sharp-edged and unworn shapes
+of the fragments; in conglomerates the pebbles are rounded
+and water-worn, having been transported by waves and currents
+from some distance. There are many ways in which breccias
+may originate. Some are formed by ordinary processes of atmospheric
+erosion; frost, rain and gravity break up exposed surfaces
+of rock and detach pieces of all sizes; in this way screes are
+formed at the bases of cliffs, and barren mountain-tops are
+covered with broken debris. If such accumulations gather
+and are changed into hard rock by pressure and other indurating
+agencies they make typical breccias. Conglomerates often pass
+into rocks of this type, the difference being merely that the
+fragments are of purely local origin, and are unworn because
+they have not been transported. In caves breccias of limestone
+are produced by the collapse of part of the roof, covering the floor
+with broken masses. Coral reefs often contain extensive areas of
+limestone breccia, formed of detached pieces of rock which have
+been dislodged from the surface and have been carried down
+the steep external slopes of the reef. Volcanic breccias are very
+common near active or extinct craters, as sudden outbursts of
+steam bear fragments from the older rocks and scatter them
+over the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Another group of breccias is due to crushing; these are
+produced in fissures, faults and veins, below the surface, and
+maybe described as &ldquo;crush-breccias&rdquo; and &ldquo;friction-breccias.&rdquo;
+Very important and well-known examples of this class occur
+as veinstones, which may be metalliferous or not. A fissure
+is formed, probably by slight crustal movements, and is subsequently
+filled with material deposited from solution (quartz,
+calcite, barytes, &amp;c.). Very often displacement of the walls
+again takes place, and the infilling or &ldquo;veinstone&rdquo; is torn apart
+and brecciated. It may then be cemented together by a further
+introduction of mineral matter, which may be the same as that
+first deposited or quite different. In important veins this process
+is often repeated several times: detached pieces of the country
+rock are mingled with the shattered veinstone, and generally
+experience alteration by the percolating mineral solutions.
+Other crush-breccias occurring on a much larger scale are due to
+the folding of strata which have unequal plasticities. If, for
+example, shales and sandstones are bent into a series of arches,
+the sandstones being harder and more resistant will tend to
+crack, while the shales, which are soft and flow under great
+pressures, are injected into the crevices and separate the broken
+pieces from one another. Continued movement will give the
+brecciated fragments of sandstone a rounded form by rubbing
+them against one another, and, in this way, a crush-conglomerate
+is produced. Great masses of limestone in the Alps, Scottish
+Highlands, and all regions of intense folding are thus converted
+into breccias. Cherts frequently also show this structure;
+igneous rocks less commonly do so; but it is perhaps most
+common where there have been thin bedded alternations of rocks
+of different character, such as limestone and dolerite, limestone
+and quartzite, shale or phyllite and sandstone. Fault-breccias
+closely resemble vein-breccias, except that usually their fragments
+consist principally of the rocks which adjoin the fault
+and not of mineral deposits introduced in solution; but many
+veins occupy faults, and hence no hard and fast line can be
+drawn between these types of breccia.</p>
+
+<p>A third group of breccias is due to movement in a partly
+consolidated igneous rock, and may be called &ldquo;fluxion-breccias.&rdquo;
+Lava streams, especially when they consist of rhyolite, dacite
+and some kinds of andesite, may rapidly solidify, and then
+become exceedingly brittle. If any part of the mass is still
+liquid, it may break up the solid crust by pressure from within
+and the angular fragments are enveloped by the fluid lava.
+When the whole comes to rest and cools, it forms a typical
+&ldquo;volcanic-fluxion-breccia.&rdquo; The same phenomena are sometimes
+exemplified in intrusive sills and sheets. The fissures
+which are occupied by igneous dikes may be the seat of repeated
+injections following one another at longer or shorter intervals;
+and the latter may shatter the earlier dike rocks, catching up
+the fragments. Among the older formations, especially when
+decomposition has gone on extensively, these fluxion and
+injection-breccias are often very hard to distinguish from the
+commoner volcanic-breccias and ash-beds, which have been
+produced by weathering, or by the explosive power of superheated
+steam.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRECHIN,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh of Forfarshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8941. It lies on the left bank of the South
+Esk, 7¾ m. west of Montrose, and has a station on the loop line
+of the Caledonian railway from Forfar to Bridge of Dun. Brechin
+is a prosperous town, of great antiquity, having been the site
+of a Culdee abbey. The Danes are said to have burned the town
+in 1012. David I. erected it into a bishopric in 1150, and it is
+still a see of the Episcopal Church of Scotland. In 1452 the
+earl of Huntly crushed the insurrection led by the earl of Crawford
+at the battle of Brechin Muir, and in 1645 the town and castle
+were harried by the marquis of Montrose. James VI. gave a
+grant for founding a hospital in the burgh, which yet supplies
+the council with funds for charity. No trace remains of the old
+walls and gates of the town, but the river is crossed by a two-arched
+stone bridge of very early date. The cathedral church
+of the Holy Trinity belongs to the 13th century. It is in the
+Pointed style, but suffered maltreatment in 1806 at the hands
+of restorers, whose work, however, disappeared during the
+restoration completed in 1902. The western gable with its
+flamboyant window and Gothic door and the massive square
+tower are all that is left of the original edifice. The modern
+stained glass in the chancel is reckoned amongst the finest in
+Scotland. Immediately adjoining the cathedral to the south-west
+stands the Round Tower, built about 1000. It is 86¾ ft.
+high, has at the base a circumference of 50 ft. and a diameter of
+16 ft., and is capped with a hexagonal spire of 18 ft., which was
+added in the 15th century. This type of structure is somewhat
+common in Ireland, but the only Scottish examples are those at
+Brechin, Abernethy in Perthshire, and Egilshay in the Orkneys.
+Brechin Castle played a prominent part in the Scottish War of
+Independence. In 1303 it withstood for twenty days a siege in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span>
+force by the English under Edward I., surrendering only when
+its governor, Sir Thomas Maule, had been slain. From the Maule
+family it descended to the Dalhousies. Its library contains
+many important MSS., among them Burns&rsquo;s correspondence
+with George Thomson, and several cartularies including those
+of St Andrews and Brechin. In the Vennel (alley or small street)
+some ruins remain of the <i>maison dieu</i>, or <i>hospitium</i>, founded in
+1256 by William of Brechin. Besides these historical buildings
+the principal public structures include Smith&rsquo;s school, the
+municipal buildings, the free library, the episcopal library
+(founded by Bishop Forbes, who, as well as Bishop Abernethy-Drummond,
+presented a large number of volumes). The
+principal industries include manufactures of linen and sailcloth,
+bleaching, rope-making, brewing, distilling, paper-making, in
+addition to nurseries and freestone quarries. Brechin&mdash;which
+is controlled by a provost, bailies and council&mdash;unites with
+Arbroath, Forfar, Inverbervie and Montrose to return one
+member to parliament.</p>
+
+<p>Edzell (pronounced Edyell, and, locally, Aigle) lies about
+6 m. north of Brechin, with which it is connected by rail. It is
+situated on the North Esk and near the West Water, which falls
+into the Esk 2 m. south-west. Edzell is on the threshold of
+romantic Highland scenery. The picturesque ruins of Edzell
+Castle lie a mile to the west of the town. Once the seat of the
+Lindsays the estate now belongs to the earl of Dalhousie. The
+church of the parish of Farnell, 3½ m. south-east of Brechin,
+was erected in 1806 after the model, so it is stated, of the famous
+Holy House (Casa Santa) of Loreto in Italy. It was here that
+the old sculptured stone giving a version of the Fall was found.
+Between Farnell and Brechin lies Kinnaird Castle, the seat of the
+earl of Southesk.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1821-1875), American
+soldier and political leader, was born near Lexington, Kentucky,
+on the 21st of January 1821. He was a member of a family
+prominent in the public life of Kentucky and the nation.
+His grandfather, John Breckinridge (1760-1806), who revised
+Jefferson&rsquo;s draft of the &ldquo;Kentucky Resolutions&rdquo; of 1798, was
+a United States senator from Kentucky in 1801-1805 and
+attorney-general in President Jefferson&rsquo;s cabinet in 1805-1806.
+His uncles, John Breckinridge (1797-1841), professor of pastoral
+theology in the Princeton Theological Seminary in 1836-1838
+and for many years after secretary of the Presbyterian Board of
+Foreign Missions, and Robert Jefferson Breckinridge (1800-1871),
+for several years superintendent of public instruction in Kentucky,
+an important factor in the organization of the public school
+system of the state, a professor from 1853 to 1871 in the Danville
+Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Danville, Kentucky, and
+the temporary chairman of the national Republican convention
+of 1864, were both prominent clergymen of the Presbyterian
+Church. His cousin, William Campbell Preston Breckinridge
+(1837-1904), was a Democratic representative in Congress from
+1885 to 1893. Another cousin, Joseph Cabell Breckinridge
+(1842-   &emsp;&emsp;), served on the Union side in the Civil War, was a
+major-general of volunteers during the Spanish-American War
+(1898), became a major-general in the regular United States
+army in 1903, and was inspector-general of the United States
+army from 1899 until his retirement from active service in 1904.</p>
+
+<p>John Cabell Breckinridge graduated in 1838 at Centre College,
+Danville, Kentucky, continued his studies at Princeton, and
+then studied law at Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky.
+He practised law in Frankfort, Kentucky, in 1840-1841
+and in Burlington, Iowa, from 1841 to 1843, and then returned
+to Kentucky and followed his profession at Lexington. In 1847
+he went to Mexico as major in a volunteer regiment, but arrived
+too late for service in the field. In 1849 he was elected a Democratic
+member of the Kentucky legislature, and in 1851-1855
+he served in the national House of Representatives. President
+Pierce offered him the position of minister to Spain, but he
+declined it. In 1856 he was chosen vice-president of the United
+States on the Buchanan ticket, and although a strong pro-slavery
+and states rights man, he presided over the Senate with conspicuous
+fairness and impartiality during the trying years before
+the Civil War. In 1860 he was nominated for the presidency by
+the pro-slavery seceders from the Democratic national convention,
+and received a total of 72 electoral votes, including those
+of every Southern state except Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee
+and Missouri. As vice-president and presiding officer of the
+Senate, it was his duty to make the official announcement of
+the election of his opponent, Lincoln. He succeeded John J.
+Crittenden as United States senator from Kentucky in March
+1861, but having subsequently entered the Confederate service
+he was expelled from the Senate in December 1861. As brigadier-general
+he commanded the Confederate reserve at Shiloh, and in
+August 1862 he became major-general. On the 5th of this month
+he was repulsed in his attack on Baton Rouge, but he won
+distinction at Stone River (December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863),
+where his division lost nearly a third of its number. He took
+part in the battle of Chickamauga, defeated General Franz Sigel
+at Newmarket, Virginia, on the 15th of May 1864, and then,
+joined Lee and took part in the battles of Cold Harbor on the
+1st and on the 3rd of June. In the autumn he operated in the
+Shenandoah Valley, and with Early was defeated by Sheridan
+at Winchester on the 19th of September. Being transferred to
+the department of South-west Virginia, he fought a number of
+minor engagements in eastern Tennessee, and in January 1865
+became secretary of war for the Confederate States. At the
+close of the war he escaped to Cuba, and from there went to
+Europe. In 1868 he returned to the United States and resumed
+the practice of law at Lexington, Kentucky, where he died on
+the 17th of May 1875.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRECON,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brecknock</span>, a market town and municipal
+borough, the capital of Breconshire, Wales, 183 m. from London
+by rail, picturesquely situated nearly in the centre of the county,
+at the confluence of the Honddu with the Usk. Half a mile
+higher up the Tarell also falls into the Usk from the south. The
+ecclesiastical parish of Brecon consists of the two civil parishes
+of St John the Evangelist and St Mary, both on the left bank of
+the Usk, while St David&rsquo;s in Llanfaes is on the other side of the
+river, and was wholly outside the town walls. Pop. (1901) 5875.
+There is only one line of railway, over which several companies,
+however, have running powers, so that the town may be reached
+by the Brecon &amp; Merthyr railway from Merthyr, Cardiff and
+Newport, by the Cambrian from Builth Wells, or by the Midland
+from Hereford and Swansea respectively. The Great Western
+railway has also a service of road motors between Abergavenny
+and Brecon. A canal running past Abergavenny connects Brecon
+with Merthyr.</p>
+
+<p>The Priory church of St John, a massive cruciform building,
+originally Norman with Early English and Decorated additions,
+is the finest parish church in Wales, and even taking into account
+the cathedrals it is according to E.A. Freeman &ldquo;indisputably
+the third church not in a state of ruin in the principality,&rdquo; its
+choir furnishing &ldquo;one of the choicest examples of the Early
+English style.&rdquo; Previous to the dissolution, a rood-screen
+bearing a gigantic rood, the object of many pilgrimages, stood
+to the west of the tower. The church was restored under Sir
+Gilbert Scott between 1861 and 1875. St Mary&rsquo;s, in the centre
+of the town, and St David&rsquo;s, beyond the Usk, are now mainly
+modern, though the former has some of the Norman arches
+of the original church. There is also a Roman Catholic church
+(St Michael&rsquo;s) opened in 1851, and chapels belonging to the
+Baptists, Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists, and to the
+Congregationalists. In Llanfaes there was formerly a Dominican
+priory, but in 1542 Henry VIII. granted it with all its possessions
+to a collegiate church, which was transferred thither from
+Abergwili, and was given the name of Christ College. Many of
+the bishops of St David&rsquo;s during the 17th century occasionally
+resided here, and several are also buried here. A small part of the
+revenues went to the maintenance of a grammar-school, but in
+1841 the collegiate body was dissolved, and its revenues, then
+amounting to about £8000 a year, were transferred to the
+ecclesiastical commissioners. In 1853 Henry VIII.&rsquo;s charter
+was repealed, and under a chancery scheme adopted two years
+later, £1200 a year was appropriated for the school. New school
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span>
+buildings were erected at a cost of about £10,000 in 1862, and
+these were enlarged at a cost of about £5000 in 1880. The chancel
+of the old Dominican chapel, dating from the 13th century, was
+restored in 1864, and is now the school chapel. There is also
+a Congregationalist theological college, built in 1869 at a cost of
+£12,000, and now affiliated with the university of Wales. The
+other chief buildings of the town are the shire hall built in 1842
+in the Doric style from designs by T.H. Wyatt; the Guildhall;
+the barracks, which are the headquarters of two battalions
+of the South Wales Borderers; the county infirmary founded
+in 1832; and the prison (in Llanfaes) for the counties of Brecon
+and Radnor. There is a bronze statue of the duke of Wellington
+(erected in 1854) by John Evan Thomas, a native of the town.
+The town commands a magnificent view of the Brecknock
+Beacons, and is noted for its promenades on the banks of the
+Usk, and in the priory groves. Brecon is favourably known as
+a fishing centre, and there is also boating on the Usk and the
+canal. There are several houses of interest, notably the Priory
+and Dr Awbrey&rsquo;s residence (now called Buckingham House),
+both built about the middle of the 16th century, but the finest
+specimen is Newton (about a mile out, near Llanfaes) built in
+1582 by Sir John Games (a descendant of Sir David Gam), but
+now a farmhouse. The &ldquo;Shoulder of Mutton&rdquo; Inn, now known
+as the &ldquo;Siddons Wine Vaults,&rdquo; was the birthplace in 1755 of
+Mrs Siddons.</p>
+
+<p>The name Brecknock is an anglicized form of Brycheiniog,
+the Welsh name of the territory of Brychan (whence the alternative
+form of Brecon), a Goidelic chieftain, who gained possession
+of the Usk valley in the 5th century. The Welsh name of
+the town, on the other hand, has always been Aber-Honddu (the
+estuary of the Honddu). There is no evidence of any settlement
+on the site of the present town prior to about 1092, when Bernard
+Newmarch, after defeating Bleddin ab Maenarch, built here a
+castle which he made his residence and the chief stronghold of
+his new lordship. For this purpose he utilized what remained of
+the materials of the Roman fort, 3 m. to the west, at Y Gaer,
+which some identify as Bannium. He subsequently founded,
+near the castle, the Benedictine priory of St John, which he
+endowed and constituted a cell of Battle Abbey. In time a town
+grew up outside the castle, and its inhabitants received a series
+of charters from the de Bohuns, into which family the castle
+and lordship passed, the earliest recorded charter being granted
+by Humphrey, 3rd earl of Hereford. Under the patronage of
+his great-grandson, the last earl of Hereford (who lived in great
+splendour at the castle), the town became one of the chief centres
+of trade in South Wales, and a sixteen days&rsquo; fair, which he
+granted, still survives as a hiring fair held in November. Further
+charters were granted by Henry IV. (who married Hereford&rsquo;s
+co-heiress), by Henry V., who gave the town two more fairs, and
+by the Stafford family, to which the castle and lordship were
+allotted on the partition of the Bohun estates in 1421. Henry
+Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham, resided a good deal at the
+castle, and Morton, bishop of Ely, whose custody as a prisoner
+was entrusted to him, plotted with him there for the dethronement
+of Richard III., for which Stafford was executed in 1483.
+His son, Edward, the 3rd duke, who was born in the castle in 1478,
+had the estates restored to him, but, in 1521, suffered a like fate
+with his father, and the lordship and castle then vested in the
+crown. Both were acquired in the next century by the ancestors
+of Viscount Tredegar, to whom they now belong. By a statute
+of 1535 Brecon was made the county town of the new shire of
+Brecknock, and was granted the right of electing one burgess to
+represent it in parliament, a right which it retained till it was
+merged in the county representation in 1885. A chancery and
+exchequer for the counties of Brecknock and Radnor were also
+established at Brecon Castle, and from 1542 till 1830 the great
+sessions, and since then the assizes, and at all times the quarter
+sessions for the county, have been held at Brecon. The borough
+had also a separate court of quarter sessions till 1835. The town
+was incorporated by a charter granted by Philip and Mary in
+1556 and confirmed by Elizabeth in the nineteenth year of her
+reign. A charter granted by James II. was never acted upon.
+The borough was placed under the Municipal Corporations Act
+1835, and until then the town of Llywel, which is 10 m. off,
+formed a ward of the borough. There were formerly five trade
+gilds in the town, the chief industries being cloth and leather
+manufactures. There are five ancient fairs for stock, and
+formerly each of them was preceded by a leather fair. The fairs
+held in May and November were also for hiring, much of the
+hiring being now done at the Guildhall, and not in the streets as
+used to be the case.</p>
+
+<p>During the Civil War the greater part of the castle and of
+the town walls (which with their four gates were until then well
+preserved) were demolished by the inhabitants in order to prevent
+the town being either garrisoned or besieged. Charles I., however,
+stayed a night at the priory house shortly after the battle of
+Naseby. The chief ruins of the castle are now enclosed in the
+grounds of the Castle Hotel, the principal object being Ely tower,
+where Bishop Morton was imprisoned.</p>
+
+<p>Besides those already mentioned the persons of note born in the
+town include Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham; Dr Hugh
+Price, founder of Jesus College, Oxford; Dr Thomas Coke, the
+first Wesleyan missionary bishop in America; and Theophilus
+Jones, the historian of the county. Henry Vaughan, the Silurist,
+at one time practised here as a doctor of medicine.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. Ll. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRECONSHIRE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brecknockshire</span>, an inland county in
+South Wales, and the fourth largest in all Wales, bounded N.W.
+by Cardigan, N. and N.E. by Radnor, E. and S.E. by Monmouth,
+S. by Glamorgan and W. by Carmarthen. The general aspect
+of the county is mountainous, and the scenery is marked by
+beauty and grandeur. The climate is moist but temperate and
+healthy, and the soil of the valleys, often consisting of rich
+alluvial deposits, is very fertile. The loftiest mountains in South
+Wales, extending from Herefordshire and Monmouthshire
+(where their eastern spurs form the Hatteral Hills) in a south-easterly
+direction into Carmarthenshire, completely encircle the
+county on the east and south except for the break formed by
+the Vale of Usk at Crickhowell. Their highest summit north
+of the Usk, on the eastern side, where they are known as the
+Black Mountains, or sometimes the Black Forest Mountains, is
+Pen y Gader (2624 ft.) between Talgarth and Llanthony, and on
+the south-west the twin peaks of the Mynydd Du (&ldquo;Black
+Mountain&rdquo;) or the so-called Carmarthenshire Vans or Beacons,
+only the higher of which, Fan Brycheiniog (2632 ft.), is, however,
+in Breconshire; while the centre of the crescent is occupied by
+the masses of the Brecknockshire Beacons or Vans (often called
+the Beacons simply), the highest point of which, Pen y Fan,
+formerly also known as Cadair Arthur, or Arthur&rsquo;s Chair, attains
+an altitude of 2910 ft. In the north, a range of barren hills,
+which goes by the general designation of Mynydd Eppynt (a
+name more properly limited to its central portion), stretches
+right across the county in a north-easterly direction, beginning
+with Mynydd Bwlch-y-Groes on the boundary to the east of
+Llandovery, and terminating near Builth. In the dreary country
+still farther north there is a series of rounded hills covered with
+peat and mosses, the chief feature being Drygarn Fawr (2115 ft.)
+on the confines of Cardiganshire.</p>
+
+<p>Of the valleys, the most distinguished for beauty is that of
+the Usk, stretching from east to west and dividing the county
+into two nearly equal portions. The Wye is the chief river, and
+forms the boundary between the county and Radnorshire on
+the north and north-east, from Rhayader to Hay, a distance of
+upwards of 20 m.; its tributary, the Elan, till it receives the
+Claerwen, and then the latter river, continue the boundary
+between the two counties on the north, while the Towy separates
+the county from Cardigan on the north-west. The hilly country
+to the north of the Eppynt is mainly drained by the Irfon, which
+falls into the Wye near Builth. The Usk rises in the Carmarthenshire
+Van on the west, and flowing in a direction nearly due east
+through the centre of the county, collects the water from the
+range of the Beacons in the south, and from the Eppynt range
+in the north by means of numerous smaller streams, of which the
+Tarell and the Honddu (which join it at Brecon) are the most
+important, and it enters Monmouthshire near Abergavenny.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span>
+The Taff, the Nêdd (with its tributaries the Hepste and the
+Mellte) and the Tawe, all rise on the south of the Beacon range
+and passing through Glamorganshire, flow into the Bristol
+Channel, the upper reaches of the Nêdd and its tributaries in
+the Vale of Neath being deservedly famous for its scenery. The
+mountains of the county constitute one of the best water-producing
+areas in Wales. Recognizing this, the corporation of
+Birmingham, under an act of 1892, acquired the watershed of the
+Elan and Claerwen, and constructed on the Elan three impounding
+reservoirs whence the water is conducted through an aqueduct
+to Birmingham (<i>q.v.</i>). Swansea obtains its chief supply from a
+reservoir of one thousand million gallons constructed in 1898-1906
+on the Cray, a tributary of the Usk. A large industrial area
+around Neath is supplied from Ystradfellte. Merthyr Tydfil
+draws its supply from the lesser Taff, while Cardiff&rsquo;s main supply
+comes from the Great Taff valley, where, under acts of 1884 and
+1894, two reservoirs with a capacity of 668 million gallons have
+been constructed and a third authorized.</p>
+
+<p>In the east of the county, at the foot of the Black Forest
+Mountains, is Llyn Safaddan, or Brecknock Mere, now more
+generally known as Llangorse Lake (from being partly situated
+in the parish of that name). It is about 3 m. long by 1 m. broad,
+being the largest lake in South Wales. Upon an artificial island
+in the lake traces of lake-dwellings were discovered in 1869,
+together with the bones of red deer, wild boar and <i>Bos longifrons</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The oldest rocks in Brecknockshire are the Llandeilo
+shales and intrusive diabases of pre-Llandovery age which near
+Builth extend across the Wye from Radnorshire; another patch
+with volcanic outflows comes up at Llanwrtyd, and at both places
+they give rise to mineral springs. Next follow the Bala Beds, which,
+with the succeeding Lower and Upper Llandovery shales, sandstones
+and conglomerates, form the sparsely populated sheepwalks and
+valleys which occupy most of the north-western part of the county.
+These rocks are much folded and the shales are locally cleaved into
+slates, while the sandstones and conglomerates form scarps and
+ridges. To the south-east of this region a narrow outcrop of Upper
+Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow sandstones and mudstones follows,
+uncomformably overlying the Llandeilo and Bala rocks, and dipping
+conformably under the Old Red Sandstone; they extend from
+Newbridge-on-Wye and Builth through Llangammarch (where
+there are mineral springs) towards Llandovery, while a tongue of
+Ludlow rocks brought up by faulting extends from Erwood on the
+Wye for 8 m. south-westwards into the Old Red Sandstone. The
+remainder and greater part of the county is occupied chiefly by the
+gently inclined Old Red Sandstone; in the dissected plateau of the
+Black Mountains north of Crickhowell the lower marls and cornstones
+are laid open, while south of Brecon the conglomeratic upper beds
+form the escarpment and plateaus of the Beacons. The southern
+edge of the county is formed by the scarps and moorlands of the
+Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit (both of which form
+also the outlier of Pen-ceryg-calch north of Crickhowell), while the
+lowest beds of the Coal Measures of the South Wales coalfield are
+reached in the Tawe and Neath valleys (where the beds are much
+folded) and near Tredegar and Brynmawr. Glacial deposits spread
+over the lower grounds and striae occur at great heights on the
+Black Mountains.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;Agriculture is the chief industry, and the Agricultural
+Society of the county, dating from 1755, is the oldest
+in Wales. About one-fourth only of the area of the county is
+under cultivation, and the chief crops grown are wheat and
+barley, but above all, turnips and oats. The acreage devoted
+to any other crop is practically infinitesimal, though in the
+eastern part more attention is paid to fruit-growing than perhaps
+in any other part of South Wales. The farming is, however,
+chiefly pastoral, nearly one-third of the county is common or
+waste land, and its number of sheep (mainly of the Radnor Forest
+breed) far exceeds that of any other county in Wales. The
+breeding of cobs and ponies comes next in importance, and
+thirdly that of cattle, now mostly Herefords, though Speed
+mentions a native breed, long since extinct, all white with red
+ears. These, together with pigs, wool, butter, and (in small
+quantities) cheese, form the staple of a considerable trade with
+the Midlands and the industrial districts to the south and southwest.
+The farms are of comparatively small size, the average
+cultivated area of the holdings in 1894 being 63 acres, and the
+hired labour averages about two men for each farm. A large
+share of the work, especially on the highland farms, is done by
+the occupiers and members of their own families, with the aid,
+where required, of an indoor servant or two. Few hands are
+employed in manufactures, but the mining industry is more
+important, coal being extensively worked&mdash;chiefly anthracite
+in the upper reaches of the Swansea and Neath valleys, and
+bituminous in the south-eastern corner of the county. There
+are also limestone and fireclay, firebrick and cement works,
+chiefly on the northern outcrop of the carboniferous limestone,
+as at Abernant in the Vale of Neath and at Penwyllt.</p>
+
+<p>The Central Wales section of the London &amp; North-Western
+railway from Craven Arms to Swansea crosses the north-west
+corner of the county, and is intersected at Builth Road by a
+branch of the Cambrian, which, running for the most part on the
+Radnorshire side of the Wye, follows that river from Rhayader
+to Three Cocks; the Midland railway from Hereford to Swansea
+runs through the centre of the county, effecting junctions at
+Three Cocks with the Cambrian, at Talyllyn with the Brecon &amp;
+Merthyr railway (which connects the county with the industrial
+areas of East Glamorgan and West Monmouthshire), and at Capel
+Colbren with the Neath and Brecon line. The North-Western
+and Rhymney joint line skirts the south-eastern boundary of
+the county. Brecon is also connected with Newport by means
+of the Brecknock and Abergavenny Canal, which was completed
+in 1801 and is 35 m. in length. The Swansea Canal and that of
+the Vale of Neath have also their northern terminal within the
+county, at Ystradgynlais and Abernant respectively. The main
+roads of the county are probably the best in South Wales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient
+county is 475,224 acres, with a population in 1891 of 57,031 and
+in 1901 of 59,907. The area of the administrative county is
+469,301 acres. The only municipal borough is Brecon, which
+is the county town, and had in 1901 a population of 5741. The
+other urban districts are Brynmawr, Builth Wells and Hay,
+with populations of 6833, of 1805 and of 1680 respectively
+in 1901. Crickhowell and Talgarth are market towns, while
+Llanwrtyd Wells is a rapidly developing health resort. The
+county forms part of the South Wales circuit, and the assizes
+are held at Brecon. It had one court of quarter sessions, and is
+divided into ten petty sessional divisions. The borough of
+Brecon has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate
+court of quarter sessions. There are 94 civil parishes, while the
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+county number 70, of which 67 are in the diocese of St David&rsquo;s
+and the archdeaconry of Brecon, the remaining 3 being in the
+diocese of Llandaff. The county is not divided for parliamentary
+purposes, and returns one member to parliament. It contains
+a small part of the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil.</p>
+
+<p>In the eastern parts and along the Wye valley, English has
+become the predominant language, but in the rest of the county,
+especially north of the Eppynt range, Welsh occupies that
+position. In 1901 about 51% of the population above three
+years could speak both English and Welsh, 38% could speak
+English only and 11% Welsh only. The majority of the population
+is Nonconformist in religion, the chief denominations being
+the Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists and Congregationalists.
+Besides an endowed grammar-school (Christ College) at Brecon,
+there are in the county four secondary schools, established under
+the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1899, viz. separate schools
+for boys and girls at Brecon, and dual schools at Builth and
+Brynmawr. Most of the county institutions are in the town of
+Brecon, but the joint asylum for the counties of Brecon and
+Radnor is at Talgarth. It was opened in February 1903. At
+Trevecca, near the same town, was a theological college for
+ministerial students attached to the Calvinistic Methodist body,
+but in October 1906 the institution was removed to Aberystwyth,
+and the buildings have since been utilized for a preparatory
+school belonging to the same body.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;There are no traces or record of Breconshire being
+inhabited before the Neolithic period, but to that period may be
+ascribed a number of cairns, menhirs and one cromlech (near
+Glanusk). In Roman times the eastern half of the county formed
+part of the territory of the Silures, a pre-Celtic race, whose
+governing class at that time probably consisted of Brythonic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span>
+Celts. But an earlier wave of Celtic invasion represented by the
+Goidels had passed westwards along the valleys of the Usk and
+Wye, leaving traces in place-names (<i>e.g. llwch</i>, lake), and in the
+Ogham inscribed stones found at Glanusk, Trallwng and Trecastle,
+and probably surviving into historic times around the
+Beacon range and farther south even to Gower and Kidwelly.
+The conquest of the district by the Romans was effected between
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 75 and 80, and they established a frontier fort (which
+some have called Caer Bannau, identifying it as Bannium) some
+3 m. out of the present town of Brecon, with smaller stations
+on roads leading thereto at Y Gaer near Crickhowell, and at
+Capel Colbren in the direction of Neath. On the departure of
+the Romans, the Goidelic hill-tribes, probably with help from
+Gower and Ireland, seem to have regained possession of the Usk
+valley under the leadership of a chieftain of their own race,
+Brychan, who became the ancestor of one of the three chief
+tribes of hereditary Welsh saints. His territory (named after
+him Brycheiniog, whence Brecknock) lay wholly east of the
+Eppynt range, for the lordship of Buallt, corresponding to the
+modern hundred of Builth, to the west, remained independent,
+probably till the Norman invasion. Most of the older churches
+of central Brecknockshire and east Carmarthenshire were founded
+by or dedicated to members of Brychan&rsquo;s family.</p>
+
+<p>From the middle of the 8th century to the 10th, Brycheiniog
+proper often bore the brunt of Mercian attacks, and many of
+the castles on its eastern border had their origin in that period.
+Subsequently, when Bernard de Newmarch and his Norman
+followers obtained possession of the country in the last quarter
+of the 11th century, these were converted into regular fortresses.
+Bernard himself initiated this policy by building a castle at
+Talgarth on the Upper Wye, but in 1091 he moved southwards,
+defeated the regulus of Brycheiniog, Bleddyn ab Maenarch, and
+his brother-in-law Rhys ap Tewdwr, the prince of south-west
+Wales, and with materials obtained from the Roman fort of
+Caer Bannau, built a castle at Brecon, which he made his <i>caput
+baroniae</i>. Brycheiniog was then converted into a lordship
+marcher and passed to the Fitzwalter, de Breos, the Bohun and
+the Stafford families in succession, remaining unaffected by the
+Statute of Rhuddlan (1282), as it formed part of the marches, and
+not of the principality of Wales.</p>
+
+<p>The Irfon valley, near Builth, was, however, the scene of the
+last struggle between the English and Llewelyn, who in 1282
+fell in a petty skirmish in that district. The old spirit of independence
+flickered once again when Owen Glendower marched
+to Brecon in 1403. Upon the attainder of Edward, duke of
+Buckingham, in 1521, the lordship of Brecon with its dependencies
+became vested in the crown. In 1536 it was grouped with
+a whole series of petty lordships marcher and the lordship of
+Builth to form the county of Brecknock with Brecon as the
+county town, and the place for holding the county court. The
+county returns one member to parliament, and has done so since
+1536; the borough of Brecon, with the town of Llywel, had also
+a separate representative from the same date till 1885, when it
+became merged in the county.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREDA,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a fortified town in the province of North Brabant,
+Holland, at the confluence of the canalized rivers Merk and Aa,
+15 m. by rail E.N.E. of Roozendaal. Pop. (1900) 26,296. It is
+connected by steam tramway with Antwerp (30 m. S.S.W.), and
+with Geertruidenberg in the north, and the island of Duiveland
+on the west. The fortress of Breda, which was once considered
+impregnable, has been dismantled, but the town is still protected
+by extensive lines of fortification and lies in the midst of a district
+which can be readily laid under water. It has a fine quay, town-hall
+and park. There are several Roman Catholic and Protestant
+churches. The principal Protestant church is a Gothic building
+dating from the end of the 13th century, with a fine tower, and
+a choir of later date (1410). Among the many interesting monuments
+is the imposing tomb of the stadtholder Count Engelbert
+II. of Nassau and his wife. This is the work of Tomasino Vincenz
+of Bologna, who, though a pupil of Raphael in painting, in
+sculpture followed Michelangelo, to whom the work is sometimes
+ascribed. Since 1828 Breda has been the seat of a royal
+military academy for all arms of the service. It also possesses
+a Latin school, an arsenal, and a modern prison built on the
+isolated-cell principle. The prison is in the form of a rotunda,
+58 yds. in diameter, and covered by a high dome. In the middle
+is the office of the administration, and on the top of this a small
+watch-tower. Round the walls of the rotunda are the cells, 208
+in number, and arranged in four tiers with balconies reached
+by iron staircases. Each cell measures 35 cub. yds., is provided
+with an electric bell communicating with the warder in the
+tower, heated by hot-air pipes, and lighted by day through a
+window on the outer wall of the rotunda, and from sunset till
+ten o&rsquo;clock by electric light. The industries of Breda comprise
+the manufacture of linen and woollen goods, carpets, hats, beer
+and musical instruments. In the neighbourhood of the town are
+the villages of Ginneken and Prinsenhage, situated in the midst
+of pretty pine woods. They form favourite places of excursion,
+and in the woods at Ginneken is a Kneipp sanatorium.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Breda was in the 11th century a direct fief of the Holy
+Roman Empire, its earliest known lord being Henry I. (1098-1125),
+in whose family it continued, though, from the latter part
+of the 13th century, in the female line, until Alix, heiress of
+Philip (d. 1323), sold it to Brabant. In 1350 the fief was resold
+to John (Jan) of Polanen (d. 1377), the heiress of whose line,
+Joanna (d. 1445), married Engelbert of Nassau-Dillenburg (d.
+1442). Henceforth it remained in the house of Nassau, passing
+ultimately to William I. (1533-1584), the first stadtholder of the
+Netherlands. Breda obtained municipal rights in 1252, but was
+first surrounded with walls in 1534 by Count Henry of Nassau,
+who also restored the old castle, originally built by John of
+Polanen in 1350. From this period until late in the 19th century
+it remained the most important of the line of fortresses along
+the Meuse. Breda was captured by surprise by the Spaniards
+in 1581; but in 1590 it fell again into the hands of Maurice of
+Nassau, 68 picked men contriving to get into the town concealed
+under the turf in a peat-boat. The so-called &ldquo;Spaniard&rsquo;s Hole&rdquo;
+still marks the spot where the peat-boat lay. Its surrender in
+1625, after a ten months&rsquo; siege, to the Spaniards under Spinola
+is the subject of the famous picture by Velasquez in the Museo
+del Prado in Madrid. In 1637 Breda was recaptured by Frederick
+Henry of Orange after a four months&rsquo; siege, and in 1648 it was
+finally ceded to Holland by the treaty of Westphalia. During
+the wars of the French Revolution, it was taken by Dumouriez
+in 1793, evacuated soon after and retaken by Pichegru in 1795,
+after the whole of Holland had already succumbed to the French.
+In 1813, a sally being made by the French garrison on an advance-guard
+of the Russians under Benckendorff, the citizens of Breda
+again made themselves masters of the town.</p>
+
+<p>Breda was the residence, during his exile, of Charles II., who,
+by the declaration of Breda (1660), made known the conditions
+of his acceptance of the crown of England. In 1696 William,
+prince of Orange and king of England, built the new castle, one
+of the finest buildings of the period, which now serves as the
+military academy. Breda also derives some celebrity from the
+various political congresses of which it has been the scene. In
+1575 a conference was held here between the ambassadors of
+Spain and those of the United Provinces; in 1667 a peace was
+signed between England, Holland, France and Denmark; and
+in 1746-1747 the representatives of the same powers met in the
+town to discuss the terms of another treaty.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1683-1750), Flemish painter,
+son of Alexander van Bredael (d. 1720), who was also an artist,
+was born in Antwerp. He imitated the style of Wouverman
+and Breughel with such dexterity that even connoisseurs are
+often unable to distinguish his copies of their pictures from the
+originals. He visited England, where he was so well employed
+that in a few years he was able to retire to his native country with
+a competency. The earl of Derwentwater was one of his chief
+patrons. There were several other van Bredaels, who won
+honour as artists&mdash;notably <span class="sc">Pieter</span> (1622-1719), Alexander&rsquo;s
+father, and <span class="sc">Jozef</span> (1688-1739). They were formerly known as
+&ldquo;Breda,&rdquo; but this apparently is incorrect, though it occurs as a
+signature on a picture by Jan Frans in the Amsterdam gallery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREDERODE, HENRY,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span> (1531-1568), was born at
+Brussels in 1531. He was the descendant of an ancient race,
+which had for some centuries been settled in Holland, and had
+taken an active part in the affairs of war and peace. Count
+Henry became a convert to the Reformed faith and placed himself
+at the side of the prince of Orange and Count Egmont in
+resisting the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition and Spanish
+despotism into the Netherlands. In 1566 he was one of the
+founders of the confederacy of nobles who bound themselves to
+maintain the rights and liberties of the country by signing a
+document known as &ldquo;the Compromise.&rdquo; On the 5th of April
+of that year Brederode accompanied to the palace a body of 250
+confederates, of whom he acted as the spokesman, to present to
+the regent, Margaret of Parma, a petition setting forth their
+grievances, called &ldquo;the Request.&rdquo; It was at a banquet at the
+Hotel Culemburg on the 8th of April, presided over by Brederode,
+that the sobriquet of <i>les Gueux</i>, or &ldquo;the Beggars,&rdquo; was first
+given to the opponents of Spanish rule. Brederode was banished
+from the Netherlands by Alva, and died in exile shortly afterwards
+at the early age of thirty-six.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1773-1814), German
+historian, was born at Berlin on the 14th of December 1773, and
+became successively professor at the universities of Helmstadt,
+Frankfort-on-Oder and Breslau. He died at Breslau on the
+5th of September 1814. Bredow&rsquo;s principal works are <i>Handbuch
+der alien Geschichte, Geographic und Chronologie</i> (Eutin, 1799;
+English trans., London, 1827); <i>Chronik des 19. Jahrhunderts</i>
+(Altona, 1801); <i>Entwurf der Weltkunde der Alten</i> (Altona, 1816);
+<i>Weltgeschichte in Tabellen</i> (Altona, 1801; English trans, by
+J. Bell, London, 1820); <i>Grundriss einer Geschichte der merkwürdigsten
+Welthändel von 1796-1810</i> (Hamburg, 1810).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bredow&rsquo;s posthumous writings were edited by J.G. Kunisch
+(Breslau, 1823), who added a biography of the author.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREDOW<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
+immediately north of Stettin, of which it forms a suburb. Here
+are the Vulcan iron-works and shipbuilding yards, where the
+liners &ldquo;Deutschland&rdquo; (1900), the &ldquo;Kaiserin Augusta Victoria&rdquo;
+(1906), and the &ldquo;George Washington&rdquo; (1908), the largest vessel
+(722 ft. long, 27,000 tons) in the German mercantile marine,
+were built; and also sugar, cement and other factories.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREECH<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (common in early forms to Teutonic languages), a
+covering for the lower part of the body and legs. The Latin
+<i>braca</i> or <i>bracca</i> is a Celtic word, probably cognate with the
+Teutonic. The word in its proper meaning is used in the plural,
+and, strictly, is confined to a garment reaching to the knees only.
+The meaning of &ldquo;the hinder part of the body&rdquo; is later than,
+and derived from, its first meaning; this sense appears in the
+&ldquo;breech&rdquo; or hinder part of a gun. The word is also found in
+&ldquo;breeches buoy,&rdquo; a sling life-saving apparatus, consisting of a
+support of canvas breeches. The &ldquo;Breeches Bible,&rdquo; a name
+for the Geneva Bible of 1560, is so called because &ldquo;breeches&rdquo;
+is used for the aprons of fig-leaves made by Adam and Eve. On
+the stage the phrase a &ldquo;breeches&rdquo; part is used when a woman
+plays in male costume. &ldquo;Breeching&rdquo; is a strap passed round
+the breech of a harnessed horse and joined to the shafts to allow
+a vehicle to be backed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREEDS AND BREEDING.<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> Breeds may be defined as domestic
+varieties of animals or plants which man has been able to bring
+into existence and to maintain in existence. The process of
+breeding includes all the modifying influences which man may
+bring to bear on a wild stock for the purpose, conscious or
+unconscious, of establishing and maintaining breeds. Charles
+Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>
+(1868) was the starting-point of exact knowledge on this subject;
+when it appeared, it contained not only the best collection of
+empirical facts, but the only rational theory of the facts. The
+first relations between man and domesticated animals and plants
+were due to unconscious or accidental selection of wild stocks
+that tolerated the vicinity of man and that were useful or
+attractive to him. The new conditions must have produced
+modifications in these stocks, whether these were caused by a
+survival in each generation of individuals with the power of
+response to the new environment, or were due to a conscious
+selection of individuals capable of such favourable response.
+The essence of the process, however, came to be a conscious
+selection in each generation of the best individuals, that is to say,
+of those individuals that seemed to man to be most adapted to his
+wants. The possibility of establishing a breed depended, therefore,
+in the first place on the natural variability of wild animals
+and plants, then on the variations induced in animals and plants
+under subjection to the new conditions brought about by man&rsquo;s
+interference, next on the extent to which these variations,
+natural or artificial, persisted through the series of generations,
+and finally on man&rsquo;s intelligence in altering or maintaining the
+conditions of the environment, and in selective mating. The
+theory of breeds and breeding depends, in fact, on knowledge of
+variation, of modification by the environment, and of heredity.
+Any attempt to give an account of what actually has been done
+by man in establishing breeds would be little more than an
+imperfect summary of Darwin&rsquo;s work. The articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heredity</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mendelism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variation and Selection</a></span> show that what
+may be called the theoretical and experimental knowledge of
+variation and heredity is far in advance of the practical art
+of breeding. Even horticulturists, who have been much more
+successful than those who deal with animals, are still far from
+being able to predict the result of their selections and crossings.
+None the less it may be stated definitely that such prediction
+is already so nearly within the power of the practical breeder
+that it would be a waste of time to give a summary of the existing
+rule-of-thumb methods. The art of breeding is so immediately
+destined to become a science of breeding that existing knowledge
+and conceptions must be dismissed as of no more than historical
+interest.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. C. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREEZE,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1) A current of air generally taken as somewhat
+less than a &ldquo;wind,&rdquo; which in turn is less than a &ldquo;gale.&rdquo; The
+term is particularly applied to the light wind blowing landwards
+by day, &ldquo;sea-breeze,&rdquo; and the counter wind, blowing off the
+land at night, &ldquo;land-breeze.&rdquo; The word appears in Fr. <i>brise</i>
+(admitted by the Academy in 1762). The Span, <i>brisa</i>, Port.
+<i>briza</i>, and Ital. <i>brezza</i> are used for a wind blowing from the
+north or north-east. According to Cotgrave, Rabelais uses
+<i>brize</i> in the sense of <i>bise</i>, the name of a dry north or north-east
+wind prevalent in Switzerland and the bordering parts of France,
+Italy and Germany. The word is first used in English as applied
+to the cool sea-breeze blowing usually from the east or north-east
+in the West Indies and Atlantic sea-coast of Central America.
+It was then applied to sea-breezes from any quarter, and also
+to the land-breeze, and so to any light wind or current of air.
+(2) Fine ashes or cinders, the refuse of coal, coke and charcoal
+burning. This is probably from the O. Fr. <i>brese</i>, modern <i>braise</i>,
+a word connected with <i>braser</i>, whence Eng. <i>brazier</i>, a pan for
+burning coals, charcoal, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREGENZ<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (anc. <i>Brigantium</i>), the capital of the Austrian,
+province of Vorarlberg, as well as of the administrative district
+of Bregenz. In 1900 its population was 7595, German-speaking
+and Roman Catholic. It is situated at the south-east angle
+of the Lake of Constance, and, besides communications by water
+with the other towns on the shores of that lake, is connected by:
+rail with Feldkirch on the Arlberg line (24 m.) and with Munich.
+The old town is on a hillock, crowned by the ancient castle, while
+the new town is built on the level ground at the foot of the hill.
+The fine parish church (dedicated to St Gall) stands on another
+mound more to the south. In the local museum are collections
+of various kinds, especially of the Roman antiquities which have
+been dug up on the site of the old town. The position of the town
+on the lake has always made it an important port and commercial
+centre. Nowadays the main trade is in grain, but much is done
+also in cattle and in the products of the cotton-spinning factories
+of Vorarlberg.</p>
+
+<p>We hear of counts of Bregenz as early as the 10th century,
+their heirs in the early 13th century being the counts of Montfort
+(a castle north of Feldkirch), who gradually acquired most of
+the surrounding country (including Feldkirch and Bludenz).
+But little by little the Habsburgers, counts of Tirol since 1363
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span>
+bought from them most of their domains&mdash;first Feldkirch in
+1375, next Bludenz and the Montafon valley in 1394, finally the
+county of Bregenz in two parts, acquired in 1451 and 1523. In
+1408 the Appenzellers were defeated before Bregenz, while in
+1647, during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, the town was sacked by
+the Swedes under Wrangel.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREHON LAWS,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> the English but incorrect appellation of
+the ancient laws of Ireland, the proper name for which is <i>Feineachas</i>,
+meaning the laws of the Feine or Feini (fainyeh), who
+were the free Gaelic farmers. <i>Dlighthe Feine</i> is another name
+for the laws, with the same meaning. Laws of universal application
+which could be administered only by duly qualified judges
+were called <i>Câin</i> law, while minor laws administered by nobles
+and magistrates were called <i>Urradhus</i> law. Regular courts and
+judges existed in Ireland from prehistoric times. The Anglo-Irish
+word &ldquo;Brehon&rdquo; is derived from the Gaelic word <i>Brethem</i>
+(= judge).</p>
+
+<p>The extant remains of these laws are manuscript transcripts
+from earlier copies made on vellum from the 8th to the 13th
+century, now preserved with other Gaelic manuscripts in Trinity
+College and the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, the British
+Museum, Oxford University, some private collections and several
+libraries on the continent of Europe. The largest and most
+important of these documents is the <i>Senchus Mór</i> or &ldquo;Great Old
+Law Book.&rdquo; No copy of it now existing is complete, and some
+portions are missing from all. What remains of it occupies the
+first, second, and a portion of the third of the volumes produced
+by the Brehon Law Commission, which was appointed in 1852.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i> it is said: &ldquo;The age of
+Christ 438, the tenth year of King Laeghaire (Lairy), the <i>Senchus
+Mór</i> and <i>Feineachas</i> of Ireland were purified and written.&rdquo;
+This entry has ample historical corroboration. Of many separate
+treatises dealing with special branches of the law, the <i>Book of
+Aicill</i>, composed of opinions or placita of King Cormac Mac Art,
+otherwise Cormac ua Quim, Ard-Rig of Erinn from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 227 until
+266, and Cennfaeladh the Learned, who lived in the first part
+of the 7th century, is the most important.</p>
+
+<p>The text and earlier commentaries are in the <i>Bearla Feini</i>&mdash;the
+most archaic form of the Celtic or Gaelic language. From
+gradual changes in the living tongue through a long expanse of
+time many words, phrases and idioms in the <i>Bearla Feini</i> became
+obsolete, and are so difficult to translate that the official translations
+are to some extent confessedly conjectural. In many cases
+only opening words of the original text remain. Wherever the
+text is whole, it is curt, elliptical, and yet rhythmical to a degree
+attainable only through long use. The rigorously authentic
+character of these laws, relating to, and dealing with, the actual
+realities of life, and with institutions and a state of society
+nowhere else revealed to the same extent, the extreme antiquity
+both of the provisions and of the language, and the meagreness
+of continental material illustrative of the same things, endow
+them with exceptional archaic, archaeological and philological
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest times all learned men, whether specially learned
+in law or not, appear to have acted as judges. Gradually as
+literature and learning increased, judgments delivered by men
+without special legal training fell into disfavour. In the 1st
+century of the Christian era, when Conchobhar or Conor Mac
+Nessa was king of Ulster, a crisis was reached, the result of which
+was that no man was allowed to act as Brehon until he had
+studied the full law course, which occupied twenty years, and
+had passed a rigorous public examination. The course of study
+for Brehon and Ollamh, advocate and law-agent respectively, is
+carefully laid down in the law itself. The Brehonship was not
+an office of state like that of the modern judge, but a profession
+in which success depended upon ability and judgment. The
+Brehon was an arbitrator, umpire, and expounder of the law,
+rather than a judge in the modern acceptation. It appears,
+without being expressly stated, that the facts of a case were
+investigated and ascertained by laymen, probably by the
+<i>Aireachtas</i>&mdash;a local assembly or jury&mdash;before submission to a
+Breton for legal decision. A Brehon whose decision was reversed
+upon appeal was liable to damages, loss of position and of free
+lands, if any, disgrace, and a consequent loss of his profession.
+No Brehon had any fixed territorial jurisdiction. A party
+initiating proceedings could select any Brehon he pleased, if
+there were more than one in his district. Every king or chief
+of sufficient territory retained an official Brehon, who was provided
+with free land for his maintenance. In ordinary cases the
+Brehon&rsquo;s fee was said to have been one-twelfth of the amount
+at stake.</p>
+
+<p>Assemblies, national, provincial and local, were a marked
+characteristic of ancient Irish life. They all, without exception,
+discharged some legal functions, legislative or administrative,
+and even in those in which amusement predominated, the <i>Cáin</i>
+law was publicly rehearsed. Most of the assemblies were annual,
+some triennial, some lasted only a day or two, others a week and
+occasionally longer. All originated in pagan funeral or commemorative
+rites, and continued to be held, even in Christian
+times, in very ancient cemeteries. They were called by different
+names&mdash;<i>Feis, Aenach, Aireachtas, Dál, &amp;c.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Feis of Tara, in Meath, was from its origin seven centuries
+before Christ down to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 560, mainly national and political,
+being convened by the Ard-Rig, held at his residence, presided
+over by him, and consisting of the provincial kings, tanists,
+flaiths, Brehons, warriors, historians, poets and other distinguished
+men from the whole of Ireland. It was due to be held
+every third year for the purpose of &ldquo;preserving the laws and
+rules,&rdquo; and it might be called specially on any urgent occasion.
+After the statesmen had consulted, the laws were proclaimed,
+with any modifications agreed upon. Then the proceedings
+became festive, queens and great ladies taking part. The Feis
+of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 560 was the last regular one held at Tara because the
+monarch ceased to reside there. One national assembly of an
+exceptional character was held at Tara in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 697, by a decree
+of which women were emancipated from liability to military
+service.</p>
+
+<p>The Aenach held annually at Tailltenn, also in Meath, was a
+general assembly of the people without restriction of rank, clan
+or country, and became the most celebrated for athletic sports,
+games and contests. Yet even here the laws were read aloud,
+and it is not without significance that the last national assembly
+held at Tailltenn under King Rhoderic O&rsquo;Connor in 1168 was
+a political one.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Dál-Criche</i> (= territorial assembly), held at Uisneach in
+Westmeath, was a gathering for political and quasi-legislative
+purposes. At one assembly there about a century before Christ,
+a uniform law of distraint for the whole of Ireland was adopted
+on the motion of Sen, son of Aigé. This did not prevent the
+gatherings at Uisneach from being for ages celebrated for gaiety
+and amusement.</p>
+
+<p>Each provincial kingdom and each tuath had assemblies of
+its own. Every <i>flaith</i> and <i>flaith-fine</i> was a member of a local
+assembly, the clan system conferring the qualification, and there
+being no other election.</p>
+
+<p>An assembly when convened by the <i>Bruigh-fer</i> for the special
+purpose of electing a tanist or successor to the king was called
+a <i>Tocomra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Very careful provision is made for the preparation of the sites
+of great assemblies, and the preservation of peace and order at
+them is sanctioned by the severest penalties of the law. The
+operation of every legal process calculated to occasion friction,
+such as seizure of property, was suspended during the time the
+assemblies lasted.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>Rig</i> (reeh = <i>rex</i>, king) was applied to four classes or
+grades of rulers, the lower grades being grouped, each group being
+subject to one of their number, and all being subject to, and owing
+tribute and allegiance to the Ard-Rig (= supreme king of Erinn).
+The Ard-Rig had an official residence at Tara and the kingdom
+of Meath for his special use. The provincial king, Rig Cuicidh,
+also had an official residence and kingdom of his own, together with
+allegiance and tribute from each Rig-mor-Tuatha in his province,
+who in his turn received tribute and allegiance from each Rig-Tuatha
+under subjection to him. The Rig-Tuatha received
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span>
+tribute and allegiance from the flaiths or nobles in his tuath.
+The tuath was the political unit, and the ruler of it was the lowest
+to whom the term &ldquo;king&rdquo; was applied. For each payment of
+tribute a king always made some return. Every king was obliged,
+on his inauguration, to swear that he would govern justly and
+according to law, to which he remained always subject. The
+Ard-Rig was selected by the sub-kings and other leading men
+who legally constituted the Feis of Tara, the sub-kings by those
+under them in their respective spheres. No person not of full
+age, imperfectly educated, stupid, blind, deaf, deformed or otherwise
+defective in mind or body, or for any reason whatsoever
+unfit to discharge the duties or unworthy to represent the manhood
+of the nation, could be king, even though he were the
+eldest son of the preceding king. &ldquo;It is a forbidden thing for
+one with a blemish to be king at Tara.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Tuath, Cinel</i> and <i>Clann</i> were synonyms meaning a small
+tribe or nation descended from a common ancestor. A king and
+clan being able, subject to certain limitations, to adopt new
+members or families, or amalgamate with another clan, the
+theory of common origin was not rigidly adhered to. Kinship
+with the clan was an essential qualification for holding any office
+or property. The rules of kinship largely determined status with
+its correlative rights and obligations, supplied the place of
+contract and of laws affecting the ownership, disposition and
+devolution of property, constituting the clan an organic, self-contained
+entity, a political, social and mutual insurance co-partnership.
+The solidarity of the clan was its most important
+and all-pervading characteristic. The entire territory occupied
+by a clan was the common and absolute property of that clan.
+Subject to this permanent and fundamental ownership, part of the
+land was set apart for the maintenance of the king as such.
+Warriors, statesmen, Brehons, Ollamhs, physicians, poets, and
+even eminent workers in the more important arts, were, in
+different degrees, rewarded with free lands for their respective
+public services. On the death of any person so rewarded, the
+land in theory reverted to the clan; but if like services continued
+to be rendered by the son or other successor, and accepted by the
+clan, the land was not withdrawn. The successors of statesmen,
+for whom the largest provision was made, became a permanent
+nobility. Flaith (flah = noble chief) was a term applied to a man
+of this rank. Rank, with the accompanying privileges, jurisdiction
+and responsibility, was based upon a qualification of
+kinship and of property, held by a family for a specified number
+of generations, together with certain concurrent conditions; and
+it could be lost by loss of property, crime, cowardice or other disgraceful
+conduct. The flaiths in every tuath and all ranks of
+society were organized on the same hierarchical pattern as
+royalty. A portion of land called the <i>Cumhal Senorba</i> was devoted
+to the support of widows, orphans and old childless people.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fine</i> (finna), originally meaning family, came in course of time
+to be applied to a group of kindred families or to a whole clan.
+From differences between incidental accounts written in different
+ages, it appears that the social system underwent some change.
+For the purpose of conveying some idea, one theory may be
+taken, according to which the <i>fine</i> was made up of seventeen
+clansmen, with their families, viz. the <i>Geilfine</i> consisting of
+the flaith-fine and four others in the same or nearest degree of
+kinship to the centre, and the <i>Deirbhfine, Tarfine</i> and <i>Innfine</i>,
+each consisting of four heads of families, forming widening
+concentric circles of kinship to which the rights and liabilities
+of the <i>fine</i> extended with certainty, but in diminishing degrees.</p>
+
+<p>In course of time a large and increasing proportion of the good
+land became, under the titles so far described, limited private
+property. The area of arable land available for the common use
+of the clansmen was gradually diminished by these encroachments,
+but was still always substantial. A share of this was the birthright
+of every law-abiding member of the Feini who needed it.
+To satisfy this title and give a start in life to some young men
+who would otherwise have got none, this land was subject to
+<i>Gabhailcine</i> (= clan-resumption), meaning that the clan resumed
+the whole area at intervals of a few years for a fresh distribution
+after some occupants had died, and young men by attaining
+manhood had become entitled. Hence the Anglo-Irish word
+<i>gavelkind</i>. Anciently this re-distribution extended throughout
+the clan at the same time. Later it extended only to the land of
+a <i>fine</i>, each <i>fine</i> making its own distribution at its own time and
+in its own way as determined by the seventeen men above
+specified. In this distribution men might or might not receive
+again their former portions. In the latter case compensation
+was made for unexhausted improvements. This land could not
+be sold, nor even let except for a season in case of domestic
+necessity. The Feini who used it had no landlord and no rent
+to pay for this land, and could not be deprived of it except by
+the clan for a crime. They were subject only to public tributes
+and the ordinary obligations of free men. Presumably their
+homesteads were not on this land and were not subject to
+<i>Gabhailcine</i>. Neither were the unfenced and unappropriated
+common lands&mdash;waste, bog, forest and mountain&mdash;which all
+clansmen were free to use promiscuously at will.</p>
+
+<p>There was hardly any selling and little letting of land in ancient
+times. Flaiths and other persons holding large areas let to
+clansmen, who then became <i>Ceiles</i>, not land, but the privilege
+of feeding upon land a number of cattle specified by agreement.
+Flaiths and Bo-aires also let cattle to a <i>ceile</i> who had none or
+not enough, and this was the most prevalent practice. There
+were two distinct methods of letting and hiring&mdash;<i>saer</i> (= free)
+and <i>daer</i> (= base), the conditions being fundamentally different.
+The conditions of <i>saer</i>-tenure were largely settled by the law,
+were comparatively easy, did not require any security to be
+given, left the <i>ceile</i> free within the limits of justice to end the
+connexion, left him competent in case of dispute to give evidence
+against that of the flaith, and did not impose any liability on
+the <i>fine</i> of the <i>ceile</i>. By continued user of the same land for some
+years and discharge of the public obligations in respect of it in
+addition to the <i>ciss</i> or payment as tenant, a <i>ceile</i> became a sub-owner
+or permanent tenant and could not be evicted. There is
+no provision in these laws for evicting any one. For the hire of
+cattle a usual payment was one beast in seven per annum for
+seven years; after which the cattle that remained became the
+property of the hirer. A <i>saer-ceile</i> on growing wealthy might
+become a <i>bo-aire</i>. <i>Daer-tenure</i>, whether of cattle or of the
+right to graze cattle upon land, was subject to a <i>ciss-ninsciss</i>
+(= wearisome tribute), for the payment of which security had to
+be given. A man not in the enjoyment of full civil rights, if
+able to find security, could become a <i>daer-ceile</i>. A free clansman
+by becoming a <i>daer-ceile</i> lowered his own status and that of his
+<i>fine</i>, became incompetent to give evidence against that of a flaith,
+and could not end the connexion until the end of the term except
+by a large payment. The members of his <i>fine</i> were liable, in
+the degree of their relationship, to make good out of their own
+property any default in the payments. Hence this tenure could
+not be legally entered into by a free clansman without the permission
+of his fine. <i>Daer-ceiles</i> were also exposed to casual burdens,
+like that of lodging and feeding soldiers when in their district.
+All payments were made in kind. When the particular kind was
+not specified by the law or by agreement, the payments were
+made according to convenience in horses, cattle, sheep, pigs,
+wool, butter, bacon, corn, vegetables, yarn, dye-plants, leather,
+cloth, articles of use or ornament, &amp;c. As the clan system
+relaxed, and the fine lost its legal power of fixing the amounts
+of public tributes, which were similarly payable to the <i>flaith</i>,
+and neglected its duty of seeing that those tributes were duly
+applied, the <i>flaith</i> became able to increase these tributes with
+little check, to confuse them with rent, to confuse jurisdiction
+with ownership, and to exalt himself at the expense of his fellow-clansmen.
+A <i>flaith</i> by arranging that his tenants should make
+their payments at different periods of the year, secured a constant
+and copious supply without an inconvenient surplus.</p>
+
+<p>People who did not belong to the clan and were not citizens were
+in a base condition and incompetent to appear in court in suit
+or defence except through a freeman. The <i>Bothach</i> (= cottier)
+and the <i>Sen-clèithe</i> (= old dependent) were people who, though
+living for successive generations attached to the families
+of flaiths, did not belong to the clan and had no rights of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span>
+citizenship. <i>Fuidhirs</i>, or manual labourers without property, were
+the lowest section of the population. Some were born in this
+condition, some clansmen were depressed into it by crime, consequences
+of war or other misfortune; and strangers of a low class
+coming into the territory found their level in it. The <i>fuidhirs</i>
+also were divided into <i>saer</i> and <i>daer</i>; the former being free by
+industry and thrift to acquire some property, after which five
+of them could club together to acquire rights corresponding to
+those of one freeman. The <i>daer-fuidhirs</i> were tramps, fugitives,
+captives, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Fosterage, the custom of sending children to be reared and
+educated in the families of fellow-clansmen, was so prevalent,
+especially among the wealthy classes, and the laws governing it are
+so elaborate and occupied such a large space, that some mention
+of it here is inevitable. Beyond mention, there is little to be
+said, owing to the absence of general principles in an infinity of
+specific details, mostly domestic and apparently trivial. A child
+in fosterage was reared and educated suitably for the position
+it was destined to fill in life. There was fosterage for affection,
+for payment and for a literary education. Fosterage began
+when the child was a year old and ended when the marriageable
+age was reached, unless previously terminated by death or crime.
+Every fostered person was under an obligation to provide, if
+necessary, for the old age of foster-parents. The affection
+arising from this relationship was usually greater, and was
+regarded as more sacred than that of blood relationship.</p>
+
+<p>The solidarity of clan and <i>fine</i> in their respective spheres, the
+provisions of the system, the simple rural life, and the prevalence
+of barter and payments in kind, left comparatively little occasion
+for contracts between individuals. Consequently the rules
+relating to contract are not very numerous. They are, however,
+sufficiently solemn. No contract affecting land was valid unless
+made with the consent of the <i>fine</i> and in the presence of the
+<i>Aire-Forgaill</i>. Contracts relating to other kinds of property
+are more numerous. When important or involving a considerable
+amount, they had to be made in the presence of a <i>flaith</i> or
+magistrate. The <i>Aire-Coisring</i> presided over most of the contracts
+of the common people. The parties to a contract should be free
+citizens, of full age, sound mind, free to contract or not, and
+under no legal disability. &ldquo;The world would be in a state of
+confusion if express contracts were not binding.&rdquo; From the
+repeated correlative dicta that &ldquo;nothing is due without deserving,&rdquo;
+and that a thing done &ldquo;for God&rsquo;s sake,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> gratis, imposed
+little obligation, it is clear that the importance of valuable consideration
+was fully recognized. So also was the importance
+of time. &ldquo;To be asleep avails no one&rdquo;; &ldquo;Sloth takes away a
+man&rsquo;s welfare.&rdquo; Contracts made by the following persons were
+invalid: (1) a servant without his master&rsquo;s authority; (2) a
+monk without authority from his abbot or manager of temporalities;
+(3) a son subject to his father without the father&rsquo;s
+authority; (4) an infant, lunatic, or &ldquo;one who had not the full
+vigilance of reason&rdquo;; (5) a wife in relation to her husband&rsquo;s
+property without his authority. She was free to hold and deal
+with property of her own and bind it by contract. If a son
+living with his father entered into a contract with his father&rsquo;s
+knowledge, the father was held to have ratified the contract
+unless he promptly repudiated it. &ldquo;One is held to adopt what
+he does not repudiate after knowledge, having the power.&rdquo;
+Contract of sale or barter with warranty could be dissolved for
+fraud, provided action was taken within a limited time after the
+fraud had become known. Treaties and occasional very important
+contracts were made &ldquo;blood-covenants&rdquo; and inviolable
+by drawing a drop of blood from the little finger of each of the
+contracting parties, blending this with water, and both drinking
+the mixture out of the same cup. The forms of legal evidence
+were pledges, documents, witnesses and oaths. In cases of
+special importance the pledges were human beings, &ldquo;hostage
+sureties.&rdquo; These were treated as in their own homes according
+to the rank to which they belonged, and were discharged on
+the performance of the contract. If the contract was broken,
+they became prisoners and might be fettered or made to work as
+slaves until the obligation was satisfied. Authentic documents
+were considered good evidence. A witness was in all cases
+important, and in some essential to the validity of a contract.
+His status affected the force of the contract as well as the value
+of his evidence; and the laws appear to imply that by becoming
+a witness, a man incurred liabilities as a surety. The pre-Christian
+oath might be by one or more of the elements, powers
+or phenomena of nature, as the sun, moon, water, night, day,
+sea, land. The Christian oath might be on a copy of the Gospels,
+a saint&rsquo;s crozier, relic or other holy thing.</p>
+
+<p>These laws recognized crime, but in the same calm and deliberate
+way in which they recognized contract and other things seriously
+affecting the people. Although we find in the poems of Dubhthach,
+written in the 5th century and prefixed to the <i>Senchus
+Mór</i>, the sentences, &ldquo;Let every one die who kills a human being,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Every living person that inflicts death shall suffer death,&rdquo;
+capital punishment did not prevail in Ireland before or after.
+The laws uniformly discountenanced revenge, retaliation, the
+punishment of one crime by another, and permitted capital
+punishment only in the last resort and in ultimate default of
+every other form of redress. They contain elaborate provision
+for dealing with crime, but the standpoint from which it is
+regarded and treated is essentially different from ours. The
+state, for all its elaborate structure, did not assume jurisdiction
+in relation to any crimes except political ones, such as treason
+or the disturbance of a large assembly. For these it inflicted
+the severest penalties known to the law&mdash;banishment, confiscation
+of property, death or putting out of eyes. A crime against
+the person, character or property of an individual or family was
+regarded as a thing for which reparation should be made, but the
+individual or family had to seek the reparation by a personal
+action. This differed from a civil action only in the terms
+employed and the elements used in calculating the amount of
+the reparation. The function of a judge in a criminal as in a
+civil action was to see that the facts, with modifying circumstances,
+were fully and truly submitted to him, and then by
+applying the law to these facts to ascertain and declare the
+amount of compensation that would make a legal adjustment.
+For this amount the guilty person, and in his default his kindred,
+became legally debtor, and the injured person or family became
+entitled to recover the amount like a civil debt by distraint, if
+not paid voluntarily. There were no police, sheriffs or public
+prisons. The decisions of the law were executed by the persons
+concerned, supported by a highly organized and disciplined
+public opinion springing from honour and interest and inherent
+in the solidarity of the clan. There is good reason to believe
+that the system was as effectual in the prevention and punishment
+of crime and in the redress of wrongs as any other human
+contrivance has ever been.</p>
+
+<p>In calculating the amount of compensation the most characteristic
+and important element was <i>Einechlan</i> (= honour-price,
+honour-value), a value attaching to every free person, varying
+in amount from one cow to thirty cows according to rank. It was
+the assessed value of <i>status</i> or <i>caput</i>. It was frequently of consequence
+in relation to contracts and other clan affairs; but it
+emerges most clearly in connexion with crime. By the commission
+of crime, breach of contract, or other disgraceful or injurious
+conduct, Einechlan was diminished or destroyed, a <i>capitis
+diminutio</i> occurred, apart from any other punishment. Though
+existing apart from fine, Einechlan was the first element in almost
+every fine. <i>Dire</i> was the commonest word for fine, whether great
+or small. <i>Eric</i> (= reparation, redemption) was the fine for
+&ldquo;separating body from soul&rdquo;; but the term was used in lighter
+cases also. In capital cases the word sometimes meant Einechlan,
+sometimes <i>coirp-dire</i> (= body-fine), but most correctly the sum
+of these two. It may be taken that, subject to modifying circumstances,
+a person guilty of homicide had to pay (i) <i>coirp-dire</i>
+for the destruction of life, irrespective of rank; (2) the honour-value
+of the victim; (3) his own honour-value if the deed was
+unintentional; and (4) double his own honour-value if committed
+with malice aforethought. The sum of these was in all cases
+heavy; heaviest when the parties were wealthy. The amount
+was recoverable as a debt from the criminal to the extent of his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span>
+property, and in his default from the members of his <i>fine</i> in sums
+determined by the degree of relationship; and it was distributable
+among the members of the <i>fine</i> of a murdered person in the
+same proportions, like a distribution among the next of kin.
+The <i>fine</i> of a murderer could free themselves from liability by
+giving up the murderer and his goods, or if he escaped, by giving
+up any goods he had left, depriving him of clanship, and lodging
+a pledge against his future misdeeds. In these circumstances
+the law held the criminal&rsquo;s life forfeit, and he might be slain or
+taken as a prisoner or slave. He could escape only by becoming
+a <i>daer-fuidhir</i> in some distant territory. When the effect of a
+crime did not go beyond an individual, if that individual&rsquo;s <i>fine</i>
+did not make good their claim while the criminal lived, it lapsed
+on his death. &ldquo;The crime dies with the criminal.&rdquo; If an unknown
+stranger or person without property caught red-handed
+in the commission of a crime refused to submit to arrest, it was
+lawful to maim or slay him according to the magnitude of the
+attempted crime. &ldquo;A person who came to inflict a wound on
+the body may be safely killed when unknown and without a
+name, and when there is no power to arrest him at the time of
+committing the trespass.&rdquo; For crimes against property the
+usual penalty, as in breach of contract, was generic restitution,
+the quantity, subject to modifying circumstances, being twice
+the amount taken or destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Distress of seizure of property being the universal mode of
+obtaining satisfaction, whether for crime, breach of contract,
+non-payment of debt, or any other cause, the law of distress
+came into operation as the solvent of almost every dispute.
+Hence it is the most extensive and important branch, if not
+more than a branch, of these ancient laws. Of several words
+meaning distress, <i>athgabail</i> was the most frequently used. A
+person having a liquidated claim might either sue a debtor or
+proceed at his peril to seize without this preliminary. In the
+latter case the defendant could stop the progress of the seizure
+by paying the debt, giving a pledge, or demanding a trial; and
+he then could choose a Brehon. Distress was of two kinds&mdash;(1)
+<i>athgabal ar fut</i> (= distress on length, <i>i.e.</i> with time, with
+delays); and (2) <i>athgabail tulla</i> (= immediate distress). Which
+method was pursued depended partly upon the facts of the case
+and partly upon the respective ranks of the parties. A person
+entitled to seize property had to do it himself, accompanied, if
+the amount was large, by a law agent and witnesses. No man
+was entitled to seize unless he owned, or had a surety who owned,
+sufficient property for indemnity or adjustment in case the
+seizure should be found to have been wrongful. The formalities
+varied in different circumstances and also at different times in
+the long ages in which these laws prevailed. Some forms may,
+in the Irish as in other legal systems, have become merely ceremonial
+and fictitious.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tellach</i> (= seizure of immovable property) was made in three
+periods or delays of ten days each (= 30 days). The first step
+was a notice that unless the debt was paid immediately seizure
+would be made. Ten days later, the plaintiff crossed the fence
+in upon the land, with a law agent, a witness and a pair of
+horses yoked or harnessed, and in a loud voice stated the amount
+of the debt and called upon the defendant to pay it according
+to law. On receiving no answer, or an unsatisfactory one, he
+withdrew. After an interval of ten days more, the creditor
+entered with his law agent, two witnesses and four horses, went
+farther in upon the land, repeated his demand, and if refused
+withdrew. Finally, after a further interval of ten days, he
+entered once more with his law agent, three witnesses and eight
+horses, drove up to the debtor&rsquo;s house, repeated his demand, and
+if not satisfied drove a herd of cattle or a flock of sheep in upon
+the farm and left men to care for them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Athgabail</i> ordinarily meant the seizure of movable property.
+The following technical terms will indicate the procedure in
+distress with time:&mdash;<i>Aurfocre</i> (= demand of payment, stating
+the amount in presence of witnesses); <i>apad</i> (= delay); <i>athgabail</i>
+(= the actual seizure); <i>anad</i> (= delay after seizure, the thing
+remaining in the debtor&rsquo;s possession); <i>toxal</i> (= the taking away
+of the thing seized); <i>fasc</i> (= notice to the debtor of the amount
+due, the <i>mainder</i> or pound in which the thing seized is impounded,
+and the name of the law agent); <i>dithim</i> (= delay during which
+the thing is in pound); <i>lobad</i> (= destruction or forfeiture of the
+debtor&rsquo;s ownership and substitution of the creditor&rsquo;s ownership).
+There was no sale, because sale for money was little known.
+The property in the thing seized, to the amount of the debt and
+expenses, became legally transferred from the debtor to the
+creditor, not all at once but in stages fixed by law. A creditor
+was not at liberty to seize household goods, farming utensils,
+or any goods the loss of which would prevent the debtor recovering
+from embarrassment, so long as there was other property
+which could be seized. A seizure could be made only between sunrise
+and sunset. &ldquo;If a man who is sued evades justice,
+knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable
+by him and a fine of five seds.&rdquo; When a large debt was clearly
+due, and there was no property to seize, the debtor himself could
+be seized and compelled to work as a prisoner or slave until the
+debt was paid.</p>
+
+<p>When a defendant was of rank superior to that of the plaintiff,
+distress had to be preceded by <i>troscad</i> (= fasting). This is a
+legal process unknown elsewhere except in parts of India. The
+plaintiff having made his demand and waited a certain time
+without result, went and sat without food before the door of
+the defendant. To refuse to submit to fasting was considered
+indelibly disgraceful, and was one of the things which legally
+degraded a man by reducing or destroying his honour-value.
+The law said &ldquo;he who does not give a pledge to fasting is an
+evader of all; he who disregards all things shall not be paid by
+God or man.&rdquo; If a plaintiff having duly fasted did not receive
+within a certain time the satisfaction of his claim, he was entitled
+to distrain as in the case of an ordinary defendant, and to seize
+double the amount that would have satisfied him in the first
+instance. If a person fasting in accordance with law died during
+or in consequence of the fast, the person fasted upon was held
+guilty of murder. Fasting could be stopped by paying the debt,
+giving a pledge, or submitting to the decision of a Brehon. A
+creditor fasting after a reasonable offer of settlement had been
+made to him forfeited his claim. &ldquo;He who fasts notwithstanding
+the offer of what should be accorded to him, forfeits his legal
+right according to the decision of the Feini.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Since Sir Samuel Ferguson wrote his article on
+&ldquo;Brehon Laws&rdquo; in the 9th edition of this <i>Encyclopaedia</i>, much research
+has been done on the subject, and Ferguson&rsquo;s account is no longer
+accepted by scholars, either as regards the language or the substance
+of the laws. Pending the work of a second Brehon Law Commission,
+the Laws are best studied in the six imperfect volumes (<i>Ancient
+Laws of Ireland</i>, 1865-1901) produced by the first Commission
+(ignoring their long and worthless introductions), together with,
+Dr. Whitley Stokes&rsquo;s <i>Criticism</i> (London, Nutt, 1903) of Atkinson&rsquo;s
+<i>Glossary</i> (Dublin, 1901). The following are important references
+(kindly supplied by Dr Whitley Stokes) for detailed research:&mdash;
+R. Dareste, <i>Études d&rsquo;histoire de droit</i>, pp. 356-381 (Paris, 1889);
+Arbois de Jubainville and Paul Collinet, <i>Études sur le droit celtique</i>
+(2 vols., Paris, 1895); Joyce, <i>Social History of Ancient Ireland</i>,
+vol. i. pp. 168-214 (2 vols., London, 1903); <i>Zeitschrift für celtische
+Philologie</i>, iv. 221, the Copenhagen fragments of the Laws (Halle,
+1903); important letters in <i>The Academy</i>, Nos. 699, 700, 701, 702,
+703, 704, 706, 707 (substantially covered by Stokes&rsquo;s <i>Criticism</i>);
+<i>Revue Celtique</i>, xxv. 344; <i>Erin</i>, i. 209-315 (collation by Kuno Meyer
+of the Law-tract Crith Gablach); Maine&rsquo;s <i>Early Hist, of Institutions</i>
+(1875) and <i>Early Law and Custom</i>, pp. 162, 180 (1883); Hearn&rsquo;s
+<i>Aryan Household</i> (1879), and Maclennan&rsquo;s <i>Studies in Ancient History</i>,
+pp. 453-507 (1876), contain interesting general reference, but the
+writers were not themselves original students of the laws. L.
+Ginnell&rsquo;s <i>Brehon Laws</i> (1894) may also be consulted. See further
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>, sections <i>Language</i> and <i>Literature</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREISACH,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Altbreisach</span>, a town of Germany, in the
+grand duchy of Baden, on the left bank of the Rhine, standing
+on a basalt rock 250 ft. above the river, 10 m. W. of Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
+and on the railway connecting that city with Colmar.
+Pop. (1900) 3537. It has a fine minster, partly Romanesque,
+partly Gothic, dating from the 10th to the 15th centuries; of
+its two principal towers one is 13th century Gothic, the other
+Romanesque. The interior is remarkable for its rich decorations,
+especially the wood-carving of the high altar, and for many
+interesting tombs and pictures. There is little industry, but a
+considerable trade is done in wines and other agricultural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span>
+produce. On the opposite bank of the Rhine, here crossed by a
+railway bridge, lies the little town of Neubreisach and the fort
+Mortier.</p>
+
+<p>Breisach (<i>Brisiacum</i>), formerly an imperial city and until the
+middle of the 18th century one of the chief fortresses of the
+Empire, is of great antiquity. A stronghold of the <i>Sequani</i>
+(a Gallic tribe, which occupied the country of the Doubs and
+Burgundy), it was captured in the time of Julius Caesar by
+Ariovistus and became known as the <i>Mons Brisiacus</i>. Fortified
+by the emperor Valentian in 369 to defend the Rhine against the
+Germans, it retained its position throughout the middle ages as
+one of the chief bulwarks of Germany and was called the &ldquo;cushion
+and key (<i>Kissen und Schlussel</i>) of the German empire.&rdquo; Its
+importance was such that it gave its name to the district Breisgau,
+in which it is situated. In 939 it was taken by the emperor
+Otto I., and after remaining in the exclusive possession of the
+emperors for two centuries, was strengthened and shared for a
+while between them and the bishops of Basel. In 1254 and 1262
+the bishops obtained full control over it; but in 1275 it was
+made an imperial city by King Rudolph I., and at the beginning
+of the 14th century his son brought it definitively into the possession
+of the Habsburg monarchs, leaving the bishops but few
+privileges. In the Thirty Years&rsquo; War Breisach successfully
+resisted the Swedes, but after a memorable siege and a defence
+by General von Reisach, one of the most famous in military
+annals, it was forced to capitulate to Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar
+on the 18th of December 1638. The endeavours of the
+emperor Ferdinand III. to retake it were fruitless, and by the
+peace of Westphalia (1648) Breisach was annexed to France.
+By the peace of Ryswick (1697) it was restored to Austria, when
+Louis XIV. built the town and fortress of Neubreisach on the
+left bank of the Rhine. Again in 1703 it fell into the hands of
+the French, owing to treachery, but was ceded to Austria by the
+peace of Rastatt (1714)&mdash;Yet again, in the War of the Austrian
+Succession, it was captured (1744) by the French, who dismantled
+the fortifications. They refortified it in 1796, and after passing,
+by the peace of Lunéville (1801), together with the Breisgau to
+the duke of Modena, Breisach was by the peace of Pressburg
+(1805) finally incorporated with Baden, when the fortifications
+were razed. During the Franco-German War (1870) Breisach
+suffered severely from bombardment directed against it from
+Neubreisach.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREISGAU,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a district of Germany, in the grand duchy of
+Baden. It extends along the right bank of the Rhine from Basel
+to Kehl, and includes the principal peaks of the southern Black
+Forest and the Freiburg valley. The Breisgau, originally a <i>pagus</i>
+or <i>gau</i> of the Frankish empire, was ruled during the middle ages
+by hereditary counts. Of these the earliest recorded is Birtilo
+(962-995), ancestor of the counts and dukes of Zähringen.
+On the death of Berchthold V. of Zähringen in 1218, his coheiresses
+brought parts of the Breisgau to the counts of Urach
+and Kyburg, while part went to the margraves of Baden. At
+the close of the 13th century the Kyburg part of the Breisgau
+passed to the Habsburgs, who in 1368 acquired also the town
+and countship of Freiburg, which had been sold by the counts
+of Urach to the Freiburgers and given in pledge by them to the
+house of Austria in exchange for a loan of the purchase price,
+which they were unable to repay. The male Urach line becoming
+extinct in 1457, an heiress carried what remained of their possessions
+in the Breisgau to the house of Baden. In the struggle
+between France and Austria from the 17th century onwards the
+Breisgau frequently changed masters. In 1801 Austria was
+forced to cede it to Ercole III., duke of Modena, in compensation
+for the duchy of which Napoleon had deprived him. His successor
+Ferdinand took the title of duke of Modena-Breisgau, but
+on his death in 1805 the Breisgau was divided between Baden
+and Württemberg. The latter ceded its portion to Baden in 1810.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Stokvis, <i>Manuel d&rsquo;histoire, &amp;c.</i> (Leiden, 1890-1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREISLAK, SCIPIONE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1748-1826), Italian geologist of
+German parentage, was born at Rome in 1748. He early distinguished
+himself as professor of mathematical and mechanical
+philosophy in the college of Ragusa; but after residing there for
+several years he returned to his native city, where he became a
+professor in the Collegio Nazareno, and began to form the fine
+mineralogical cabinet in that institution. His leisure was
+dedicated to geological researches in the papal states. His
+account of the aluminous district of Tolfa and adjacent hills,
+published in 1786, gained for him the notice of the king of Naples,
+who invited him to inspect the mines and similar works in that
+kingdom, and appointed him professor of mineralogy to the
+royal artillery. The vast works for the refining of sulphur in the
+volcanic district of Solfatara were erected under his direction.
+He afterwards made many journeys through the ancient Campania
+to illustrate its geology, and published in 1798 his <i>Topografia
+fisica della Campania</i>, which contains the results of much
+accurate observation. Breislak also published an essay on the
+physical condition of the seven hills of Rome, which he regarded
+as the remains of a local volcano,&mdash;an opinion shown to be
+erroneous by the later researches of G.B. Brocchi. The political
+convulsions of Italy in 1799 brought Breislak to Paris, where he
+remained until 1802, when, being appointed inspector of the
+saltpetre and powder manufactories near Milan, he removed to
+that city. The mineral Breislakite was named after him. He
+died on the 15th of February 1826. His other publications
+include:&mdash;<i>Introduzione alla geologia</i> (1811, French ed. 1819);
+<i>Traité sur la structure extérieure du globe</i>, 3 vols. and atlas
+(Milan, 1818, 1822); <i>Descrizione geologica della provincia di
+Milano</i> (1822).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREITENFELD,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a village of Germany in the kingdom of
+Saxony, 5½ m. N.N.W. of Leipzig, noted in military history.
+The first battle of Breitenfeld was fought on the 17th of September
+1631, between the allied Swedish and Saxon armies
+under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperial forces under Count
+Tilly. The battlefield is a low ridge running east and west
+between the villages of Göbschelwitz and Breitenfeld, the
+position of the Imperialists lying along the crest from Göbschelwitz
+on the right to a point about 1 m. short of Breitenfeld on
+the left; opposite this position, and behind a group of villages
+on the Loberbach stream, lay the Swedish forces, flanked on
+their left by the Saxon contingent under the elector, who was
+assisted by Arnim. The villages formed the only obstacle on
+the gentle slope lying between the Loberbach and Tilly&rsquo;s line;
+through these villages the Swedes defiled slowly, and formed up
+on the open ground beyond them. Tilly&rsquo;s army was drawn up
+in a continuous line, the infantry ranged in heavy battalions in
+the centre, the cavalry on the wings, and the heavy artillery in a
+mass in front of the infantry. Gustavus arrayed the Swedes in
+two lines and a reserve, infantry in the centre, cavalry on the
+flanks, and the Saxons were drawn up in a similar formation on
+the left of the Swedish left-wing cavalry. So far as can be gauged
+the respective numbers were at least 32,000 Imperialists, 22,000
+Swedes and 15,000 Saxons. The Swedish infantry was drawn
+up on an entirely novel system; each brigade of infantry, composed
+of several battalions, was formed in many small and handy
+corps of pikemen and musketeers, and parties of musketeers were
+also detached to support the cavalry. The guns were scattered
+along the front. The Saxons were ranged, like Tilly&rsquo;s army, in
+heavy masses of foot and horse preceded by a great battery of
+guns. At 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> Pappenheim, commanding Tilly&rsquo;s left wing,
+led forward the whole of his cavalry in a furious charge. Feeling
+the fire of the musketeers who were intercalated amongst the
+Swedish horse, Pappenheim swung round to his left and charged
+the Swedish right wing in flank. The Swedes of both lines
+promptly wheeled up, and after a prolonged conflict the Imperial
+horse were driven completely off the field. The attack of Tilly&rsquo;s
+right wing under Fürstenberg directed against the Saxons was
+more successful. The Saxons were at once broken and routed,
+only a handful under Arnim maintaining the ground. Fürstenberg
+pursued the fugitives for many miles, and Tilly with the
+centre of infantry (which, considering the depth of its formations,
+must have possessed great manoeuvring power) rapidly followed
+him and formed up opposite the now exposed left of the Swedes.
+Thereupon the Swedes, in their light and handy formation,
+changed position rapidly and easily to meet him. Tilly&rsquo;s attack
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span>
+was strenuously opposed, and at this moment the decisive stroke
+of the battle was delivered by the Swedish right wing, which,
+having disposed of Pappenheim, swung round and occupied the
+ground originally held by the Imperial infantry, seized Tilly&rsquo;s
+guns, and with them enfiladed the enemy&rsquo;s new line. This put
+an end to the attack of the Imperial foot, and before sunset Tilly
+was in full retreat, hotly pursued and losing heavily in prisoners.
+His losses on the field have been estimated at 7000 killed and
+wounded and almost as many prisoners; the Swedes lost about
+2000 and the Saxons over 4000 men.</p>
+
+<p>The village of Breitenfeld also gives its name to another great
+battle in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War (November 2, 1642), in which
+the Swedes under Torstensson defeated the Imperialists under
+the archduke Leopold and Prince Piccolomini, who were seeking
+to relieve Leipzig. The Swedish cavalry decided the day on this
+occasion also.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREMEN,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a free state in the German empire, bearing the title
+<i>Freie Hansestadt Bremen</i>. It falls into three distinct parts:
+(1) the largest portion, with the city of Bremen, lying on both
+banks, but chiefly on the right, of the lower course of the Weser,
+surrounded by the Prussian province of Hanover and the grand-duchy
+of Oldenburg, and consisting in the main of lowland
+country intersected by canals and dykes; (2) the town and
+district of Vegesack, lying separate from, but immediately north
+of the main portion, on the right bank of the river; (3) the port
+of Bremerhaven, 46 m. down the Weser, at its mouth. Of the
+whole territory, which has an area of 99 sq. m., about one-half
+is meadow and grazing land, one-quarter under tillage, and the
+remainder occupied by a little woodland, some unprofitable
+sandy wastes, the bed of the Weser and the towns. Market
+gardening, the rearing of cattle, for which the district is widely
+famed, and fishing, form the chief occupations of the rural
+population. The climate is mild, but the rainfall (26.9 in.
+annually on the average) is relatively considerable. The population
+is shown as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bremen, city</td> <td class="tcr rb">186,822</td> <td class="tcr rb">214,953</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vegesack</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,943</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,130</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bremerhaven</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,315</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,159</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rural districts</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,327</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,431</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">248,407</td> <td class="tcr allb">263,673</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of the inhabitants, who belong to the Lower Saxon (<i>Nieder-Sachsen</i>)
+race and in daily intercourse mostly speak the Low
+German (<i>Plattdeutsch</i>) dialect, about two-thirds are natives of
+the state and one-third immigrants from other parts of Germany,
+chiefly from Hanover and Oldenburg. About 93% are Protestants,
+6% Roman Catholics, and only ½% Jews. The form
+of government is that of a republic, under a constitution proclaimed
+on the 8th of March 1849, revised on the 21st of February
+1854, the 17th of November 1875, and the 1st of January 1894.
+The sovereignty resides jointly in the senate and the Bürgerschaft,
+or Convent of Burgesses. The senate, which is the executive
+power, is composed of sixteen life members, elected by the
+convent, on presentation by the senate. Of these ten at least
+must be lawyers and three merchants. Two of the number
+are nominated by their colleagues as burgomasters, who preside
+in succession for a year at a time and hold office four years, one
+retiring every two years. The Bürgerschaft consists of 150
+(formerly 300) representatives, chosen by the citizens for six
+years, and forms the legislative body. Fourteen members are
+elected by such citizens of Bremen (city) as have enjoyed a
+university education, forty by the merchants, twenty by the
+manufacturers and artisans, and forty-eight by the other citizens.
+Of the remaining representatives, twelve are furnished by Bremerhaven
+and Vegesack and sixteen by the rural districts. As a
+member of the German empire, the state of Bremen has one voice
+in the Bundesrat and returns one member to the Imperial diet
+(Reichstag). Formerly Bremen was a free port, but from the 1st
+of October 1888 the whole of the state, with the exception of two
+small free districts in Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively,
+joined the German customs union. The state has two Amtsgerichte
+(courts of first instance) at Bremen and Bremerhaven
+respectively, and a superior court, Landgericht, at Bremen,
+whence appeals lie to the Oberlandesgericht for the Hanseatic
+towns in Hamburg. The judges of the Bremen courts are
+appointed by a committee of members of the senate, the Bürgerschaft
+and the bench of judges. By the convention with Prussia
+of the 27th of June 1867, the free state surrendered its right to
+furnish its own contingent to the army, the recruits being after
+that time drafted into the Hanseatic infantry regiment, forming
+a portion of the Prussian IX. army corps.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREMEN,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a city of Germany, capital of the free state of
+Bremen, and one of the Hanseatic towns. It lies on a sandy
+plain on both banks of the Weser, 46 m. from the North Sea and
+71 m. S.W. from Hamburg by rail, on the mainline to Cologne.
+Pop. (1905) 214,953. It has also direct railway communication
+with Berlin via Uelzen, Hanover and Bremerhaven. The city
+consists of four quarters,&mdash;the old town (Altstadt) and its
+suburban extensions (Vorstadt) being on the right bank of the
+river, and the new town (Neustadt) with its southern suburb
+(Südervorstadt) on the left bank. The river is crossed by three
+bridges, the old, the new (1872-1875) Kaiserbrücke, and the
+railway bridge, with a gangway for foot passengers. The
+ramparts of the old town have long been converted into beautiful
+promenades and gardens, the moats forming a chain of lakes.</p>
+
+<p>The romantic old town, with its winding streets and lanes,
+flanked by massive gabled houses, dates from the medieval days
+of Hanseatic prosperity. On the market square stands the fine
+town hall (Rathaus), dating from the 15th century, with a handsome
+Renaissance <i>façade</i> of a somewhat later date, and before it
+a stone statue of Roland, the emblem of civic power. Its celebrated
+underground wine cellar has been immortalized by Wilhelm
+Hauff in his <i>Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller</i>. The town hall
+is internally richly embellished and has a gallery of interesting
+paintings. In an upper hall a model of an old Hanseatic frigate,
+with the device <i>Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse</i>, hangs
+from the ceiling. Among other ancient buildings, situated
+chiefly in the old town, are the following:&mdash;the cathedral of
+St Peter (formerly the archiepiscopal and now the Lutheran
+parish church), erected in the 12th century on the site of Charlemagne&rsquo;s
+wooden church, and famous for its Bleikeller, or lead
+vault, in which bodies can be preserved for a long time without
+suffering decomposition; the church of St Ansgarius, built about
+1243, with a spire 400 ft. high; the church of Our Lady, dating
+from the 12th and 13th centuries; the 12th century Romanesque
+church of St Stephen; the Schütting, or merchants&rsquo; hall, originally
+built in 1619 for the cloth-traders&rsquo; gild; the Stadthaus (town
+house), formerly the archiepiscopal palace, and converted to its
+present uses only in 1819. The most important and imposing
+among the more modern architectural additions to the city are
+the handsome Gothic exchange, completed in 1867, the municipal
+theatre, the municipal library, the post office (1878), the law
+courts (1891-1895), the wool exchange, the German bank, the
+municipal museum for natural science, ethnology and commerce,
+and the fine railway station (1888). The principal memorials
+embrace, besides the Roland, the Willehad fountain (1883), the
+monument of the Franco-German War (erected 1875), the centaur
+fountain (1891), an equestrian statue of the emperor William I.
+(1893), and a statue of the poet Theodor Körner. A beautiful
+park, Bürgerpark, has been laid out in the Bürgerweide, or
+meadows, lying beyond the railway station to the north-east of
+the city. It is a peculiarity of the domestic accommodation of
+Bremen that the majority of the houses, unlike the custom in
+most other German towns, where flats prevail, are occupied by
+a single family only.</p>
+
+<p>The industries and manufactures of Bremen are of considerable
+variety and extent, but are more particularly developed in such
+branches as are closely allied to navigation, such as shipbuilding,
+founding, engine-building and rope-making. Next in importance
+come those of tobacco, snuff, cigars, the making of cigar boxes,
+jute-spinning, distilling, sugar refining and the shelling of rice.
+Bremen owes its fame almost exclusively to its transmaritime
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span>
+trade, mainly imports. By the completion of the engineering
+works on the Weser in 1887-1899, whereby, among other improvements,
+the river was straightened and deepened, to 18 ft.,
+large ocean-going vessels are able to steam right up to the city
+itself. It has excellent railway connexions with the chief
+industrial districts of Germany. Like Hamburg, it does predominantly
+a transit trade; it is especially important as the
+importer of raw products from America. In two articles, tobacco
+and rice, Bremen is the greatest market in the world; in cotton
+and indigo it takes the first place on the continent, and it is a
+serious rival of Hamburg and Antwerp in the import of wool
+and petroleum. The value of the total imports (both sea-borne
+and by river and rail) increased from £22,721,700 in 1883 to
+about £60,000,000 in 1905; the imports from the United States,
+from £9,755,000 in 1883 to about £25,000,000 in 1905. The
+countries from which imports principally come are the United
+States, England, Germany, Russia, the republics of South
+America, the Far East and Australia. The exports rose from
+a total of £26,096,500 in 1883 to £62,000,000 in 1905. The
+number of vessels which entered the ports of the free state (<i>i.e.</i>
+Bremen city, Bremerhaven and Vegesack) increased from 2869
+of 1,258,529 aggregate tonnage in 1883, to 4024 of 2,716,633 tons
+in 1900. Bremen is the centre for some of the more important
+of the German shipping companies, especially of the North
+German Lloyd (founded in 1856), which, on the 1st of January
+1905, possessed a fleet of 382 steamers of 693,892 tons, besides
+lighters and similar craft. Bremen also shares with Hamburg
+the position of being one of the two chief emigration ports of
+Germany. There are three docks, all to the north-west of the
+city&mdash;namely, the free harbour (which was opened in 1888), the
+winter harbour, and the timber and industrial harbour. Internal
+communication is served by an excellent system of electric
+tramways, and there is also a local steamboat service with
+neighbouring villages on the Weser.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;According to Brandes, quoting Martin Luther in
+the <i>Lexicon Philologicum</i>, the name is derived from <i>Bram, Bräm,
+i.e. hem</i> = the river-bank, or confine of the land on which it was
+built. In 787 Bremen was chosen by St Willehad, whom Charlemagne
+had established as bishop in the <i>pagi</i> of the lower Weser,
+as his see. In 848 the destruction of Hamburg by the Normans
+led to the transference of the archiepiscopal see of Hamburg to
+Bremen, which became the seat of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen.
+In 965 the emperor Otto I. granted to Archbishop
+Adaldag &ldquo;in the place called Bremen&rdquo; (<i>in loco Bremun nuncupato</i>)
+the right to establish a market, and the full administrative,
+fiscal and judicial powers of a count, no one but the bishop or his
+<i>advocatus</i> being allowed to exercise authority in the city. This
+privilege, by which the archbishop was lord of the city and his
+<i>Vogt</i> its judge, was frequently confirmed by subsequent emperors,
+ending under Frederick I. in 1158. Though, however, there is no
+direct evidence of the existence of any communal organization
+during this period, it is clear from the vigorous part taken by
+the burghers in the struggle of the emperor Frederick with Henry
+the Lion of Saxony that some such organization very early
+existed. Yet in the <i>privilegium</i> granted to the townspeople by
+Frederick I. in 1186 the emperor had done no more than
+guarantee them their personal liberties. The earliest recognition
+of any civic organization they may have possessed they owed to
+Archbishop Hartwig II. (1184-1207), who had succeeded in
+uniting against him his chapter, the nobles and the citizens; and
+the first mention of the city council occurs in a charter of Archbishop
+Gerhard II. in 1225, though the <i>consules</i> here named
+doubtless represented a considerably older institution. In the
+13th century, however, whatever the civic organization of the
+townsfolk may have been, it was still strictly subordinate to the
+archbishop and his <i>Vogt</i>; the council could issue regulations
+only with the consent of the former, while in the judicial work of
+the latter, save in small questions of commercial dishonesty,
+its sole function was advisory. By the middle of the 14th century
+this situation was exactly reversed; the elected town council
+was the supreme legislative power in all criminal and civil causes,
+and in the court of the <i>advocatus</i> two <i>Ratsmänner</i> sat as assessors.
+The victory had been won over the archbishop; but a fresh peril
+had developed in the course of the 13th century in the growth
+of a patrician class, which, as in so many other cities, threatened
+to absorb all power into the hands of a close oligarchy. In 1304
+the commonalty rose against the patricians and drove them from
+the city, and in the following year gained a victory over the exiles
+and their allies, the knights, which was long celebrated by an
+annual service of thanksgiving. This was the beginning of
+troubles that lasted intermittently throughout the century.
+Bremen had been admitted to the Hanseatic league in 1283,
+but was excluded in 1285, and not readmitted until 1358. Owing
+to the continued civic unrest it was again excluded in 1427, and
+only readmitted in 1433 when the old aristocratic constitution
+was definitively restored. But though in Bremen the efforts of
+the craftsmen&rsquo;s &ldquo;arts&rdquo; to secure a share of power had been held
+in check and the gilds never gained any importance, the city
+government did not, as at Cologne and elsewhere, develop into
+a close patrician oligarchy. Power was in the hands of the
+wealthy, but the avenues to power were open to those who knew
+how to acquire the necessary qualification. There was thus no
+artificial restraint put upon individual enterprise, and the
+question of the government having been settled, Bremen rapidly
+developed in wealth and influence.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation was introduced into Bremen in 1522 by
+Heinrich von Zütphen. Archbishop Christopher of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel
+(1487-1558), a brutal libertine, hated for his lusts
+and avarice, looked on the reforming movement as a revolt against
+himself. He succeeded in getting the reformer burned; but
+found himself involved in a life and death struggle with the city.
+In 1532 Bremen joined the league of Schmalkalden, and twice
+endured a siege by the imperial forces. In 1547 it was only saved
+by Mansfeld&rsquo;s victory at Drakenburg. Archbishop Christopher
+was succeeded in 1558 by his brother Georg, bishop of Minden
+(d. 1566), who, though he himself was instrumental in introducing
+the reformed model into his other diocese of Verden, is reckoned
+as the last Roman Catholic archbishop of Bremen. His successor,
+Henry III. (1550-1585), a son of Duke Francis I. of Lauenburg,
+who had been bishop of Osnabrück and Paderborn, was a
+Lutheran and married. Protestantism was not, however,
+definitively proclaimed as the state religion in Bremen until 1618.
+The last archbishop, Frederick II. (of Denmark), was deposed by
+the Swedes in 1644. In 1646 Bremen received the privileges
+of a free imperial city from the emperor Ferdinand III.; but
+Sweden, whose possession of the archbishopric was recognized
+two years later, refused to consent to this, and in 1666 attempted
+vainly to assert her claims over the city by arms&mdash;in the so-called
+Bremen War. When, however, in 1720 the elector of
+Hanover (George I. of Great Britain) acquired the archbishopric,
+he recognized Bremen as a free city. In 1803 this was again
+recognized and the territory of the city was even extended. In
+1806 it was taken by the French, was subsequently annexed by
+Napoleon to his empire, and from 1810 to 1813 was the capital
+of the department of the Mouths of the Weser. Restored to
+independence by the congress of Vienna in 1815, it subsequently
+became a member of the German Confederation, and in 1867
+joined the new North German Confederation, with which it
+was merged in the new German empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Buchenau, <i>Die freie Hansestadt Bremen</i> (3rd ed., Bremen,
+1900, 5 vols.); <i>Bremisches Urkundenbuch</i>, edited by R. Ehmck
+and W. von Bippen (1863, fol.); W. von Bippen, <i>Geschichte der
+Stadt Bremen</i> (Bremen, 1892-1898); F. Donandt, <i>Versuch einer
+Geschichte des bremischen Stadtrechts</i> (Bremen, 1830, 2 vols.);
+<i>Bremisches Jahrbuch</i> (historical, 19 vols., 1864-1900); and Karl
+Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden</i>, vol. ii. p. 461 (Leipzig, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREMER, FREDRIKA<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1801-1865), Swedish novelist, was
+born near Åbo, in Finland, on the 17th of August 1801. Her
+father, a descendant of an old German family, a wealthy iron
+master and merchant, left Finland when Fredrika was three
+years old, and after a year&rsquo;s residence in Stockholm, purchased an
+estate at Årsta, about 20 m. from the capital. There, with occasional
+visits to Stockholm and to a neighbouring estate, which
+belonged for a time to her father, Fredrika passed her time till
+1820. The education to which she and her sisters were subjected
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span>
+was unusually strict; Fredrika&rsquo;s health began to give way;
+and in 1821 the family set out for the south of France. They
+travelled slowly by way of Germany and Switzerland, and
+returned by Paris and the Netherlands. It was shortly after this
+time that Miss Bremer became acquainted with Schiller&rsquo;s works,
+which made a very deep impression on her. She had begun to
+write verses from the age of eight, and in 1828 she succeeded
+in finding a publisher for the first volume of her <i>Teckningar ur
+hvardagslifvet</i> (1828), which at once attracted attention. The
+second volume (1831), containing one of her best tales, <i>Familjen
+H.</i>, gave decisive evidence that a real novelist had been found in
+Sweden. The Swedish Academy awarded her their smaller gold
+medal, and she increased her reputation by <i>Presidentens döttrar</i>
+(1834), <i>Grannarne</i> (1837) and others. Her father had died in
+1830, and her life was thereafter regulated in accordance with her
+own wishes and tastes. She lived for some years in Norway with
+a friend, after whose death she travelled in the autumn of 1849
+to America, and after spending nearly two years there returned
+through England. The admirable translations (1846, &amp;c.) of her
+works by Mary Howitt, which had been received with even greater
+eagerness in America and England than in Sweden, secured for
+her a warm and kindly reception. Her impressions of America,
+<i>Hemmen i nya verlden</i>, were published in 1853-1854, and at
+once translated into English. After her return Miss Bremer
+devoted herself to her scheme for the advancement and emancipation
+of women. Her views on these questions were expounded in
+her later novels&mdash;<i>Hertha</i> (1856) and <i>Far och dotter</i> (1858). Miss
+Bremer organized a society of ladies in Stockholm for the purpose
+of visiting the prisons, and during the cholera started a society,
+the object of which was the care of children left orphans by the
+epidemic. She devoted herself to other philanthropic and social
+schemes, and gradually abandoned her earlier simple and charming
+type of story for novels directed to the furtherance of her
+views. In these she was less successful. In 1856 she again
+travelled, and spent five years on the continent and in Palestine.
+Her reminiscences of these countries have all been translated into
+English. On her return she settled at Årsta, where, with the
+exception of a visit to Germany, she spent the remaining years of
+her life. She died on the 31st of December 1865.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life, Letters and Posthumous Works of F. Bremer</i>, by her
+sister, Charlotte Bremer, translated by F. Milow, London, 1868.
+A selection of her works in 6 vols. appeared at Örebro, 1868-1872.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BREMERHAVEN,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a seaport town of Germany, in the free state
+of Bremen, on the right bank and estuary of the Weser, at the
+confluence of the Geeste, 38 m. N. of the city of Bremen by rail.
+Pop. (1895) 18,366; (1905) 24,159. It is built on a tract of
+territory ceded to Bremen by Hanover in 1826, and further
+increased by treaty with Prussia in 1869. It forms practically
+a single town with Geestemünde (Prussia), which lies across the
+Geeste and with which it is connected by a drawbridge. The
+port was opened in 1830, and besides an excellent harbour, there
+are three large wet docks, including the Kaiserhafen, enlarged
+in 1897-1899 at a cost of £900,000. This, together with the
+north portion of the Neuerhafen, constitutes the free harbour.
+Here are the workshops and dry docks of the North German
+Lloyd steamship company. The whole internal harbour system
+is furnished with powerful hydraulic cranes and lines of railway
+running alongside the quays. The entrance to the port is free
+from ice nearly all the year round, is excellently buoyed, and
+lighted by two lightships and eight lighthouses, among the
+latter the remarkable Rothesand Leuchtturm, erected 1884-1885.
+The Hanoverian fort and batteries, which formerly protected the
+town, have been removed, and their place is supplied by four
+modern forts, with revolving turtleback turrets, lower down.
+The town possesses two Protestant and a Roman Catholic church,
+a technical institute, a natural history museum, a library, a
+theatre, a monument to the emperor William I. and one to Johann
+Smidt (1773-1859), the burgomaster of Bremen to whose enterprise
+the harbour of Bremerhaven is due. Shipbuilding and
+kindred industries are carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENDAN,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> <span class="sc">Brandon</span>, or <span class="sc">Brandan</span> (<i>c.</i> 484-578), Irish saint
+and hero of a legendary voyage in the Atlantic, is said to have
+been born at Tralee in Kerry in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 484. The Irish form of his
+name is <i>Brennain</i>, the Latin <i>Brendanus</i>. Medieval historians
+usually call him Brendan of Clonfert, or Brendan son of Finnloga,
+to distinguish him from his contemporary, St Brendan of
+Birr (573). Little is known of the historical Brendan, who died
+in 578 as abbot of a Benedictine monastery which he had founded
+twenty years previously at Clonfert in eastern Galway. The
+story of his voyage across the Atlantic to the &ldquo;Promised Land
+of the Saints,&rdquo; afterwards designated &ldquo;St Brendan&rsquo;s Island,&rdquo;
+ranks among the most celebrated of the medieval sagas of western
+Europe. Its traditional date is 565-573. The legend is found,
+in prose or verse and with many variations, in Latin, French,
+English, Saxon, Flemish, Irish, Welsh, Breton and Scottish
+Gaelic. Although it does not occur in the writings of any
+Arabian geographer, several of its incidents&mdash;such as the landing
+on a whale in mistake for an island&mdash;belong also to Arabic folk-literature.
+Many of Brendan&rsquo;s fabulous adventures seem to be
+borrowed from the half-pagan Irish saga of Maelduin or Maeldune,
+and others belong also to Scandinavian mythology. The oldest
+extant version of the legend is the 11th century <i>Navigatio
+Brendani.</i></p>
+
+<p>St Brendan&rsquo;s island was long accepted as a reality by geographers.
+In a Venetian map dated 1367, in the anonymous
+Weimar map of 1424, and in B. Beccario&rsquo;s map of 1435, it is
+identified with Madeira. Columbus, in his journal for the 9th
+of August 1492, states that the inhabitants of Hierro, Gomera
+and Madeira had seen the island in the west; and Martin Behaim,
+in the globe he made at Nuremberg in the same year, places it
+west of the Canaries and near the equator. During the 16th
+century the progress of exploration in these latitudes compelled
+many cartographers to locate the island elsewhere; and it was
+marked about 100 m. west of Ireland, or afterwards among the
+West Indies. But in Spain and Portugal the older belief as to
+its situation was maintained. In 1526 an expedition under
+Fernando Alvarez left Grand Canary in search of St Brendan&rsquo;s
+island, which had again been reported as seen by many trustworthy
+witnesses. In 1570 an official inquiry was held, and a
+second expedition undertaken, by Fernando de Villalobos,
+governor of Palma. Similar voyages of discovery were made by
+the Canarians in 1604 and 1721; and only in 1759 was the
+apparition of St Brendan&rsquo;s island explained as an effect of
+mirage.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the numerous books which deal with the legend, the
+following are important: <i>Die altfranzösische Prosaübersetzung von
+Brendans Meerfahrt</i>, by C. Wahlund (Upsala, 1900); <i>La &ldquo;Navigatio
+Sancti Brendani&rdquo; in antico Veneziano</i>, by F. Novati (Bergamo,
+1892); <i>Zur Brendanus-Legende</i>, &amp;c., by G. Schirmer (Leipzig, 1888);
+<i>Les Voyages merveilleux de St. Brendan</i>, &amp;c., by F. Michel (Paris,
+1878); and <i>Acta Sancti Brendani.... Original Latin Documents
+connected with the Life of St Brendan</i>, by P.F. Moran (Dublin, 1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENHAM,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Washington county,
+Texas, U.S.A., situated in the S.E. part of the state, about 68 m.
+N.W. of Houston. Pop. (1890) 5209; (1900) 5968, including
+2701 negroes and 531 foreign-born; (1910) 4718. Brenham
+is served by the Gulf, Colorado &amp; Santa Fé (controlled by the
+Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé) and the Houston &amp; Texas Central
+railways. It is the seat of Blinn Memorial College (German
+Methodist Episcopal), opened as &ldquo;Mission Institute&rdquo; in 1883,
+and renamed in 1889 in honour of the Rev. Christian Blinn, of
+New York, a liberal benefactor; of Brenham Evangelical
+Lutheran College, and of a German-American institute (1898).
+The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. The city
+is situated in an agricultural and cotton-raising region, and has
+cotton compresses and gins, cotton mills, cotton-seed oil refineries,
+foundries and machine shops, and furniture and wagon
+factories. Brenham was settled about 1844, was incorporated
+in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1873.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENNER PASS,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> the lowest (4495 ft.) and one of the most
+frequented passes across the Alps in all ages, though the name
+itself rarely occurs in the middle ages, the route over it being
+said to lie through &ldquo;the valley of Trent.&rdquo; It may be described
+as the great gate of Italy, and by it most of the Teutonic tribes
+made their way to Italy. One reason of its importance is that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span>
+many side passes in the end join this great thoroughfare. It was
+crossed no fewer than 66 times by various emperors, between
+793 and 1402. A carriage road was constructed over it as far
+back as 1772, while the railway over it was built in 1864-1867.
+From Innsbruck to the summit of the pass is a distance by rail
+of 25 m. The line then descends through the Eisack valley past
+Brixen (34 m.) to Botzen (24 m.). Thence it follows the valley
+of the Adige to Trent (35 m.) and on to Verona (56½ m.)&mdash;in all
+174½ m. by rail from Innsbruck to Verona.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENNUS,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> the name, or perhaps the official title, of two chiefs
+of the Celtic Gauls.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The first Brennus crossed the Apennines in 391 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+ravaged Etruria, and annihilated a Roman army of about 40,000
+men on the Allia some 12 m. from Clusium (July 16, 390). Rome
+thus lay at his mercy, but he wasted time, and the Romans were
+able to occupy and provision the Capitol (though they had not
+sufficient forces to defend their walls) and to send their women
+and children to Veii. When on the third day the Gauls took
+possession, they found the city occupied only by those aged
+patricians who had held high office in the state. For a while the
+Gauls withheld their hands out of awe and reverence, but the
+ruder passions soon prevailed. The city was sacked and burnt;
+but the Capitol itself withstood a siege of more than six months,
+saved from surprise on one occasion only by the wakefulness of
+the sacred geese and the courage of Marcus Manlius. At last
+the Gauls consented to accept a ransom of a thousand pounds of
+gold. As it was being weighed out, the Roman tribune complained
+of some unfairness. Brennus at once threw his heavy
+sword into the scale; and when asked the meaning of the act,
+replied that it meant <i>Vae victis</i> (&ldquo;woe to the conquered&rdquo;).
+The Gauls returned home with their plunder, leaving Rome in a
+condition from which she took long to recover. A later legend,
+probably an invention, represents M. Furius Camillus as suddenly
+appearing with an avenging army at the moment when the
+gold was being weighed, and defeating Brennus and all his
+host.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See null v. 33-49; Plutarch, <i>Camillus</i>, 17, 22, 28; Polybius i. 6,
+ii. 18; Dion. Halic. xiii. 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(2) The second Brennus is said to have been one of the leaders
+of an inroad made by the Gauls from the east of the Adriatic into
+Thrace and Macedonia (280), when they defeated and slew
+Ptolemy Ceraunus, then king of Macedonia. Whether Brennus
+took part in this first invasion or not is uncertain; but its success
+led him to urge his countrymen to a second expedition, when he
+marched with a large army through Macedonia and Thessaly
+until he reached Thermopylae. To this point the united forces
+of the northern Greeks&mdash;Athenians, Phocians, Boeotians and
+Aetolians&mdash;had fallen back; and here the Greeks a second time
+held their foreign invaders in check for many days, and a second
+time had their rear turned, owing to the treachery of some of the
+natives, by the same path which had been discovered to the
+Persians two hundred years before. Brennus and his Gauls
+marched on to Delphi, of whose sacred treasures they had heard
+much. But the little force which the Delphians and their
+neighbours had collected&mdash;about 4000 men&mdash;favoured by the
+strength of their position, made a successful defence. They
+rolled down rocks upon their enemies as they crowded into the
+defile, and showered missiles on them from above. A thunderstorm,
+with hail and intense cold, increased their confusion, and
+on Brennus himself being wounded they took to flight, pursued
+by the Greeks all the way back to Thermopylae. Brennus killed
+himself, &ldquo;unable to endure the pain of his wounds,&rdquo; says Justin;
+more probably determined not to return home defeated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Justin xxiv. 6; Diod. Sic. xxii. 11; Pausanias x. 19-23;
+L. Contzen, <i>Die Wanderungen der Kelten</i> (Leipzig, 1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENTANO, KLEMENS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1778-1842), German poet and
+novelist, was born at Ehrenbreitstein on the 8th of September
+1778. His sister was the well-known Bettina von Arnim (<i>q.v.</i>),
+Goethe&rsquo;s correspondent. He studied at Jena, and afterwards
+resided at Heidelberg, Vienna and Berlin. In 1818, weary of
+his somewhat restless and unsettled life, he joined the Roman
+Catholic Church and withdrew to the monastery of Dülmen
+where he lived for some years in strict seclusion. The latter part
+of his life he spent in Regensburg, Frankfort and Munich, actively
+engaged in Catholic propaganda. He died at Aschaffenburg on
+the 28th of July 1842. Brentano, whose early writings were
+published under the pseudonym Maria, belonged to the Heidelberg
+group of German romantic writers, and his works are marked
+by excess of fantastic imagery and by abrupt, bizarre modes of
+expression. His first published writings were <i>Satiren und poetische
+Spiele</i> (1800), and a romance <i>Godwi</i> (1801-1802); of his
+dramas the best are <i>Ponce de Leon</i> (1804), <i>Victoria</i> (1817) and
+<i>Die Gründung Prags</i> (1815). On the whole his finest work is the
+collection of <i>Romanzen vom Rosenkranz</i> (published posthumously
+in 1852); his short stories, and more especially the charming
+<i>Geschichte vom braven Kasperl und dem schönen Annerl</i> (1838),
+which has been translated into English, are still popular.
+Brentano also assisted Ludwig Achim von Arnim, his brother-in-law,
+in the collection of folk-songs forming <i>Des Knaben Wunderhorn</i>
+(1806-1808).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Brentano&rsquo;s collected works, edited by his brother Christian,
+appeared at Frankfort in 9 vols. (1851-1855). Selections have been
+edited by J.B. Diel (1873), M. Koch (1892), and J. Dohmke
+(1893). See J.B. Diel and W. Kreiten, <i>Klemens Brentano</i> (2 vols.,
+1877-1878), the introduction to Koch&rsquo;s edition, and R. Steig, <i>A. von
+Arnim und K. Brentano</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> [called <span class="sc">Lujo</span>] (1844-&emsp;&emsp;),
+German economist, a member of the same family as the preceding,
+was born at Aschaffenburg on the 18th of December 1844.
+He received some of his academical education in Dublin. In 1868
+he made a thorough study of trade-unionism in England, which
+resulted in his principal work, <i>Die Arbeitergilden der Gegenwart</i>
+(Leipzig, 1871-1872; Eng. trans, by L.T. Smith). The book
+was assailed by Bamberger and other economists, but is important
+not only as an authority on modern associations of workmen,
+but for having given an impetus to the study of the gilds of the
+middle ages, and the examination of the great stores of neglected
+information bearing upon the condition of the people in olden
+days. Brentano&rsquo;s other works are of a more theoretical character,
+and chiefly relate to political economy, of which he was professor
+at Breslau from 1872 to 1882, at Strassburg from 1882 to 1888,
+at Vienna 1888-1889, at Leipzig 1889-1891, and at Munich since
+1891. We may mention <i>Das Arbeitsverhältnis gemäss dem heutigen
+Recht</i> (1877); <i>Die christlich-soziale Bewegung in England</i> (1883);
+<i>Über das Verhältnis von Arbeitslohn und Arbeitszeit zur Arbeitsleistung</i>
+(1893); <i>Agrarpolitik</i> (1897).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENTFORD,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a market town in the Brentford parliamentary
+division of Middlesex, England, 10½ m. W. of Waterloo terminus,
+London, by the London &amp; South-Western railway, at the junction
+of the river Brent with the Thames. Pop. of urban district (1901)
+15,171. The Grand Junction Canal joins the Brent, affording
+ample water-communications to the town, which has considerable
+industries in brewing, soap-making, saw-milling, market-gardening,
+&amp;c. The Grand Junction waterworks are situated
+here. Brentford has been the county-town for elections since
+1701.</p>
+
+<p>In 1016 Brentford, or, as it was often called Braynford, was
+the scene of a great defeat inflicted on the Danes by Edmund
+Ironside. In 1280 a toll was granted by Edward I., who granted
+the town a market, for the construction of a bridge across the
+river, and in the reign of Henry VI. a hospital of the Nine Orders
+of Angels was founded near its western side. In 1642 a battle
+was fought here in which the royalists defeated the parliamentary
+forces. For his services on this occasion the Scotsman Ruthven,
+earl of Forth, was made earl of Brentford, a title afterwards
+conferred by William III. on Marshal Schomberg. Brentford
+was during the 16th and 17th centuries a favourite resort of
+London citizens; and its inn of the Three Pigeons, which was
+kept for a time by John Lowin, one of the first actors of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+plays, is frequently alluded to by the dramatists of the
+period. Falstaff is disguised as the &ldquo;Fat Woman of Brentford&rdquo;
+in Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Merry Wives of Windsor</i>, and numerous other
+references to the town in literature point, in most cases, to its
+reputation for excessive dirt. The &ldquo;two kings of Brentford&rdquo;
+mentioned in Cowper&rsquo;s <i>Task</i>, and elsewhere, seem to owe their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span>
+mythical existence to the play, <i>The Rehearsal</i>, by George Villiers,
+second duke of Buckingham, produced in 1671.</p>
+
+<p>South of Brentford, towards Isleworth, is Sion House, a mansion
+founded by Lord Protector Somerset in 1547, and rebuilt
+and enlarged by the 10th earl of Northumberland and Sir Hugh
+Smithson, afterwards duke of Northumberland, the architects
+being Inigo Jones and Robert Adam. The gardens are very
+beautiful. The site of Sion or Syon House was previously
+occupied by a convent of Bridgetine nuns established at Twickenham
+by Henry V. in 1415 and removed here in 1431.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1770-1844), British admiral,
+was born in Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the 22nd of August 1770.
+He was the son of Rear-Admiral Jahleel Brenton (1729-1802),
+who belonged to a loyalist family which suffered the loss of most
+of its property in the insurrection of the American colonies.
+He was a lieutenant in the British navy when the war began,
+and emigrated with his family to the mother country. Three
+of the sons entered the navy&mdash;Jahleel (the eldest), Captain
+Edward Pelham Brenton (1774-1839), and James Wallace
+Brenton, who was killed young in 1799 when attacking a Spanish
+privateer near Barcelona in the boats of the &ldquo;Petrel,&rdquo; of which he
+was lieutenant. Jahleel went to sea first with his father in 1781,
+and on the return of peace was sent to the &ldquo;maritime school&rdquo;
+at Chelsea. He served in the peace before the beginning of the
+war in 1793, and passed his examination as lieutenant, but seeing
+no chance of employment went with other English naval officers
+to serve in the Swedish navy against the Russians. In 1790
+he received his commission and returned home. Till 1799 he
+served as lieutenant, or acting commander, mostly under Earl
+St Vincent, and was present in the battle from which the admiral
+received his title. As commander of the &ldquo;Speedy&rdquo; brig he won
+much distinction in actions with Spanish gunboats in the Straits
+of Gibraltar. In 1800 he reached the rank of post-captain, and
+had the good fortune to serve as flag-captain to Sir James
+(afterwards Lord) Saumarez in the action at Algeciras, and in the
+Straits in 1801. During the peace of Amiens he married Miss
+Stewart, a lady belonging to a loyalist family of Nova Scotia.
+After the renewal of the war he commanded a succession of frigates.
+In 1803 he had the misfortune to be wrecked on the coast of
+France, and remained for a time in prison, where his wife joined
+him. Having been exchanged he was named to another ship.
+His most brilliant action was fought with a flotilla of
+Franco-Neapolitan vessels outside of Naples in May 1801. He was
+severely wounded, and Murat, then king of Naples, praised him
+effusively. He was made a baronet in 1812 and K.C.B. in 1815.
+After his recovery from his wound he was unable to bear sea
+service, but was made commissioner of the dockyard at Port
+Mahon, and then at the Cape, and was afterwards lieutenant-governor
+of Greenwich hospital till 1840. He reached flag rank
+in 1830. In his later years he took an active part in philanthropic
+work, in association with his brother, Captain E.P. Brenton,
+who had seen much service but is best remembered by his
+writings on naval and military history,&mdash;<i>Naval History of Great
+Britain from the Year 1783 to 1822</i> (1823), and <i>The Life and
+Correspondence of John, Earl of St Vincent</i> (1838).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>A Memoir of the Life and Services of Vice-Admiral Sir Jahleel
+Brenton</i>, based on his own papers, was published in 1846 by the Rev.
+Henry Raikes, and reissued by the admiral&rsquo;s son, Sir L.C.L.
+Brenton, in 1855.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENTWOOD,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a market town in the mid or Chelmsford
+parliamentary division of Essex, England; 18 m. E.N.E. of
+London by the Great Eastern railway (Brentwood and Worley
+station). Pop. of urban district (1901) 4932. The neighbouring
+country is pleasantly undulating and well wooded. The church
+of St Thomas the Martyr, with several chapels, is modern. The
+old assize house, an Elizabethan structure, remains. A free
+grammar school was founded in 1557. The county asylum is in
+the vicinity. There are breweries and brick works. To the
+south lies the fine upland of Worley Common, with large barracks.
+Adjoining Brentwood to the north-east is Shenfield, with the
+church of St Mary the Virgin, Early English and later. Brentwood
+was formerly an important posting station on the main
+road to the eastern counties, which follows the line of the railway
+to Colchester. The name (<i>Burntwood</i>) is supposed to record an
+original settlement made in a clearing of the forest. The district
+is largely residential.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRENZ, JOHANN<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1499-1570), Lutheran divine, eldest son
+of Martin Brenz, was born at Weil, Württemberg, on the 24th
+of June 1499. In 1514 he entered the university of Heidelberg,
+where Oecolampadius was one of his teachers, and where in 1518
+he heard Luther discuss. Ordained priest in 1520, and appointed
+preacher (1522) at Hall in Swabia, he gave himself to biblical
+exposition. He ceased to celebrate mass in 1523, and reorganized
+his church in 1524. Successful in resisting the peasant
+insurrection (1525), his fortunes were affected by the Schmalkaldic
+War. From Hall, when taken by the imperial forces, he
+fled on his birthday in 1548. Protected by Duke Ulrich of
+Württemberg, he was appointed (January 1553) provost of the
+collegiate church of Stuttgart. As organizer of the reformation
+in Württemberg he did much fruitful work. A strong advocate
+of Lutheran doctrine, and author of the <i>Syngramma Suevicum</i>
+(October 21, 1525), which set forth Luther&rsquo;s doctrine of the
+Eucharist, he was free from the persecuting tendencies of the age.
+He is praised and quoted (as Joannes Witlingius) for his judgment
+against applying the death penalty to anabaptists or other
+heretics in the <i>De Haereticis, an sint persequendi</i> (1554), issued
+by Sebastian Castellio under the pseudonym of Martinus Bellius.
+An incomplete edition of his works (largely expository) appeared
+at Tübingen, 1576-1590. Several of his sermons were reproduced
+in contemporary English versions. A volume of <i>Anecdota
+Brentiana</i> was edited by Pressel in 1868. He died on the 11th
+of September 1570, and was buried in his church at Stuttgart;
+his grave was subsequently violated. He was twice married,
+and his eldest son, Johann Brenz, was appointed (1562) professor
+of theology in Tübingen at the early age of twenty-two.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hartmann and Jäger, <i>Johann Brenz</i> (1840-1842); Bossert, in
+Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklop</i>. (1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRÉQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD FEUDRIX DE<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span>
+(1714-1795), French scholar, was born at Gainneville near Havre,
+on the 22nd of February 1714, and died at Paris on the 3rd of
+July 1795. His first publications were anonymous: an <i>Histoire
+des révolutions de Gènes jusqu&rsquo;à la paix de 1748</i> (1750), and a
+series of <i>Vies des orateurs grecs</i> (1752). Elected a member of the
+Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres in 1759, he contributed
+an <i>Histoire de Posthume empereur des Gaules</i> (vol. xxx., 1760) to
+the collected works of that illustrious society, and also a <i>Mémoire
+sur l&rsquo;établissement de la religion et de l&rsquo;empire de Mahomet</i> (vol.
+xxxii., 1761-1763). After the close of the Seven Years&rsquo; War he
+was sent to search in the archives of England for documents
+bearing upon the history of France, more particularly upon that
+of the French provinces which once belonged to England. This
+mission (1764-1766) was very fruitful in results; Bréquigny
+brought back from it copies of about 7000 documents, which are
+now in the Bibliothèque Nationale. A useful selection of these
+documents was published (unfortunately without adequate
+critical treatment) by Jean Jacques Champollion-Figeac, under
+the title <i>Lettres de rois, reines et autres personnages des cours de
+France et d&rsquo;Angleterre, depuis Louis VII. jusqu&rsquo;à Henri IV.,
+tirées des archives de Londres par Bréquigny</i> (collection of <i>Documents
+inédits relatifs a l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>, 2 vols., 1839, 1847).
+Bréquigny himself drew the material for many important studies
+from the rich mine which he had thus exploited. These were
+included in the collection of the Académie des Inscriptions:
+<i>Mémoire sur les différends entre la France et l&rsquo;Angleterre sous le
+règne de Charles le Bel</i> (vol. xli.); <i>Mémoire sur la vie de Marie,
+reine de France, soeur de Henri VIII., roi d&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (vol. xlii.);
+four <i>Mémoires pour senir à l&rsquo;histoire de Calais</i> (vols. xliii. and l.);
+and <i>Mémoire sur les négotiations touchant les projets de mariage
+d&rsquo;Elizabeth, reine d&rsquo;Angleterre, d&rsquo;abord avec le duc d&rsquo;Anjou,
+ensuite avec le due d&rsquo;Alençon, tons deux frères de Charles IX.</i>
+(vol. l.). This last was read to the Academy on the 22nd of
+January 1793, the morrow of Louis XVI.&rsquo;s execution. Meanwhile,
+Bréquigny had taken part in three great and erudite works.
+For the <i>Recueil des ordonnances des rois de France</i> he had prepared
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span>
+volumes x.-xiv., the preface to vol. xi. containing important
+researches into the French communes. To the <i>Table chronologique des
+diplômes, chartes, lettres, et actes imprimés concernant l&rsquo;histoire de
+France</i> he contributed three volumes in collaboration with Mouchet
+(1769-1783). Charged with the supervision of a large collection of
+documents bearing on French history, analogous to Rymer&rsquo;s <i>Foedera</i>, he
+published the first volume (<i>Diplomatat. Chartae</i>, &amp;c., 1791). The
+Revolution interrupted him in his collection of <i>Mémoires concernant
+l&rsquo;histoire, les sciences, les lettres, et les arts des Chinois</i>, begun in
+1776 at the instance of the minister Bertin, when fifteen volumes had
+appeared.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the note on Bréquigny at the end of vol. i. of the <i>Mémoires de
+l&rsquo;Académie des Inscriptions</i> (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv. of the
+<i>Table chronologique des diplômes</i> (1836); Champollion-Figeac&rsquo;s preface to
+the <i>Lettres des rois et reines</i>; the <i>Comité des travaux historiques</i>, by
+X. Charmes, vol. i. <i>passim</i>; N. Oursel, <i>Nouvelle biographie normande</i>
+(1886); and the <i>Catalogue des manuscrits des collections Duchesne et
+Bréquigny</i> (in the Bibliothèque Nationale), by René Poupardin (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various
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@@ -0,0 +1,19133 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4
+       "Bradford, William" to "Brequigny, Louis"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 17, 2010 [EBook #33750]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 4 SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BRAIN: "The cough, the eye-closure, the impulse to smile,
+      all these can be suppressed." 'impulse' amended from 'impluse'.
+
+    ARTICLE BRAIN: "The deep ends of these olfactory neurones having
+      entered the central nervous organ come into contact with the of
+      large neurones, called, from their shape, mitral." 'dendrites'
+      amended from 'dentrites'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME IV, SLICE IV
+
+   Bradford, William to Brequigny, Louis
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BRADFORD, WILLIAM (governor)       BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE
+  BRADFORD, WILLIAM (printer)        BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND
+  BRADFORD, WILLIAM (painter)        BRAS D'OR
+  BRADFORD (England)                 BRASDOR, PIERRE
+  BRADFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)    BRASIDAS
+  BRADFORD CLAY                      BRASS (Nigeria)
+  BRADFORD-ON-AVON                   BRASS (alloy)
+  BRADLAUGH, CHARLES                 BRASSES, MONUMENTAL
+  BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE          BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES
+  BRADLEY, JAMES                     BRASSEY, THOMAS
+  BRADSHAW, GEORGE                   BRASSO
+  BRADSHAW, HENRY (English poet)     BRATHWAIT, RICHARD
+  BRADSHAW, HENRY (British scholar)  BRATIANU, ION C.
+  BRADSHAW, JOHN                     BRATLANDSDAL
+  BRADWARDINE, THOMAS                BRATTISHING
+  BRADY, NICHOLAS                    BRATTLEBORO
+  BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN DE          BRAUNAU
+  BRAEMAR                            BRAUNSBERG
+  BRAG                               BRAVO
+  BRAGA                              BRAWLING
+  BRAGANZA                           BRAY, SIR REGINALD
+  BRAGG, BRAXTON                     BRAY, THOMAS
+  BRAGI                              BRAY (England)
+  BRAHAM, JOHN                       BRAY (Ireland)
+  BRAHE, PER                         BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE
+  BRAHE, TYCHO                       BRAZIER
+  BRAHMAN                            BRAZIL (legendary island)
+  BRAHMANA                           BRAZIL (republic)
+  BRAHMANISM                         BRAZIL (Indiana, U.S.A.)
+  BRAHMAPUTRA                        BRAZIL NUTS
+  BRAHMA SAMAJ                       BRAZIL WOOD
+  BRAHMS, JOHANNES                   BRAZING AND SOLDERING
+  BRAHUI                             BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL SAVORGNAN DE
+  BRAID                              BRAZZA
+  BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS                  BREACH
+  BRAILA                             BREAD
+  BRAIN                              BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL
+  BRAINERD, DAVID                    BREADALBANE
+  BRAINERD                           BREAD-FRUIT
+  BRAINTREE (Essex, England)         BREAKING BULK
+  BRAINTREE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)  BREAKWATER
+  BRAKE (town of Germany)            BREAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED
+  BRAKE (engineering)                BREAM
+  BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE              BREAST
+  BRAMAH, JOSEPH                     BREAUTE, FALKES DE
+  BRAMANTE                           BRECCIA
+  BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS            BRECHIN
+  BRAMPTON                           BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL
+  BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM BRAMWELL  BRECON
+  BRAN (Welsh hero)                  BRECONSHIRE
+  BRAN (husk of cereals)             BREDA
+  BRANCH                             BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN
+  BRANCO                             BREDERODE, HENRY
+  BRANCOVAN                          BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL
+  BRAND, JOHN                        BREDOW
+  BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY              BREECH
+  BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS             BREEDS AND BREEDING
+  BRANDENBURG (Prussian electorate)  BREEZE
+  BRANDENBURG (Prussian province)    BREGENZ
+  BRANDENBURG (town of Germany)      BREHON LAWS
+  BRANDER, GUSTAVUS                  BREISACH
+  BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN        BREISGAU
+  BRANDING                           BREISLAK, SCIPIONE
+  BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST          BREITENFELD
+  BRANDON (Canada)                   BREMEN (German state)
+  BRANDON (England)                  BREMEN (German city)
+  BRANDY                             BREMER, FREDRIKA
+  BRANDYWINE                         BREMERHAVEN
+  BRANFORD                           BRENDAN
+  BRANGWYN, FRANK                    BRENHAM
+  BRANKS                             BRENNER PASS
+  BRANT, JOSEPH                      BRENNUS
+  BRANT, SEBASTIAN                   BRENTANO, KLEMENS
+  BRANTFORD                          BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH
+  BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE             BRENTFORD
+  BRANTOME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE     BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL
+  BRANTOME                           BRENTWOOD
+  BRANXHOLM                          BRENZ, JOHANN
+  BRANXTON                           BREQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES FEUDRIX DE
+
+
+BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1590-1657), American colonial governor and historian,
+was born in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, probably in March 1590. He
+became somewhat estranged from his family, which was one of considerable
+importance in the locality, when in early youth he joined the Puritan
+sect known as Separatists, and united in membership with the
+congregation at Scrooby. He prepared in 1607, with other members of the
+church, to migrate to Holland, but the plan was discovered and several
+of the leaders, among them Bradford, were imprisoned. In the year
+following, however, he joined the English colony at Amsterdam, where he
+learned the trade of silk weaving. He subsequently sold his Yorkshire
+property and embarked in business on his own account at Leiden, where
+the English refugees had removed. He became an active advocate of the
+proposed emigration to America, was one of the party that sailed in the
+"Mayflower" in September 1620, and was one of the signers of the compact
+on shipboard in Cape Cod Bay. After the death of Governor John Carver in
+April 1621, Bradford was elected governor of Plymouth Colony, and served
+as such, with the exception of five years (1633, 1634, 1636, 1638 and
+1644) until shortly before his death. After 1624, at Bradford's
+suggestion, a board of five and later seven assistants was chosen
+annually to share the executive responsibility. Bradford's rule was firm
+and judicious, and to his guidance more than to that of any other man
+the prosperity of the Plymouth Colony was due. His tact and kindness in
+dealing with the Indians helped to relieve the colony from the conflicts
+with which almost every other settlement was afflicted. In 1630 the
+council for New England granted to "William Bradford, his heires,
+associatts, and assignes," a new patent enlarging the original grant of
+territory made to the Plymouth settlers. This patent Bradford in the
+name of the trustees made over to the body corporate of the colony in
+1641. Bradford died in Plymouth on the 9th of May 1657. He was the
+author of a very important historical work, the _History of Plimouth
+Plantation_ (until 1646), first published in the _Proceedings_ of the
+Massachusetts Historical Society for 1856, and later by the state of
+Massachusetts (Boston, 1898), and in facsimile, with an introduction by
+John A. Doyle, in 1896. The manuscript disappeared from Boston during
+the War of Independence, was discovered in the Fulham library, London,
+in 1855, and was returned by the bishop of London to the state of
+Massachusetts in 1897. This work has been of inestimable value to
+writers on the history of the Pilgrims, and was freely used, in
+manuscript, by Morton, Hubbard, Mather, Prince and Hutchinson. Bradford
+was also undoubtedly part author, with Edward Winslow, of the "Diary of
+Occurrences" published in Mourts' _Relation_, edited by Dr H.M. Dexter
+(Boston, 1865). He also wrote a series of _Dialogues_, on church
+government, published in the Massachusetts Historical Society's
+Publications (1870.)
+
+  For Bradford's ancestry and early life see Joseph Hunter, _Collections
+  concerning the Founders of New Plymouth_, in Massachusetts Historical
+  Society's _Collections_ (Boston, 1852); also the quaint sketch in
+  Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_ (London, 1702), and a chapter in Williston
+  Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1663-1752), American colonial printer, was born in
+Leicestershire, England, on the 20th of May 1663. He learned the
+printer's trade in London with Andrew Sowle, and in 1682 emigrated with
+William Penn to Pennsylvania, where in 1685 he introduced the "art and
+mystery" of printing into the Middle Colonies. His first imprint was an
+almanac, _Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense or America's Messenger_ (1685). At
+the outset he was ordered "not to print anything but what shall have
+lycence from ye council," and in 1692, the colony then being torn by
+schism, he issued a tract for the minority sect of Friends, whereupon
+his press was seized and he was arrested. He was released, however, and
+his press was restored on his appeal to Governor Benjamin Fletcher. In
+1690, with William Rittenhouse (1644-1708) and others, he established in
+Roxboro, Pennsylvania, now a part of Philadelphia, the first paper mill
+in America. In the spring of 1693 he removed to New York, where he was
+appointed royal printer for the colony, a position which he held for
+more than fifty years; and on the 8th of November 1725 he issued the
+first number of the _New York Gazette_, the first paper established in
+New York and from 1725 to 1733 the only paper in the colony. Bradford
+died in New York on the 23rd of May 1752.
+
+His son, ANDREW SOWLE BRADFORD (1686-1742), removed from New York to
+Philadelphia in 1712, and there on the 22nd of December 1719 issued the
+first number of the _American Weekly Mercury_, the first newspaper in
+the Middle Colonies. Benjamin Franklin, for a time a compositor in the
+office, characterized the paper as "a paltry thing, in no way
+interesting"; but it was continued for many years and was edited by
+Bradford until his death.
+
+The latter's nephew, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1722-1791), established in
+December 1742 the _Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser_, which
+was for sixty years under his control or that of his son, and which in
+1774-1775 bore the oft-reproduced device of a divided serpent with the
+motto "Unite or Die." He served in the War of American Independence,
+rising to the rank of colonel. His son, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1755-1795),
+also served in the War of Independence, and afterwards was
+attorney-general of Pennsylvania (1791), a judge of the supreme court of
+the state, and in 1794-1795 attorney-general of the United States.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1827-1892), American marine painter, was born at New
+Bedford, Massachusetts. He was a Quaker, and was self-taught, painting
+the ships and the marine views he saw along the coast of Massachusetts,
+Labrador and Nova Scotia; he went on several Arctic expeditions with Dr
+Hayes, and was the first American painter to portray the frozen regions
+of the north. His pictures attracted much attention by reason of their
+novelty and gorgeous colour effects. His "Steamer 'Panther' in Melville
+Bay, under the Light of the Midnight Sun" was exhibited at the Royal
+Academy in London in 1875. Bradford was a member of the National Academy
+of Design, New York, and died in that city on the 25th of April 1892.
+His style was somewhat influenced by Albert van Beest, who worked with
+Bradford at Fairhaven for a time; but Bradford is minute and observant
+of detail where van Beest's aim is general effect.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, a city, and municipal, county and parliamentary borough, in
+the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 192 m. N.N.W. of London and 8 m.
+W. of Leeds. Pop. (1891) 265,728; (1901) 279,767. It is served by the
+Midland and the North Eastern railways (Midland station), and by the
+Great Northern and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Exchange
+station). It lies in a small valley opening southward from that of the
+Aire, and extends up the hills on either side. Most of the principal
+streets radiate from a centre between the Midland and Exchange stations
+and the town hall. This last is a handsome building, opened in 1873,
+surmounted by a bell tower. The exterior is ornamented with statues of
+English monarchs. The council-chamber contains excellent wood-carving.
+The extension of the building was undertaken in 1905. The parish church
+of St Peter is Perpendicular, dating from 1485, and occupies the site of
+a Norman church. Its most noteworthy feature is the fine original roof
+of oak. There was no other church in the town until 1815, but modern
+churches and chapels are numerous. Among educational institutions, the
+grammar school existed in the 16th century, and in 1663 received a
+charter of incorporation from Charles II. It occupies a building erected
+in 1873, and is largely endowed, possessing several scholarships founded
+by prominent citizens. The technical college, under the corporation
+since 1899, was opened in 1882. A mechanics' institute was founded in
+1832, and in 1871 the handsome mechanics' hall, close to the town hall,
+was opened. Other establishments are the Airedale College of students
+for the Independent ministry, and the United Independent College (1888).
+The general infirmary is the principal of numerous charitable
+institutions. The most noteworthy public buildings beside the town hall
+are St George's hall (1853), used for concerts and public meetings, the
+exchange (1867), extensive market buildings, and two court-houses. The
+Cartwright memorial hall, principally the gift of Lord Masham, opened in
+1904 and containing an art gallery and museum, commemorates Dr Edmund
+Cartwright (1743-1823) as the inventor of the power-loom and the
+combing-machine. The hall stands in Lister Park, and was opened
+immediately before, and used in connexion with, the industrial
+exhibition held here in 1904. The Temperance hall is of interest
+inasmuch as the first hall of this character in England was erected at
+Bradford in 1837. Some of the great warehouses are of considerable
+architectural merit. Statues commemorate several of those who have been
+foremost in the development of the city, such as Sir Titus Salt, Mr S.C.
+Lister (Lord Masham), and W.E. Forster. Of several parks the largest are
+Lister, Peel, and Bowling parks, each exceeding fifty acres. In the last
+is an ancient and picturesque mansion, which formerly belonged to the
+Bowling or Bolling family. A large acreage of high-lying moorland near
+the city is maintained by the corporation as a public recreation ground.
+
+As a commercial centre Bradford is advantageously placed with regard to
+both railway communication and connexion with the Humber and with
+Liverpool by canal, and through the presence in its immediate vicinity
+of valuable deposits of coal and iron. The principal textile
+manufactures in order of importance are worsted, employing some 36,000
+hands, females considerably outnumbering males; woollens, employing some
+8000, silk and cotton. The corporation maintains a conditioning-hall for
+testing textile materials. A new hall was opened in 1902. Engineering
+and iron works (as at Bowling and Low Moor) are extensive; and the
+freestone of the neighbourhood is largely quarried, and in Bradford
+itself its use is general for building. It blackens easily under the
+influence of smoke, and the town has consequently a somewhat gloomy
+appearance. The trade of Bradford, according to an official estimate,
+advanced between 1836 and 1884 from a total of five to at least
+thirty-five millions sterling, and from not more than six to at least
+fifty staple articles. The annual turn-over in the staple trade is
+estimated at about one hundred millions sterling.
+
+Bradford was created a city in 1897. The parliamentary borough returned
+two members from 1832 until 1885, when it was divided into three
+divisions, each returning one member. The county borough was created in
+1888. Its boundaries include the suburbs, formerly separate urban
+districts, of Eccleshill, Idle and others. The corporation consists of a
+lord mayor (this dignity was conferred in 1907), 21 aldermen, and 63
+councillors. One feature of municipal activity in Bradford deserves
+special notice--there is a municipal railway, opened in 1907, extending
+from Pateley Bridge to Lofthouse (6 m.) and serving the Nidd valley,
+the district from which the main water-supply of the city is obtained.
+Area of the city, 22,879 acres.
+
+Bradford, which is mentioned as having belonged before 1066, with
+several other manors in Yorkshire, to one Gamel, appears to have been
+almost destroyed during the conquest of the north of England and was
+still waste in 1086. By that time it had been granted to Ilbert de Lacy,
+in whose family it continued until 1311. The inquisition taken after the
+death of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, in that year gives several
+interesting facts about the manor; the earl had there a hall or
+manor-house, a fulling mill, a market every Sunday, and a fair on the
+feast of St Andrew. There were also certain burgesses holding
+twenty-eight burgages. Alice, only daughter and heiress of Henry de
+Lacy, married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, and on the
+attainder of her husband she and Joan, widow of Henry, were obliged to
+release their rights in the manor to the king. The earl of Lancaster's
+attainder being reversed in 1327, Bradford, with his other property, was
+restored to his brother and heir, Henry Plantagenet, but again passed to
+the crown on the accession of Henry IV., through the marriage of John of
+Gaunt with Blanche, one of the daughters and heirs of Henry Plantagenet.
+Bradford was evidently a borough by prescription and was not
+incorporated until 1847. Previous to that date the chief officer in the
+town had been the chief constable, who was appointed annually at the
+court leet of the manor. Before the 19th century Bradford was never
+represented in parliament, but in 1832 it was created a parliamentary
+borough returning two members. A weekly market on Thursdays was granted
+to Edward de Lacy in 1251 and confirmed in 1294 to Henry de Lacy, earl
+of Lincoln, with the additional grant of a fair on the eve and day of St
+Peter ad Vincula and three days following. In 1481 Edward IV. granted to
+certain feoffees in whom he had vested his manor of Bradford a market on
+Thursday every week and two yearly fairs, one on the feast of the
+Deposition of St William of York and two days preceding, the other on
+the feast of St Peter in Cathedra and two days preceding.
+
+From the mention of a fulling mill in 1311 it is possible that woollen
+manufacture had been begun at that time. By the reign of Henry VIII. it
+had become an important industry and added much to the status of the
+town. Towards the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century the
+woollen trade decreased and worsted manufacture began to take its place.
+Leland in his _Itinerary_ says that Bradford is "a praty quik Market
+Toune. It standith much by clothing." In 1773 a piece hall was erected
+and for many years served as a market-place for the manufacturers and
+merchants of the district. On the introduction of steam-power and
+machinery the worsted trade advanced with great rapidity. The first mill
+in Bradford was built in 1798; there were 20 mills in the town in 1820,
+34 in 1833, and 70 in 1841; and at the present time there are over 300,
+of much greater magnitude than the earlier factories. In 1836 Mr
+(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt developed the alpaca manufacture in the
+town; mohair was shortly afterwards introduced; and the great works at
+Saltaire were opened (see SHIPLEY). Later, Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham)
+introduced the silk and velvet manufacture, having invented a process of
+manipulating silk waste, whereby what was previously treated as refuse
+is made into goods that will compete with those manufactured from the
+perfect cocoon.
+
+  See John James, _History of Bradford_ (1844, new and enlarged ed.,
+  1866); A. Holroyd, _Collectanea Bradfordiana_ (1873); _Victoria County
+  History--Yorkshire_.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, a city of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., near the N.
+border of the state, about 80 m. E. by S. of Erie. Pop. (1890) 10,514;
+(1900) 15,029, of whom 2211 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,544. It
+is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, and the Buffalo, Rochester &
+Pittsburg railways, and is connected with Olean, New York, by an
+electric line. Bradford is situated 1427 ft. above sea-level in the
+valley of the Tuna, and is shut in by hills on either side. Since 1876
+it has been one of the most important oil centres of the state, and it
+has been connected by pipe lines with cities along the Atlantic coast;
+petroleum refining is an important industry. Among the city's
+manufactures are boilers, machines, glass, chemicals, terra cotta,
+brick, iron pipes and couplings, gas engines, cutlery and silk. The
+place was first settled about 1827; in 1838 it was laid out as a town
+and named Littleton; in 1858 the present name, in honour of William
+Bradford (1755-1795), was substituted; and Bradford was incorporated as
+a borough in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1879. Kendall borough
+was annexed to Bradford in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD CLAY, in geology, a thin, rather inconstant bed of clay or marl
+situated in England at the base of the Forest Marble, the two together
+constituting the Bradfordian group in the Bathonian series of Jurassic
+rocks. The term "Bradford Clay" appears to have been first used by J.
+de. C. Sowerby in 1823 (_Mineral Conchology_, vol. v.) as an alternative
+for W. Smith's "Clay on Upper Oolite." The clay came into notice late in
+the 18th century on account of the local abundance of the crinoid
+_Apiocrinus Parkinsoni_. It takes its name from Bradford-on-Avon in
+Wiltshire, whence it is traceable southward to the Dorset coast and
+northward towards Cirencester. It may be regarded as a local phase of
+the basement beds of the Forest Marble, from which it cannot be
+separated upon either stratigraphical or palaeontological grounds. It is
+seldom more than 10 ft. thick, and it contains as a rule a few irregular
+layers of limestone and calcareous sandstone. The lowest layer is often
+highly fossiliferous; some of the common forms being _Arca minuta,
+Ostrea gregaria, Waldheimia digona, Terebratula coarctata, Cidaris
+bradfordensis_, &c.
+
+  See H.B. Woodward, "Jurassic Rocks of Britain," _Mem. Geol. Survey_,
+  vol. iv. (1904).
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD-ON-AVON, a market town in the Westbury parliamentary division
+of Wiltshire, England, on the rivers Avon and Kennet, and the Kennet &
+Avon Canal, 98 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop.
+of urban district (1901) 4514. Its houses, all built of grey stone, rise
+in picturesque disorder up the steep sides of the Avon valley, here
+crossed by an ancient bridge of nine arches, with a chapel in the
+centre. Among many places of worship may be mentioned the restored
+parish church of Holy Trinity, which dates from the 12th century and
+contains some interesting monuments and brasses; and the Perpendicular
+Hermitage or Tory chapel, with a 15th or 16th century chantry-house. But
+most notable is the Saxon church of St Lawrence, the foundation of which
+is generally attributed, according to William of Malmesbury (1125), to
+St Aldhelm, early in the 8th century. It consists of a chancel, nave and
+porch, in such unchanged condition that E.A. Freeman considered it "the
+most perfect surviving church of its kind in England, if not in Europe."
+It has more lately, however, been held that the present building is not
+Aldhelm's, but a restoration, dating from about 975, and attributable to
+the influence of Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. Kingston House, long
+the seat of the dukes of Kingston, is a beautiful example of early
+17th-century domestic architecture. The local industries include the
+manufacture of rubber goods, brewing, quarrying and iron-founding.
+
+  Bradford (Bradauford, Bradeford) was the site of a battle in 652
+  between Kenwal and his kinsman Cuthred. A monastery existed here in
+  the 8th century, of which St Aldhelm was abbot at the time of his
+  being made bishop of Sherborne in A.D. 705. In 1001 AEthelred gave this
+  monastery and the town of Bradford to the nunnery of Shaftesbury, in
+  order that the nuns might have a safe refuge against the insults of
+  the Danes. No mention of the monastery occurs after the Conquest, but
+  the nunnery of Shaftesbury retained the lordship of the manor until
+  the dissolution in the reign of Henry VIII. In a synod held here in
+  954, Dunstan was elected bishop of Winchester. Bradford appears as a
+  borough in the Domesday survey, and is there assessed at 42 hides. No
+  charter of incorporation is recorded, however, and after returning two
+  members to the parliament of 1295 the town does not appear to have
+  enjoyed any of the privileges of a borough. The market is of ancient
+  origin, and was formerly held on Monday; in the survey the tolls are
+  assessed at 45 shillings. Bradford was at one time the centre of the
+  clothing industry in the west of England, and was especially famous
+  for its broadcloths and mixtures, the waters of the Avon being
+  especially favourable to the production of good colours and superior
+  dyes. The industry declined in the 18th century, and in 1740 we find
+  the woollen merchants of Bradford petitioning for an act of parliament
+  to improve their trade and so re-establish their credit in foreign
+  markets.
+
+
+
+
+BRADLAUGH, CHARLES (1833-1891), English free-thinker and politician, was
+born at Hoxton, London, on the 26th of September 1833. His father was a
+poor solicitor's clerk, who also had a small business as a law
+stationer, and his mother had been a nursemaid. At twelve years old he
+became office-boy to his father's employer, and at fourteen wharf-clerk
+and cashier to a coal merchant in the City Road. He had been baptized
+and brought up in the Church of England, but he now came into contact
+with a group of free-thinkers who were disciples of Richard Carlile. He
+was hastily labelled an "atheist," and was turned out of his situation.
+Thus driven into the arms of the secularists, he managed to earn a
+living by odd jobs, and became further immersed in the study of
+free-thought. At the end of 1850 he enlisted as a soldier, but in 1853
+was bought out with money provided by his mother. He then found
+employment as a lawyer's clerk, and gradually became known as a
+free-thought lecturer, under the name of "Iconoclast." From 1860 he
+conducted the _National Reformer_ for several years, and displayed much
+resource in legal defence when the paper was prosecuted by the
+government on account of its alleged blasphemy and sedition in
+1868-1869. Bradlaugh became notorious as a leading "infidel," and was
+supported by the sympathy of those who were enthusiasts at that time for
+liberty of speech and thought. He was a constant figure in the law
+courts; and his competence to take the oath was continually being called
+in question, while his atheism and republican opinions were adduced as
+reasons why no jury should give damages for attacks on his character. In
+1874 he became acquainted with Mrs Annie Besant (b. 1847), who
+afterwards became famous for her gifts as a lecturer on socialism and
+theosophy. She began by writing for the _National Reformer_ and soon
+became co-editor. In 1876 the Bristol publisher of an American pamphlet
+on the population question, called _Fruits of Philosophy_, was indicted
+for selling a work full of indecent physiological details, and, pleading
+guilty, was lightly sentenced; but Bradlaugh and Mrs Besant took the
+matter up, in order to vindicate their ideas of liberty, and
+aggressively republished and circulated the pamphlet. The prosecution
+which resulted created considerable scandal. They were convicted and
+sentenced to a heavy fine and imprisonment, but the sentence was stayed
+and the indictment ultimately quashed on a technical point. The affair,
+however, had several side issues in the courts and led to much prejudice
+against the defendants, the distinction being ignored between a protest
+against the suppression of opinion and the championship of the
+particular opinions in question. Mrs Besant's close alliance with
+Bradlaugh eventually terminated in 1886, when she drifted from
+secularism, first into socialistic and labour agitation and then into
+theosophy as a pupil of Mme Blavatsky. Bradlaugh himself took up
+politics with increasing fervour. He had been unsuccessful in standing
+for Northampton in 1868, but in 1880 he was returned by that
+constituency to parliament as an advanced Radical. A long and
+sensational parliamentary struggle now began. He claimed to be allowed
+to affirm under the Parliamentary Oaths Act, and the rejection of this
+pretension, and the refusal to allow him to take the oath on his
+professing his willingness to do so, terminated in Bradlaugh's victory
+in 1886. But this result was not obtained without protracted scenes in
+the House, in which Lord Randolph Churchill took a leading part. When
+the long struggle was over, the public had gradually got used to
+Bradlaugh, and his transparent honesty and courageous contempt for mere
+popularity gained him increasing respect. Experience of public life in
+the House of Commons appeared to give him a more balanced view of
+things; and before he died, on the 30th of January 1891, the progress of
+events was such that it was beginning to be said of him that he was in a
+fair way to end as a Conservative. Hard, arrogant and dogmatic, with a
+powerful physique and a real gift for popular oratory, he was a natural
+leader in causes which had society against them, but his sincerity was
+as unquestionable as his combativeness.
+
+  His _Life_ was written, from a sympathetic point of view, with much
+  interesting detail as to the history of secularism, by his daughter,
+  Mrs Bradlaugh Bonner, and J.M. Robertson (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE (1821-1903), English divine and scholar, was
+born on the 11th of December 1821, his father, Charles Bradley, being at
+that time vicar of Glasbury, Brecon. He was educated at Rugby under
+Thomas Arnold, and at University College, Oxford, of which he became a
+fellow in 1844. He was an assistant master at Rugby from 1846 to 1858,
+when he succeeded G.E.L. Cotton as headmaster at Marlborough. In 1870 he
+was elected master of his old college at Oxford, and in August 1881 he
+was made dean of Westminster in succession to A.P. Stanley, whose pupil
+and intimate friend he had been, and whose biographer he became. Besides
+his _Recollections of A.P. Stanley_ (1883) and _Life of Dean Stanley_
+(1892), he published _Aids to writing Latin Prose Composition_ and
+_Lectures on Job_ (1884) and _Ecclesiastes_ (1885). He took part in the
+coronation of Edward VII., resigned the deanery in 1902, and died on the
+13th of March 1903.
+
+Dean Bradley's family produced various other members distinguished in
+literature. His half-brother, ANDREW CECIL BRADLEY (b. 1851), fellow of
+Balliol, Oxford, became professor of modern literature and history
+(1881) at University College, Liverpool, and in 1889 regius professor of
+English language and literature at Glasgow University; and he was
+professor of poetry at Oxford (1901-1906). Of Dean Bradley's own
+children the most distinguished in literature were his son, ARTHUR
+GRANVILLE BRADLEY (b. 1850), author of various historical and
+topographical works; and especially his daughter, Mrs MARGARET LOUISA
+WOODS (b. 1856), wife of the Rev. Henry George Woods, president of
+Trinity, Oxford (1887-1897), and master of the Temple (1904), London.
+Mrs Woods became well known for her accomplished verse (_Lyrics and
+Ballads_, 1889), largely influenced by Robert Bridges, and for her
+novels, of which her _Village Tragedy_ (1887) was the earliest and
+strongest.
+
+
+
+
+BRADLEY, JAMES (1693-1762), English astronomer, was born at Sherborne in
+Gloucestershire in March 1693. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, on
+the 15th of March 1711, and took degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1714 and
+1717 respectively. His early observations were made at the rectory of
+Wanstead in Essex, under the tutelage of his uncle, the Rev. James Pound
+(1669-1724), himself a skilled astronomer, and he was elected a fellow
+of the Royal Society on the 6th of November 1718. He took orders on his
+presentation to the vicarage of Bridstow in the following year, and a
+small sinecure living in Wales was besides procured for him by his
+friend Samuel Molyneux (1689-1728). He, however, resigned his
+ecclesiastical preferments in 1721, on his appointment to the Savilian
+professorship of astronomy at Oxford, while as reader on experimental
+philosophy (1729-1760) he delivered 79 courses of lectures in the
+Ashmolean museum. His memorable discovery of the aberration of light
+(see ABERRATION) was communicated to the Royal Society in January 1729
+(_Phil. Trans._ xxxv. 637). The observations upon which it was founded
+were made at Molyneux's house on Kew Green. He refrained from announcing
+the supplementary detection of nutation (q.v.) until the 14th of
+February 1748 (_Phil. Trans._ xlv. 1), when he had tested its reality by
+minute observations during an entire revolution (18.6 years) of the
+moon's nodes. He had meantime (in 1742) been appointed to succeed Edmund
+Halley as astronomer royal; his enhanced reputation enabled him to apply
+successfully for an instrumental outfit at a cost of L1000; and with an
+8-foot quadrant completed for him in 1750 by John Bird (1700-1776), he
+accumulated at Greenwich in ten years materials of inestimable value for
+the reform of astronomy. A crown pension of L250 a year was conferred
+upon him in 1752. He retired in broken health, nine years later, to
+Chalford in Gloucestershire, and there died on the 13th of July 1762.
+The printing of his observations was delayed by disputes about their
+ownership; but they were finally issued from the Clarendon Press,
+Oxford, in two folio volumes (1798, 1805). The insight and industry of
+F.W. Bessel were, however, needed for the development of their
+fundamental importance.
+
+  Rigaud's Memoir prefixed to _Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence of
+  James Bradley, D.D._ (Oxford, 1832), is practically exhaustive. Other
+  sources of information are: _New and General Biographical Dictionary_,
+  xii. 54 (1767); _Biog. Brit._ (Kippis); Fouchy's "Eloge," _Paris
+  Memoirs_ (1762), p. 231 (Histoire); Delambre's _Hist. de l'astronomie
+  au 18^me siecle_, p. 413.
+
+
+
+
+BRADSHAW, GEORGE (1801-1853), English printer and publisher, was born at
+Windsor Bridge, Pendleton, Lancashire, on the 29th of July 1801. On
+leaving school he was apprenticed to an engraver at Manchester,
+eventually setting up on his own account in that city as an engraver and
+printer--principally of maps. His name was already known as the
+publisher of _Bradshaw's Maps of Inland Navigation_, when in 1839, soon
+after the introduction of railways, he published, at sixpence,
+_Bradshaw's Railway Time Tables_, the title being changed in 1840 to
+_Bradshaw's Railway Companion_, and the price raised to one shilling. A
+new volume was issued at occasional intervals, a supplementary monthly
+time-sheet serving to keep the book up to date. In December 1841, acting
+on a suggestion made by his London agent, Mr W.J. Adams, Bradshaw
+reduced the price of his time-tables to the original sixpence, and began
+to issue them monthly under the title _Bradshaw's Monthly Railway
+Guide._ In June 1847 was issued the first number of _Bradshaw's
+Continental Railway Guide_, giving the time-tables of the Continental
+railways just as _Bradshaw's Monthly Railway Guide_ gave the time-tables
+of the railways of the United Kingdom. Bradshaw, who was a well-known
+member of the Society of Friends, and gave considerable time to
+philanthropic work, died in 1853.
+
+
+
+
+BRADSHAW, HENRY (c. 1450-1513), English poet, was born at Chester. In
+his boyhood he was received into the Benedictine monastery of St
+Werburgh, and after studying with other novices of his order at
+Gloucester (afterwards Worcester) College, Oxford, he returned to his
+monastery at Chester. He wrote a Latin treatise _De antiquitate et
+magnificentia Urbis Cestriae_, which is lost, and a life of the patron
+saint of his monastery in English seven-lined stanza. This work was
+completed in the year of its author's death, 1513, mentioned in "A
+balade to the auctour" printed at the close of the work. A second ballad
+describes him as "Harry Braddeshaa, of Chestre abbey monke." Bradshaw
+disclaims the merit of originality and quotes the authorities from which
+he translates--Bede, William of Malmesbury, Giraldus Cambrensis, Alfred
+of Beverley, Henry of Huntingdon, Ranulph Higden, and especially the
+"Passionary" or life of the saint preserved in the monastery. The poem,
+therefore, which is defined by its editor, Dr Carl Horstmann, as a
+"legendary epic," is rather a compilation than a translation. It
+contains a good deal of history beside the actual life of the saint. St
+Werburgh was the daughter of Wulfere, king of Mercia, and Bradshaw gives
+a description of the kingdom of Mercia, with a full account of its royal
+house. He relates the history of St Ermenilde and St Sexburge, mother
+and grandmother of Werburgh, who were successively abbesses of Ely. He
+does not neglect the miraculous elements of the story, but he is more
+attracted by historical fact than legend, and the second book narrates
+the Danish invasion of 875, and describes the history and antiquities of
+Chester, from its foundation by the legendary giant Leon Gaur, from
+which he derives the British name of Caerleon, down to the great fire
+which devastated the city in 1180, but was suddenly extinguished when
+the shrine of St Werburgh was carried in procession through the streets.
+_The Holy Lyfe and History of saynt Werburge very frutefull for all
+Christen people to rede_ (printed by Richard Pynson, 1521) has been very
+variously estimated. Thomas Warton, who deals with Bradshaw at some
+length,[1] quotes as the most splendid passage of the poem the
+description of the feast preceding Werburgh's entry into the religious
+life. He considered Bradshaw's versification "infinitely inferior to
+Lydgate's worst manner." Dr Horstmann, on the other hand, finds in the
+poem "original genius, of a truly epic tone, with a native simplicity
+of feeling which sometimes reminds the reader of Homer." Most readers
+will probably adopt a view between these extremes. Bradshaw expresses
+the humblest opinion of his own abilities, and he certainly had no
+delicate ear for rhythm. His sincerity is abundantly evident, and his
+piety is admitted even by John Bale[2], hostile as he was to monkish
+writers. W. Herbert[3] thought that a _Lyfe of Saynt Radegunde_, also
+printed by Pynson, was certainly by Bradshaw. The only extant copy is in
+the Britwell library.
+
+  Pynson's edition of the _Holy Lyfe_ is very rare, only five copies
+  being known. A reprint copying the original type was edited by Mr.
+  Edward Hawkins for the Chetham Society in 1848, and by Dr Carl
+  Hortsmann for the Early English Text Society in 1887.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _History of English Poetry_ (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1871; iii. pp.
+    140-149).
+
+  [2] _Scriptorum Illustrium, cant. ix._ No. 17.
+
+  [3] Ames, _Typographical Antiquities_ (ed. W. Herbert, 1785; i. p.
+    294).
+
+
+
+
+BRADSHAW, HENRY (1831-1886), British scholar and librarian, was born in
+London on the 2nd of February 1831, and educated at Eton. He became a
+fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and after a short scholastic career
+in Ireland he accepted an appointment in the Cambridge university
+library as an extra assistant. When he found that his official duties
+absorbed all his leisure he resigned his post, but continued to give his
+time to the examination of the MSS. and early printed books in the
+library. There was then no complete catalogue of these sections, and
+Bradshaw soon showed a rare faculty for investigations respecting old
+books and curious MSS. In addition to his achievements in black-letter
+bibliography he threw great light on ancient Celtic language and
+literature by the discovery, in 1857, of the _Book of Deer_, a
+manuscript copy of the Gospel in the Vulgate version, in which were
+inscribed old Gaelic charters. This was published by the Spalding Club
+in 1869. Bradshaw also discovered some Celtic glosses on the MS. of a
+metrical paraphrase of the Gospels by Juvencus. He made another find in
+the Cambridge library of considerable philological and historical
+importance. Cromwell's envoy, Sir Samuel Morland (1625-1695), had
+brought back from Piedmont MSS. containing the earliest known Waldensian
+records, consisting of translations from the Bible, religious treatises
+and poems. One of the poems referred the work to the beginning of the
+11th century, though the MSS. did not appear to be of earlier date than
+the 15th century. On this Morland had based his theory of the antiquity
+of the Waldensian doctrine, and, in the absence of the MSS., which were
+supposed to be irretrievably lost, the conclusion was accepted. Bradshaw
+discovered the MSS. in the university library, and found in the passage
+indicated traces of erasure. The original date proved to be 1400.
+Incidentally the correct date was of great value in the study of the
+history of the language. He had a share in exposing the frauds of
+Constantine Simonides, who had asserted that the _Codex Sinaiticus_
+brought by Tischendorf from the Greek monastery of Mount Sinai was a
+modern forgery of which he was himself the author. Bradshaw exposed the
+absurdity of these claims in a letter to the _Guardian_ (January 26,
+1863). In 1866 he made a valuable contribution to the history of
+Scottish literature by the discovery of 2200 lines on the siege of Troy
+incorporated in a MS. of Lydgate's _Troye Booke_, and of the _Legends of
+the Saints_, an important work of some 40,000 lines. These poems he
+attributed, erroneously, as has since been proved, to Barbour (q.v.).
+Unfortunately Bradshaw allowed his attention to be distracted by a
+multiplicity of subjects, so that he has not left any literary work
+commensurate with his powers. The strain upon him was increased when he
+was elected (1867) university librarian, and as dean of his college
+(1857-1865) and praelector (1863-1868) he was involved in further
+routine duties. Besides his brilliant isolated discoveries in
+bibliography, he did much by his untiring zeal to improve the standard
+of library administration. He died very suddenly on the 10th of February
+1886. His fugitive papers on antiquarian subjects were collected and
+edited by Mr F. Jenkinson in 1889.
+
+  An excellent _Memoir of Henry Bradshaw_, by Mr G.W. Prothero, appeared
+  in 1888. See also C.F. Newcombe, _Some Aspects of the Work of Henry
+  Bradshaw_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+
+BRADSHAW, JOHN (1602-1659), president of the "High Court of Justice"
+which tried Charles I., was the second son of Henry Bradshaw, of Marple
+and Wibersley in Cheshire. He was baptized on the 10th of December 1602,
+was educated at Banbury in Cheshire and at Middleton in Lancashire,
+studied subsequently with an attorney at Congleton, was admitted into
+Gray's Inn in 1620, and was called to the bar in 1627, becoming a
+bencher in 1647. He was mayor of Congleton in 1637, and later high
+steward or recorder of the borough. According to Milton he was assiduous
+in his legal studies and acquired considerable reputation and practice
+at the bar. On the 21st of September 1643 he was appointed judge of the
+sheriff's court in London. In October 1644 he was counsel with Prynne in
+the prosecution of Lord Maguire and Hugh Macmahon, implicated in the
+Irish rebellion, in 1645 for John Lilburne in his appeal to the Lords
+against the sentence of the Star Chamber, and in 1647 in the prosecution
+of Judge Jenkins. On the 8th of October 1646 he had been nominated by
+the Commons a commissioner of the great seal, but his appointment was
+not confirmed by the Lords. In 1647 he was made chief justice of Chester
+and a judge in Wales, and on the 12th of October 1648 he was presented
+to the degree of serjeant-at-law. On the 2nd of January 1649 the Lords
+threw out the ordinance for bringing the king to trial, and the small
+remnant of the House of Commons which survived Pride's Purge, consisting
+of 53 independents, determined to carry out the ordinance on their own
+authority. The leading members of the bar, on the parliamentary as well
+as on the royalist side, having refused to participate in proceedings
+not only illegal and unconstitutional, but opposed to the plainest
+principles of equity, Bradshaw was selected to preside, and, after some
+protestations of humility and unfitness, accepted the office. The king
+refused to plead before the tribunal, but Bradshaw silenced every legal
+objection and denied to Charles an opportunity to speak in his defence.
+He continued after the king's death to conduct, as lord president, the
+trials of the royalists, including the duke of Hamilton, Lord Capel, and
+Henry Rich, earl of Holland, all of whom he condemned to death, his
+behaviour being especially censured in the case of Eusebius Andrews, a
+royalist who had joined a conspiracy against the government. He received
+large rewards for his services. He was appointed in 1649
+attorney-general of Cheshire and North Wales, and chancellor of the
+duchy of Lancaster, and was given a sum of L1000, together with
+confiscated estates worth L2000 a year. He had been nominated a member
+of the council of state on the 14th of February 1649, and on the 10th of
+March became president. He disapproved strongly of the expulsion of the
+Long Parliament, and on Cromwell's coming subsequently to dismiss the
+council Bradshaw is said, on the authority of Ludlow, to have confronted
+him boldly, and denied his power to dissolve the parliament. An ardent
+republican, he showed himself ever afterwards an uncompromising
+adversary of Cromwell. He was returned for Stafford in the parliament of
+1654, and spoke strongly against vesting power in a single person. He
+refused to sign the "engagement" drawn up by Cromwell, and in
+consequence withdrew from parliament and was subsequently suspected of
+complicity in plots against the government. He failed to obtain a seat
+in the parliament of 1656, and in August of the same year Cromwell
+attempted to remove him from the chief-justiceship of Cheshire. After
+the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Bradshaw again entered parliament,
+became a member of the council of state, and on the 3rd of June 1659 was
+appointed a commissioner of the great seal. His health, however, was
+bad, and his last public effort was a vehement speech, in the council,
+when he declared his abhorrence of the arrest of Speaker Lenthall. He
+died on the 31st of October 1659, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+His body was disinterred at the Restoration, and exposed on a gibbet
+along with those of Cromwell and Ireton. Bradshaw married Mary, daughter
+of Thomas Marbury of Marbury, Cheshire, but left no children.
+
+
+
+
+BRADWARDINE, THOMAS (c. 1290-1349), English archbishop, called "the
+Profound Doctor," was born either at Hartfield in Sussex or at
+Chichester. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, where he took
+the degree of doctor of divinity, and acquired the reputation of a
+profound scholar, a skilful mathematician and an able divine. He was
+afterwards raised to the high offices of chancellor of the university
+and professor of divinity. From being chancellor of the diocese of
+London, he became chaplain and confessor to Edward III., whom he
+attended during his wars in France. On his return to England, he was
+successively appointed prebendary of Lincoln, archdeacon of Lincoln
+(1347), and in 1349 archbishop of Canterbury. He died of the plague at
+Lambeth on the 26th of August 1349, forty days after his consecration.
+Chaucer in his _Nun's Priest's Tale_ ranks Bradwardine with St
+Augustine. His great work is a treatise against the Pelagians, entitled
+_De causa Dei contra Pelagium et de virtute causarum_, edited by Sir
+Henry Savile (London, 1618). He wrote also _De Geometria speculativa_
+(Paris, 1530); _De Arithmetica practica_ (Paris, 1502); _De
+Proportionibus_ (Paris, 1495; Venice, 1505); _De Quadratura Circuli_
+(Paris, 1495); and an _Ars Memorativa_, Sloane MSS. No. 3974 in the
+British Museum.
+
+  See Quetif-Echard, _Script. Praedic._ (1719), i. 744; W.F. Hook,
+  _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv.
+
+
+
+
+BRADY, NICHOLAS (1659-1726), Anglican divine and poet, was born at
+Bandon, Co. Cork, on the 28th of October 1659. He received his education
+at Westminster school, and at Christ Church, Oxford; but he graduated at
+Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders, and in 1688 was made a
+prebendary of Cork. He was a zealous promoter of the Revolution and
+suffered in consequence. When the troubles broke out in Ireland in 1690,
+Brady, by his influence, thrice prevented the burning of the town of
+Bandon, after James II. had given orders for its destruction; and the
+same year he was employed by the people of Bandon to lay their
+grievances before the English parliament. He soon afterwards settled in
+London, where he obtained various preferments. At the time of his death,
+on the 20th of May 1726, he held the livings of Clapham and Richmond.
+Brady's best-known work is his metrical version of the Psalms, in which
+Nahum Tate collaborated with him. It was licensed in 1696, and largely
+ousted the old version of T. Sternhold and J. Hopkins. He also
+translated Virgil's _Aeneid_, and wrote several smaller poems and
+dramas, as well as sermons.
+
+
+
+
+BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE (1840-1888), Belgian painter, was
+born at Antwerp. He was trained by his father, a _genre_ painter, and
+his uncle, Baron Henri Leys, and devoted himself to scenes of everyday
+Antwerp life. The first pictures he exhibited, "The Laundry" (Van Cutsem
+collection, Brussels), and "The Coppersmith's Workshop" (Vleeshovwer
+collection, Antwerp), were shown at the Antwerp exhibition in 1861. He
+received the gold medal at Brussels in 1872 for "The Geographer" and
+"The Lesson" (both in the Brussels gallery); the gold medal at Vienna in
+1873 for "The Painter's Studio" and "Grandmother's Birthday"; and the
+medal of honour at the Exposition Universelle at Amsterdam for "The
+Pilot House." Among his more notable works are "A Shoemaker" (1862), "A
+Tailor's Workroom" (1863), "A Gardener" (1864, Antwerp gallery),
+"Interior of a Church" (1866), "Interior, Flanders" (1867), "Woman
+spinning" (1869), "Man reading" (1871), "The rue du Serment, Antwerp"
+(1875), "A Copperplate Printer," "The Sailor's Return," "The Man at the
+Window" (Couteaux collection, Brussels), "The Horn-blower" (Couteaux
+collection), "Man retouching a Picture" (Couteaux collection), "The
+Potters" (Marlier collection, Brussels), "Staircase in the Hydraulic
+House at Antwerp" (Marlier collection), and "The Brewer's House at
+Antwerp" (Marlier collection). The last, better known as "A Man
+sitting," is generally regarded as his masterpiece. As a lithographer
+and etcher, his work resembles that of Henri Leys. Towards the end of
+his life de Braekeleer did some dot painting (_pointillisme_), in which
+he achieved admirable effects of light.
+
+
+
+
+BRAEMAR, a district in S.W. Aberdeenshire, Scotland, extending from
+Ballater in the E. to Glen Dee in the W., a distance of 24 m. with a
+breadth varying from 3 to 6 m. It is drained throughout by the river
+Dee, both banks of which are bounded by hills varying from 1000 to
+nearly 3000 ft. in height. The whole area is distinguished by typical
+Highland scenery, and is a resort alike for sportsmen and tourists. The
+villages and clachans (Gaelic for hamlet) being situated at an altitude
+of from 600 to more than 1000 ft. above the sea, the air is everywhere
+pure and bracing. The deer forests comprise the royal forests of
+Balmoral and Ballochbuie, Glen Ey Forest, Mar Forest and Invercauld
+Forest. At various points on either side of the Dee, granite castles,
+mansions and lodges have been built, mostly in the Scottish baronial
+style, and all effectively situated with reference to the wooded hills
+or the river. The chief of these are Balmoral and Abergeldie Castles
+belonging to the crown, Invercauld House, Braemar Castle, Mar Lodge and
+Old Mar Lodge. Castleton of Braemar is the foremost of the villages,
+being sometimes styled the capital of the Deeside Highlands. Its public
+buildings include halls erected by the duke of Fife and Colonel
+Farquharson of Invercauld to commemorate the Victorian jubilee of 1887.
+Not far from the spot where the brawling Clunie joins the Dee the earl
+of Mar raised the standard of revolt in 1715. His seat, Braemar Castle,
+reputed to be a hunting-lodge of Malcolm Canmore, was forfeit along with
+the estates. The new castle built by the purchasers in 1720 was acquired
+at a later date by Farquharson of Invercauld, who gave government the
+use of it during the pacification of the Highlands after the battle of
+Culloden in 1746. Population of Crathie and Braemar (1901) 1452.
+
+
+
+
+BRAG, a very old game of cards, probably evolved from the ancient
+Spanish _primero_, played by five or six, or more players. It is the
+ancestor of poker. A full pack is used, the cards ranking as at whist,
+with certain exceptions. There are no trumps. Each player receives three
+cards and puts up three stakes. The last round is dealt face upwards:
+the holder of the highest card irrespective of suits wins the first
+stake from all the players. In the case of equality the elder hand wins,
+but the ace of diamonds is always a winning card. For the second stake
+the players _brag_ or bet against each other, if they hold either a
+pair, or a pair-royal (three cards of the same rank). Pairs and
+pairs-royal take precedence according to the value of the cards
+composing them, but any pair-royal beats any pair. The knave of clubs
+may be counted as any card, e.g. two twos and the knave of clubs rank as
+a pair-royal in twos; two aces and the knave as a pair-royal in aces.
+Sometimes the knave of diamonds is allowed the same privilege, but is
+inferior to the club knave; e.g. two threes and the club would beat the
+other two threes and the diamond. Players who accept another's brag must
+cover his. bet and offer another. The third stake is won by the player
+whose cards make 31 or are nearest to 31 by their pips, aces and court
+counting ten; but the ace may by arrangement count as 1 or 11. Players
+may draw from the stock, losing if they over-draw. If one player wins
+all three stakes, he may receive the value of another stake, or of two
+or three stakes, all round, as arranged. The deal passes as at whist.
+Each player should have the same number of deals before the game is
+abandoned.
+
+
+
+
+BRAGA, a city of northern Portugal, formerly included in the province of
+Entre Minho e Douro, situated on the right-bank of the small river Deste
+near its source, and at the head of a railway from Oporto. Pop. (1900)
+24,202. Braga, which ranks after Lisbon and Oporto as the third city of
+the kingdom, is the capital of an administrative district, and an
+archiepiscopal see. Its cathedral, founded in the 12th century, was
+rebuilt during the 16th century in the blend of Moorish and florid
+Gothic styles known as Manoellian. It contains several tombs of
+considerable historical interest, some fine woodwork carved in the 15th
+century, and a collection of ancient vestments, plate and other objects
+of art. Among the other churches Santa Cruz is noteworthy for its
+handsome facade, which dates from 1642. There are several convents, an
+archiepiscopal palace, a library, containing many rare books and
+manuscripts, an orphan asylum, and a large hospital; also the ruins of a
+theatre, a temple and an aqueduct of Roman workmanship, and a great
+variety of minor antiquities of different ages. The principal
+manufactures are firearms, jewelry, cutlery, cloth and felt hats. Large
+cattle fairs are held in June and September, for cattle-breeding and
+dairy-farming are among the foremost local industries. On a hill about
+3 m. E. by S. stands the celebrated sanctuary of Bom Jesus, or Bom Jesus
+do Monte, visited at Whitsuntide by many thousands of pilgrims, who do
+public penance as they ascend to the shrine; and about 1 m. beyond it is
+Mount Sameiro (2535 ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the Virgin
+Mary, and commanding a magnificent view of the mountainous country which
+culminates in the Serra do Gerez, on the north-east.
+
+Braga is the Roman _Bracara Augusta_, capital of the _Callaici
+Bracarii_, or _Bracarenses_, a tribe who occupied what is now Galicia
+and northern Portugal. Early in the 5th century it was taken by the
+Suevi; but about 485 it passed into the hands of the Visigothic
+conquerors of Spain, whose renunciation of the Arian and Priscillianist
+heresies, at two synods held here in the 6th century, marks the origin
+of its ecclesiastical greatness. The archbishops of Braga retain the
+title of primate of Portugal, and long claimed supremacy over the
+Spanish church also; but their authority was never accepted throughout
+Spain. From the Moors, who captured Braga early in the 8th century, the
+city was retaken in 1040 by Ferdinand I., king of Castile and Leon; and
+from 1093 to 1147 it was the residence of the Portuguese court.
+
+The administrative district of Braga coincides with the central part of
+the province of Entre Minho e Douro (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 357,159. Area,
+1040 sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+BRAGANZA (_Braganca_), the capital of an administrative district
+formerly included in the province of Traz-os-Montes, Portugal; situated
+in the north-eastern extremity of the kingdom, on a branch of the river
+Sabor, 8 m. S. of the Spanish frontier. Pop. (1900) 5535. Braganza is an
+episcopal city. It consists of a walled upper town, containing the
+cathedral college and hospital, and of a lower or modern town. Large
+tracts of the surrounding country are uncultivated, partly because
+railway communication is lacking and the roads are bad. Except farming,
+the chief local industry is silkworm-rearing and the manufacture of
+silk. The administrative district of Braganza coincides with the eastern
+part of Traz-os-Montes (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 185,162; area, 2513 sq. m.
+
+The city gave its name to the family of Braganza, members of which were
+rulers of Portugal from 1640 to 1853, and emperors of Brazil from 1822
+to 1889. This family is descended from Alphonso (d. 1461), a natural son
+of John I., king of Portugal (d. 1433), who was a natural son of King
+Peter I., and consequently belonged to the Portuguese branch of the
+Capetian family. Alphonso was made duke of Braganza in 1442, and in 1483
+his grandson, Duke Ferdinand II., lost his life through heading an
+insurrection against King John II. In spite of this Ferdinand's
+descendants acquired great wealth, and several of them held high office
+under the kings of Portugal. Duke John I. (d. 1583) married into the
+royal family, and when King Henry II. died without direct heirs in 1580,
+he claimed the crown of Portugal in opposition to Philip II. of Spain.
+John, however, was unsuccessful, but, when the Portuguese threw off the
+Spanish dominion in 1640, his grandson, John II., duke of Braganza,
+became king as John IV. In 1807, when Napoleon declared the throne of
+Portugal vacant, King John VI. fled to Brazil; but he regained his
+inheritance after the fall of Napoleon in 1814, although he did not
+return to Europe until 1821, when he left his elder son Peter to govern
+Brazil. In 1822 a revolution established the independence of Brazil with
+Peter as emperor. In 1826 Peter became king of Portugal on the death of
+his father; but he at once resigned the crown to his young daughter
+Maria, and appointed his brother Miguel to act as regent. Miguel soon
+declared himself king, but after a stubborn struggle was driven from the
+country in 1833, after which Maria became queen. Maria married for her
+second husband Ferdinand (d. 1851), son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg;
+and when she died in 1853 the main Portuguese branch of the family
+became extinct. Maria was succeeded by her son Louis I., father of
+Charles I., who ascended the throne of Portugal in 1889. The empire of
+Brazil descended on the death of Peter I. to his son Peter II., who was
+expelled from the country in 1889. When Peter died in 1891 this branch
+of the family also became extinct in the male line. His only child,
+Isabella, married Louis Gaston of Orleans, count of Eu. The exiled king,
+Miguel, founded a branch of the family of Braganza which settled in
+Bavaria, and various noble families in Portugal are descended from
+cadets of this house. The title of duke of Braganza is now borne by the
+eldest son of the king of Portugal.
+
+
+
+
+BRAGG, BRAXTON (1817-1876), American soldier, was born in Warren county,
+North Carolina, on the 22nd of March 1817. He graduated at the United
+States military academy in 1837, and as an artillery officer served in
+the Seminole wars of 1837 and 1841, and under General Taylor in Mexico.
+For gallant conduct at Fort Brown, Monterey and Buena Vista, he received
+the brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel. He resigned from
+the regular army on the 3rd of January 1856, and retired to his
+plantation in Louisiana. From 1859 to 1861 he was commissioner of the
+board of public works of the state. When in 1861 the Civil War began,
+Bragg was made a brigadier-general in the Confederate service, and
+assigned to command at Pensacola. In February 1862, having meanwhile
+become major-general, he took up a command in the Army of the
+Mississippi, and he was present at the battle of Shiloh (April). The
+vacancy created by the death of Sidney Johnston at that battle was
+filled by the promotion of Bragg to full general's rank, and he
+succeeded General Beauregard when that officer retired from the Western
+command. In the autumn of 1862 he led a bold advance from Eastern
+Tennessee across Kentucky to Louisville, but after temporary successes
+he was forced to retire before Buell, and after the battle of Perryville
+(8th October) retired into Tennessee. Though the material results of his
+campaign were considerable, he was bitterly censured, and his removal
+from his command was urged. But the personal favour of Jefferson Davis
+kept him, as it had placed him, at the head of the central army, and on
+the 31st of December 1862 and 2nd of January 1863 he fought the
+indecisive battle of Murfreesboro (or Stone river) against Rosecrans,
+Buell's successor. In the campaign of 1863 Rosecrans constantly
+outmanoeuvred the Confederates, and forced them back to the border of
+Georgia. Bragg, however, inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponent at
+Chickamauga (September 19-20) and for a time besieged the Union forces
+in Chattanooga. But enormous forces under Grant were concentrated upon
+the threatened spot, and the great battle of Chattanooga (November
+23-25) ended in the rout of the Confederates. Bragg was now deprived of
+his command, but President Davis made him his military adviser, and in
+that capacity he served during 1864. In the autumn of that year he led
+an inferior force from North Carolina to Georgia to oppose Sherman's
+march. In February 1865 he joined Johnston, and he was thus included in
+the surrender of that officer to Sherman. After the war he became chief
+engineer to the state of Alabama, and supervised improvements in Mobile
+harbour. He died suddenly at Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of September
+1876. General Bragg, in spite of his want of success, was unquestionably
+a brave and skilful officer. But he was a severe martinet, and rarely in
+full accord with the senior officers under his orders, the consequent
+friction often acting unfavourably on the conduct of the operations.
+
+His brother, THOMAS BRAGG (1810-1872), was governor of North Carolina
+1855-1859, U.S. senator 1859-1861, and attorney-general in the
+Confederate cabinet from Nov. 1861 to March 1862.
+
+
+
+
+BRAGI, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of Odin, and god of wisdom,
+poetry and eloquence. At the Scandinavian sacrificial feasts a horn
+consecrated to Bragi was used as a drinking-cup by the guests, who then
+vowed to do some great deed which would be worthy of being immortalized
+in verse.
+
+
+
+
+BRAHAM, JOHN (c. 1774-1856), English vocalist, was born in London about
+1774, of Jewish parentage, his real name being Abraham. His father and
+mother died when he was quite young. Having received lessons in singing
+from an Italian artist named Leoni, he made his first appearance in
+public at Covent Garden theatre on the 21st of April 1787, when he sang
+"The soldier tired of war's alarms" and "_Ma chere arrive_." On the
+breaking of his voice, he had to support himself by teaching the
+pianoforte. In a few years, however, he recovered his voice, which
+proved to be a tenor of exceptionally pure and rich quality. His second
+debut was made in 1794 at the Bath concerts, to the conductor of which,
+Rauzzini, he was indebted for careful training extending over a period
+of more than two years. In 1796 he reappeared in London at Drury Lane in
+Storace's opera of _Mahmoud_. Such was his success that he obtained an
+engagement the next year to appear in the Italian opera house in
+Gretry's _Azor et Zemire_. He also sang in oratorios and was engaged for
+the Three Choir festival at Gloucester. With the view of perfecting
+himself in his art he set out for Italy in the autumn of 1797. On the
+way he gave some concerts at Paris, which proved so successful that he
+was induced to remain there for eight months. His career in Italy was
+one of continuous triumph; he appeared in all the principal
+opera-houses, singing in Milan, Genoa, Leghorn and Venice. His compass
+embraced about nineteen notes, his management of the falsetto being
+perfect. In 1801 he returned to his native country, and appeared once
+more at Covent Garden in the opera _Chains of the Heart_, by Mazzinghi
+and Reeve. So great was his popularity that an engagement he had made
+when abroad to return after a year to Vienna was renounced, and he
+remained henceforward in England. In 1824 he sang the part of Max in the
+English version of Weber's _Der Freischutz_, and he was the original Sir
+Huon in that composer's _Oberon_ in 1826. Braham made two unfortunate
+speculations on a large scale, one being the purchase of the Colosseum
+in the Regent's Park in 1831 for L40,000, and the other the erection of
+the St James's theatre at a cost of L26,000 in 1836. In 1838 he sang the
+part of William Tell at Drury Lane, and in 1839 the part of Don
+Giovanni. His last public appearance was at a concert in March 1852. He
+died on the 17th of February 1856. There is, perhaps, no other case upon
+record in which a singer of the first rank enjoyed the use of his voice
+so long; between Braham's first and last public appearances considerably
+more than sixty years intervened, during forty of which he held the
+undisputed supremacy alike in opera, oratorio and the concert-room.
+Braham was the composer of a number of vocal pieces, which being sung by
+himself had great temporary popularity, though they had little intrinsic
+merit, and are now deservedly forgotten. A partial exception must be
+made in favour of "The Death of Nelson," originally written in 1811 as a
+portion of the opera _The American_; this still keeps its place as a
+standard popular English song.
+
+
+
+
+BRAHE, PER, COUNT (1602-1680), Swedish soldier and statesman, was born
+on the island of Rydboholm, near Stockholm, on the 18th of February
+1602. He was the grandson of Per Brahe (1520-1590), one of Gustavus I.'s
+senators, created count of Visingsborg by Eric XIV., known also as the
+continuator of Peder Svart's chronicle of Gustavus I., and author of
+_Oeconomia_ (1585), a manual for young noblemen. Per Brahe the younger,
+after completing his education by several years' travel abroad, became
+in 1626 chamberlain to Gustavus Adolphus, whose lasting friendship he
+gained. He fought with distinction in Prussia during the last three
+years of the Polish War (1626-1629) and also, as colonel of a regiment
+of horse, in 1630 in Germany. After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in
+1632 his military yielded to his political activity. He had been elected
+president (_Landsmarskalk_) of the diet of 1629, and in the following
+year was created a senator (_Riksrad_). In 1635 he conducted the
+negotiations for an armistice with Poland. In 1637-1640 and again in
+1648-1654 he was governor-general in Finland, to which country he
+rendered inestimable services by his wise and provident rule. He
+reformed the whole administration, introduced a postal system, built ten
+new towns, improved and developed commerce and agriculture, and very
+greatly promoted education. In 1640 he opened the university of Abo, of
+which he was the founder, and first chancellor. After the death of
+Charles X. in 1660, Brahe, as _rikskansler_ or chancellor of Sweden,
+became one of the regents of Sweden for the second time (he had held a
+similar office during the minority of Christina, 1632-1644), and during
+the difficult year 1660 he had entire control of both foreign and
+domestic affairs. He died on the 2nd of September 1680, at his castle
+at Visingsborg, where during his lifetime he had held more than regal
+pomp.
+
+His brother, NILS BRAHE (1604-1632), also served with distinction under
+Gustavus Adolphus. He took part in the siege and capture of Riga in
+1621, served with distinction in Poland (1626-1627) and assisted in the
+defence of Stralsund in 1628. In 1630 he accompanied Gustavus into
+Germany, and in 1631 was appointed colonel of "the yellow regiment," the
+king's world-renowned life-guards, at the head of which he captured the
+castle of Wurzburg on the 8th of October 1631. He took part in the long
+duel between Gustavus and Wallenstein round Nuremberg as general of
+infantry, and commanded the left wing at Lutzen (November 6, 1632),
+where he was the only Swedish general officer present. At the very
+beginning of the fight he was mortally wounded. The king regarded Brahe
+as the best general in the Swedish army after Lennart Torstensen.
+
+A direct descendant of Nils, MAGNUS BRAHE (1790-1844), fought in the
+campaign of 1813-14, under the crown prince Bernadotte, with whom, after
+his accession to the throne as Charles XIV., he was in high favour. He
+became marshal of the kingdom, and, especially from 1828 onwards,
+exercised a preponderant influence in public affairs.
+
+  See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhetstid_, vol. iv. (Stockholm,
+  1881); _Letters to Axel Oxenstjerna_ (Swed.) 1832-1851 (Stockholm,
+  1890); Petrus Nordmann, _Per Brahe_ (Helsingfors, 1904).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHE, TYCHO (1546-1601), Danish astronomer, was born on the 14th of
+December 1546 at the family seat of Knudstrup in Scania, then a Danish
+province. Of noble family, he was early adopted by his uncle, Jorgen
+Brahe, who sent him, in April 1559, to study philosophy and rhetoric at
+Copenhagen. The punctual occurrence at the predicted time, August 21st,
+1560, of a total solar eclipse led him to regard astronomy as "something
+divine"; he purchased the _Ephemerides_ of Johann Stadius (3rd ed.,
+1570), and the works of Ptolemy in Latin, and gained some insight into
+the theory of the planets. Entered as a law-student at the university of
+Leipzig in 1562, he nevertheless secretly prosecuted celestial studies,
+and began continuous observations with a globe, a pair of compasses and
+a "cross-staff." He quitted Leipzig on the 17th of May 1565, but his
+uncle dying a month later, he repaired to Wittenberg, and thence to
+Rostock, where, in 1566, he lost his nose in a duel, and substituted an
+artificial one made of a copper alloy. In 1569 he matriculated at
+Augsburg, and devoted himself to chemistry for two years (1570-1572). On
+his return to Denmark, in 1571, he was permitted by his maternal uncle,
+Steno Belle, to instal a laboratory at his castle of Herritzvad, near
+Knudstrup; and there, on the 11th of November 1572, he caught sight of
+the famous "new star" in Cassiopeia. He diligently measured its
+position, and printed an account of his observations in a tract entitled
+_De Nova Stella_ (Copenhagen, 1573), a facsimile of which was produced
+in 1901, as a tercentenary tribute to the author's memory.
+
+Tycho's marriage with a peasant-girl in 1573 somewhat strained his
+family relations. He delivered lectures in Copenhagen by royal command
+in 1574; and in 1575 travelled through Germany to Venice. The execution
+of his design to settle at Basel was, however, anticipated by the
+munificence of Frederick II., king of Denmark, who bestowed upon him for
+life the island of Hveen in the Sound, together with a pension of 500
+thalers, a canonry in the cathedral of Roskilde, and the income of an
+estate in Norway. The first stone of the magnificent observatory of
+Uraniborg was laid on the 8th of August 1576; it received the finest
+procurable instrumental outfit; and was the scene, during twenty-one
+years, of Tycho's labours in systematically collecting materials--the
+first made available since the Alexandrian epoch--for the correction of
+astronomical theories. James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. of
+England, visited him at Uraniborg on the 20th of March 1590. But by that
+time his fortunes were on the wane; for Frederick II. died in 1588, and
+his successor, Christian IV., was less tolerant of Tycho's arrogant and
+insubordinate behaviour. His pension and fief having been withdrawn, he
+sailed for Rostock in June 1597, and re-commenced observing before the
+close of the year, in the castle of Wandsbeck near Hamburg. He spent
+the following winter at Wittenberg, and reached Prague in June 1599,
+well assured of favour and protection from the emperor Rudolph II. That
+monarch, accordingly, assigned him the castle of Benatky for his
+residence, with a pension of 3000 florins; his great instruments were
+moved thither from Hveen, and Johannes Kepler joined him there in
+January 1600. But this phase of renewed prosperity was brief. After
+eleven days' illness, Tycho Brahe died on the 24th of October 1601, at
+Benatky, and was buried in the Teynkirche, Prague.
+
+Tycho's principal work, entitled _Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnasmata_
+(2 vols., Prague, 1602-1603) was edited by Kepler. The first volume
+treated of the motions of the sun and moon, and gave the places of 777
+fixed stars (this number was increased to 1005 by Kepler in 1627 in the
+"Rudolphine Tables"). The second, which had been privately printed at
+Uraniborg in 1588 with the heading _De Mundi Aetherei recentioribus
+Phaenomenis_, was mainly concerned with the comet of 1577, demonstrated
+by Tycho from its insensible parallax to be no terrestrial exhalation,
+as commonly supposed, but a body traversing planetary space. It
+included, besides, an account of the Tychonic plan of the cosmos, in
+which a _via media_ was sought between the Ptolemaic and Copernican
+systems. The earth retained its immobility; but the five planets were
+made to revolve round the sun, which, with its entire cortege, annually
+circuited the earth, the sphere of the fixed stars performing meanwhile,
+as of old, its all-inclusive diurnal rotation (see ASTRONOMY:
+_History_). Under the heading _Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica_, Tycho
+published at Wandsbeck, in 1598, a description of his instruments,
+together with an autobiographical account of his career and discoveries,
+including the memorable one of the moon's "variation" (see MOON). The
+book was reprinted at Nuremberg in 1602 (cf. Hasselberg,
+_Vierteljahrsschrift Astr. Ges._ xxxix. iii. 180). His _Epistolae
+Astronomicae_, printed at Uraniborg in 1596 with a portrait engraved by
+Geyn of Amsterdam in 1586, were embodied in a complete edition of his
+works issued at Frankfort in 1648. Tycho vastly improved the art of
+astronomical observation. He constructed a table of refractions, allowed
+for instrumental inaccuracies, and eliminated by averaging accidental
+errors. He, moreover, corrected the received value of nearly every
+astronomical quantity; but the theoretical purpose towards which his
+practical reform was directed, was foiled by his premature death.
+
+  See J.L.E. Dreyer's _Tycho Brahe_ (Edinburgh, 1890), which gives full
+  and authentic information regarding his life and work. Also Gassendi's
+  _Vita_ (Paris, 1654); _Lebensbeschreibung_, collected from various
+  Danish sources, and translated into German by Philander von der
+  Weistritz (Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1756); _Tyge Brahe_, by F.R. Friis
+  (Copenhagen, 1871); _Prager Tychoniana_, collected by Dr F.I.
+  Studnicka (Prague, 1901), a description of the scanty Tychonian relics
+  which survived the Thirty Years' War and are still preserved at
+  Prague.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMAN, a Sanskrit noun-stem which, differently accented, yields in the
+two nominatives _Brahma_ (neut.) and _Brahma_ (masc.), the names of two
+deities which occupy prominent places in the orthodox system of Hindu
+belief. Brahma (n.) is the designation generally applied to the Supreme
+Soul (_paramatman_), or impersonal, all-embracing divine essence, the
+original source and ultimate goal of all that exists; Brahma (m.), on
+the other hand, is only one of the three hypostases of that divinity
+whose creative activity he represents, as distinguished from its
+preservative and destructive aspects, ever apparent in life and nature,
+and represented by the gods Vishnu and Siva respectively. The history of
+the two cognate names reflects in some measure the development of Indian
+religious speculation generally.
+
+The neuter term _brahma_ is used in the _Rigveda_ both in the abstract
+sense of "devotion, worship," and in the concrete sense of "devotional
+rite, prayer, hymn." The spirit of Vedic worship is pervaded by a devout
+belief in the efficacy of invocation and sacrificial offering. The
+earnest and well-expressed prayer or hymn of praise cannot fail to draw
+the divine power to the worshipper and make it yield to his
+supplication; whilst offerings, so far from being mere acts of devotion
+calculated to give pleasure to the god, constitute the very food and
+drink which render him vigorous and capable of battling with the enemies
+of his mortal friend. It is this intrinsic power of fervent invocation
+and worship which found an early expression in the term _brahma_; and
+its independent existence as an active moral principle in shaping the
+destinies of man became recognized in the Vedic pantheon in the
+conception of a god _Brihaspati_ or _Brahmanaspati_, "lord of prayer or
+devotion," the divine priest and the guardian of the pious worshipper.
+By a natural extension of the original meaning, the term _brahma_, in
+the sense of sacred utterance, was subsequently likewise applied to the
+whole body of sacred writ, the _tri-vidya_ or "triple lore" of the Veda;
+whilst it also came to be commonly used as the abstract designation of
+the priestly function and the Brahmanical order generally, in the same
+way as the term _kshatra_, "sway, rule," came to denote the aggregate of
+functions and individuals of the Kshatriyas or Rajanyas, the nobility or
+military class.
+
+The universal belief in the efficacy of invocation as an indispensable
+adjunct to sacrifices and religious rites generally, could not fail to
+engender and maintain in the minds of the people feelings of profound
+esteem and reverence towards those who possessed the divine gift of
+inspired utterance, as well as for those who had acquired an intimate
+knowledge of the approved forms of ritual worship. A common designation
+of the priest is brahman (nom. _brahma_), originally denoting, it would
+seem, "one who prays, a worshipper," perhaps also "the composer of a
+hymn" (_brahman_, n.); and the same term came subsequently to be used
+not only for one of the sacerdotal order generally, but also, and more
+commonly, as the designation of a special class of priests who
+officiated as superintendents during sacrificial performances, the
+complicated nature of which required the co-operation of a whole staff
+of priests, and who accordingly were expected to possess a competent
+knowledge of the entire course of ritual procedure, including the
+correct form and mystic import of the sacred texts to be repeated or
+chanted by the several priests. The Brahman priest (_brahma_) being thus
+the recognized head of the sacerdotal order (_brahma_), which itself is
+the visible embodiment of sacred writ and the devotional spirit
+pervading it (_brahma_), the complete realization of theocratic
+aspirations required but a single step, which was indeed taken in the
+theosophic speculations of the later Vedic poets and the authors of the
+Brahmanas (q.v.), viz. the recognition of this abstract notion of the
+Brahma as the highest cosmic principle and its identification with the
+pantheistic conception of an all-pervading, self-existent spiritual
+substance, the primary source of the universe; and subsequently coupled
+therewith the personification of its creative energy in the form of
+Brahma, the divine representative of the earthly priest, who was made to
+take the place of the earlier conception of _Prajapati_, "the lord of
+creatures" (see BRAHMANISM). By this means the very name of this god
+expressed the essential oneness of his nature with that of the divine
+spirit as whose manifestation he was to be considered. In the later
+Vedic writings, especially the Brahmanas, however, Prajapati still
+maintains throughout his position as the paramount personal deity; and
+Brahma, in his divine capacity, is rather identified with Brihaspati,
+the priest of the gods. Moreover, the exact relationship between
+Prajapati and the Brahma (n.) is hardly as yet defined with sufficient
+precision; it is rather one of simple identification: in the beginning
+the Brahma was the All, and Prajapati is the Brahma. It is only in the
+institutes of Manu, where we find the system of castes propounded in its
+complete development, that Brahma has his definite place assigned to him
+in the cosmogony. According to this work, the universe, before
+undiscerned, was made discernible in the beginning by the sole,
+self-existent lord Brahma (n.). He, desirous of producing different
+beings from his own self, created the waters by his own thought, and
+placed in them a seed which developed into a golden egg; therein was
+born Brahma (m.), the parent of all the worlds; and thus "that which is
+the undiscrete Cause, eternal, which is and is not, from it issued that
+male who is called in the world Brahma." Having dwelt in that egg for a
+year, that lord spontaneously by his own thought split that egg in two;
+and from the two halves he fashioned the heaven and the earth, and in
+the middle, the sky, and the eight regions (the points of the compass),
+and the perpetual place of the waters. This theory of Brahma being born
+from a golden egg is, however, a mere adaptation of the Vedic conception
+of _Hiranya-garbha_ ("golden embryo"), who is represented as the supreme
+god in a hymn of the tenth (and last) book of the _Rigveda_. Another
+still later myth, which occurs in the epic poems, makes Brahma be born
+from a lotus which grew out of the navel of the god Vishnu whilst
+floating on the primordial waters. In artistic representations, Brahma
+usually appears as a bearded man of red colour with four heads crowned
+with a pointed, tiara-like head-dress, and four hands holding his
+sceptre, or a sacrificial spoon, a bundle of leaves representing the
+Veda, a bottle of water of the Ganges, and a string of beads or his bow
+Parivita. His vehicle (_vahana_) is a goose or swan (_hamsa_), whence he
+is also called _Hamsavhana_; and his consort is Sarasvati, the goddess
+of learning.
+
+One could hardly expect that a colourless deity of this description, so
+completely the product of priestly speculation, could ever have found a
+place in the hearts of the people generally, And indeed, whilst in
+theoretic theology Brahma has retained his traditional place and
+function down to our own days, his practical cult has at all times
+remained extremely limited, the only temple dedicated to the worship of
+this god being found at Pushkar (Pokhar) near Ajmir in Rajputana. On the
+other hand, his divine substratum, the impersonal Brahma, the
+world-spirit, the one and only reality, remains to this day the ultimate
+element of the religious belief of intelligent India of whatever sect.
+Being devoid of all attributes, it can be the object only of meditation,
+not of practical devotional rites; and philosophy can only attempt to
+characterize it in general and vague terms, as in the favourite formula
+which makes it to be _sachchidananda_, i.e. being (_sat_), thinking
+(_chit_), and bliss (_ananda_).     (J. E.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMANA, the Sanskrit term applied to a body of prose writings appended
+to the collections (_samhita_) of Vedic texts, the meaning and ritual
+application of which they are intended to elucidate, and like them
+regarded as divinely revealed. From a linguistic point of view, these
+treatises with their appendages, the more mystic and recondite Aranyakas
+and the speculative Upanishads, have to be considered as forming the
+connecting link between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit. The exact
+derivation and meaning of the name is somewhat uncertain. Whilst the
+masculine term _brahmana_ (nom. _brahmanas_), the ordinary Sanskrit
+designation of a man of the Brahmanical caste, is clearly a derivative
+of _brahman_ (nom. _brahma_), a common Vedic term for a priest (see
+BRAHMAN), thus meaning the son or descendant of a Brahman, the neuter
+word _brahman_ (nom. _brahmanam_) on the other hand, with which we are
+here concerned, admits of two derivations: either it is derived from the
+same word _brahman_, and would then seem to mean a _dictum_ or
+observation ascribed to, or intended for the use of, a Brahman, or
+superintendent priest; or it has rather to be referred to the neuter
+noun _brahman_ (nom. _brahma_), in the sense of "sacred utterance or
+rite," in which case it might mean a comment on a sacred text, or
+explanation of a devotional rite, calculated to bring out its spiritual
+or mystic significance and its bearing on the Brahma, the world-spirit
+embodied in the sacred writ and ritual. This latter definition seems on
+the whole the more probable one, and it certainly would fit exactly the
+character of the writings to which the term relates. It will thus be
+seen that the term _brahmanam_ applies not only to complete treatises of
+an exegetic nature, but also to single comments on particular texts or
+rites of which such a work would be made up.
+
+The gradual elaboration of the sacrificial ceremonial, as the
+all-sufficient expression of religious devotion, and a constantly
+growing tendency towards theosophic and mystic speculation on the
+significance of every detail of the ritual, could not fail to create a
+demand for explanatory treatises of this kind, which, to enhance their
+practical utility, would naturally deal with the special texts and rites
+assigned in the ceremonial to the several classes of officiating
+priests. At a subsequent period the demand for instruction in the
+sacrificial science called into existence a still more practical set of
+manuals, the so-called _Kalpa-sutras_, or ceremonial rules, detailing,
+in succinct aphorisms, the approved course of sacrificial procedure,
+without reference to the supposed origin or import of the several rites.
+These manuals are also called _Srauta-sutras_, treating as they do, like
+the Brahmanas, of the Srauta rites--i.e. the rites based on the _sruti_
+or revelation--requiring at least three sacrificial fires and a number
+of priests, as distinguished from the _grihya_ (domestic) or _smarta_
+(traditional) rites, supposed to be based on the _smriti_ or tradition,
+which are performed on the house-fire and dealt with in the
+_Grihya-sutras_.
+
+The ritual recognizes four principal priests (_ritvij_), each of whom is
+assisted by three subordinates: viz. the _Brahman_ or superintending
+priest; the _Hotri_ or reciter of hymns and verses; the _Udgatri_ or
+chanter; and the _Adhvaryu_ or offerer, who looks after the details of
+the ceremonial, including the preparation of the offering-ground, the
+construction of fire-places and altars, the making of oblations and
+muttering of the prescribed formulae. Whilst the two last priests have
+assigned to them special liturgical collections of the texts to be used
+by them, the _Samaveda-samhita_ and _Yajurveda-samhita_ respectively,
+the Hotri has to deal entirely with hymns and verses taken from the
+_Rigveda-samhita_, of which they would, however, form only a
+comparatively small portion. As regards the Brahman, he would doubtless
+be chosen from one of those other three classes, but would be expected
+to have made himself thoroughly conversant with the texts and ritual
+details appertaining to all the officiating priests. It is, then, to one
+or other of those three collections of sacred texts and the respective
+class of priests, that the existing Brahmanas attach themselves. At a
+later period, when the Atharvan gained admission to the Vedic canon, a
+special connexion with the Brahman priest was sometimes claimed, though
+with scant success, for this fourth collection of hymns and spells, and
+the comparatively late and unimportant Gopatha-brahmana attached to it.
+
+The Udgatri's duties being mainly confined to the chanting of hymns made
+up of detached groups of verses of the _Rigveda_, as collected in the
+Samaveda-samhita, the more important Brahmanas of this sacerdotal class
+deal chiefly with the various modes of chanting, and the modifications
+which the verses have to undergo in their musical setting. Moreover, the
+performance of chants being almost entirely confined to the
+Soma-sacrifice, it is only a portion, though no doubt the most important
+portion, of the sacrificial ceremonial that enters into the subject
+matter of the Samaveda Brahmamas.
+
+As regards the Brahmanas of the _Rigveda_, two of such works have
+been handed down, the _Aitareya_ and the _Kaushitaki_ (or
+_Sankhayana)-Brahmanas_, which have a large amount of their material in
+common. But while the former work (transl. into English by M. Haug) is
+mainly taken up with the Soma-sacrifice, the latter has in addition
+thereto chapters on the other forms of sacrifice. Being intended for the
+Hotri's use, both these works treat exclusively of the hymns and verses
+recited by that priest and his assistants, either in the form of
+connected litanies or in detached verses invoking the deities to whom
+oblations are made, or uttered in response to the solemn hymns chanted
+by the Udgatris.
+
+It is, however, to the Brahmanas and Sutras of the _Yajurveda_, dealing
+with the ritual of the real offering-priest, the Adhvaryu, that we have
+to turn for a connected view of the sacrificial procedure in all its
+material details. Now, in considering the body of writings connected
+with this Veda, we are at once confronted by the fact that there are two
+different schools, an older and a younger one, in which the traditional
+body of ritualistic matter has been treated in a very different way. For
+while the younger school, the _Vajasaneyins_, have made a clear
+severance between the sacred texts or mantras and the exegetic
+discussions thereon--as collected in the _Vajasaneyi-samhita_ and the
+_Satapatha-Brahmana_ (trans. by J. Eggeling, in _Sacred Books of the
+East_) respectively--arranged systematically in accordance with the
+ritual divisions, the older school on the other hand present their
+materials in a hopelessly jumbled form; for not only is each type of
+sacrifice not dealt with continuously and in orderly fashion, but short
+textual sections of mantras are constantly followed immediately by their
+dogmatic exegesis; the term _brahmana_ thus applying in their case only
+to these detached comments and not to the connected series of them. Thus
+the most prominent subdivision of the older school, the _Taittiriyas_,
+in their _Samhita_, have treated the main portion of the ceremonial in
+this promiscuous fashion, and to add to the confusion they have, by way
+of supplement, put forth a so-called _Taittiriya-brahmana_, which, so
+far from being a real Brahmana, merely deals with some additional rites
+in the same confused mixture of sacrificial formulae and dogmatic
+explanations. It is not without reason, therefore, that those two
+schools, the older and the younger, are commonly called the Black
+(_krishna_) and the White (_sukla_) Yajus respectively.
+
+Although the ritualistic discussions of the Brahmanas are for the most
+part of a dry and uninteresting nature to an even greater degree than is
+often the case with exegetic theological treatises, these works are
+nevertheless of considerable importance both as regards the history of
+Indian institutions and as "the oldest body of Indo-European prose, of a
+generally free, vigorous, simple form, affording valuable glimpses
+backwards at the primitive condition of unfettered Indo-European talk"
+(Whitney). Of especial interest in this respect are the numerous myths
+and legends scattered through these works. From the archaic style in
+which these mythological tales are usually composed, as well as from the
+fact that not a few of them are found in Brahmanas of different schools
+and Vedas, though often with considerable variations, it seems pretty
+evident that the groundwork of them must go back to times preceding the
+composition or final redaction of the existing Brahmanas. In the case of
+some of these legends--as those of Sunah-Sepha, and the fetching of Soma
+from heaven--we can even see how they have grown out of germs contained
+in some of the Vedic hymns. If the literary style in which the exegetic
+discussion of the texts and rites is carried on in the Brahmanas is, as
+a rule, of a very bald and uninviting nature, it must be borne in mind
+that these treatises are of a strictly professional and esoteric
+character, and in no way lay claim to being considered as literary
+compositions in any sense of the word. And yet, notwithstanding the
+general emptiness of their ritualistic discussions and mystic
+speculations, "there are passages in the Brahmanas full of genuine
+thought and feeling, and most valuable as pictures of life, and as
+records of early struggles, which have left no trace in the literature
+of other nations" (M. Muller).
+
+The chief interest, however, attaching to the Brahmanas is doubtless
+their detailed description of the sacrificial system as practised in the
+later Vedic ages; and the information afforded by them in this respect
+should be all the more welcome to us, as the history of religious
+institutions knows of no other sacrificial ceremonial with the details
+of which we are acquainted to anything like the same extent. An even
+more complete and minutely detailed view of the sacrificial system is no
+doubt obtained from the ceremonial manuals, the Kalpa-sutras; but it is
+just by the speculative discussions of the Brahmanas--the mystic
+significance and symbolical colouring with which they invest single
+rites--that we gain a real insight into the nature and gradual
+development of this truly stupendous system of ritual worship.
+
+The sacrificial ritual recognizes two kinds of _srauta_ sacrifices, viz.
+_haviryajnas_ (meat-offerings), consisting of oblations (_ishti_) of
+milk, butter, cereals or flesh, and _somayagas_ or oblations of the
+juice of the soma plant. The setting up, by a householder, of a set of
+three sacrificial fires of his own constitutes the first ceremony of the
+former class, the _Agny-adhana_ (or (?) _Agny-adheya_). The first of the
+three fires laid down is the _garhapatya_, or householder's fire, so
+called because, though not taken from his ordinary house-fire, but as a
+rule specially produced by friction, it serves for cooking the
+sacrificial food, and thus, as it were, represents the domestic fire.
+From it the other two fires, the _anavaniya_, or offering fire, and the
+_dakshinagni_, or southern fire, used for certain special purposes, are
+taken. The principal other ceremonies of this class are the new and full
+moon offerings, the oblations made at the commencement of the three
+seasons, the offering of first-fruits, the animal sacrifice, and the
+_Agnihotra_, or daily morning and evening oblation of milk, which,
+however, is also included amongst the _grihya_, or domestic rites, as
+having to be performed daily on the domestic fire by the householder who
+keeps no regular set of sacrificial fires.
+
+Of a far more complicated nature than these offerings are the
+Soma-sacrifices, which, besides the simpler ceremonies of this class,
+such as the _Agnishtoma_ or "Praise of Agni," also include great state
+functions, such as the _Rajasuya_ or consecration of a king, and the
+_Asvamedha_ or horse-sacrifice, which, in addition to the sacrificial
+rites, have a considerable amount of extraneous, often highly
+interesting, ceremonial connected with them, which makes them seem to
+partake largely of the nature of public festivals. Whilst the oblations
+of Soma-juice, made thrice on each offering-day, amidst chants and
+recitations, constitute the central rites of those services, their
+ritual also requires numerous single oblations of the _ishti_ kind,
+including at least three animal offerings, and in some cases the
+immolation of many hecatombs of victims. Moreover, a necessary
+preliminary to every Soma-sacrifice is the construction, in five layers,
+of a special fire-altar of large dimensions, consisting of thousands of
+bricks, formed and baked on the spot, to each, or each group, of which a
+special symbolic meaning is attached. The building of this altar is
+spread over a whole year, during which period the sacrificer has to
+carry about the sacrificial fire in an earthen pan for at least some
+time each day, until it is finally deposited on the completed altar to
+serve as the offering-fire for the Soma oblations. The altar itself is
+constructed in the form of a bird, because Soma was supposed to have
+been brought down from heaven by the metre Gayatri which had assumed the
+form of an eagle. Whilst the Soma-sacrifice has been thus developed by
+the Brahmanas in an extraordinary degree, its essential identity with
+the Avestan Haoma-cult shows that its origin goes back at all events to
+the Indo-Iranian period.
+
+Among the symbolic conceits in which the authors of the Brahmanas so
+freely indulge, there is one overshadowing all others--if indeed they do
+not all more or less enter into it--which may be considered as the sum
+and substance of these speculations, and the esoteric doctrine of the
+sacrifice, involved by the Brahmanical ritualists. This is what may
+conveniently be called the Prajapati theory, by which the "Lord of
+Creatures," the efficient cause of the universe, is identified with both
+the sacrifice (_yajna_) and the sacrificer (_yajamana_). The origin of
+this theory goes back to the later Vedic hymns. In the so-called
+Purusha-sukta (_Rigv._ x. 90) in which the supreme spirit is conceived
+of as _the_ person or man (_purusha_), born in the beginning, and
+consisting of "whatever hath been and whatever shall be," the creation
+of the visible and invisible universe is represented as originating from
+an "all-offered" (holocaust) sacrifice in which the Purusha himself
+forms the offering-material (_havis_), or, as we might say, the victim.
+In this primeval, or rather timeless because ever-proceeding, sacrifice,
+time itself, in the shape of its unit the year, is made to take its
+part, inasmuch as the three seasons--spring, summer and autumn--of which
+it consists, constitute the ghee (clarified butter), the offering-fuel
+and the oblation respectively. These speculations may be said to have
+formed the foundation on which the theory of the sacrifice, as
+propounded in the Brahmanas, has been reared. Prajapati--who (probably
+for practical considerations, as better representing the sacrificer, the
+earthly ruler, or "lord of the creatures") here takes the place of the
+Purusha, the world-man or all-embracing personality--is offered up anew
+in every sacrifice; and inasmuch as the very dismemberment of the lord
+of creatures, which took place at that archtypal sacrifice, was in
+itself the creation of the universe, so every sacrifice is also a
+repetition of that first creative act. Thus the periodical sacrifice is
+nothing else than a microcosmic representation of the ever-proceeding
+destruction and renewal of all cosmic life and matter. The ritualistic
+theologians, however, go an important step further by identifying
+Prajapati with the performer, or patron, of the sacrifice, the
+sacrificer; every sacrifice thus becoming invested--in addition to its
+cosmic significance--with the mystic power of regenerating the
+sacrificer by cleansing him of all guilt and securing for him a seat in
+the eternal abodes.
+
+Whilst forming the central feature of the ritualistic symbolism, this
+triad--Prajapati, sacrifice (oblation, victim), sacrificer--is extended
+in various ways. An important collateral identification is that of
+Prajapati (and the sacrificer) with Agni, the god of fire, embodied not
+only in the offering-fire, but also in the sacred Soma-altar, the
+technical name of which is _agni_. For this reason the altar, as
+representative of the universe, is built in five layers, representing
+earth, air and heaven, and the intermediate regions; and in the centre
+of the altar-site, below the first layer, on a circular gold plate (the
+sun), a small golden man (_purusha_) is laid down with his face looking
+upwards. This is Prajapati, and the sacrificer, who when regenerated
+will pass upwards through the three worlds to the realms of light,
+naturally perforated bricks being for this purpose placed in the middle
+of the three principal altar-layers. One of the fourteen sections of the
+Satapatha-brahmana, the tenth, called _Agni-rahasya_ or "the mystery
+of Agni (the god and altar)," is entirely devoted to this feature of the
+sacrificial symbolism. Similarly the sacrificer, as the human
+representatiye of the Lord of Creatures, is identified with Soma (as the
+supreme oblation), with Time, and finally with Death: by the sacrificer
+thus becoming Death himself, the fell god ceases to have power over him
+and he is assured of everlasting life. And now we get the Supreme Lord
+in his last aspect; nay, his one true and real aspect, in which the
+sacrificer, on shuffling off this mortal coil, will himself come to
+share--that of pure intellectuality, pure spirituality--he is Mind: such
+is the ultimate source of being, the one Self, the Purusha, the Brahman.
+As the sum total of the wisdom propounded in the mystery of Agni, the
+searcher after truth is exhorted to meditate on that Self, made up of
+intelligence, endowed with a body of spirit, a form of light, and of an
+ethereal nature; holding sway over all the regions and pervading this
+All, being itself speechless and devoid of mental states; and by so
+doing he shall gain the assurance that "even as a grain of rice, or the
+smallest granule of millet, so is the golden Purusha in my heart; even
+as a smokeless light, it is greater than the sky, greater than the
+ether, greater than the earth, greater than all existing things;--that
+Self of the Spirit is my Self; on passing away from hence, I shall
+obtain that Self. And, verily, whosoever has this trust, for him there
+is no uncertainty."     (J. E.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMANISM, a term commonly used to denote a system of religious
+institutions originated and elaborated by the _Brahmans_, the sacerdotal
+and, from an early period, the dominant caste of the Hindu community
+(see BRAHMAN). In like manner, as the language of the Aryan Hindus has
+undergone continual processes of modification and dialectic division, so
+their religious belief has passed through various stages of development
+broadly distinguished from one another by certain prominent features.
+The earliest phases of religious thought in India of which a clear idea
+can now be formed are exhibited in a body of writings, looked upon by
+later generations in the light of sacred writ, under the collective name
+of _Veda_ ("knowledge") or _Sruti_ ("revelation"). The Hindu scriptures
+consist of four separate collections, or _Samhitas_, of sacred texts, or
+_mantras_, including hymns, incantations and sacrificial forms of
+prayer, viz. the _Rich_ (nom. sing. _rik_) or _Rigveda_, the _Saman_ or
+_Samaveda_, the _Yajus_ or _Yajurveda_, and the _Atharvan_ or
+_Atharvaveda_. Each of these four text-books has attached to it a body
+of prose writings, called _Brahmanas_ (see BRAHMANA), intended to
+explain the ceremonial application of the texts and the origin and
+import of the sacrificial rites for which these were supposed to have
+been composed. Usually attached to these works, and in some cases to the
+Samhitas, are two kinds of appendages, the Aranyakas and Upanishads, the
+former of which deal generally with the more recondite rites, while the
+latter are taken up chiefly with speculations on the problems of the
+universe and the religious aims of man--subjects often touched upon in
+the earlier writings, but here dealt with in a more mature and
+systematic way. Two of the _Samhitas_, the _Saman_ and the _Yajus_,
+owing their existence to purely ritual purposes, and being, besides, the
+one almost entirely, the other partly, composed of verses taken from the
+_Rigveda_, are only of secondary importance for our present inquiry. The
+hymns of the _Rigveda_ constitute the earliest lyrical effusions of the
+Aryan settlers in India which have been handed down to posterity. They
+are certainly not all equally old; on the contrary they evidently
+represent the literary activity of many generations of bards, though
+their relative age cannot as yet be determined with anything like
+certainty. The tenth (and last) book of the collection, however, at any
+rate has all the characteristics of a later appendage, and in language
+and spirit many of its hymns approach very nearly to the level of the
+contents of the _Atharvan_. Of the latter collection about one-sixth is
+found also in the _Rigveda_, and especially in the tenth book; the
+larger portion peculiar to it, though including no doubt some older
+pieces, appears to owe its origin to an age not long anterior to the
+composition of the _Brahmanas_.
+
+The state of religious thought among the ancient bards, as reflected in
+the hymns of the _Rigveda_, is that of a worship of the grand and
+striking phenomena of nature regarded in the light of personal conscious
+beings, endowed with a power beyond the control of man, though not
+insensible to his praises and actions. It is a nature worship purer than
+that met with in any other polytheistic form of belief we are acquainted
+with--a mythology still comparatively little affected by those
+systematizing tendencies which, in a less simple and primitive state of
+thought, lead to the construction of a well-ordered pantheon and a
+regular organization of divine government. To the mind of the early
+Vedic worshipper the various departments of the surrounding nature are
+not as yet clearly defined, and the functions which he assigns to their
+divine representatives continually flow into one another. Nor has he yet
+learned to care to determine the relative worth and position of the
+objects of his adoration; but the temporary influence of the phenomenon
+to which he addresses his praises bears too strongly upon his mind to
+allow him for the time to consider the claims of rival powers to which
+at other times he is wont to look up with equal feelings of awe and
+reverence. It is this immediateness of impulse under which the human
+mind in its infancy strives to give utterance to its emotions that
+imparts to many of its outpourings the ring of monotheistic fervour.
+
+The generic name given to these impersonations, viz. _deva_ ("the
+shining ones"), points to the conclusion, sufficiently justified by the
+nature of the more prominent objects of Vedic adoration as well as by
+common natural occurrences, that it was the striking phenomena of light
+which first and most powerfully swayed the Aryan mind. In the primitive
+worship of the manifold phenomena of nature it is not, of course, so
+much their physical aspect that impresses the human heart as the moral
+and intellectual forces which are supposed to move and animate them. The
+attributes and relations of some of the Vedic deities, in accordance
+with the nature of the objects they represent, partake in a high degree
+of this spiritual element; but it is not improbable that in an earlier
+phase of Aryan worship the religious conceptions were pervaded by it to
+a still greater and more general extent, and that the Vedic belief,
+though retaining many of the primitive features, has on the whole
+assumed a more sensuous and anthropomorphic character. This latter
+element is especially predominant in the attributes and imagery applied
+by the Vedic poets to _Indra_, the god of the atmospheric region, the
+favourite figure in their pantheon.
+
+While the representatives of the prominent departments of nature appear
+to the Vedic bard as co-existing in a state of independence of one
+another, their relation to the mortal worshipper being the chief subject
+of his anxiety, a simple method of classification was already resorted
+to at an early time, consisting in a triple division of the deities into
+gods residing in the sky, in the air, and on earth. It is not, however,
+until a later stage,--the first clear indication being conveyed in a
+passage of the tenth book of the _Rigveda_--that this attempt at a
+polytheistic system is followed up by the promotion of one particular
+god to the dignity of chief guardian for each of these three regions. On
+the other hand, a tendency is clearly traceable in some of the hymns
+towards identifying gods whose functions present a certain degree of
+similarity of nature; attempts which would seem to show a certain
+advance of religious reflection, the first steps from polytheism towards
+a comprehension of the unity of the divine essence. Another feature of
+the old Vedic worship tended to a similar result. The great problems of
+the origin and existence of man and the universe had early begun to
+engage the Hindu mind; and in celebrating the praises of the gods the
+poet was frequently led by his religious, and not wholly disinterested,
+zeal to attribute to them cosmical functions of the very highest order.
+At a later stage of thought, chiefly exhibited in the tenth book of the
+_Rigveda_ and in the _Atharvaveda_, inquiring sages could not but
+perceive the inconsistency of such concessions of a supremacy among the
+divine rulers, and tried to solve the problem by conceptions of an
+independent power, endowed with all the attributes of a supreme deity,
+the creator of the universe, including the gods of the pantheon. The
+names under which this monotheistic idea is put forth are mostly of an
+attributive character, and indeed some of them, such as _Prajapati_
+("lord of creatures"), _Visvakarman_ ("all-worker"), occur in the
+earlier hymns as mere epithets of particular gods. But to other minds
+this theory of a personal creator left many difficulties unsolved. They
+saw, as the poets of old had seen, that everything around them, that man
+himself, was directed by some inward agent; and it needed but one step
+to perceive the essential sameness of these spiritual units, and to
+recognize their being but so many individual manifestations of one
+universal principle or spiritual essence. Thus a pantheistic conception
+was arrived at, put forth under various names, such as _Purusha_
+("soul"), _Kama_ ("desire"), _Brahman_ (neutr.; nom. sing. _brahma_)
+("devotion, prayer"). Metaphysical and theosophic speculations were thus
+fast undermining the simple belief in the old gods, until, at the time
+of the composition of the _Brahmanas_ and _Upanishads_, we find them in
+complete possession of the minds of the theologians. Whilst the theories
+crudely suggested in the later hymns are now further matured and
+elaborated, the tendency towards catholicity of formula favours the
+combination of the conflicting monotheistic and pantheistic conceptions;
+this compromise, which makes _Prajapati_, the personal creator of the
+world, the manifestation of the impersonal _Brahma_, the universal
+self-existent soul, leads to the composite pantheistic system which
+forms the characteristic dogma of the Brahmanical period (see BRAHMAN).
+
+In the Vedic hymns two classes of society, the royal (or military) and
+the priestly classes, were evidently recognized as being raised above
+the level of the _Vis_, or bulk of the Aryan community. These social
+grades seem to have been in existence even before the separation of the
+two Asiatic branches of the Indo-Germanic race, the Aryans of Iran and
+India. It is true that, although the _Athrava, Rathaestao_, and
+_Vastrya_ of the _Zend Avesta_ correspond in position and occupation to
+the _Brahman, Rajan_ and _Vis_ of the Veda, there is no similarity of
+names between them; but this fact only shows that the common vocabulary
+had not yet definitely fixed on any specific names for these classes.
+Even in the Veda their nomenclature is by no means limited to a single
+designation for each of them. Moreover, _Atharvan_ occurs not
+infrequently in the hymns as the personification of the priestly
+profession, as the proto-priest who is supposed to have obtained fire
+from heaven and to have instituted the rite of sacrifice; and although
+_ratheshtha_ ("standing on a car") is not actually found in connexion
+with the _Rajan_ or _Kshatriya_, its synonym _rathin_ is in later
+literature a not unusual epithet of men of the military caste. At the
+time of the hymns, and even during the common Indo-Persian period, the
+sacrificial ceremonial had already become sufficiently complicated to
+call for the creation of a certain number of distinct priestly offices
+with special duties attached to them. While this shows clearly that the
+position and occupation of the priest were those of a profession, the
+fact that the terms _brahmana_ and _brahmaputra_, both denoting "the
+son of a brahman," are used in certain hymns as synonyms of _brahman_,
+seems to justify the assumption that the profession had already, to a
+certain degree, become hereditary at the time when these hymns were
+composed. There is, however, with the exception of a solitary passage in
+a hymn of the last book, no trace to be found in the _Rigveda_ of that
+rigid division into four castes separated from one another by
+insurmountable barriers, which in later times constitutes the
+distinctive feature of Hindu society. The idea of caste is expressed by
+the Sanskrit term _varna_, originally denoting "colour," thereby
+implying differences of complexion between the several classes. The word
+occurs in the Veda in the latter sense, but it is used there to mark the
+distinction, not between the three classes of the Aryan community, but
+between them on the one hand and a dark-coloured hostile people on the
+other. The latter, called Dasas or Dasyus, consisted, no doubt, of the
+indigenous tribes, with whom the Aryans had to carry on a continual
+struggle for the possession of the land. The partial subjection of these
+comparatively uncivilized tribes as the rule of the superior race was
+gradually spreading eastward, and their submission to a state of serfdom
+under the name of _Sudras_, added to the Aryan community an element,
+totally separated from it by colour, by habits, by language, and by
+occupation. Moreover, the religious belief of these tribes being
+entirely different from that of the conquering people, the pious Aryas,
+and especially the class habitually engaged in acts of worship, could
+hardly fail to apprehend considerable danger to the purity of their own
+faith from too close and intimate a contact between the two races. What
+more natural, therefore, than that measures should have been early
+devised to limit the intercourse between them within as narrow bounds as
+possible? In course of time the difference of vocation, and the greater
+or less exposure to the scorching influence of the tropical sky, added,
+no doubt, to a certain admixture of Sudra blood, especially in the case
+of the common people, seem to have produced also in the Aryan population
+different shades of complexion, which greatly favoured a tendency to
+rigid class-restrictions originally awakened and continually fed by the
+lot of the servile race. Meanwhile the power of the sacerdotal order
+having been gradually enlarged in proportion to the development of the
+minutiae of sacrificial ceremonial and the increase of sacred lore, they
+began to lay claim to supreme authority in regulating and controlling
+the religious and social life of the people. The author of the so-called
+_Purusha-sukta_, or hymn of Purusha, above referred to, represents the
+four castes--the _Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya_ and _Sudra_--as having
+severally sprung respectively from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and
+the feet of Purusha, a primary being, here assumed to be the source of
+the universe. It is very doubtful, however, whether at the time when
+this hymn was composed the relative position of the two upper castes
+could already have been settled in so decided a way as this theory might
+lead one to suppose. There is, on the contrary, reason to believe that
+some time had yet to elapse, marked by fierce and bloody struggles for
+supremacy, of which only imperfect ideas can be formed from the
+legendary and frequently biased accounts of later generations, before
+the Kshatriyas finally submitted to the full measure of priestly
+authority.
+
+The definitive establishment of the Brahmanical hierarchy marks the
+beginning of the Brahmanical period properly so called. Though the
+origin and gradual rise of some of the leading institutions of this era
+can, as has been shown, be traced in the earlier writings, the chain of
+their development presents a break at this juncture which no
+satisfactory materials as yet enable us to fill up. A considerable
+portion of the literature of this time has apparently been lost; and
+several important works, the original composition of which has probably
+to be assigned to the early days of Brahmanism, such as the institutes
+of Manu and the two great epics, the _Mahabharata_ and _Ramayana_, in
+the form in which they have been handed down to us, show manifest traces
+of a more modern redaction. Yet it is sufficiently clear from internal
+evidence that Manu's Code of Laws, though merely a metrical recast of
+older materials, reproduces on the whole pretty faithfully the state of
+Hindu society depicted in the sources from which it was compiled. The
+final overthrow of the Kshatriya power was followed by a period of
+jealous legislation on the part of the Brahmans. For a time their chief
+aim would doubtless be to improve their newly gained vantage-ground by
+surrounding everything relating to their order with a halo of sanctity
+calculated to impress the lay community with feelings of awe. In the
+Brahmanas and even in the Purusha Hymn, and the Atharvan, divine origin
+had already been ascribed to the Vedic _Samhitas_, especially to the
+three older collections. The same privilege was now successfully claimed
+for the later Vedic literature, so imbued with Brahmanic aspirations and
+pretensions; and the authority implied in the designation of _Sruti_ or
+revelation removed henceforth the whole body of sacred writings from the
+sphere of doubt and criticism. This concession necessarily involved an
+acknowledgment of the new social order as a divine institution. Its
+stability was, however, rendered still more secure by the elaboration of
+a system of conventional precepts, partly forming the basis of Manu's
+Code, which clearly defined the relative position and the duties of the
+several castes, and determined the penalties to be inflicted on any
+transgressions of the limits assigned to each of them. These laws are
+conceived with no sentimental scruples on the part of their authors. On
+the contrary, the offences committed by Brahmans against other castes
+are treated with remarkable clemency, whilst the punishments inflicted
+for trespasses on the rights of higher classes are the more severe and
+inhuman the lower the offender stands in the social scale.
+
+The three first castes, however unequal to each other in privilege and
+social standing, are yet united by a common bond of sacramental rites
+(_samskaras_), traditionally connected from ancient times with certain
+incidents and stages in the life of the Aryan Hindu, as conception,
+birth, name-giving, the first taking out of the child to see the sun,
+the first feeding with boiled rice, the rites of tonsure and
+hair-cutting, the youth's investiture with the sacrificial thread, and
+his return home on completing his studies, marriage, funeral, &c. The
+modes of observing these family rites are laid down in a class of
+writings called _Grihya-sutras_, or domestic rules. The most important
+of these observances is the _upanayana_, or rite of conducting the boy
+to a spiritual teacher. Connected with this act is the investiture with
+the sacred cord, ordinarily worn over the left shoulder and under the
+right arm, and varying in material according to the class of the wearer.
+This ceremony being the preliminary act to the youth's initiation into
+the study of the Veda, the management of the consecrated fire and the
+knowledge of the rites of purification, including the _savitri_, a
+solemn invocation to _Savitri_, the sun (probl. Saturnus),--as a rule
+the verse _Rigv_. iii. 62. 10, also called _gayatri_ from the metre in
+which it is composed--which has to be repeated every morning and evening
+before the rise and after the setting of that luminary, is supposed to
+constitute the second or spiritual birth of the Arya. It is from their
+participation in this rite that the three upper classes are called the
+twice-born. The ceremony is enjoined to take place some time between the
+eighth and sixteenth year of age in the case of a Brahman, between the
+eleventh and twenty-second year of a Kshatriya, and between the twelfth
+and twenty-fourth year of a Vaisya. He who has not been invested with
+the mark of his class within this time is for ever excluded from
+uttering the sacred _savitri_ and becomes an outcast, unless he is
+absolved from his sin by a council of Brahmans, and after due
+performance of a purificatory rite resumes the badge of his caste. With
+one not duly initiated no righteous man is allowed to associate or to
+enter into connexions of affinity. The duty of the Sudra is to serve the
+twice-born classes, and above all the Brahmans. He is excluded from all
+sacred knowledge, and if he performs sacrificial ceremonies he must do
+so without using holy mantras. No Brahman must recite a Vedic text where
+a man of the servile caste might overhear him, nor must he even teach
+him the laws of expiating sin. The occupations of the Vaisya are those
+connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding of
+cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and defending the
+people, administering justice, and the duties of the military profession
+generally. Both share with the Brahman the privilege of reading the
+Veda, but only so far as it is taught and explained to them by their
+spiritual preceptor. To the Brahman belongs the right of teaching and
+expounding the sacred texts, and also that of interpreting and
+determining the law and the rules of caste. Only in exceptional cases,
+when no teacher of the sacerdotal class is within reach, the twice-born
+youth, rather than forego spiritual instruction altogether, may reside
+in the house of a non-Brahmanical preceptor; but it is specially
+enjoined that a pupil, who seeks the path to heaven, should not fail, as
+soon as circumstances permit, to resort to a Brahman well versed in the
+Vedas and their appendages.
+
+Notwithstanding the barriers placed between the four castes, the
+practice of intermarrying appears to have been too prevalent in early
+times to have admitted of measures of so stringent a nature as wholly to
+repress it. To marry a woman of a higher caste, and especially of a
+caste not immediately above one's own, is, however, decidedly
+prohibited, the offspring resulting from such a union being excluded
+from the performance of the _sraddha_ or obsequies to the ancestors, and
+thereby rendered incapable of inheriting any portion of the parents'
+property. On the other hand, a man is at liberty, according to the rules
+of Manu, to marry a girl of any or each of the castes below his own,
+provided he has besides a wife belonging to his own class, for only such
+a one should perform the duties of personal attendance and religious
+observance devolving upon a married woman. As regards the children born
+from unequal marriages of this description, they have the rights and
+duties of the twice-born, if their mother belong to a twice-born caste,
+otherwise they, like the offspring of the former class of
+intermarriages, share the lot of the Sudra, and are excluded from the
+investiture and the _savitri_. For this last reason the marriage of a
+twice-born man with a Sudra woman is altogether discountenanced by some
+of the later law books. At the time of the code of Manu the intermixture
+of the classes had already produced a considerable number of
+intermediate or mixed castes, which were carefully defined, and each of
+which had a specific occupation assigned to it as its hereditary
+profession.
+
+The self-exaltation of the first class was not, it would seem,
+altogether due to priestly arrogance and ambition; but, like a prominent
+feature of the post-Vedic belief, the transmigration of souls, it was,
+if not the necessary, yet at least a natural consequence of the
+pantheistic doctrine. To the Brahmanical speculator who saw in the
+numberless individual existences of animate nature but so many
+manifestations of the one eternal spirit, to union with which they were
+all bound to tend as their final goal of supreme bliss, the greater or
+less imperfection of the material forms in which they were embodied
+naturally presented a continuous scale of spiritual units from the
+lowest degradation up to the absolute purity and perfection of the
+supreme spirit. To prevent one's sinking yet lower, and by degrees to
+raise one's self in this universal gradation, or, if possible, to attain
+the ultimate goal immediately from any state of corporeal existence,
+there was but one way--subjection of the senses, purity of life and
+knowledge of the deity. "He" (thus ends the code of Manu) "who in his
+own soul perceives the supreme soul in all beings and acquires
+equanimity toward them all, attains the highest state of bliss." Was it
+not natural then that the men who, if true to their sacred duties, were
+habitually engaged in what was most conducive to these spiritual
+attainments, that the Brahmanical class early learnt to look upon
+themselves, even as a matter of faith, as being foremost among the human
+species in this universal race for final beatitude? The life marked out
+for them by that stern theory of class duties which they themselves had
+worked out, and which, no doubt, must have been practised in early times
+at least in some degree, was by no means one of ease and amenity. It
+was, on the contrary, singularly calculated to promote that complete
+mortification of the instincts of animal nature which they considered as
+indispensable to the final deliverance from _samsara_, the revolution
+of bodily and personal existence.
+
+The pious Brahman, longing to attain the _summum bonum_ on the
+dissolution of his frail body, was enjoined to pass through a succession
+of four orders or stages of life, viz. those of _brahmacharin_, or
+religious student; _grihastha_ (or _grihamedhin_), or householder;
+_vanavasin_ (or _vanaprastha_), or anchorite; and _sannyasin_ (or
+_bhikshu_), or religious mendicant. Theoretically this course of life
+was open and even recommended to every twice-born man, his distinctive
+class-occupations being in that case restricted to the second station,
+or that of married life. Practically, however, those belonging to the
+Kshatriya and Vaisya castes were, no doubt, contented, with few
+exceptions, to go through a term of studentship in order to obtain a
+certain amount of religious instruction before entering into the married
+state, and plying their professional duties. In the case of the
+sacerdotal class, the practice probably was all but universal in early
+times; but gradually a more and more limited proportion even of this
+caste seem to have carried their religious zeal to the length of
+self-mortification involved in the two final stages. On the youth having
+been invested with the badge of his caste, he was to reside for some
+time in the house of some religious teacher, well read in the Veda, to
+be instructed in the knowledge of the scriptures and the scientific or
+theoretic treatises attached to them, in the social duties of his caste,
+and in the complicated system of purificatory and sacrificial rites.
+According to the number of Vedas he intended to study, the duration of
+this period of instruction was to be, probably in the case of
+Brahmanical students chiefly, of from twelve to forty-eight years;
+during which time the virtues of modesty, duty, temperance and
+self-control were to be firmly implanted in the youth's mind by his
+unremitting observance of the most minute rules of conduct. During all
+this time the student had to subsist entirely on food obtained by
+begging from house to house; and his behaviour towards the preceptor and
+his family was to be that prompted by respectful attachment and implicit
+obedience. In the case of girls no investiture takes place, but for them
+the nuptial ceremony is considered as an equivalent to that rite. On
+quitting the teacher's abode, the young man returns to his family and
+takes a wife. To die without leaving legitimate offspring, and
+especially a son, capable of performing the periodical rite of obsequies
+(_sraddha_), consisting of offerings of water and balls of rice, to
+himself and his two immediate ancestors, is considered a great
+misfortune by the orthodox Hindu. There are three sacred "debts" which a
+man has to discharge in life, viz. that which is due to the gods, and of
+which he acquits himself by daily worship and sacrificial rites; that
+due to the _rishis_, or ancient sages and inspired seers of the Vedic
+texts, discharged by the daily study of the scripture; and the "final
+debt" which he owes to his _manes_, and of which he relieves himself by
+leaving a son. To these three some authorities add a fourth, viz. the
+debt owing to humankind, which demands his continually practising
+kindness and hospitality. Hence the necessity of a man's entering into
+the married state. When the bridegroom leads the bride from her father's
+house to his own home, and becomes a _griha-pati_, or householder, the
+fire which has been used for the marriage ceremony accompanies the
+couple to serve them as their _garhapatya_, or domestic fire. It has to
+be kept up perpetually, day and night, either by themselves or their
+children, or, if the man be a teacher, by his pupils. If it should at
+any time become extinguished by neglect or otherwise, the guilt incurred
+thereby must be atoned for by an act of expiation. The domestic fire
+serves the family for preparing their food, for making the five
+necessary daily and other occasional offerings, and for performing the
+sacramental rites above alluded to. No food should ever be eaten that
+has not been duly consecrated by a portion of it being offered to the
+gods, the beings and the _manes_. These three daily offerings are also
+called by the collective name of _vaisvadeva_, or sacrifice "to all the
+deities." The remaining two are the offering to Brahma, i.e. the daily
+lecture of the scriptures, accompanied by certain rites, and that to
+men, consisting in the entertainment of guests. The domestic
+observances--many of them probably ancient Aryan family customs,
+surrounded by the Hindus with a certain amount of adventitious
+ceremonial--were generally performed by the householder himself, with
+the assistance of his wife. There is, however, another class of
+sacrificial ceremonies of a more pretentious and expensive kind, called
+_srauta_ rites, or rites based on _sritu_, or revelation, the
+performance of which, though not indispensable, were yet considered
+obligatory under certain circumstances (see BRAHMANA). They formed a
+very powerful weapon in the hands of the priesthood, and were one of the
+chief sources of their subsistence. However great the religious merit
+accruing from these sacrificial rites, they were obviously a kind of
+luxury which only rich people could afford to indulge in. They
+constituted, as it were, a tax, voluntary perhaps, yet none the less
+compulsory, levied by the priesthood on the wealthy laity.
+
+When the householder is advanced in years, "when he perceives his skin
+become wrinkled and his hair grey, when he sees the son of his son," the
+time is said to have come for him to enter the third stage of life. He
+should now disengage himself from all family ties--except that his wife
+may accompany him, if she chooses--and repair to a lonely wood, taking
+with him his sacred fires and the implements required for the daily and
+periodical offerings. Clad in a deer's skin, in a single piece of cloth,
+or in a bark garment, with his hair and nails uncut, the hermit is to
+subsist exclusively on food growing wild in the forest, such as roots,
+green herbs, and wild rice and grain. He must not accept gifts from any
+one, except of what may be absolutely necessary to maintain him; but
+with his own little hoard he should, on the contrary, honour, to the
+best of his ability, those who visit his hermitage. His time must be
+spent in reading the metaphysical treatises of the Veda, in making
+oblations, and in undergoing various kinds of privation and austerities,
+with a view to mortifying his passions and producing in his mind an
+entire indifference to worldly objects. Having by these means succeeded
+in overcoming all sensual affections and desires, and in acquiring
+perfect equanimity towards everything around him, the hermit has fitted
+himself for the final and most exalted order, that of devotee or
+religious mendicant. As such he has no further need of either
+mortifications or religious observances; but "with the sacrificial fires
+reposited in his mind," he may devote the remainder of his days to
+meditating on the divinity. Taking up his abode at the foot of a tree in
+total solitude, "with no companion but his own soul," clad in a coarse
+garment, he should carefully avoid injuring any creature or giving
+offence to any human being that may happen to come near him. Once a day,
+in the evening, "when the charcoal fire is extinguished and the smoke no
+longer issues from the fire-places, when the pestle is at rest, when the
+people have taken their meals and the dishes are removed," he should go
+near the habitations of men, in order to beg what little food may
+suffice to sustain his feeble frame. Ever pure of mind he should thus
+bide his time, "as a servant expects his wages," wishing neither for
+death nor for life, until at last his soul is freed from its fetters and
+absorbed in the eternal spirit, the impersonal self-existent Brahma.
+
+The tendency towards a comprehension of the unity of the divine essence
+had resulted in some minds, as has been remarked before, in a kind of
+monotheistic notion of the origin of the universe. In the literature of
+the Brahmana period we meet with this conception as a common element of
+speculation; and so far from its being considered incompatible with the
+existence of a universal spirit, _Prajapati_, the personal creator of
+the world, is generally allowed a prominent place in the pantheistic
+theories. Yet the state of theological speculation, reflected in these
+writings, is one of transition. The general drift of thought is
+essentially pantheistic, but it is far from being reduced to a regular
+system, and the ancient form of belief still enters largely into it. The
+attributes of Prajapati, in the same way, have in them elements of a
+purely polytheistic nature, and some of the attempts at reconciling this
+new-fangled deity with the traditional belief are somewhat awkward. An
+ancient classification of the gods represented them as being
+thirty-three in number, eleven in each of the three worlds or regions
+of nature. These regions being associated each with the name of one
+principal deity, this division gave rise at a later time to the notion
+of a kind of triple divine government, consisting of _Agni_ (fire),
+_Indra_ sky) or _Vayu_ (wind), and _Surya_ (sun), as presiding
+respectively over the gods on earth, in the atmosphere, and in the sky.
+Of this Vedic triad mention is frequently made in the Brahmana writings.
+On the other hand the term _prajapati_ (lord of creatures), which in the
+_Rigveda_ occurs as an epithet of the sun, is also once in the
+_Atharvaveda_ applied jointly to Indra and Agni. In the Brahmanas
+Prajapati is several times mentioned as the thirty-fourth god; whilst in
+one passage he is called the fourth god, and made to rule over the three
+worlds. More frequently, however, the writings of this period represent
+him as the maker of the world and the father or creator of the gods. It
+is clear from this discordance of opinion on so important a point of
+doctrine, that at this time no authoritative system of belief had been
+agreed upon by the theologians. Yet there are unmistakable signs of a
+strong tendency towards constructing one, and it is possible that in
+yielding to it the Brahmans may have been partly prompted by political
+considerations. The definite settlement of the caste system and the
+Brahmanical supremacy must probably be assigned to somewhere about the
+close of the Brahmana period. Division in their own ranks was hardly
+favourable to the aspirations of the priests at such a time; and the
+want of a distinct formula of belief adapted to the general drift of
+theological speculation, to which they could all rally, was probably
+felt the more acutely, the more determined a resistance the military
+class was likely to oppose to their claims. Side by side with the
+conception of the Brahma, the universal spiritual principle, with which
+speculative thought had already become deeply imbued, the notion of a
+supreme personal being, the author of the material creation, had come to
+be considered by many as a necessary complement of the pantheistic
+doctrine. But, owing perhaps to his polytheistic associations and the
+attributive nature of his name, the person of Prajapati seems to have
+been thought but insufficiently adapted to represent this abstract idea.
+The expedient resorted to for solving the difficulty was as ingenious as
+it was characteristic of the Brahmanical aspirations. In the same way as
+the abstract denomination of sacerdotalism, the neuter _brahma_, had
+come to express the divine essence, so the old designation of the
+individual priest, the masculine term _brahma_, was raised to denote the
+supreme personal deity which was to take the place and attributes of the
+Prajapati of the Brahmanas and Upanishads (see BRAHMAN).
+
+However the new dogma may have answered the purposes of speculative
+minds, it was not one in which the people generally were likely to have
+been much concerned; an abstract, colourless deity like Brahma could
+awake no sympathies in the hearts of those accustomed to worship gods of
+flesh and blood. Indeed, ever since the primitive symbolical worship of
+nature had undergone a process of disintegration under the influence of
+metaphysical speculation, the real belief of the great body of the
+people had probably become more and more distinct from that of the
+priesthood. In different localities the principal share of their
+affection may have been bestowed on one or another of the old gods who
+was thereby raised to the dignity of chief deity; or new forms and
+objects of belief may have sprung up with the intellectual growth of the
+people. In some cases even the worship of the indigenous population
+could hardly have remained without exercising some influence in
+modifying the belief of the Aryan race. In this way a number of local
+deities would grow up, more or less distinct in name and characteristics
+from the gods of the Vedic pantheon. There is, indeed, sufficient
+evidence to show that, at a time when, after centuries of theological
+speculations, some little insight into the life and thought of the
+people is afforded by the literature handed down to us, such a diversity
+of worship did exist. Under these circumstances the policy which seems
+to have suggested itself to the priesthood, anxious to retain a firm
+hold on the minds of the people, was to recognize and incorporate into
+their system some of the most prominent objects of popular devotion, and
+thereby to establish a kind of catholic creed for the whole community
+subject to the Brahmanical law. At the time of the original composition
+of the great epics two such deities, _Siva_ or _Mahadeva_ ("the great
+god") and _Vishnu_, seem to have been already admitted into the
+Brahmanical system, where they have ever since retained their place; and
+from the manner in which they are represented in those works, it would,
+indeed, appear that both, and especially the former, enjoyed an
+extensive worship. As several synonyms are attributed to each of them,
+it is not improbable that in some of these we have to recognize special
+names under which the people in different localities worshipped these
+gods, or deities of a similar nature which, by the agency of popular
+poetry, or in some other way, came to be combined with them. The places
+assigned to them in the pantheistic system were coordinate with that of
+Brahma; the three deities, _Brahma, Vishnu_ and _Siva_, were to
+represent a triple impersonation of the divinity, as manifesting itself
+respectively in the creation, preservation and destruction of the
+universe. Siva does not occur in the Vedic hymns as the name of a god,
+but only as an adjective in the sense of "kind, auspicious." One of his
+synonyms, however, is the name of a Vedic deity, the attributes and
+nature of which show a good deal of similarity to the post-Vedic god.
+This is _Rudra_, the god of the roaring storm, usually portrayed, in
+accordance with the element he represents, as a fierce, destructive
+deity, "terrible as a wild beast," whose fearful arrows cause death and
+disease to men and cattle. He is also called _kapardin_ ("wearing his
+hair spirally braided like a shell"), a word which in later times became
+one of the synonyms of Siva. The _Atharvaveda_ mentions several other
+names of the same god, some of which appear even placed together, as in
+one passage _Bhava, Sarva, Rudra_ and _Pasupati_. Possibly some of them
+were the names under which one and the same deity was already worshipped
+in different parts of northern India. This was certainly the case in
+later times, since it is expressly stated in one of the later works of
+the Brahmana period, that Sarva was used by the Eastern people and Bhava
+by a Western tribe. It is also worthy of note that in the same work (the
+_Satapatha-brahmana_), composed at a time when the Vedic triad of Agni,
+Indra-Vayu and Surya was still recognized, attempts are made to identify
+this god of many names with Agni; and that in one passage in the
+_Mahabharata_ it is stated that the Brahmans said that Agni was Siva.
+Although such attempts at an identification of the two gods remained
+isolated, they would at least seem to point to the fact that, in
+adapting their speculations to the actual state of popular worship, the
+Brahmans kept the older triad distinctly in view, and by means of it
+endeavoured to bring their new structure into harmony with the ancient
+Vedic belief. It is in his character as destroyer that Siva holds his
+place in the triad, and that he must, no doubt, be identified with the
+Vedic Rudra. Another very important function appears, however, to have
+been early assigned to him, on which much more stress is laid in his
+modern worship--that of destroyer being more especially exhibited in his
+consort--viz. the character of a generative power, symbolized in the
+phallic emblem (_linga_) and in the sacred bull (_Nandi_), the favourite
+attendant of the god. This feature being entirely alien from the nature
+of the Vedic god, it has been conjectured with some plausibility, that
+the _linga_-worship was originally prevalent among the non-Aryan
+population, and was thence introduced into the worship of Siva. On the
+other hand, there can, we think, be little doubt that Siva, in his
+generative faculty, is the representative of another Vedic god whose
+nature and attributes go far to account for this particular feature of
+the modern deity, viz. _Pushan_. This god, originally, no doubt, a solar
+deity, is frequently invoked, as the lord of nourishment, to bestow
+food, wealth and other blessings. He is once, jointly with Soma, called
+the progenitor of heaven and earth, and is connected with the marriage
+ceremony, where he is asked to lead the bride to the bridegroom and make
+her prosperous (_Sivatama_). Moreover, he has the epithet _kapardin_
+(spirally braided), as have Rudra and the later Siva, and is called
+_Pasupa_, or guardian of cattle, whence the latter derives his name
+_Pasupati_. But he is also a strong, powerful, and even fierce and
+destructive god, who, with his goad or golden spear, smites the foes of
+his worshipper, and thus in this respect offers at least some points of
+similarity to Rudra, which may have favoured the fusion of the two gods.
+As regards _Vishnu_, this god occupies already a place in the Vedic
+mythology, though by no means one of such prominence as would entitle
+him to that degree of exaltation implied in his character as one of the
+three hypostases of the divinity. Moreover, although in his general
+nature, as a benevolent, genial being, the Vedic god corresponds on the
+whole to the later Vishnu, the preserver of the world, the latter
+exhibits many important features for which we look in vain in his
+prototype, and which most likely resulted from sectarian worship or from
+an amalgamation with local deities. In one or two of them, such as his
+names Vasudeva and Vaikuntha, an attempt may again be traced to identify
+Vishnu with Indra, who, as we have seen, was one of the Vedic triad of
+gods. The characteristic feature of the elder Vishnu is his measuring
+the world with his three strides, which are explained as denoting either
+the three stations of the sun at the time of rising, culminating and
+setting, or the triple manifestation of the luminous element, as the
+fire on earth, the lightning in the atmosphere and the sun in the
+heavens.
+
+The male nature of the triad was supposed to require to be supplemented
+by each of the three gods being associated with a female energy
+(_Sakti_). Thus _Vach_ or _Sarasvati_, the goddess of speech and
+learning, came to be regarded as the _sakti_, or consort of Brahma;
+_Sri_ or _Lakshmi_, "beauty, fortune," as that of Vishnu; and _Uma_ or
+_Parvati_, the daughter of _Himavat_, the god of the Himalaya mountain,
+as that of Siva. On the other hand, it is not improbable that
+_Parvati_--who has a variety of other names, such as _Kali_ ("the black
+one"), _Durga_ ("the inaccessible, terrible one"), _Maha-devi_ ("the
+great goddess")--enjoyed already a somewhat extensive worship of her
+own, and that there may thus have been good reason for assigning to her
+a prominent place in the Brahmanical system.
+
+A compromise was thus effected between the esoteric doctrine of the
+metaphysician and some of the most prevalent forms of popular worship,
+resulting in what was henceforth to constitute the orthodox system of
+belief of the Brahmanical community. Yet the Vedic pantheon could not be
+altogether discarded, forming part and parcel, as it did, of that sacred
+revelation (_sruti_), which was looked upon as the divine source of all
+religious and social law (_smriti_, "tradition"), and being, moreover,
+the foundation of the sacrificial ceremonial on which the priestly
+authority so largely depended. The existence of the old gods is,
+therefore, likewise recognized, but recognized in a very different way
+from that of the triple divinity. For while the triad represents the
+immediate manifestation of the eternal, infinite soul--while it
+constitutes, in fact, the Brahma itself in its active relation to
+mundane and seemingly material occurrences, the old traditional gods are
+of this world, are individual spirits or portions of the Brahma like men
+and other creatures, only higher in degree. To them an intermediate
+sphere, the heaven of Indra (the _svarloka_ or _svarga_), is assigned to
+which man may raise himself by fulfilling the holy ordinances; but they
+are subject to the same laws of being; they, like men, are liable to be
+born again in some lower state, and, therefore, like them, yearn for
+emancipation from the necessity of future individual existence. It is a
+sacred duty of man to worship these superior beings by invocations and
+sacrificial observances, as it is to honour the _pitris_ ("the
+fathers"), the spirits of the departed ancestors. The spirits of the
+dead, on being judged by _Yama_, the Pluto of Hindu mythology, are
+supposed to be either passing through a term of enjoyment in a region
+midway between the earth and the heaven of the gods, or undergoing their
+measure of punishment in the nether world, situated somewhere in the
+southern region, before they return to the earth to animate new bodies.
+In Vedic mythology Yama was considered to have been the first mortal who
+died, and "espied the way to" the celestial abodes, and in virtue of
+precedence to have become the ruler of the departed; in some passages,
+however, he is already regarded as the god of death. Although the
+pantheistic system allowed only a subordinate rank to the old gods, and
+the actual religious belief of the people was probably but little
+affected by their existence, they continued to occupy an important place
+in the affections of the poet, and were still represented as exercising
+considerable influence on the destinies of man. The most prominent of
+them were regarded as the appointed _Lokapalas_, or guardians of the
+world; and as such they were made to preside over the four cardinal and
+(according to some authorities) the intermediate points of the compass.
+Thus _Indra_, the chief of the gods, was regarded as the regent of the
+east; _Agni_, the fire (_ignis_), was in the same way associated with
+the south-east; _Yama_ with the south; _Surya_, the sun ([Greek:
+Haelios]), with the south-west; _Varuna_, originally the representative
+of the all-embracing heaven ([Greek: Ouranos]) or atmosphere, now the
+god of the ocean, with the west; _Vayu_ (or _Pavana_), the wind, with
+the north-west; _Kubera_, the god of wealth, with the north; and _Soma_
+(or _Chandra_) with the north-east. In the institutes of Manu the
+_Lokapalas_ are represented as standing in close relation to the ruling
+king, who is said to be composed of particles of these his tutelary
+deities. The retinue of Indra consists chiefly of the _Gandharvas_
+(probably etym. connected with [Greek: kentauros]), a class of genii,
+considered in the epics as the celestial musicians; and their wives, the
+_Apsaras_, lovely nymphs, who are frequently employed by the gods to
+make the pious devotee desist from carrying his austere practices to an
+extent that might render him dangerous to their power. _Narada_, an
+ancient sage (probably a personification of the cloud, the
+"water-giver"), is considered as the messenger between the gods and men,
+and as having sprung from the forehead of Brahma. The interesting office
+of the god of love is held by _Kamadeva_, also called _Ananga_, the
+bodyless, because, as the myth relates, having once tried by the power
+of his mischievous arrow to make Siva fall in love with Parvati, whilst
+he was engaged in devotional practices, the urchin was reduced to ashes
+by a glance of the angry god. Two other mythological figures of some
+importance are considered as sons of Siva and Parvati, viz. _Karttikeya_
+or _Skanda_, the leader of the heavenly armies, who was supposed to have
+been fostered by the six _Krittikas_ or Pleiades; and _Ganesa_ ("lord of
+troops"), the elephant-headed god of wisdom, and at the same time the
+leader of the _dii minorum gentium_.
+
+Orthodox Brahmanical scholasticism makes the attainment of final
+emancipation (_mukti_, _moksha_) dependent on perfect knowledge of the
+divine essence. This knowledge can only be obtained by complete
+abstraction of the mind from external objects and intense meditation on
+the divinity, which again presupposes the total extinction of all
+sensual instincts by means of austere practices (_tapas_). The chosen
+few who succeed in gaining complete mastery over their senses and a full
+knowledge of the divine nature become absorbed into the universal soul
+immediately on the dissolution of the body. Those devotees, on the other
+hand, who have still a residuum, however slight, of ignorance and
+worldliness left in them at the time of their death, pass to the world
+of Brahma, where their souls, invested with subtile corporeal frames,
+await their reunion with the Eternal Being.
+
+The pantheistic doctrine which thus forms the foundation of the
+Brahmanical system of belief found its most complete exposition in one
+of the six orthodox _darsanas_, or philosophical systems, the _Vedanta_
+philosophy. These systems are considered as orthodox inasmuch as they
+recognize the Veda as the revealed source of religious belief, and never
+fail to claim the authority of the ancient seers for their own
+teachings, even though--as in the case of Kapila, the founder of the
+materialistic Sankhya system--they involve the denial of so essential a
+dogmatic point as the existence of a personal creator of the world. So
+much, indeed, had freedom of speculative thought become a matter of
+established habit and intellectual necessity, that no attempt seems ever
+to have been made by the leading theological party to put down such
+heretical doctrines, so long as the sacred character of the privileges
+of their caste was not openly called in question. Yet internal
+dissensions on such cardinal points of belief could not but weaken the
+authority of the hierarchical body; and as they spread beyond the
+narrow bounds of the Brahmanical schools, it wanted but a man of moral
+and intellectual powers, and untrammelled by class prejudices, to render
+them fatal to priestly pretensions. Such a man arose in the person of a
+Sakya prince of Kapilavastu, Gotama, the founder of Buddhism (about the
+6th century B.C.). Had it only been for the philosophical tenets of
+Buddha, they need scarcely have caused, and probably did not cause, any
+great uneasiness to the orthodox theologians. He did, indeed, go one
+step beyond Kapila, by altogether denying the existence of the soul as a
+substance, and admitting only certain intellectual faculties as
+attributes of the body, perishable with it. Yet the conception which
+Buddha substituted for the transmigratory soul, viz. that of _karma_
+("work"), as the sum total of the individual's good and bad actions,
+being the determinative element of the form of his future existence,
+might have been treated like any other speculative theory, but for the
+practical conclusions he drew from it. Buddha recognized the institution
+of caste, and accounted for the social inequalities attendant thereon as
+being the effects of _karma_ in former existences. But, on the other
+hand, he altogether denied the revealed character of the Veda and the
+efficacy of the Brahmanical ceremonies deduced from it, and rejected the
+claims of the sacerdotal class to be the repositaries and divinely
+appointed teachers of sacred knowledge. That Buddha never questioned the
+truth of the Brahmanical theory of transmigration shows that this early
+product of speculative thought had become firmly rooted in the Hindu
+mind as a tenet of belief amounting to moral conviction. To the Hindu
+philosopher this doctrine seemed alone to account satisfactorily for the
+apparent essential similarity of the vital element in all animate
+beings, no less than for what elsewhere has led honest and logical
+thinkers to the stern dogma of predestination. The belief in eternal
+bliss or punishment, as the just recompense of man's actions during this
+brief term of human life, which their less reflective forefathers had at
+one time held, appeared to them to involve a moral impossibility. The
+equality of all men, which Buddha preached with regard to the final
+goal, the _nirvana_, or extinction of _karma_ and thereby of all future
+existence and pain, and that goal to be reached, not by the performance
+of penance and sacrificial worship, but by practising virtue, could not
+fail to be acceptable to many people. It would be out of place here to
+dwell on the rapid progress and internal development of the new
+doctrine. Suffice it to say that, owing no doubt greatly to the
+sympathizing patronage of ruling princes, Buddhism appears to have been
+the state religion in most parts of India during the early centuries of
+our era. To what extent it became the actual creed of the body of the
+people it will probably be impossible ever to ascertain. One of the
+chief effects it produced on the worship of the old gods was the rapid
+decline of the authority of the orthodox Brahmanical dogma, and a
+considerable development of sectarianism. (See HINDUISM.)
+
+  See H.H. Wilson, _Essays on the Religion of the Hindus_; J. Muir,
+  _Original Sanskrit Texts_; M. Muller, _History of Ancient Sanskrit
+  Literature_; C. Lassen, _Indische Alterthumskunde_; Elphinstone,
+  _History of India_, ed. by E.B. Cowell.     (J. E.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMAPUTRA, a great river of India, with a total length of 1800 m. Its
+main source is in a great glacier-mass of the northernmost chain of the
+Himalayas, called Kubigangri, about 82 deg. N., and receives various
+tributaries including one formerly regarded as the true source from the
+pass of Mariam La (15,500 ft.), which separates its basin from the
+eastern affluents of the Mansarowar lakes, at least 100 m. south-east of
+those of the Indus. It flows in a south-easterly direction for 170 m.,
+and then adheres closely to a nearly easterly course for 500 m. more,
+being at the end of that distance in 29 deg. 10' N. lat. It then bends
+north-east for 150 m. before finally shaping itself southwards towards
+the plains of Assam. Roughly speaking, the river may be said so far to
+run parallel to the main chain of the Himalaya at a distance of 100 m.
+therefrom. Its early beginnings take their rise amidst a mighty mass of
+glaciers which cover the northern slopes of the watershed, separating
+them from the sources of the Gogra on the south; and there is evidence
+that two of its great southern tributaries, the Shorta Tsanpo (which
+joins about 150 m. from its source), and the Nyang Chu (the river of
+Shigatse and Gyantse), are both also of glacial origin. From the north
+it receives five great tributaries, namely, the Chu Nago, the Chachu
+Tsanpo and the Charta Tsanpo (all within the first 200 m. of its
+course), and the Raka Tsanpo and Kyi-chu (or river of Lhasa) below. The
+Chachu and the Charta are large clear streams, evidently draining from
+the great central lake district. Both of them measure more than 100 yds.
+in width at the point of junction, and they are clearly non-glacial. The
+Raka Tsanpo is a lateral affluent, flowing for 200 m. parallel to the
+main river course and some 20 to 30 m. north of it, draining the
+southern slopes of a high snowy range. It is an important feature as
+affording foothold for the Janglam (the great high road of southern
+Tibet connecting Ladakh with China), which is denied by the actual
+valley of the Brahmaputra. The great river itself is known in Tibet by
+many names, being generally called the Nari Chu, Maghang Tsanpo or Yaro
+Tsanpo, above Lhasa; the word "tsanpo" (tsang-po) meaning (according to
+Waddell) the "pure one," and applying to all great rivers. Fifty miles
+from its source the river and the Janglam route touch each other, and
+from that point past Tadum (the first important place on its banks) for
+another 130 m., the road follows more or less closely the left bank of
+the river. Then it diverges northwards into the lateral valley of the
+Raka, until the Raka joins the Brahmaputra below Janglache. The upper
+reaches are nowhere fordable between Tadum and Lhasa, but there is a
+ferry at Likche (opposite Tadum on the southern bank), where wooden
+boats covered with hide effect the necessary connexion between the two
+banks and ensure the passage of the Nepal trade. From Janglache (13,800
+ft.) to Shigatse the river is navigable, the channel being open and wide
+and the course straight. This is probably the most elevated system of
+navigation in the world. From Shigatse, which stands near the mouth of
+the Nyang Chu, to the Kyi-chu, or Lhasa river, there is no direct route,
+the river being unnavigable below Shigatse. The Janglam takes a
+circuitous course southwards to Gyantse and the Yamdok Cho before
+dropping again over the Khambala pass to the ferry at Khamba barje near
+Chushul. Thence the valley of the Kyi-chu (itself navigable for small
+boats for about 30 m.) leads to Lhasa northwards. At Chushul there is an
+iron chain-and-rope suspension bridge over the deepest part of the
+river, but it does not completely span the river, and it is too insecure
+for use. The remains of a similar bridge exist at Janglache; but there
+are no wooden or twig suspension bridges over the Tsanpo. At Tadum the
+river is about one half as wide again as the Ganges at Hardwar in
+December, i.e. about 250 to 300 yds. At Shigatse it flows in a wide
+extended bed with many channels, but contracts again at Chushul, where
+it is no wider than it is at Janglache, i.e. from 600 to 700 yds. At
+Chushul (below the Kyi-chu) the discharge of the river is computed to be
+about 35,000 cub. ft. per second, or seven times that of the Ganges at
+Hardwar.
+
+For about 250 m. below Kyi-chu to a point about 20 m. below the great
+southerly bend (in 94 deg. E. long.) the course of the Brahmaputra has
+been traced by native surveyors. Then it is lost amidst the
+jungle-covered hills of the wild Mishmi and Abor tribes to the east of
+Bhutan for another 100 m., until it is again found as the Dihong
+emerging into the plains of Assam. About the intervening reaches of the
+river very little is known except that it drops through 7000 ft. of
+altitude, and that in one place, at least, there exist some very
+remarkable falls. These are placed in 29 deg. 40' N. lat., between
+Kongbu and Pema-Koi. Here the river runs in a narrow precipitous defile
+along which no path is practicable. The falls can only be approached
+from below, where a monastery has been erected, the resort of countless
+pilgrims. Their height is estimated at 70 ft., and by Tibetan report the
+hills around are enveloped in perpetual mist, and the Sangdong (the
+"lion's face"), over which the waters rush, is demon-haunted and full of
+mystic import. Up to comparatively recent years it was matter for
+controversy whether the Tsanpo formed the upper reaches of the Dihong or
+of the Irrawaddy. From the north-eastern extremity of Assam where, near
+Sadya, the Lohit, the Dibong and the Dihong unite to form the wide
+placid Brahmaputra of the plains--one of the grandest rivers of the
+world--its south-westerly course to the Bay of Bengal is sufficiently
+well known. It still retains the proud distinction of being unbridged,
+and still the River Flotilla Company appoints its steamers at regular
+intervals to visit all the chief ports on its banks as far as Dibrugarh.
+Here, however, a new feature has been introduced in the local railway,
+which extends for some 80 m. to Sadya, with a branch to the Buri Dihing
+river at the foot of the Patkoi range. The Patkoi border the plains of
+Upper Assam to the south-east, and across these hills lies the most
+reasonable probability of railway extension to Burma.
+
+The following are the "lowest level" discharges of the principal
+affluents of the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam, estimated in cubic feet per
+second:--
+
+  Lohit river, 9 m. above Sadya             38,800
+  Dibong, 1 m. above junction with Dihong   27,200
+  Dihong        "         "        Dibong   55,400
+  Subansiri                                 16,900
+
+The basins of the Dibong and Subansiri are as yet very imperfectly
+known. That of the Lohit has been fairly well explored. Near Goalpara
+the discharge of the river in January 1828 was computed to be 140,000
+cub. ft., or nearly double that of the Ganges. The length of the river
+is 700 m. to the Dihong junction, and about 1000 in Tibet and eastern
+Bhutan, above the Dihong. The Brahmaputra, therefore, exceeds the Ganges
+in length by about 400 m. The bed of the great river maintains a fairly
+constant position between its extreme banks, but the channels within
+that bed are so constantly shifting as to require close supervision on
+the part of the navigation authorities; so much detritus is carried down
+as to form a perpetually changing series of obstructions to steamer
+traffic.
+
+An enormous development of agricultural resources has taken place within
+the Brahmaputra basin of late years, chiefly in the direction of tea
+cultivation, as well as in the production of jute and silk. Gold is
+found in the sands of all its upper tributaries, and coal and petroleum
+are amongst the chief mineral products which have been brought into
+economic prominence. During the rains the Brahmaputra floods hundreds of
+square miles of country, reaching a height of 30 to 40 ft. above its
+usual level. This supersedes artificial irrigation, and the plains so
+watered yield abundantly in rice, jute and mustard.
+
+  See _Reports_ of the native explorers of the Indian Survey, edited by
+  Montgomery and Harman; _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (1908); Sir T.H.
+  Holdich, _India_ ("Regions of the World" series, 1903); Ryder,
+  _Geographical Journal_, 1905; Rawlings, _The Great Plateau_ (1906).
+       (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMA SAMAJ, a religious association in India which owes its origin to
+(Raja) Ram Mohan Roy, who began teaching and writing in Calcutta soon
+after 1800. The name means literally the "Church of the One God," and
+the word _Samaj_, like the word Church, bears both a local and a
+universal, or an individual and a collective meaning. Impressed with the
+perversions and corruptions of popular Hinduism, Ram Mohan Roy
+investigated the Hindu Shastras, the Koran and the Bible, repudiated the
+polytheistic worship of the Shastras as false, and inculcated the
+reformed principles of monotheism as found in the ancient Upanishads of
+the Vedas. In 1816 he established a society, consisting only of Hindus,
+in which texts from the Vedas were recited and theistic hymns chanted.
+This, however, soon died out through the opposition it received from the
+Hindu community. In 1830 he organized the society known as the Brahma
+Samaj.
+
+The following extract from the trust-deed of the building dedicated to
+it will show the religious belief and the purposes of its founder. The
+building was intended to be "a place of public meeting for all sorts and
+descriptions of people, without distinction, who shall behave and
+conduct themselves in an orderly, sober, religious and devout manner,
+for the worship and adoration of the eternal, unsearchable and immutable
+Being, who is the author and preserver of the universe, but not under
+and by any other name, designation or title, peculiarly used for and
+applied to any particular being or beings by any man or set of men
+whatsoever; and that no graven image, statue or sculpture, carving,
+painting, picture, portrait or the likeness of anything shall be
+admitted within the said messuage, building, land, tenements,
+hereditament and premises; and that no sacrifice, offering or oblation
+of any kind or thing shall ever be permitted therein; and that no animal
+or living creature shall within or on the said messuage, &c., be
+deprived of life either for religious purposes or food, and that no
+eating or drinking (except such as shall be necessary by any accident
+for the preservation of life), feasting or rioting be permitted therein
+or thereon; and that in conducting the said worship or adoration, no
+object, animate or inanimate, that has been or is or shall hereafter
+become or be recognized as an object of worship by any man or set of
+men, shall be reviled or slightingly or contemptuously spoken of or
+alluded to, either in preaching or in the hymns or other mode of worship
+that may be delivered or used in the said messuage or building; and that
+no sermon, preaching, discourse, prayer or hymns be delivered, made or
+used in such worship, but such as have a tendency to the contemplation
+of the Author and Preserver of the universe or to the promotion of
+charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and the strengthening of
+the bonds of union between men of all religious persuasions and creeds."
+
+The new faith at this period held to the Vedas as its basis. Ram Mohan
+Roy soon after left India for England, and took up his residence in
+Bristol, where he died in 1835. The Brahma Samaj maintained a bare
+existence till 1841, when Babu Debendra Nath Tagore, a member of a
+famous and wealthy Calcutta family, devoted himself to it. He gave a
+printing-press to the Samaj, and established a monthly journal called
+the _Tattwabodhini Patrika_, to which the Bengali language now owes much
+for its strength and elegance. About 1850 some of the followers of the
+new religion discovered that the greater part of the Vedas is
+polytheistic, and a schism took place,--the advanced party holding that
+nature and intuition form the basis of faith. Between 1847 and 1858
+branch societies were formed in different parts of India, especially in
+Bengal, and the new society made rapid progress, for which it was
+largely indebted to the spread of English education and the work of
+Christian missionaries. In fact the whole Samaj movement is as distinct
+a product of the contest of Hinduism with Christianity in the 19th
+century, as the _Panth_ movement was of its contest with Islam 300 years
+earlier.
+
+The Brahma creed was definitively formulated as follows:--(1) The book
+of nature and intuition supplies the basis of religious faith. (2)
+Although the Brahmas do not consider any book written by man the basis
+of their religion, yet they do accept with respect and pleasure any
+religious _truth_ contained in any book. (3) The Brahmas believe that
+the religious condition of man is progressive, like the other
+departments of his condition in this world. (4) They believe that the
+fundamental doctrines of their religion are also the basis of every true
+religion. (5) They believe in the existence of one Supreme God--a God
+endowed with a distinct personality, moral attributes worthy of His
+nature and an intelligence befitting the Governor of the universe, and
+they worship Him alone. They do not believe in any of His incarnations.
+(6) They believe in the immortality and progressive state of the soul,
+and declare that there is a state of conscious existence succeeding life
+in this world and supplementary to it as respects the action of the
+universal moral government. (7) They believe that repentance is the only
+way to salvation. They do not recognize any other mode of reconcilement
+to the offended but loving Father. (8) They pray for _spiritual_ welfare
+and believe in the _efficacy_ of such prayers. (9) They believe in the
+providential care of the divine Father. (10) They avow that love towards
+Him and the performances of the works which He loves, constitute His
+worship. (11) They recognize the necessity of public worship, but do not
+believe that communion with the Father depends upon meeting in any fixed
+place at any fixed time. They maintain that they can adore Him at any
+time and at any place, provided that the time and the place are
+calculated to compose and direct the mind towards Him. (12) They do not
+believe in pilgrimages and declare that holiness can only be attained by
+elevating and purifying the mind. (13) They put no faith in rites or
+ceremonies, nor do they believe in penances as instrumental in obtaining
+the grace of God. They declare that moral righteousness, the gaining of
+wisdom, divine contemplation, charity and the cultivation of devotional
+feelings are their rites and ceremonies. They further say, govern and
+regulate your feelings, discharge your duties to God and to man, and you
+will gain everlasting blessedness; purify your heart, cultivate
+devotional feelings and you will see Him who is unseen. (14)
+Theoretically there is no distinction of caste among the Brahmas. They
+declare that we are all the children of God, and therefore must consider
+ourselves as brothers and sisters.
+
+For long the Brahmas did not attempt any social reforms. But about 1865
+the younger section, headed by Babu Keshub Chunder Sen, who joined the
+Samaj in 1857, tried to carry their religious theories into practice by
+demanding the abandonment of the external signs of caste distinction.
+This, however, the older members opposed, declaring such innovations to
+be premature. A schism resulted, Keshub Chunder Sen and his followers
+founding the Progressive Samaj, while the conservative stock remained as
+the Adi (i.e. original) Samaj, their aim being to "fulfil" rather than
+to abrogate the old religion. The vitality of the movement, however, had
+left it, and its inconsistencies, combined with the lack of strong
+leadership, landed it in a position scarcely distinguishable from
+orthodox Hinduism. Debendra Nath Tagore sought refuge from the
+difficulty by becoming an ascetic. The "Brahma Samaj of India," as
+Chunder Sen's party styled itself, made considerable progress
+extensively and intensively until 1878, when a number of the most
+prominent adherents, led by Anand Mohan Bose, took umbrage at Chunder
+Sen's despotic rule and at his disregard of the society's regulations
+concerning child marriage. This led to the formation of the Sadharana
+(Universal) Brahma Samaj, now the most popular and progressive of the
+three sections of the movement and conspicuous for its work in the cause
+of literary culture, social reform and female education in India. But
+even when we add all sections of the Brahma Samaj together, the total
+number of adherents is only about 4000, mostly found in Calcutta and its
+neighbourhood. A small community (about 130) in Bombay, known as the
+Prarthna (Prayer) Samaj, was founded in 1867 through Keshub Chunder's
+influence; they have a similar creed to that of the Brahma Samaj, but
+have broken less decisively with orthodox and ceremonial Hinduism.
+
+  See the articles on ARYA, SAMAJ, KESHUB CHUNDER SEN, RAM MOHAN ROY.
+  Also John Robson, _Hinduism and Christianity_; and the _Theistic
+  Quarterly Review_ (the organ of the Society since 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BRAHMS, JOHANNES (1833-1897), German composer, was born in Hamburg on
+the 7th of May 1833. He was the son of a double-bass player in the
+Hamburg city theatre and received his first musical instruction from his
+father. After some lessons from O. Cossel, he went to Cossel's master,
+Eduard Marxsen of Altona, whose experience and artistic taste directed
+the young man's genius into the highest paths. A couple of public
+appearances as a pianist were hardly an interruption to the course of
+his musical studies, and these were continued nearly up to the time when
+Brahms accepted an engagement as accompanist to the Hungarian violinist,
+Remenyi, for a concert tour in 1853. At Gottingen there occurred a
+famous _contretemps_ which had a most important though indirect
+influence on the whole after-life of the young player. A piano on which
+he was to play the "Kreutzer" sonata of Beethoven with Remenyi turned
+out to be a semitone below the required pitch; and Brahms played the
+part by heart, transposing it from A to B flat, in such a way that the
+great violinist, Joachim, who was present and discerned what the feat
+implied, introduced himself to Brahms, and laid the foundation of a
+life-long friendship. Joachim gave him introductions to Liszt at Weimar
+and to Schumann at Dusseldorf; the former hailed him for a time as a
+member of the advanced party in music, on the strength of his E flat
+minor scherzo, but the misapprehension was not of long continuance. The
+introduction to Schumann impelled that master, now drawing near the
+tragic close of his career, to write the famous article "Neue Bahnen,"
+in which the young Brahms was proclaimed to be the great composer of the
+future, "he who was to come." The critical insight in Schumann's article
+is all the more surprising when it is remembered how small was the list
+of Brahms's works at the time. A string quartet, the first pianoforte
+sonata, the scherzo already mentioned, and the earliest group of songs,
+containing the dramatic "Liebestreu," are the works which drew forth the
+warm commendations of Schumann. In December 1853 Brahms gave a concert
+at Leipzig, as a result of which the firms of Breitkopf & Haertel and of
+Senff undertook to publish his compositions. In 1854 he was given the
+post of choir-director and music-master to the prince of Lippe-Detmold,
+but he resigned it after a few years, going first to Hamburg, and then
+to Zurich, where he enjoyed the friendship and artistic counsel of
+Theodor Kirchner. The unfavourable verdict of the Leipzig Gewandhaus
+audience upon his pianoforte concerto in D minor op. 15, and several
+remarkably successful appearances in Vienna, where he was appointed
+director of Ihe Singakademie in 1863, were the most important external
+events of Brahms's life, but again he gave up the conductorship after a
+few months of valuable work, and for about three years had no fixed
+place of abode. Concert tours with Joachim or Stockhausen were
+undertaken, and it was not until 1867 that he returned to Vienna, or
+till 1872 that he chose it definitely as his home, his longest absence
+from the Austrian capital being between 1874 and 1878, when he lived
+near Heidelberg. From 1871 to 1874 he conducted the concerts of the
+"Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde," but after the later date he occupied no
+official position of any kind. With the exception of journeys to Italy
+in the spring, or to Switzerland in the summer, he rarely left Vienna.
+He refused to come to England to take the honorary degree of Mus.D.
+offered by the university of Cambridge; the university of Breslau made
+him Ph.D. in 1881; in 1886 he was created a knight of the Prussian order
+_Pour le merite_, and in 1889 was presented with the freedom of his
+native city. He died in Vienna on the 3rd of April 1897.
+
+The works of Brahms may be summarized as follows:--Various _sacred
+compositions for chorus_, op. 12, 13, 22, 27, 29, 30, 37, leading up to
+op. 45, the "German Requiem" first performed at Bremen in 1868, and
+subsequently completed by a soprano solo with chorus; the "Triumphlied"
+in commemoration of the German victories of 1870-71; and some choral
+songs and motets, op. 74, 109 and 110. _Secular choral works_, op. 17,
+41, 42, 44, 50 ("Rinaldo" for tenor solo and male choir), 53
+("Rhapsodie," alto solo and male choir), 54 ("Schicksalslied"), 62, 82
+(Schiller's Nanie), 89 ("Gesang der Parzen"), 93, 104, 113. _Concerted
+vocal-works_, op. 20, 28, 31, 52 ("Liebeslieder-Walzer"), 61, 64, 65
+("Neue Liebeslieder"), 75, 92, 103, 112. _Solo songs_, nearly 300.
+_Orchestral works_: four symphonies, op. 68, 73, 90 and 98; two
+serenades, op. 11 and 16; two pianoforte concertos, op. 15 and 83, one
+violin concerto, op. 77; concerto for violin and violoncello, op. 102;
+variations on a theme by Haydn, op. 56; two overtures, "Academische
+Festouverture," op. 80, and "Tragic Overture," op. 81. _Chamber music_:
+two sextets, op. 18 and 36; quintet, piano and strings, op. 34, strings,
+op. 88 and 111, clarinet and strings, op. 115; three string quartets,
+op. 51 and 67, three quartets for piano and strings, op. 25, 26 and 60.
+Three trios for piano and strings, op. 8, 87 and 101; trio for piano,
+violin and horn, op. 40; piano, clarinet and violoncello, op. 114. Duet
+sonatas, three for piano and violin, op. 78, 100 and 108; two for piano
+and violoncello, op. 38 and 99; two for piano and clarinet, op. 120.
+_Pianoforte solos_: three sonatas, op. 1, 2 and 5; scherzo, op. 4;
+variations, op. 9, 21, 23, 24, 35; 4 ballads, op. 10; waltzes, op. 39;
+two rhapsodies, op. 79; caprices and intermezzi, op. 76, 116, 117, 118
+and 119. 5 _studies_ and 51 _Uebungen_ without opus-number, and a
+_chorale-prelude and fugue_ for organ, besides four books of _Hungarian
+Dances_ arranged for pianoforte duet.
+
+Brahms has often been called the last of the great classical masters, in
+a sense wider than that of his place in the long line of the great
+composers of Germany. Though only the most superficial observers could
+deny him the possession of qualities which distinguish the masters of
+the romantic school, it is as a classicist that he must be ranked among
+modern musicians. From the beginning of his career until its close, his
+ideas were clothed by preference in the forms which had sufficed for
+Beethoven, and the instances in which he departed from structural
+precedent are so rare that they might be disregarded, were they not of
+such high value that they must be considered as the signs of a logical
+development of musical form, and not as indicating a spirit of rebellion
+against existing modes of structure. His practice, more frequent in
+later than in earlier life, of welding together the "working-out" and
+the "recapitulation" sections of his movements in a closer union than
+any of his predecessors had attempted, is an innovation which cannot
+fail to have important results in the future; and if the skill of
+younger writers is not adequate to such a display of ingenuity as occurs
+in the finale of the fourth symphony, where the "passacaglia" form has
+been used with an effect that is almost bewildering to the ordinary
+listener, that at least stands as a monument of inventiveness finely
+subordinated to the emotional and intellectual purport of the thoughts
+expressed. His themes are always noble, and even from the point of view
+of emotional appeal their deep intensity of expression is of a kind
+which grows upon all who have once been awakened to their beauty, or
+have been at the pains to grasp the composer's characteristics of
+utterance. His vocal music, whether for one voice or many, is remarkable
+for its fidelity to natural inflection and accentuation of the words,
+and for its perfect reflection of the poet's mood. His songs, vocal
+quartets and choral works abound in passages that prove him a master of
+effects of sound; and throughout his chamber music, in his treatment of
+the piano, of the strings, or of the solo wind instruments he employs,
+there are numberless examples which sufficiently show the irrelevance of
+a charge sometimes brought against his music, that it is deficient in a
+sense of what is called "tone-colour." It is perfectly true that the
+mere acoustic effect of a passage was of far less importance to him than
+its inherent beauty, poetic import, or logical fitness in a definite
+scheme of development; and that often in his orchestral music the casual
+hearer receives an impression of complexity rather than of clearness,
+and is apt to imagine that the "thickness" of instrumentation is the
+result of clumsiness or carelessness. Such instances as the introduction
+to the finale of the first symphony, the close of the first movement of
+the second, what may be called the epilogue of the third, or the whole
+of the variations on a theme of Haydn, are not only marvels of delicate
+workmanship in regard to structure, but are instinct with the sense of
+the peculiar beauty and characteristics of each instrument. The
+"Academic Festival" overture proves Brahms a master of musical humour,
+in his treatment of the student songs which serve as its themes; and the
+companion piece, the "Tragic" overture, reaches a height of sublimity
+which is in no way lessened because no particular tragedy has ever been
+named in conjunction with the work.
+
+As with all creative artists of supreme rank, the work of Brahms took a
+considerable time before it was very generally appreciated. The change
+in public opinion is strikingly illustrated in regard to the songs,
+which, once voted ineffective and unvocal, have now taken a place in
+every eminent singer's repertory. The outline in his greater works must
+be grasped with some definiteness before the separate ideas can be
+properly understood in their true relation to each other; and while it
+is his wonderful power of handling the recognized classical forms, so as
+to make them seem absolutely new, which stamps him as the greatest
+musical architect since Beethoven, the necessity for realizing in some
+degree what musical form signifies has undoubtedly been a bar to the
+rapid acceptance of his greater works by the uneducated lovers of music.
+These are of course far more easily moved by effects of colour than by
+the subtler beauties of organic structure, and Brahms's attitude towards
+tone-colour was scarcely such as would endear him to the large number of
+musicians in whose view tone-colour is pre-eminent. His mastery of form,
+again, has been attacked as formalism by superficial critics, blind to
+the real inspiration and distinction of his ideas, and to their
+perfection in regard to style and the appropriateness of every theme to
+the exact emotional state to be expressed. In his larger vocal works
+there are some which treat of emotional conditions far removed from the
+usual stock of subjects taken by the average composer; to compare the
+ideas in the "German Requiem" with those of the "Schicksalslied" or
+"Nanie" is to learn a lesson in artistic style which can never be
+forgotten. In the songs, too, it is scarcely too much to say that the
+whole range of human emotion finds expression in noble lyrics that yield
+to none in actual musical beauty. The four "Ernste Gesange," Brahms's
+last composition, must be considered as his supreme achievement in
+dignified utterance of noble thoughts in a style that perfectly fits
+them. The choice of words for these as well as for the "Requiem" and
+others of his serious works reveals a strong sense of the vanity and
+emptiness of human life, but at least as strong a confidence in the
+divine consolations.
+
+It has been the misfortune of the musical world in Germany that every
+prominent musician is ranged by critics and amateurs in one of two
+hostile camps, and it was probably due in the main to the
+misrepresentations of the followers of Wagner that the idea was so
+generally held that Brahms was a man of narrow sympathies and hard, not
+to say brutal manners. The latter impression was fostered, no doubt, by
+the master's natural detestation of the methods by which the average
+lionizer seeks to gain his object, and both alike are disproved in the
+_Recollections_ of J.V. Widmann, an intimate friend for many years,
+which throw a new light on the master, revealing him as a man of the
+widest artistic sympathies, neither intolerant of excellence in a line
+opposed to his own, nor weakly enthusiastic over mediocre productions by
+composers whose views were in complete sympathy with him. His admiration
+for Verdi and Wagner is enough to show that the absence of any operatic
+work from his list of compositions was simply due to the difficulty of
+finding a libretto which appealed to him, not to any antagonism to the
+lyric stage in its modern developments. How far he stood from the
+prejudices of the typical pedant may be seen in the passionate love he
+showed throughout his life for national music, especially that of
+Hungary. Not only were his arrangements of Hungarian dances the first
+work by which his name was known outside his native land, but his first
+pianoforte quartet, op. 25 in G minor, incurred the wrath of the critics
+of the time by its introduction of some characteristics of Hungarian
+music into the finale. His arrangement of a number of children's
+traditional songs was published without his name, and dedicated to the
+children of Robert and Clara Schumann in the earliest years of his
+creative life; and among the last of his publications was a collection
+of forty-nine German Volkslieder, arranged with the utmost skill, taste
+and simplicity. He had a great admiration for the waltzes of Strauss,
+and in many passages of his own works the _entrain_ that is
+characteristic of the Viennese dance-writers is present in a striking
+degree.
+
+  See also W.H. Hadow, _Studies in Modern Music_ (2nd series, 1908); and
+  the articles MUSIC, SONG.     (J. A. F. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAHUI, a people of Baluchistan, inhabiting the Brahui mountains, which
+extend continuously from near the Bolan Pass to Cape Monze on the
+Arabian Sea. The khan of Kalat, the native ruler of Baluchistan, is
+himself a Brahui, and a lineal descendant of Kumbar, former chief of the
+Kumbarini, a Brahui tribe. The origin of the Brahuis is an ethnological
+mystery. Bishop Robert Caldwell and other authorities declare them
+Dravidians, and regard them as the western borderers of Dravidian India.
+Others believe them to be Scythians,[1] and others again connect them
+with Tatar mountaineers who early settled in southern parts of Asia.
+The origin of the word itself is in doubt. It is variously derived as a
+corruption of the Persian _Ba Rohi_ (literally "of the hills"); as an
+eponym from Braho, otherwise Brahin or Ibrahim, a legendary hero of
+alleged Arab descent who led his people "out of the west," while Dr
+Gustav Oppert believes that the name is in some way related to, if not
+identical with, that of the Baluchis. He recognizes in the name of the
+Paratas and Paradas, who dwelt in north-eastern Baluchistan, the origin
+of the modern Brahui. He gives reasons for regarding the _Bra_ as a
+contraction of Bara and obtains "thus in Barahui a name whose
+resemblance to that of the ancient Barrhai (the modern Bhars), as well
+as to that of the Paratas and Paravar and their kindred the Maratha
+Paravari and Dravidian Parheyas of Palaman, is striking." The Brahuis
+declare themselves to be the aborigines of the country they now occupy,
+their ancestors coming from Aleppo. For this there seems little
+foundation, and their language, which has no affinities with Persian,
+Pushtu or Baluchi, must be, according to the most eminent scholars,
+classed among the Dravidian tongues of southern India. Probably the
+Brahuis are of Dravidian stock, a branch long isolated from their
+kindred and much Arabized, and thus exhibiting a marked hybridism.
+
+Whatever their origin, the Brahuis are found in a position of
+considerable power in Baluchistan from earliest times. Their authentic
+history begins with Mir Ahmad, who was their chief in the 17th century.
+The title of "khan" was assumed by Nasir the Great in the middle of the
+18th century. The Brahuis are a confederacy of tribes possessing common
+lands and uniting from time to time for purposes of offence or defence.
+At their head is the khan, who formerly seems to have been regarded as
+semi-divine, it being customary for the tribesmen on visiting Kalat to
+make offerings at the Ahmadzai gate before entering. The Brahuis are a
+nomadic race, who dwell in tents made of goats' hair, black or striped,
+and live chiefly on the products of their herds. They are Sunnite
+Mahommedans, but are not fanatical. In physique they are very easily
+distinguished from their neighbours, the Baluchis and Pathans, being a
+smaller, sturdier people with rounder faces characterized by the flat,
+blunt and coarse features of the Dravidian races. They are of a dark
+brown colour, their hair and beards being often brown not black. They
+are an active, hardy race, and though as avaricious as the Pathans, are
+more trustworthy and less turbulent. Their ordinary dress is a tunic or
+shirt, trousers gathered in at the ankles and a cloak usually of brown
+felt. A few wear turbans, but generally their headgear is a round
+skullcap with tassel or button. Their women are not strictly veiled.
+Sandals of deer or goat skin are worn by all classes. Their weapons are
+rifles, swords and shields. They do not use the Afghan knife or any
+spears. Some few Brahuis are enlisted in the Bombay Native Infantry.
+
+  See Dr Bellew, _Indus to Euphrates_ (London, 1874); Gustav Oppert,
+  _The Original Inhabitants of India_ (1893); Dr Theodore Duka, _Essay
+  on the Brahui Grammar_ (after the German of Dr Trumpp of Munich
+  University).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Compare Mountstuart Elphinstone's (_History of India_, 9th ed.,
+    1905, p. 249) description of Scythians with physique of Brahuis. A
+    relationship between the Jats (q.v.) and the Brahuis has been
+    suggested, and it is generally held that the former were of Scythic
+    stock. The Mengals, Bizanjos and Zehris, the three largest Brahui
+    tribes, are called Jadgal or Jagdal, i.e. Jats, by some of their
+    neighbours. The Zaghar Mengal, a superior division of the Mengal
+    tribe, believe they themselves came from a district called Zughd,
+    somewhere near Samarkand in central Asia. _Gal_ appears to be a
+    collective suffix in Baluchi, and _Men_ or _Min_ occurs on the lists
+    of the Behistun inscriptions as the name of one of the Scythian
+    tribes deported by Darius, the Achaemenian, for their turbulence (see
+    _Kalat, A Memoir on the County and Family of the Ahmadzai Khans of
+    Kalat_, by G.P. Tate). Sajdi, another Brahui tribal name, is
+    Scythian, the principal clan of which tribe is the Saga, both names
+    being identifiable with the Sagetae and Saki of ancient writers. Thus
+    there seems some reason for believing that the former occupants of at
+    least some portions of the Brahui domain were of Scythian blood.
+
+
+
+
+BRAID (from the O. Eng. _bregdan_, to move quickly to and fro, hence to
+weave), a plait, especially a plait of hair, also a plaited tape woven
+of wool, silk, gold thread, &c., used for trimming or binding. A
+particular use is for the narrow bands, bordered with open work, used in
+making point lace.
+
+
+
+
+BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS (1715-1806), British teacher of the deaf and dumb, was
+born in Scotland in 1715, and educated at Edinburgh University. He
+became a school teacher, and in 1760 opened in Edinburgh, with one
+pupil, the first school in Great Britain for the deaf and dumb,
+following the system of Dr John Wallis, described in _Philosophical
+Transactions_ nearly a hundred years before. This school was the model
+for all of the early English institutions of the kind. Dr Johnson
+visited it in 1773, and describes it as "a subject of philosophical
+curiosity ... which no other city has to show," and Braidwood's dozen
+pupils as able "to hear with the eye." In 1783 Braidwood moved to
+Hackney, where he died on the 24th of October 1806.
+
+
+
+
+BRAILA (in Rumanian _Braila_, formerly IBRAILA), the capital of the
+department of Braila, Rumania; situated amid flat and dreary country on
+the left bank of the river Danube, about 100 m. from its mouth at
+Sulina. Pop. (1900) 58,392, including 10,811 Jews. Southward, the Danube
+encircles a vast fen, tenanted only by waterfowl and herds of half-wild
+swine, while the plain which extends to the north-east and east only
+grows fertile at some distance inland. Braila itself is plainly built on
+a bank rising about 50 ft. above sea-level; but partly on a narrow strip
+of ground which separates this bank from the water's edge. Along the
+crest of the bank a public park is laid out, commanding a view of the
+desolate Dobrudja hills, across the river.
+
+On the landward side, Braila has the shape of a crescent, the curve of
+its outer streets following the line of the old fortifications,
+dismantled in 1829. Few houses, among the older quarters, exceed two
+storeys in height, but the main streets are paved, and there is a
+regular supply of filtered water. A wide avenue, the _Strada
+Bulivardului_, divides the town proper from the suburbs. The principal
+church, among many, is the cathedral of St Michael, a large, ungainly
+building of grey sandstone. Electric tramways intersect the town, and
+are continued for 3 m. to Lacul Sarat (Salt Lake), where there are
+mineral springs and mud-baths, owned by the state. The waters, which
+contain over 45% of salt, iodine and sulphur, are among the strongest of
+their kind in Europe; and are of high repute, being annually visited by
+more than a thousand patients. Braila is the seat of a chamber of
+commerce. It is the chief port of entry for Walachia, and the
+headquarters of the grain trade; for, besides its advantageous position
+on the river, it is connected with the central Walachian railways by a
+line to Buzeu, and with the Russian and Moldavian systems by a line to
+Galatz. Quays, where ships drawing 15 ft. of water can discharge, line
+the river front; and there are large docks, grain elevators and
+warehouses, besides paper mills, roperies, and soap and candle works.
+Over 20 steamers, maintained by the state, ply between Braila and
+Rotterdam. Among the vessels of all nations, the British are first in
+numbers and tonnage, the Greek second. Grain and timber form the chief
+articles of export; textiles, machinery, iron goods and coal being most
+largely imported.
+
+Many events connected with the history of Walachia took place in the
+neighbourhood of Braila. In 1475 Stephen the Great, having dethroned the
+voivode Radu, burned the town. In 1573 another Moldavian prince took the
+city by storm, and massacred the Turkish garrison. In 1659 it was again
+burned by the Walachian prince Mircea, and for the time the Turks were
+expelled, but afterwards returned. In the latter part of the 18th
+century Braila was several times captured by the Russians, and in 1770
+it was burned. By the peace of Bucharest (1812) the Turks retained the
+right of garrisoning Braila. In 1828 it was gallantly defended by
+Soliman Pasha, who, after holding out from the middle of May until the
+end of June, was allowed to march out with the honours of war. At the
+peace of Adrianople (1829) the place was definitely assigned to
+Walachia; but before giving it up, the grand-duke Michael of Russia
+razed the citadel, and in this ruinous condition it was handed over to
+the Walachians. Braila was the spot chosen by the Russian general
+Gorchakov for crossing the Danube with his division in 1854. On the
+banks of the Danube, a little above the city, are some remains of the
+piles of a bridge said by a very doubtful tradition to have been built
+by Darius (c. 500 B.C.).
+
+
+
+
+BRAIN (A.S. _braegen_), that part of the central nervous system which in
+vertebrate animals is contained within the cranium or skull; it is
+divided into the great brain or cerebrum, the hind brain or cerebellum,
+and the medulla oblongata, which is the transitional part between the
+spinal cord and the other two parts already named. Except where stated,
+we deal here primarily with the brain in man.
+
+
+1. ANATOMY
+
+  _Membranes of the Human Brain._
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Dura Mater and Cranial Sinuses.
+
+     1. Falx cerebri.
+     2. Tentorium.
+     3,3. Superior longitudinal sinus.
+     4. Lateral sinus.
+     5. Internal jugular vein.
+     6. Occipital sinus.
+     6'. Torcular Herophili.
+     7. Inferior longitudinal sinus.
+     8. Veins of Galen.
+     9 and 10. Superior and inferior petrosal sinus.
+    11. Cavernous sinus.
+    12. Circular sinus which connects the two cavernous sinuses together.
+    13. Ophthalmic vein, from 15, the eyeball.
+    14. Crista galli of ethmoid bone.]
+
+  Three membranes named the _dura mater, arachnoid_ and _pia mater_
+  cover the brain and lie between it and the cranial cavity. The most
+  external of the three is the _dura mater_, which consists of a cranial
+  and a spinal portion. The cranial part is in contact with the inner
+  table of the skull, and is adherent along the lines of the sutures and
+  to the margins of the foramina, which transmit the nerves, more
+  especially to the foramen magnum. It forms, therefore, for these bones
+  an internal periosteum, and the meningeal arteries which ramify in it
+  are the nutrient arteries of the inner table. As the growth of bone is
+  more active in infancy and youth than in the adult, the adhesion
+  between the dura mater and the cranial bones is greater in early life
+  than at maturity. From the inner surface of the dura mater strong
+  bands pass into the cranial cavity, and form partitions between
+  certain of the subdivisions of the brain. A vertical longitudinal
+  mesial band, named, from its sickle shape, _falx cerebri_, dips
+  between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. A smaller sickle-shaped
+  vertical mesial band, the _falx cerebelli_, attached to the internal
+  occipital crest, passes between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum.
+  A large band arches forward in the horizontal plane of the cavity,
+  from the transverse groove in the occipital bone to the clinoid
+  processes of the sphenoid, and is attached laterally to the upper
+  border of the petrous part of each temporal bone. It separates the
+  cerebrum from the cerebellum, and, as it forms a tent-like covering
+  for the latter, is named _tentorium cerebelli_. Along certain lines
+  the cranial dura mater splits into two layers to form tubular passages
+  for the transmission of venous blood. These passages are named the
+  _venous blood sinuses_ of the dura mater, and they are lodged in the
+  grooves on the inner surface of the skull referred to in the
+  description of the cranial bones. Opening into these sinuses are
+  numerous veins which convey from the brain the blood that has been
+  circulating through it; and two of these sinuses, called _cavernous_,
+  which lie at the sides of the body of the sphenoid bone, receive the
+  ophthalmic veins from the eyeballs situated in the orbital cavities.
+  These blood sinuses pass usually from before backwards: a _superior
+  longitudinal_ along the upper border of the falx cerebri as far as the
+  internal occipital protuberance; an _inferior longitudinal_ along its
+  lower border as far as the tentorium, where it joins the _straight
+  sinus_, which passes back as far as the same protuberance. One or two
+  small _occipital sinuses_, which lie in the falx cerebelli, also pass
+  to join the straight and longitudinal sinuses opposite this
+  protuberance; several currents of blood meet, therefore, at this spot,
+  and as Herophilus supposed that a sort of whirlpool was formed in the
+  blood, the name _torcular Herophili_ has been used to express the
+  meeting of these sinuses. From the torcular the blood is drained away
+  by two large sinuses, named _lateral_, which curve forward and
+  downward to the jugular foramina to terminate in the internal jugular
+  veins. In its course each lateral sinus receives two _petrosal_
+  sinuses, which pass from the cavernous sinus backwards along the upper
+  and lower borders of the petrous part of the temporal bone. The dura
+  mater consists of a tough, fibrous membrane, somewhat flocculent
+  externally, but smooth, glistening, and free on its inner surface. The
+  inner surface has the appearance of a serous membrane, and when
+  examined microscopically is seen to consist of a layer of squamous
+  endothelial cells. Hence the dura mater is sometimes called a
+  fibro-serous membrane. The dura mater is well provided with lymph
+  vessels, which in all probability open by stomata on the free inner
+  surface. Between the dura mater and the subjacent arachnoid membrane
+  is a fine space containing a minute quantity of limpid serum, which
+  moistens the smooth inner surface of the dura and the corresponding
+  smooth outer surface of the arachnoid. It is regarded as equivalent to
+  the cavity of a serous membrane, and is named the _sub-dural space_.
+
+  _Arachnoid Mater._--The arachnoid is a membrane of great delicacy and
+  transparency, which loosely envelops both the brain and spinal cord.
+  It is separated from these organs by the pia mater; but between it and
+  the latter membrane is a distinct space, called _sub-arachnoid_. The
+  sub-arachnoid space is more distinctly marked beneath the spinal than
+  beneath the cerebral parts of the membrane, which forms a looser
+  investment for the cord than for the brain. At the base of the brain,
+  and opposite the fissures between the convolutions of the cerebrum,
+  the interval between the arachnoid and the pia mater can, however,
+  always be seen, for the arachnoid does not, like the pia mater, clothe
+  the sides of the fissures, but passes directly across between the
+  summits of adjacent convolutions. The sub-arachnoid space is
+  subdivided into numerous freely-communicating loculi by bundles of
+  delicate areolar tissue, which bundles are invested, as Key and
+  Retzius have shown, by a layer of squamous endothelium. The space
+  contains a limpid cerebro-spinal fluid, which varies in quantity from
+  2 drachms to 2 oz., and is most plentiful in the dilatations at the
+  base of the brain known as _cisternae_. It should be clearly
+  understood that there is no communication between the subdural and
+  sub-arachnoid spaces, but that the latter communicates with the
+  ventricles through openings in the roof of the fourth, and in the
+  descending cornua of the lateral ventricles.
+
+  When the skull cap is removed, clusters of granular bodies are usually
+  to be seen imbedded in the dura mater on each side of the superior
+  longitudinal sinus; these are named the _Pacchionian bodies_. When
+  traced through the dura mater they are found to spring from the
+  arachnoid. The observations of Luschka and Cleland have proved that
+  villous processes invariably grow from the free surface of that
+  membrane, and that when these villi greatly increase in size they form
+  the bodies in question. Sometimes the Pacchionian bodies greatly
+  hypertrophy, occasioning absorption of the bones of the cranial vault
+  and depressions on the upper surface of the brain.
+
+  [Illustration: After D.J. Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Front View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of a
+  full-time Human Foetus.]
+
+  _Pia Mater._--This membrane closely invests the whole outer surface of
+  the brain. It dips into the fissures between the convolutions, and a
+  wide prolongation, named _velum interpositum_, lies in the interior of
+  the cerebrum. With a little care it can be stripped off the brain
+  without causing injury to its substance. At the base of the brain the
+  pia mater is prolonged on to the roots of the cranial nerves. This
+  membrane consists of a delicate connective tissue, in which the
+  arteries of the brain and spinal cord ramify and subdivide into small
+  branches before they penetrate the nervous substance, and in which the
+  veins conveying the blood from the nerve centres lie before they open
+  into the blood sinuses of the cranial dura mater and the extradural
+  venus plexus of the spinal canal.
+
+
+  _Medulla Oblongata._
+
+  The _Medulla Oblongata_ rests upon the basi-occipital. It is somewhat
+  pyramidal in form, about 1-1/4 in. long, and 1 in. broad in its widest
+  part. It is a bilateral organ, and is divided into a right and a left
+  half by shallow anterior and posterior median fissures, continuous
+  with the corresponding fissures in the spinal cord; the posterior
+  fissure ends above in the fourth ventricle. Each half is subdivided
+  into elongated tracts of nervous matter. Next to, and parallel with
+  the anterior fissure is the _anterior pyramid_ (see fig. 2). This
+  pyramid is continuous below with the cord, and the place of continuity
+  is marked by the passage across the fissure of three or four bundles
+  of nerve fibres, from each half of the cord to the opposite anterior
+  pyramid; this crossing is called the _decussation of the pyramids_. To
+  the side of the pyramid, and separated from it by a faint fissure, is
+  the _olivary fasciculus_, which at its upper end is elevated into the
+  projecting oval-shaped _olivary body_. Behind the olivary body in the
+  lower half of the medulla are three tracts named from before backward
+  the _funiculus of Rolando_, the _funiculus cuneatus_ and the
+  _funiculus gracilis_ (see fig. 3). The two _funiculi graciles_ of
+  opposite sides are in contact in the mid dorsal line and have between
+  them the _postero median_ fissure. When the fourth ventricle is
+  reached they diverge to form the lower limit of that diamond-shaped
+  space and are slightly swollen to form the _clavae_. All these three
+  bundles appear to be continued up into the cerebellum as the restiform
+  bodies or inferior cerebellar peduncles, but really the continuity is
+  very slight, as the restiform bodies are formed from the direct
+  cerebellar tracts of the spinal cord joining with the superficial
+  arcuate fibres which curve back just below the olivary bodies. The
+  upper part of the fourth ventricle is bounded by the superior
+  cerebellar peduncles which meet just before the inferior quadrigeminal
+  bodies are reached. Stretching across between them is the superior
+  medullary velum or valve of Vieussens, forming the upper part of the
+  roof, while the inferior velum forms the lower part, and has an
+  opening called the _foramen_ of Majendie, through which the
+  sub-arachnoid space communicates with the ventricle. The floor (see
+  fig. 3) has two triangular depressions on each side of a median
+  furrow; these are the superior and inferior _fovea_, the significance
+  of which will be noticed in the development of the rhombencephalon.
+  Running horizontally across the middle of the floor are the _striae
+  acusticae_ which are continued into the auditory nerve. The floor of
+  the fourth ventricle is of special interest because a little way from
+  the surface are the deep origins of all the cranial nerves from the
+  fifth to the twelfth. (See NERVE, _cranial_). If a section is made
+  transversely through the medulla about the apex of the fourth
+  ventricle three important bundles of fibres are cut close to the mid
+  line on each side (see fig. 4). The most anterior is the pyramid or
+  motor tract, the decussation of which has been seen. Behind this is
+  the mesial fillet or sensory tract, which has also decussated a little
+  below the point of section, while farther back still is the posterior
+  longitudinal bundle which is coming up from the anterior basis bundle
+  of the cord. External to and behind the pyramid is the crenated
+  section of the olivary nucleus, the surface bulging of which forms the
+  olivary body.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._
+
+  FIG. 3.--Back View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of a
+  full-time Human Foetus.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._
+
+  FIG. 4.--Transverse Section through the Human Medulla in the Lower
+  Olivary Region.]
+
+  The grey matter of the medulla oblongata, which contains numerous
+  multipolar nerve cells, is in part continuous with the grey matter of
+  the spinal cord, and in part consists of independent masses. As the
+  grey matter of the cord enters the medulla it loses its crescentic
+  arrangement. The posterior cornua are thrown outwards towards the
+  surface, lose their pointed form, and dilate into rounded masses named
+  the grey tubercles of Rolando. The grey matter of the anterior cornua
+  is cut off from the rest by the decussating pyramids and finally
+  disappears. The _formatio reticularis_ which is feebly developed in
+  the cord becomes well developed in the medulla. In the lower part of
+  the medulla a central canal continuous with that of the cord exists,
+  but when the clavae on the opposite sides of the medulla diverge from
+  each other, the central canal loses its posterior boundary, and
+  dilates into the cavity of the fourth ventricle. The grey matter in
+  the interior of the medulla appears, therefore, on the floor of the
+  ventricle and is continuous with the grey matter near the central
+  canal of the cord. This grey matter forms collections of nerve cells,
+  which are the centres of origin of several cranial nerves. Crossing
+  the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata, immediately below the
+  pons, in the majority of mammals is a transverse arrangement of fibres
+  forming the _trapezium_, which contains a grey nucleus, named by van
+  der Kolk the _superior olive_. In the human brain the trapezium is
+  concealed by the lower transverse fibres of the pons, but when
+  sections are made through it, as L. Clarke pointed out, the grey
+  matter of the superior olive can be seen. These fibres of the
+  _trapezium_ come from the cochlear nucleus of the auditory nerve, and
+  run up as the lateral fillet.
+
+  The _Pons Varolii_ or BRIDGE is cuboidal in form (see fig. 2): its
+  anterior surface rests upon the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid, and is
+  marked by a median longitudinal groove; its inferior surface receives
+  the pyramidal and olivary tracts of the medulla oblongata; at its
+  superior surface are the two crura cerebri; each lateral surface is in
+  relation to a hemisphere of the cerebellum, and a peduncle passes from
+  the pons into the interior of each hemisphere; the posterior surface
+  forms in part the upper portion of the floor of the fourth ventricle,
+  and in part is in contact with the corpora quadrigemina.
+
+  The pons consists of white and grey matter: the nerve fibres of the
+  white matter pass through the substance of the pons, in either a
+  transverse or a longitudinal direction. The transverse fibres go from
+  one hemisphere of the cerebellum to that of the opposite side; some
+  are situated on the anterior surface of the pons, and form its
+  superficial transverse fibres, whilst others pass through its
+  substance and form the deep transverse fibres. The longitudinal fibres
+  ascend from the medulla oblongata and leave the pons by emerging from
+  its upper surface as fibres of the two crura cerebri. The pons
+  possesses a median raphe continuous with that of the medulla
+  oblongata, and formed like it by a decussation of fibres in the mesial
+  plane. In a horizontal section through the pons and upper part of the
+  fourth ventricle the superficial transverse fibres are seen most
+  anteriorly; then come the anterior pyramidal fibres, then the deep
+  transverse pontine fibres, then the fillet, while most posteriorly and
+  close to the floor of the fourth ventricle the posterior longitudinal
+  bundle is seen (see fig. 5).
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 5.--Section through the Lower Part of the Human Pons Varolli
+  immediately above the Medulla.]
+
+  The grey matter of the pons is scattered irregularly through its
+  substance, and appears on its posterior surface; but not on the
+  anterior surface, composed exclusively of the superficial transverse
+  fibres.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._
+
+  FIG. 6.--Mesial section through the Corpus Callosum, the
+  Mesencephalon, the Pons, Medulla and Cerebellum. Showing the third and
+  fourth ventricles joined by the aqueduct of Sylvius.]
+
+
+  _The Cerebellum._
+
+  The _Cerebellum_, LITTLE BRAIN, or AFTER BRAIN occupies the inferior
+  pair of occipital fossae, and lies below the plane of the tentorium
+  cerebelli. It consists of two hemispheres or lateral lobes, and of a
+  median or central lobe, which in human anatomy is called the vermis.
+  It is connected below with the medulla oblongata by the two restiform
+  bodies which form its _inferior peduncles_, and above with the corpora
+  quadrigemina of the cerebrum by two bands, which form its _superior
+  peduncles_; whilst the two hemispheres are connected together by the
+  transverse fibres of the pons, which form the _middle peduncles_ of
+  the cerebellum. On the superior or tentorial surface of the cerebellum
+  the median or vermiform lobe is a mere elevation, but on its inferior
+  or occipital surface this lobe forms a well-defined process, which
+  lies at the bottom of a deep fossa or _vallecula_; this fossa is
+  prolonged to the posterior border of the cerebellum, and forms there a
+  deep notch which separates the two hemispheres from each other; in
+  this notch the falx cerebelli is lodged. Extending horizontally
+  backwards from the middle cerebellar peduncle, along the outer border
+  of each hemisphere is the _great horizontal fissure_, which divides
+  the hemisphere into its tentorial and occipital surfaces. Each of
+  these surfaces is again subdivided by fissures into smaller lobes, of
+  which the most important are the _amygdala_ or _tonsil_, which forms
+  the lateral boundary of the anterior part of the vallecula, and the
+  _flocculus_, which is situated immediately behind the middle peduncle
+  of the cerebellum. The inferior vermiform process is subdivided into a
+  posterior part or _pyramid_; an elevation or _uvula_, situated between
+  the two tonsils; and an anterior pointed process or _nodule_.
+  Stretching between the two flocculi, and attached midway to the sides
+  of the nodule, is a thin, white, semilunar-shaped plate of nervous
+  matter, called the inferior _medullary velum_.
+
+  The whole outer surface of the cerebellum possesses a characteristic
+  foliated or laminated appearance, due to its subdivision into
+  multitudes of thin plates or lamellae by numerous fissures. The
+  cerebellum consists of both grey and white matter. The grey matter
+  forms the exterior or cortex of the lamellae, and passes from one to
+  the other across the bottoms of the several fissures. The white matter
+  lies in the interior of the organ, and extends into the core of each
+  lamella. When a vertical section is made through the organ, the
+  prolongations of white matter branching off into the interior of the
+  several lamellae give to the section an arborescent appearance, known
+  by the fanciful name of _arbor vitae_ (see fig. 6). Independent masses
+  of grey matter are, however, found in the interior of the cerebellum.
+  If the hemisphere be cut through a little to the outer side of the
+  median lobe, a zigzag arrangement of grey matter, similar in
+  appearance and structure to the nucleus of the olivary body in the
+  medulla oblongata, and known as the _corpus dentatum_ of the
+  cerebellum, is seen; it lies in the midst of the white core of the
+  hemisphere, and encloses white fibres, which leave the interior of the
+  corpus at its inner and lower side. On the mesial side of this _corpus
+  dentatum_ lie three smaller nuclei. The white matter is more abundant
+  in the hemispheres than in the median lobe, and is for the most part
+  directly continuous with the fibres of the peduncles of the
+  cerebellum. Thus the restiform or inferior peduncles pass from below
+  upward through the white core, to end in the grey matter of the
+  tentorial surface of the cerebellum, more especially in that of the
+  central lobe; on their way they are connected with the grey matter of
+  the corpus dentatum. The superior peduncles, which descend from the
+  corpora quadrigemina of the cerebrum, form connexions mainly with the
+  corpus dentatum. The middle peduncles form a large proportion of the
+  white core, and their fibres terminate in the grey matter of the
+  foliated cortex of the hemispheres. It has been noticed that those
+  fibres which are lowest in the pons go to the upper surface of the
+  cerebellum and vice versa.
+
+  _Histology of the Cerebellum._--The white centre of the cerebellum is
+  composed of numbers of medullated nerve fibres coursing to and from
+  the grey matter of the cortex. These fibres are supported in a
+  groundwork of neuroglial tissue, their nutrition being supplied by a
+  small number of blood vessels.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Transverse Section through a Cerebellar Folium (after
+  Kolliker). Treated by the Golgi method.
+
+    P. Axon of cell of Purkinje.
+    F. Moss fibres.
+    K and K^1. Fibres from white core of folium ending in molecular
+      layer in connexion with the dendrites of the cells of Purkinje.
+    M. Small cell of the molecular layer
+    GR. Granule cell.
+    GR^1. Axons of granule cells in molecular layer cut transversely.
+    M^1. Basket-cells.
+    ZK. Basket-work around the cells of Purkinje.
+    GL. Neuroglial cell.
+    N. Axon of an association cell.]
+
+  The cortex (see fig. 7) consists of a thin layer of grey material
+  forming an outer coat of somewhat varying thickness over the whole
+  external surface of the laminae of the organ. When examined
+  microscopically it is found to be made up of two layers, an outer
+  "molecular" and an inner "granular" layer. Forming a layer lying at
+  the junction of these two are a number of cells, the _cells of
+  Purkinje_, which constitute the most characteristic feature of the
+  cerebellum. The bodies of these cells are pear-shaped. Their inner
+  ends taper and finally end in a nerve fibre which may be traced into
+  the white centre. In their course through the granule layer they give
+  off a number of branching collaterals, some turning back and passing
+  between the cells of Purkinje into the molecular layer. Their inner
+  ends terminate in one or sometimes two stout processes which
+  repeatedly branch dichotomously, thus forming a very elaborate dendron
+  in the molecular layer. The branchings of this dendron are also highly
+  characteristic in that they are approximately restricted to a single
+  plane like an espalier fruit tree, and those for neighbouring cells
+  are all parallel to one another and at right angles to the general
+  direction of the folium to which they belong. In the molecular layer
+  are found two types of cells. The most abundant are the so-called
+  _basket cells_ which are distributed through the whole thickness of
+  the layer. They have a rounded body giving off many branching dendrons
+  to their immediate neighbourhood and one long neuraxon which runs
+  parallel to the surface and to the long axis of the lamina. In its
+  course, this gives off numerous collaterals which run downward to the
+  bodies of Purkinje's cells. Their terminal branchings together with
+  similar terminals of other collaterals form the basket-work around the
+  bodies of these cells.
+
+  The granular layer is sometimes termed the rust-coloured layer from
+  its appearance to the naked eye. It contains two types of nerve cells,
+  the small granule cells and the large granule cells. The former are
+  the more numerous. They give off a number of short dendrites with
+  claw-like endings, and a fine non-medullated neuraxon process. This
+  runs upward to the cortex, where it divides into two branches in the
+  form of a T. The branches run for some distance parallel to the axis
+  of the folium and terminate in unbranched ends. The large granule
+  cells are multipolar cells, many of the branchings penetrating well
+  into the molecular layer. The neuraxon process turns into the opposite
+  direction and forms a richly branching system through the entire
+  thickness of the granular layer. There is also an abundant plexus of
+  fine medullated fibres within the granule layer.
+
+  The fibres of the white central matter are partly centrifugal, the
+  neuraxons of the cells of Purkinje, and partly centripetal. The
+  position of the cells of these latter fibres is not known. The fibres
+  give rise to an abundant plexus of fibrils in the granular layer, and
+  many reaching into the molecular layer ramify there, especially in the
+  immediate neighbourhood of the dendrites of Purkinje's cells. From the
+  appearance of their plexus of fibrils these are sometimes called _moss
+  fibres_.
+
+  The _Fourth Ventricle_ is the dilated upper end of the central canal
+  of the medulla oblongata. Its shape is like an heraldic lozenge. Its
+  floor is formed by the grey matter of the posterior surfaces of the
+  medulla oblongata and pons, already described (see figs. 3 and 6); its
+  roof partly by the inferior vermis of the cerebellum, the _nodule_ of
+  which projects into its cavity, and partly by a thin layer, called
+  _valve of Vieussens_, or superior _medullary velum_; its lower lateral
+  boundaries by the divergent clavae and restiform bodies; its upper
+  lateral boundaries by the superior peduncles of the cerebellum. The
+  _inferior medullary velum_, a reflection of the pia mater and
+  epithelium from the back of the medulla to the inferior vermis, closes
+  it in below. Above, it communicates with the _aqueduct of Sylvius_,
+  which is tunnelled below the substance of the corpora quadrigemina.
+  Along the centre of the floor is the median furrow, which terminates
+  below in a pen-shaped form, the so-called _calamus scriptorius._
+  Situated on its floor are the fasciculi teretes, striae acusticae, and
+  deposits of grey matter described in connexion with the medulla
+  oblongata. Its epithelial lining is continuous with that of the
+  central canal.
+
+
+  _The Cerebrum._
+
+  The _Cerebrum_ or GREAT BRAIN lies above the plane of the tentorium,
+  and forms much the largest division of the encephalon. It is customary
+  in human anatomy to include under the name of cerebrum, not only the
+  convolutions, the corpora striata, and the optic thalami, developed in
+  the anterior cerebral vesicle, but also the corpora quadrigemina and
+  crura cerebri developed in the mesencephalon or middle cerebral
+  vesicle. The cerebrum is ovoid in shape, and presents superiorly,
+  anteriorly and posteriorly a deep _median longitudinal fissure_, which
+  subdivides it into two hemispheres. Inferiorly there is a continuity
+  of structure between the two hemispheres across the mesial plane, and
+  if the two hemispheres be drawn asunder by opening out the
+  longitudinal fissure, a broad white band, the _corpus callosum_, may
+  be seen at the bottom of the fissure passing across the mesial plane
+  from one hemisphere to the other. The outer surface of each hemisphere
+  is convex, and adapted in shape to the concavity of the inner table of
+  the cranial bones; its inner surface, which bounds the longitudinal
+  fissure, is flat and is separated from the opposite hemisphere by the
+  falx cerebri; its under surface, where it rests on the tentorium, is
+  concave, and is separated by that membrane from the cerebellum and
+  pons. From the front of the pons two strong white bands, the _crura
+  cerebri_ or _cerebral peduncles_, pass forward and upward (see fig.
+  2). Winding round the outer side of each crus is a flat white band,
+  the _optic tract_. These tracts converge in front, and join to form
+  the _optic commissure_, from which the two _optic nerves_ arise. The
+  crura cerebri, optic tracts, and optic commissure enclose a
+  lozenge-shaped space, which includes--(a) a grey layer, which, from
+  being perforated by several small arteries, is called _locus
+  perforatus posticus_; (b) two white mammillae, the _corpora
+  albicantia_; (c) a grey nodule, the _tuber cinereum_, from which (d)
+  the _infundibulum_ projects to join the _pituitary body_. Immediately
+  in front of the optic commissure is a grey layer, the _lamina cinerea_
+  of the third ventricle; and between the optic commissure and the inner
+  end of each Sylvian fissure is a grey spot perforated by small
+  arteries, the _locus perforatus anticus_.
+
+  If a transverse section is made at right angles to the surface of the
+  crura cerebri it will pass right through the mesencephalon and come
+  out on the dorsal side through the corpora quadrigemina (see fig. 8).
+  The ventral part of each crus forms the crusta, which is the
+  continuation forward of the anterior pyramidal fibres of the medulla
+  and pons, and is the great motor path from the brain to the cord.
+  Dorsal to this is a layer of pigmented grey matter, called the
+  _substantia nigra_, and dorsal to this again is the tegmentum, which
+  is a continuation upward of the formatio reticularis of the medulla,
+  and passing through it are seen three important nerve bundles. The
+  superior cerebellar peduncle is the most internal of these and
+  decussates with its fellow of the opposite side so that the two
+  tegmenta are continuous across the middle line. More externally the
+  mesial fillet is seen, while dorsal to the cerebellar peduncle is the
+  posterior longitudinal bundle. If the section happens to pass through
+  the superior corpus quadrigeminum a characteristic circular area
+  appears between the cerebellar peduncle and the fillet, which, from
+  its tint, is called the red nucleus. More dorsally still the section
+  will pass through the Sylvian aqueduct or passage from the third to
+  the fourth ventricle, and this is surrounded by a mass of grey matter
+  in the ventral part of which are the nuclei of the third and fourth
+  nerves. The third nerve is seen at the level of the superior corpus
+  quadrigeminum running from its nucleus of origin, through the red
+  nucleus, to a groove on the inner side of the crus called the
+  _oculo-motor_ groove, which marks the separation between the crusta
+  and tegmentum. Dorsal to the Sylvian aqueduct is a layer called the
+  _lamina quadrigemina_ and on this the corpora quadrigemina rest. The
+  superior pair of these bodies is overlapped by the pineal body and
+  forms part of the lower visual centres. Connexions can be traced to
+  the optic tract, the higher visual centre on the mesial surface of the
+  occipital lobe, the deep origin of the third or oculo-motor nerve as
+  well as to the mesial and lateral fillet. The inferior pair of
+  quadrigeminal bodies are more closely in touch with the organs of
+  hearing, and are connected by the lateral fillet with the cochlear
+  nucleus of the auditory nerve.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 8.--Transverse Section through the Human Mesencephalon at the
+  level of the superior Quadrigeminal Body.]
+
+
+  _Surface of the Brain._
+
+  The peripheral part of each hemisphere, which consists of grey matter,
+  exhibits a characteristic folded appearance, known as gyri (or
+  convolutions) of the cerebrum. These gyri are separated from each
+  other by _fissures_ and _sulci_, some of which are considered to
+  subdivide the hemisphere into lobes, whilst others separate the gyri
+  in each lobe from each other. In each hemisphere of the human brain
+  five lobes are recognized: the temporo-sphenoidal, frontal, parietal,
+  occipital, and the central lobe or Island of Reil; it should, however,
+  be realized that these lobes do not exactly correspond to the outlines
+  of the bones after which they are named. Passing obliquely on the
+  outer face of the hemisphere from before, upward and backward, is the
+  well marked _Sylvian fissure_ (fig. 9, s), which is the first to
+  appear in the development of the hemisphere. Below it lies the
+  temporo-sphenoidal lobe, and above and in front of it, the parietal
+  and frontal lobes. As soon as it appears on the external surface of
+  the brain the fissure divides into three limbs, anterior horizontal
+  (s^1), ascending (s^2), and posterior horizontal (s^3), the latter
+  being by far the longest. The place whence these diverge is the
+  Sylvian point and corresponds to the pterion on the surface of the
+  skull (see ANATOMY: _Superficial and Artistic_). Between these three
+  limbs and the vallecula or main stem of the fissure are four
+  triangular tongues or opercula; these are named, according to their
+  position, orbital (fig. 9, C), frontal (pars triangularis) (B),
+  fronto-parietal (pars basilaris) (A) and temporal. The frontal lobe is
+  separated from the parietal by the _fissure of Rolando_ (fig. 9, r)
+  which extends on the outer face of the hemisphere from the
+  longitudinal fissure obliquely downward and forward towards the
+  Sylvian fissure. About 2 in. from the hinder end of the hemisphere is
+  the _parieto-occipital fissure_, which, commencing at the longitudinal
+  fissure, passes down the inner surface of the hemisphere, and
+  transversely outwards for a short distance on the outer surface of the
+  hemisphere; it separates the parietal and occipital lobes from each
+  other.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 9.--Gyri and Sulci, on the outer surface of the Cerebral
+  Hemisphere.
+
+    f^1, Sulcus frontalis superior.
+    f^2, Sulcus frontalis inferior.
+    f.m, Sulcus frontalis medius.
+    p.m, Sulcus paramedialis.
+    A, Pars basilaris.
+    B, Pars triangularis.
+    C, Pars orbitalis.
+    S, Sylvian fissure.
+    s^1, Anterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure).
+    s^2, Ascending limb (Sylvian fissure).
+    s^3. Posterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure).
+    s.asc, Ascending terminal part of the posterior horizontal limb of
+       the Sylvianfissure.
+    p.c.i, Inferior praecentral sulcus.
+    p.c.s, Superior praecentral sulcus.
+    r, Fissure of Rolando.
+    g.s, Superior genu.
+    g.i, Inferior genu.
+    d, Sulcus diagonalis.
+    t^1, Superior temporal sulcus (parallel sulcus).
+    t^2, Inferior temporal sulcus.
+    p^1, Inferior postcentral sulcus.
+    p^2, Superior postcentral sulcus.
+    p^3, Ramus horizontalis.
+    p^4, Ramus occipitalis.
+    s.o.t, Sulcus occipitalis transversus.
+    occ. lat, Sulcus occipitalis lateralis (the sulcus lunatus of Elliot
+       Smith).
+    c.m, Calloso-marginal sulcus.
+    c.t.r, Inferior transverse furrow.]
+
+  The _Temporo-Sphenoidal Lobe_ presents on the outer surface of the
+  hemisphere three convolutions, arranged in parallel _tiers_ from above
+  downward, and named _superior, middle and inferior temporal_ gyri. The
+  fissure which separates the superior and middle of these convolutions
+  is called the _parallel fissure_ (fig. 9, t^1). The _Occipital Lobe_
+  also consists from above downwards of three parallel gyri, named
+  _superior, middle and inferior occipital_. The _Frontal Lobe_ is more
+  complex; immediately in front of the fissure of Rolando, and forming
+  indeed its anterior boundary, is a convolution named _ascending
+  frontal_ or pre-central, which ascends obliquely backward and upward
+  from the Sylvian to the longitudinal fissure. Springing from the front
+  of this gyrus, and passing forward to the anterior end of the
+  cerebrum, are three gyri, arranged in parallel _tiers_ from above
+  downwards, and named _superior, middle and inferior frontal_ gyri,
+  which are also prolonged on to the orbital face of the frontal lobe.
+  The _Parietal Lobe_ is also complex; its most anterior gyrus, named
+  _ascending parietal_ or post-central, ascends parallel to and
+  immediately behind the fissure of Rolando. Springing from the upper
+  end of the back of this gyrus is the supra-parietal lobule, which,
+  forming the boundary of the longitudinal fissure, extends as far back
+  as the parieto-occipital fissure; springing from the lower end of the
+  back of this gyrus is the _supra-marginal_, which forms the upper
+  boundary of the hinder part of the Sylvian fissure; as this gyrus
+  occupies the hollow in the parietal bone, which corresponds to the
+  eminence, it may appropriately be named the _gyrus_ of the _parietal
+  eminence_. Above and behind the gyrus of the parietal eminence is the
+  _angular gyrus_, which bends round the posterior extremity of the
+  parallel fissure, while arching over the hinder end of the inferior
+  temporo-sphenoidal sulcus is the post-parietal gyrus. Lying in the
+  parietal lobe is the _intra-parietal_ fissure (fig. 9, p^3 and p^4),
+  which separates the gyrus of the parietal eminence from the
+  supra-parietal lobule.
+
+  The _Central Lobe_ of the hemisphere, more usually called the _insula_
+  or _island of Reil_, does not come to the surface of the hemisphere,
+  but lies deeply within the Sylvian fissure, the opercula forming the
+  margin of which, conceal it. It consists of four or five short gyri,
+  which radiate from the _locus perforatus anticus_, situated at the
+  inner end of the fissure. This lobe is almost entirely surrounded by a
+  deep sulcus called the limiting sulcus of Reil, which insulates it
+  from the adjacent gyri. It lies opposite the upper part of the
+  ali-sphenoid, where it articulates with the parietal and
+  squamous-temporal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Orbital surface of the left frontal lobe and
+  the island of Reil; the tip of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe has been
+  removed to display the latter.
+
+    17. Convolution of the margin of the longitudinal fissure.
+    O. Olfactory fissure, over which the olfactory peduncle and lobe are
+       situated.
+    TR. Orbital sulcus.
+    1" 1"'. Convolutions on the orbital suface.
+    1,1,1,1. Under surface of infero-frontal convolution.
+    4. Under surface of ascending frontal; and 5, of ascending parietal
+       convolutions.
+    C. Central lobe or insula.]
+
+  In front of the central lobe, on the base of the brain, are the
+  _orbital gyri_, which are separated from one another by the _orbital
+  sulcus_. This is usually H-shaped, and the gyri are therefore
+  anterior, posterior, external and internal. Bisecting the internal
+  orbital gyrus is an antero-posteripr sulcus (_s. rectus_), beneath
+  which lies the olfactory lobe, bulbous in front, for the olfactory
+  nerves to arise from.
+
+  On the mesial surface of the hemisphere, as seen when the brain is
+  longitudinally bisected and the cerebellum and medulla removed by
+  cutting through the crus cerebri (see fig. 11), the divided corpus
+  callosum is the most central object, while below it are seen the
+  fornix, septum lucidum and third ventricle, the description of which
+  will follow. The cerebral surface, above and in front of the corpus
+  callosum, is divided into two by a sulcus, the contour of which
+  closely resembles that of the upper margin of the corpus callosum.
+  This is the _calloso-marginal sulcus_, so called because it separates
+  the callosal gyrus, which lies between it and the corpus callosum,
+  from the marginal gyri nearer the margin of the brain. When the sulcus
+  reaches a point vertically above the hind end of the corpus callosum
+  it turns sharply upward and so forms the hinder limit of the marginal
+  gyri, the posterior inch or two of which is more or less distinctly
+  marked off to form the _paracentral lobule_, where the upper part of
+  the central fissure of Rolando turns over the margin of the brain. The
+  callosal gyrus, which is also called the gyrus fornicatus from its
+  arched appearance, is continued backward round the posterior end of
+  the corpus callosum, and so to the mesial surface of the temporal
+  lobe. Behind the upturned end of the calloso-marginal sulcus there is
+  a square area which is called the _precuneus_ or _quadrate lobe_; it
+  is bounded behind by the deeply cut internal parieto-occipital fissure
+  and this runs from the margin of the brain downward and forward to
+  join another fissure, the calcarine, at an acute angle, thus enclosing
+  a wedge-shaped piece of brain called the _cuneus_ between them. The
+  _calcarine_ fissure is fairly horizontal, and is joined about its
+  middle by the internal parieto-occipital, so that the part in front
+  of the junction is called the _pre-calcarine_, and that behind the
+  _post-calcarine_ fissure. The internal parieto-occipital and calcarine
+  are real fissures, because they cause an elevation in the interior of
+  the brain, known as the hippocampus minor. Just in front of the
+  anterior end of the calcarine fissure the callosal gyrus is
+  constricted to form the isthmus which connects it with the hippocampal
+  or uncinate gyrus. Below the calcarine fissure is a gyrus called the
+  _gyrus lingualis_, and this is bounded below by another true fissure,
+  the _collateral_, which runs parallel to the calcarine, but is
+  continued much farther forward into the temporal lobe and so forms the
+  lower boundary of the hippocampal gyrus. It will thus be seen that the
+  hippocampal gyrus is continuous posteriorly with the callosal gyrus
+  above by means of the isthmus, and with the gyrus lingualis below. The
+  hippocampal gyrus is bounded above by the dentate or hippocampal
+  fissure which causes the hippocampus major in the descending cornu and
+  so is a complete fissure. If its lips are separated the fascia dentata
+  or gyrus dentatus and the fimbria continued from the posterior pillar
+  of the fornix are seen. Anteriorly the fissure is arrested by the
+  recurved process of the upper part of the hippocampal gyrus, called
+  the _uncus_, and in front of this a slight sulcus, the _incisura
+  temporalis_, marks off the temporal pole or tip of the temporal lobe
+  from the region of the uncus. It will be seen that the callosal gyrus,
+  isthmus, and hippocampal gyrus form nearly a complete ring, and to
+  this the name of _limbic lobe_ is given.
+
+
+  _Interior of the Cerebrum._
+
+  If a horizontal slice be removed from the upper part of each
+  hemisphere (see fig. 12), the peripheral grey matter of the gyri will
+  be seen to follow their various windings, whilst the core of each
+  gyrus consists of white matter continuous with a mass of white matter
+  in the interior of the hemisphere. If a deeper slice be now made down
+  to the plane of the corpus callosum, the white matter of that
+  structure will be seen to be continuous with the white centre of each
+  hemisphere known as the centrum ovale. The _corpus callosum_ does not
+  equal the hemispheres in length, but approaches nearer to their
+  anterior than their posterior ends. It terminates behind in a free
+  rounded end, named the splenium (see fig. 11), whilst in front it
+  forms a knee-shaped bend, and passes downwards and backwards as far as
+  the lamina cinerea. If the dissection be performed on a brain which
+  has been hardened in spirit, the corpus callosum is seen to consist
+  almost entirely of bundles of nerve fibres, passing transversely
+  across the mesial plane between the two hemispheres; these fibres may
+  be traced into the white cores and grey matter of the gyri, and
+  connect the gyri, though by no means always corresponding ones, in the
+  opposite hemispheres. Hence the corpus callosum is a connecting or
+  commissural structure, which brings the gyri of the two hemispheres
+  into anatomical and physiological relation with each other. On the
+  surface of the corpus callosum a few fibres, the _striae
+  longitudinales_, run in the antero-posterior or longitudinal direction
+  (see fig. 12, b). Their morphological interest is referred to in the
+  section below on _Comparative Anatomy_. In the sulcus between the
+  corpus callosum and the limbic lobe a narrow band of fibres called the
+  _cingulum_ is seen, most of its fibres only run a short distance in it
+  and link together adjacent parts of the brain. If the corpus callosum
+  be now cut through on each side of its mesial line, the large cavity
+  or _lateral ventricle_ in each hemisphere will be opened into.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-The book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 11.--The Gyri and Sulci on the Mesial Aspect of the Cerebral
+  Hemisphere, r, Fissure of Rolando. r, o, Rostral sulcus. i, t,
+  Incisura temporalis.]
+
+  The lateral ventricle is subdivided into a _central space_ or body,
+  and three bent prolongations or _cornua_; the _anterior cornu_ extends
+  forward, outward and downward into the frontal lobe; the _posterior
+  cornu_ curves backward, outward and inward into the occipital lobe;
+  the _descending cornu_ curves backward, outward, downward, forward
+  and inward, behind and below the optic thalamus into the
+  temporo-sphenoidal lobe. On the floor of the central space may be seen
+  from before backward the grey upper surface of the pear-shaped caudate
+  nucleus of the _corpus striatum_ (figs. 12 and 13, f), and to its
+  inner and posterior part a small portion of the _optic thalamus_,
+  whilst between the two is the curved flat band, the _taenia
+  semicircularis_ (figs. 12 and 13, g). Resting on the upper surface of
+  the thalamus is the vascular fringe of the velum interpositum, named
+  _choroid plexus_, and immediately internal to this fringe is the free
+  edge of the white _posterior pillar of the fornix_. The anterior cornu
+  has the anterior end of the corpus striatum projecting into it. The
+  posterior cornu has an elevation on its floor, the _hippocampus minor_
+  (fig. 12, n), and between this cornu and the descending cornu is the
+  elevation called _eminentia collateralis_, formed by the collateral
+  fissure (fig. 12, o).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--To show the Right Ventricle and the left half
+  of the Corpus Callosum.
+
+    a, Transverse fibres, and
+    b, Longitudinal fibres of corpus callosum.
+    c, Anterior, and
+    d, Posterior cornua of lateral ventricle.
+    e, Septum lucidum.
+    f, Corpus striatum.
+    g, Taenia semicircularis.
+    h, Optic thalamus.
+    k, Choroid plexus.
+    l, Taenia hippocampi.
+    m, Hippocampus major.
+    n, Hippocampus minor.
+    o, Eminentia collateralis.]
+
+  Extending down the descending cornu and following its curvature is the
+  _hippocampus major_, which terminates below in a nodular end, the _pes
+  hippocampi_; on its inner border is the white _taenia hippocampi_,
+  continuous above with the posterior pillar of the fornix. If the
+  taenia be drawn to one side the hippocampal fissure is exposed, at the
+  bottom of which the grey matter of the gyrus hippocampi may be seen to
+  form a well-defined dentated border (the so-called _fascia dentala_).
+  The choroid plexus of the pia mater turns round the gyrus hippocampi,
+  and enters the descending cornu through the lateral part of the great
+  transverse fissure between the taenia hippocampi and optic thalamus.
+  The lateral ventricle is lined by a ciliated epithelium called the
+  _ependyma._ This lining is continuous through the foramen of Monro
+  with that of the third ventricle, which again is continuous with the
+  lining of the fourth ventricle through the aqueduct of Sylvius. A
+  little fluid is contained in the cerebral ventricles, which, under
+  some pathological conditions, may increase greatly in quantity, so as
+  to occasion considerable dilatation of the ventricular cavities.
+
+  If the corpus callosum be now divided about its middle by a transverse
+  incision, and the posterior half of this structure be turned back (see
+  fig. 13), the body of the fornix on which the corpus callosum rests is
+  exposed. If the anterior half of the corpus callosum be now turned
+  forward, the grey partition, or _septum lucidum_, between the two
+  lateral ventricles is exposed. This septum fits into the interval
+  between the under surface of the corpus callosum and the upper surface
+  of the anterior part of the fornix. It consists of two layers of grey
+  matter, between which is a narrow vertical mesial space, the _fifth
+  ventricle_ (fig. 13, e), and this space does not communicate with the
+  other ventricles nor is it lined with ependyma. If the septum be now
+  removed, the anterior part of the fornix is brought into view.
+
+  The _fornix_ is an arch-shaped band of nerve fibres extending in the
+  antero-posterior direction. Its anterior end forms the _anterior_
+  pillars of the arch, its posterior end the _posterior pillars_, whilst
+  the intermediate _body_ of the fornix forms the crown of the arch. It
+  consists of two lateral halves, one belonging to each hemisphere. At
+  the summit of the arch the two lateral halves are joined to form the
+  _body_; but in front the two halves separate from each other, and form
+  two anterior pillars, which descend in front of the third ventricle to
+  the base of the cerebrum, where they form the _corpora albicantia_,
+  and from these some white fibres called the bundle of Vicq d'Azyr
+  ascend to the optic thalamus (see fig. 11). Behind the body the two
+  halves diverge much more from each other, and form the posterior
+  pillars, in the triangular interval between which is a thin lamina of
+  commissural fibres called the _lyra_ (fig. 13, a). Each posterior
+  pillar curves downward and outward into the descending cornu of the
+  ventricle, and, under the name of _taenia hippocampi_, forms the
+  mesial free border of the hippocampus major (fig. 13, l). Eventually
+  it ends in the substance of the hippocampus and in the uncus of the
+  temporal lobe. If the body of the fornix be now divided by a
+  transverse incision, its anterior part thrown forward, and its
+  posterior part backward, the great transverse fissure of the cerebrum
+  is opened into, and the velum interpositum lying in that fissure is
+  exposed.
+
+  The _velum interpositum_ is an expanded fold of pia mater, which
+  passes into the anterior of the hemispheres through the great
+  transverse fissure. It is triangular in shape; its base is a line with
+  the posterior end of the corpus callosum, where it is continuous with
+  the external pia mater; its lateral margins are fringed by the choroid
+  plexuses, which are seen in the bodies and descending cornua of the
+  lateral ventricles, where they are invested by the endothelial lining
+  of those cavities. Its apex, where the two choroid plexuses blend with
+  each other, lies just behind the anterior pillars of the fornix. The
+  interval between the apex and these pillars is the aperture of
+  communication between the two lateral ventricles and the third,
+  already referred to as the foramen of Monro. The choroid plexuses
+  contain the small _choroidal arteries_; and the blood from these is
+  returned by small veins, which join to form the _veins of Galen._
+  These veins pass along the centre of the velum, and, as is shown in
+  fig. 1, open into the straight sinus. If the velum interpositum be now
+  carefully raised from before backward, the optic thalami, third
+  ventricle, pineal body and corpora quadrigemina are exposed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--A deeper dissection of the Lateral Ventricle,
+  and of the Velum Interpositum.
+
+    a, Lyra, turned back.
+    b, b, Posterior pillars of the fornix, turned back.
+    c, c, Anterior pillars of the fornix.
+    d, Velum interpositum and veins of Galen.
+    e, Fifth ventricle.
+    f, f, Corpus striatum.
+    g, g, Taenia semicircularis.
+    h, h, Optic thalamus.
+    k, Choroid plexus.
+    l, Taenia hippocampi.
+    m, Hippocampus major in descending cornu.
+    n, Hippocampus minor.
+    o, Eminentia collateralis.]
+
+  The _optic thalamus_ is a large, somewhat ovoid body situated behind
+  the corpus striatum, and above the crus cerebri. Its upper surface is
+  partly seen in the floor of the body of the lateral ventricle, but is
+  for the most part covered by the fornix and velum interpositum. Its
+  postero-inferior surface forms the roof of the descending cornu of
+  the ventricle, whilst its inner surface forms the side wall of the
+  third ventricle. At its outer and posterior part are two slight
+  elevations, in close relation to the optic tract, and named
+  respectively corpus geniculatum internum and externum.
+
+  The posterior knob-like extremity of the thalamus is called the
+  _pulvinar_; this, as well as the two corpora geniculata and the
+  superior corpus quadrigeminum, is connected with the optic tract.
+
+  The _third ventricle_ (see fig. 6) is a cavity situated in the mesial
+  plane between the two optic thalami. Its roof is formed by the velum
+  interpositum and body of the fornix; its floor by the posterior
+  perforated space, corpora albicantia, tuber cinereum, infundibulum,
+  and optic commissure; its anterior boundary by the anterior pillars of
+  the fornix, anterior commissure and lamina cinerea; its posterior
+  boundary by the corpora quadrigemina and posterior commissure. The
+  cavity of this ventricle is of small size in the living head, for the
+  inner surfaces of the two thalami are connected together by
+  intermediate grey matter, named the _middle_ or _soft commissure_.
+  Immediately in front of the corpora quadrigemina, the white fibres of
+  the _posterior commissure_ pass across between the two optic thalami.
+  If the anterior pillars of the fornix be separated from each other,
+  the white fibres of the _anterior commissure_ may be seen lying in
+  front of them.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  FIG. 14.--Horizontal Section through the Right Cerebral Hemisphere at
+  the Level of the Widest Part of the Lenticular Nucleus.]
+
+  The _pineal body_ is a reddish cone-shaped body situated upon the
+  anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina (see figs. 3 and 6). From
+  its broad anterior end two white bands, the _peduncles_ of the _pineal
+  body_, pass forward, one on the inner side of each optic thalamus.
+  Each peduncle joins, along with the taenia semicircularis, the
+  anterior pillar of the fornix of its own side. In its structure this
+  body consists of tubular gland tissue containing gritty calcareous
+  particles, constituting the _brain sand_. Its morphology will be
+  referred to later.
+
+  A general idea of the internal structure of the brain is best obtained
+  by studying a horizontal section made just below the level of the
+  Sylvian point and just above the great transverse fissure (see fig.
+  14). Such a section will cut the corpus callosum anteriorly at the
+  genu and posteriorly at the splenium, but the body is above the plane
+  of section. Behind the genu the fifth ventricle is cut, and behind
+  that the two pillars of the fornix which here form the anterior
+  boundary of the third ventricle. At the posterior end of this is the
+  pineal body, which the section has just escaped. To the outer side of
+  the fornix is seen the foramen of Munro, leading into the front of the
+  body and anterior horn of the lateral ventricle. It will be seen that
+  the lateral boundary of this horn is the cut caudate nucleus of the
+  corpus striatum, while the lateral boundary of the third ventricle is
+  the cut optic thalamus, both of which bodies have been already
+  described, but external to these is a third triangular grey mass, with
+  its apex directed inward, which cannot be seen except in a section.
+  This is the lenticular nucleus of the corpus striatum, the inner or
+  apical half of which is of a light colour and is called the _globus
+  pallidus_, while the basal half is reader and is known as the
+  _putamen._ External to the putamen is a long narrow strip of grey
+  matter called the _claustrum_, which is sometimes regarded as a third
+  nucleus of the corpus striatum. These masses of grey matter, taken
+  together, are the basal nuclei of the brain. Internal to the
+  lenticular nucleus, and between it and the caudate nucleus in front
+  and the thalamus behind, is the _internal capsule_, through which run
+  most of the fibres connecting the cerebral cortex with the crus
+  cerebri. The capsule adapts itself to the contour of the lenticular
+  nucleus and has an anterior limb, a bend or genu, and a posterior
+  limb. Just behind the genu of the internal capsule is a very important
+  region, for here the great motor tract from the Rolandic region of the
+  cortex passes on its way to the crusta and spinal cord. Besides this
+  there are fibres passing from the cortex to the deep origins of the
+  facial and hypo-glossal nerves. Behind the motor tracts are the
+  sensory, including the fillet, the superior cerebellar peduncle and
+  the inferior quadrigeminal tract, while quite at the back of the
+  capsule are found the auditory and optic radiations linking up the
+  higher (cortical) and lower auditory and visual centres. Between the
+  putamen and the claustrum is the _external capsule_, which is smaller
+  and of less importance than the internal, while on the lateral side of
+  the claustrum is the white and then the grey matter of the central
+  lobe. As the fibres of the internal capsule run up toward the cortex
+  they decussate with the transverse fibres of the corpus callosum and
+  spread out to form the _corona radiata._ It has only been possible to
+  deal with a few of the more important bundles of fibres here, but it
+  should be mentioned that much of the white matter of the brain is
+  formed of association fibres which link up different cortical areas,
+  and which become medullated and functional after birth.
+
+
+  _Weight of the Brain._
+
+  This has been the subject of a great deal of research, but the results
+  are not altogether conclusive; it seems, however, that, although the
+  male brain is 4 to 5 oz. heavier than that of the female, its relative
+  weight to that of the body is about the same in the two sexes. An
+  average male brain weighs about 48 oz. and a female 43-1/2 oz. The
+  greatest absolute weight is found between twenty-five and thirty-five
+  years of age in the male and a little later in the female. At birth
+  the brain weighs comparatively much more than it does later on, its
+  proportion to the body weight being about 1 to 6. At the tenth year it
+  is about 1 to 14, at the twentieth 1 to 30, and after that about 1 to
+  36.5. In old age there is a further slight decrease in proportion. In
+  many men of great intellectual eminence the brain weight has been
+  large--Cuvier's brain weighed 64-1/2 oz., Goodsir's 57-1/2, for
+  instance--but the exceptions are numerous. Brains over 60 oz. in
+  weight are frequently found in quite undistinguished people, and even
+  in idiots 60 oz. has been recorded. On the other hand, microcephalic
+  idiots may have a brain as low as 10 or even 8-1/2 oz., but it is
+  doubtful whether normal intelligence is possible with a brain weighing
+  less than 32 oz. The taller the individual the greater is his brain
+  weight, but short people have proportionally heavier brains than tall.
+  The weight of the cerebellum is usually one-eighth of that of the
+  entire brain. Attempts have been made to estimate the surface area of
+  the grey matter by dissecting it off and measuring it, and also by
+  covering it with gold leaf and measuring that. The results, however,
+  have not been conclusive.
+
+  Further details of the brain, abundantly illustrated, will be found in
+  the later editions of any of the standard text-books on anatomy,
+  references to which will be found in the article on ANATOMY: _Modern
+  Human. Das Menschenhirn_, by G. Retzius (Stockholm, 1896), and
+  numerous recent memoirs by G. Elliot Smith and D.J. Cunningham in the
+  _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ and _Anatomisch Anzeig._, may be consulted.
+
+
+  _Histology of Cerebral Cortex._
+
+  The cerebral cortex (see fig. 15) consists of a continuous sheet of
+  grey matter completely enveloping the white matter of the hemispheres.
+  It varies in thickness in different parts, and becomes thinner in old
+  age, but all parts show a somewhat similar microscopic structure.
+  Thus, in vertical section, the following layers may be made out:--
+
+  1. _The Molecular Layer (Stratum zonale)._--This is made up of a large
+  number of fine nerve branchings both medullated and non-medullated.
+  The whole forms a close network, the fibres of which run chiefly a
+  tangential course. The cells of this layer are the so-called _cells of
+  Cajal_. They possess an irregular body, giving off 4 or 5 dendrites,
+  which terminate within the molecular layer and a long nerve fibre
+  process or neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface of the
+  convolution.
+
+  2. _The Layer of small Pyramidal Cells._--The typical cells of this
+  layer are pyramid-shaped, the apices of the pyramids being directed
+  towards the surface. The apex terminates in a dendron which reaches
+  into the molecular layer, giving off several collateral horizontal
+  branches in its course. The final branches in the molecular layer take
+  a direction parallel to the surface. Smaller dendrites arise from the
+  lateral and basal surfaces of these cells, but do not extend far from
+  the body of the cell. The neuraxon always arises from the base of the
+  cell and passes towards the central white matter, thus forming one of
+  the nerve-fibres of that substance. In its path it gives off a number
+  of collaterals at right angles, which are distributed to the adjacent
+  grey matter.
+
+  [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_.
+
+  Fig. 15.--Diagram to illustrate Minute Structure of the Cerebral
+  Cortex.
+
+    A. Neuroglia cells.
+    B.    "        "
+    C. Cell with short axon (N) which breaks up in a free arborization.
+    D. Spindle-shaped cell in stratum zonale.
+    E. Small pyramidal cell.
+    F. Large pyramidal cell.
+    G. Cell of Martinotti.
+    H. Polymorphic cell.
+    K. Corticipetal fibres.]
+
+  3. _The Layer of large Pyramidal Cells._--This is characterized by the
+  presence of numbers of cells of the same type as those of the
+  preceding layer, but of larger size. The nerve-fibre process becomes a
+  medullated fibre of the white matter.
+
+  4. _The Layer of Polymorphous Cells._--The cells of this layer are
+  irregular in outline, and give off several dendrites branching into
+  the surrounding grey matter. The neuraxon gives off a number of
+  collaterals, and then becomes a nerve-fibre of the central white
+  matter.
+
+  Scattered through these three layers there are also a number of cells
+  (_cells of Golgi_) whose neuraxon divides at once, the divisions
+  terminating within the immediate vicinity of the cell-body. Some cells
+  are also found in which the neuraxon, instead of running into the
+  white matter of the brain, passes toward the surface; these are called
+  _cells of Martinotti_.
+
+  The medullated nerve-fibres of the white matter when traced into the
+  cortex are seen to enter in bundles set vertically to the surface.
+  These bundles taper and are resolved into isolated fibres in the upper
+  parts of the pyramidal layers. The fibres constituting the bundles
+  form two sets. (a) The centrifugal fibres consist as above described
+  of the fibre processes of the pyramidal and polymorphous cells. (b)
+  The centripetal fibres ascend through the cortex to terminate within
+  the molecular layer by horizontally running branches. As they pass
+  through they give off a number of collaterals. The position of the
+  cells from which these fibres arise is not known. In addition to the
+  radially arranged bundles of fibres, networks are formed by the
+  interlacement with them of large numbers of fine medullated fibres
+  running tangentially to the surface. These are derived chiefly from
+  the collaterals of the pyramidal cells and of the centripetal fibres.
+  They form two specially marked bundles, one within the layer of the
+  polymorphous cells known as the _inner band of Baillarger_, and
+  another in the layer of large pyramidal cells called the _outer band
+  of Baillarger_. This latter is very thick in the calcarine region, and
+  forms the _white stria of Gennin_, while the inner band is best seen
+  in the precentral gyrus. As both these strands cross the already
+  mentioned radial bundles at right angles, they are regarded as
+  specialized parts of an _interradial reticulum_ of fibres, but, nearer
+  the surface than the radial bundles penetrate, tangential fibres are
+  found, and here they are called the _supraradial reticulum_. In
+  certain parts of the brain the fibres of this reticulum are more
+  closely set, and form the _band of Bechterew_ in the superficial part
+  of the small pyramidal cell zone.
+
+  [Illustration: From _The Museum Catalogue of the Royal College of
+  Surgeons of England_.
+
+  Fig. 16.--Brain of _Petromyzon marinus_ (dorsal view). A, Brain; B,
+  choroid plexus removed.]
+
+  For further information on the structure of the cerebral cortex, see
+  A.W. Campbell, _Proc. R. Soc._ vols. lxxii. and lxxiv.
+
+
+  _Comparative Anatomy._
+
+  A useful introduction to the study of the vertebrate brain is that of
+  the Amphioxus, one of the lowest of the Chordata or animals having a
+  notochord. Here the brain is a very slightly modified part of the
+  dorsal tubular nerve-cord, and, on the surface, shows no distinction
+  from the rest of that cord. When a section is made the central canal
+  is seen to be enlarged into a cavity, the neurocoele, which, in the
+  young animal, communicates by an opening, the neuropore, with the
+  bottom of the olfactory pit, and so with the exterior. More ventrally
+  another slight diverticulum probably represents the infundibulum. The
+  only trace of an eye is a patch of pigment at the anterior end of the
+  brain, and there are no signs of any auditory apparatus. There are
+  only two pairs of cerebral nerves, both of which are sensory (Willey,
+  _Amphioxus_, 1894). In the Cyclostomata, of which the lamprey
+  (Petromyzon) is an example, the minute brain is much more complex,
+  though it is still only a very slight enlargement of the anterior end
+  of the cord. The single cavity seen in Amphioxus is here subdivided
+  into three: an anterior or prosencephalon, a middle or mesencephalon,
+  and a hinder or rhombencephalon. The rhombencephalon has a very slight
+  transverse thickening in the fore-part of its roof, this is the
+  rudimentary cerebellum (_Cer._); the rest of this part of the brain is
+  taken up by the large medulla, the cavity of which is the _fossa
+  rhomboidalis_ or fourth ventricle. This fossa is roofed over by the
+  epithelium lining the cavity of the ventricle, by pia mater and
+  blood-vessels constituting a choroid plexus (fig. 16, B). The fourth
+  ventricle communicates with the parts in front by means of a passage
+  known as the aqueduct of Sylvius.
+
+  The mesencephalon or mid-brain, when looked at from the dorsal
+  surface, shows a pair of large hollow swellings, the optic lobes or
+  _corpora bigemina_. Their cavities open out from the aqueduct of
+  Sylvius, and from the nervous tissue in their walls the optic nerves
+  derive their fibres. From the front of the prosencephalon or anterior
+  vesicle the olfactory nerves come off, and at the base of each of
+  these are two hollow swellings; the larger and more anterior is the
+  olfactory bulb, the smaller and more posterior the cerebral
+  hemisphere. Both these swellings must be regarded as lateral
+  outgrowths from the blind front end of the original single vesicle of
+  the brain as seen in Amphioxus, and from the anterior subdivision or
+  prosencephalon in the lamprey. The anterior vesicle, however, is now
+  again subdivided, and that part from which the cerebral hemispheres
+  bud out, and the hemispheres themselves, is called the telencephalon,
+  while the posterior part of the original prosencephalon is known as
+  the thalamencephalon, or more rarely the diencephalon. On the dorsal
+  surface of the thalamencephalon are two nervous masses called the
+  ganglia habenulae; the right is much larger than the left, and from it
+  a stalk runs forward and upward to end in the vestigial pineal body
+  (or epiphysis), which contains rudiments of a pigmented retina and of
+  a lens, and which is usually regarded as the remains of one of a pair
+  of median eyes, though it has been suggested that it may be an organ
+  for the appreciation of temperature. From the small left ganglion
+  habenulae a still more rudimentary pineal stalk projects, and there
+  are signs of a third outgrowth (paraphysis) in front of these. On the
+  floor of the thalamencephalon the blind pouch-like infundibulum is in
+  contact with the pituitary body, an outgrowth from the combined
+  pituitary and olfactory pouch, which in the adult opens on to the top
+  of the head just in front of the pineal area. The anterior closed end
+  of the nerve-tube, in front of the foramina of Munro or openings from
+  which the hemispheres have grown out, is known as the _lamina
+  terminalis_, and in this is seen a little white commissure, connecting
+  the hemispheres of opposite sides and belonging entirely to the
+  telencephalon, known as the anterior commissure. The roof of the
+  telencephalon is mainly epithelial, and contains no traces of cortical
+  structure. In the posterior part of the roof of the thalamencephalon
+  is the small posterior commissure (Ahlborn, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ Bd.
+  xxxix., 1883, p. 191). In the Elasmobranch Fish, such as the sharks
+  and rays, the cerebellum (_Cer._ fig. 17) is very large and contains
+  the layers found in all the higher vertebrates. In the mesencephalon
+  fibres corresponding with those of the fillet of higher vertebrates
+  can be seen, and there is a nucleus in the hinder part of the _corpora
+  bigemina_ foreshadowing the separation into corpora quadrigemina.
+  There is only one pineal stalk in the roof of the thalamencephalon,
+  and the ganglia habenulae--very constant structures in the vertebrate
+  brain--are not so marked as in Petromyzon, but are, as usual,
+  connected with the olfactory parts of the cerebrum, with the surface
+  of the optic lobes (_tectum opticum_), and with the _corpus
+  interpedunculare_ (Meynert's bundle). They are united across the
+  middle line by a small _superior_ or _habenular commissure_. In the
+  floor of the thalamencephalon are two masses of ganglionic tissue, the
+  optic thalami. The infundibulum dilates into two rounded bodies, the
+  _lobi inferiores_, while the pituitary body or _hypophysis cerebri_
+  has two lateral diverticula known as _sacci vasculosi_. Ganglia
+  geniculata are found for the first time in connexion with the optic
+  tracts in the lower part of the thalamus. The olfactory lobes (fig.
+  17, _Olf. Bulb_) are very large and often separated by long stalks
+  from the cerebral hemispheres, which are comparatively much larger
+  than those of the Cyclostomata; their roof or pallium is nervous, but
+  devoid of cortical structure, while in the floor in some species large
+  anterior basal ganglia or _corpora striata_ are found
+  (Miklucho-Maclay, _Beitrage z. vergl. Neurol._, 1870; Edinger, _Arch.
+  mikr. Anat._ Bd. lviii., 1901, p. 661, "Cerebellum"). The Teleostean
+  Fish are chiefly remarkable for the great development of the optic
+  lobes and suppression of the olfactory apparatus. The pallium is
+  non-nervous, and the optic tracts merely cross one another instead of
+  forming a commissure. A process of the cerebellum called _valvula
+  cerebelli_ projects into the cavity of each optic lobe (Rabl.
+  Ruckhard, _Arch. Anat. u. Phys_., 1898, p. 345 [Pallium]; Haller,
+  _Morph. Jahrb._ Bd. xxvi., 1898, p. 632 [Histology and Bibliography]).
+  The brain of the Dipnoi, or mud fish, shows no very important
+  developments, except that the anterior pineal organ or paraphysis is
+  large (Saunders, _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 6, vol. iii., 1889,
+  p. 157; Burkhardt, _Centralnervensystem v. Protopterus_, Berlin,
+  1892).
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 17.--Section of the Brain of Porbeagle Shark (_Lamna_).]
+
+  In the Amphibia the brain is of a low type, the most marked advances
+  on that of the fish being that the anterior commissure is divided into
+  a dorsal and ventral part, of which the ventral is the true anterior
+  commissure of higher vertebrates, while the dorsal is a hippocampal
+  commissure and coincides in its appearance with the presence of a
+  small mass of cells in the outer layer of the median wall of the
+  pallium, which is probably the first indication of a hippocampal
+  cortex or cortex of any kind (Osborn, _Journ. Morph._ vol. ii., 1889,
+  p. 51).
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  Fig. 18.--Section of Brain of Turtle (_Chelone_).]
+
+  In the Reptilia the medulla has a marked flexure with a ventral
+  convexity, and an undoubted cerebral cortex for the first time makes
+  its appearance. The mesial wall of the cerebral hemisphere is divided
+  into a large dorsal hippocampal area (fig. 18, _Hip._) and a smaller
+  ventral olfactory tubercle. Between these two a narrow area of
+  ganglionic matter runs forward from the side of the _lamina
+  terminalis_ and is known as the paraterminal or precommissural area
+  (Elliot Smith, _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxxii. p. 411). To the
+  upper lateral part of the hemisphere Elliot Smith has given the name
+  of _neopallium_, while the lower lateral part, imperfectly separated
+  from it, is called the _pyriform lobe_. In the Lacertilia the pineal
+  eye, if it be an eye, is better developed than in any existing
+  vertebrate, though even in them there is no evidence of its being used
+  for sight. Behind the so-called pineal eye and its stalk is the
+  _epiphysis_ or pineal body, and sometimes there is a dorsal sac
+  between them (see fig. 18).[1] The middle or soft commissure appears
+  in certain reptiles (_Crocodilia_ and _Chelonia_), as does also the
+  _corpus mammillare_ (Edinger, Senckenberg, _Naturf. Gesell._ Bd. xix.,
+  1896, and Bd. xxii., 1899; Haller, _Morph. Jahrb._ Bd. xxviii., 1900,
+  p. 252). Among the birds there is great unity of type, the cerebellum
+  is large and, by its forward projection, presses the optic lobes down
+  toward the ventro-lateral part of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres
+  are also large, owing chiefly to the great size of the _corpora
+  striata_, which already show a differentiation into caudate nucleus,
+  putamen and globus pallidus. The pallium is reptilian in character,
+  though its cortical area is more extensive. The geniculate bodies are
+  very large (Bumm, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ Bd. xxxviii., 1883, p. 430;
+  Brandis, _Arch. mikr. Anat._ Bd. xli., 1893, p. 623, and xliii., 1894,
+  p. 96, and xliv., 1895, p. 534; Boyce and Warrington, _Phil. Trans._
+  vol. cxci., 1899, p. 293).
+
+  Among the Mammalia the Monotremata have a cerebellum which shows, in
+  addition to the central lobe of the lower vertebrates, a flocculus on
+  each side, and the two halves of the cerebellum are united by a
+  ventral commissure, the _pons varolii_. The pallium is reptilian in
+  its arrangement, but that part of it which Elliot Smith has named the
+  neopallium is very large, both in the Ornithorynchus and Echidna, a
+  fact very difficult to account for. In the latter animal the cortical
+  area is so extensive as to be thrown into many and deep sulci, and yet
+  the Echidna is one of the lowliest of mammals in other respects. A
+  well-marked rhinal fissure separates the pyriform lobe from the
+  neopallium, while, on the mesial surface, the hippocampal fissure
+  separates the neopallium from the hippocampal area. Just below the
+  hippocampal fissure a specially coloured tract indicates the first
+  appearance of the fascia dentata (see fig. 20). The anterior
+  commissure is divided, as in reptiles, into dorsal and ventral parts,
+  of which the latter is the larger (fig. 20, _Comm. V. and D_.), while
+  just behind the dorsal part is the first appearance of the fimbria or
+  fornix. In addition to the two fissures already named, there is, in
+  the Echidna, one which in position and mode of formation corresponds
+  with the Sylvian fissure of higher mammals. Elliot Smith, however,
+  wisely refuses to homologize it absolutely with that fissure, and
+  proposes the name of pseudosylvian for it. The pineal body is
+  rudimentary, and the optic lobes are now, and throughout the Mammalia,
+  subdivided into four _corpora quadrigemina_.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 19.--Ventral and Dorsal Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.]
+
+  Among the Marsupialia the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus) gives a very
+  good idea of a generalized mammalian brain, and shows a large
+  development of the parts concerned in the sense of smell. The most
+  important advance on the monotreme brain is that the calcarine fissure
+  has now appeared on the posterior part of the mesial surface and
+  causes a bulging into the ventricle, called the _calcar avis_ or
+  hippocampus minor, just as the hippocampal fissure causes the
+  _hippocampus major_ (Gervais, _Nuov. Arch. Mus_. tom. v., 1869;
+  Ziehen, _Jenaische Denkschr_. Bd. vi., 1897).
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 20.--Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.]
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 2l.--Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of the Tasmanian Devil
+  (_Sarcophilus_).]
+
+  In the Eutheria or mammals above the marsupials, the cerebellum
+  gradually becomes more complex, owing to the appearance of lateral
+  lobes between the flocculus and the vermis, as well as the
+  paraflocculus on the outer side of the flocculus. The corpus callosum
+  now first appears as a bridge between the neopallia, and its
+  development leads to the stretching of the hippocampal formation, so
+  that in the higher mammals the hippocampus is only found in the lower
+  and back part of the ventricle, while the rudiments of the dorsal part
+  remain as the _striae longitudinals_ on the corpus callosum. The
+  dorsal part of the original anterior commissure becomes the fornix,
+  and the paraterminal area is modified to form the septum lucidum. The
+  first appearance of the fissure of Rolando is probably in some of the
+  Carnivora, in which, as the _sulcus crucialis_, it forms the posterior
+  boundary of the "ursine lozenge" described by Mivart (_Journ. Linn.
+  Soc_. vol. xix., 1886) (see fig. 22, _Sulc. Cru_.). In the higher apes
+  or Anthropoidea the human fissures and sulci are largely recognizable,
+  so that a gibbon's brain, apart from all question of comparative
+  anatomy, forms a useful means of demonstrating to a junior class the
+  main gyri and sulci of Man in a simple and diagrammatic way. The main
+  points of difference, apart from greater simplicity, are that the
+  central lobe or island of Reil is exposed on the surface of the brain,
+  as it is in the human foetus, and that the anterior part of the
+  occipital lobe has a well-marked vertical sulcus, called the simian
+  sulcus or _Affenspalte_; this often has a semilunar shape with its
+  convexity forward, and is then called the _sulcus lunatus_. It is
+  usually concealed in European brains by the overgrowth of the
+  surrounding gyri, but it occasionally remains, though less frequently
+  than in the brains of Egyptian fellaheen. Its relation to the _white
+  stria of Gennari_ is especially interesting, and is recorded by Elliot
+  Smith in the _Anatomischer Anzeiger_, Bd. xxiv., 1904, p. 436. The
+  rhinal fissure, which is so characteristic a feature of the lower
+  mammals, almost disappears in Man, and is only represented by the
+  _incisura temporalis_ (see fig. 11, _i.t_). The hippocampal fissure
+  persists with little modification all through the mammalian class. The
+  calcarine fissure remains with many modifications from the marsupials
+  to man, and in view of the famous controversy of 1864, in which Owen,
+  Huxley and the then bishop of Oxford took part, it is interesting to
+  note that its hippocampus minor can now be clearly demonstrated, even
+  in the Marsupialia. Another very ancient and stable sulcus is the
+  _orbital_, which is a simple antero-posterior line until Man is
+  reached (see fig. 23, _Sulc. Orb._). The great point of importance,
+  however, in the evolution of the mammalian brain is the gradual
+  suppression of the olfactory region, and the development of the
+  neopallium, a development which takes a sudden stride between the
+  Anthropoid apes and Man. (For further particulars of this and other
+  points in the comparative anatomy of the brain, see _Catalogue of the
+  Physiological Series_ of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
+  of England, vol. ii. 2nd ed., by R.H. Burne and G. Elliot Smith,
+  London, 1902.)
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 22.--Dorsal and Lateral Views of the Brain of a Ratel (_Mellivora
+  indica_).]
+
+
+  _Embryology._
+
+  The brain, like the rest of the nervous system, is developed from the
+  ectoderm or outer layer of the embryo by the formation of a groove in
+  the mid-dorsal line. The lips of this _medullary groove_ unite to form
+  a canal beginning at the place where the neck of the embryo is to be.
+  The part of the neural canal in front of the earliest union forms the
+  brain and very early becomes constricted into three vesicles, to which
+  the names of _prosencephalon_, _mesencephalon_ and _rhombencephalon_
+  are now usually given. The simple tubular brain we have seen as a
+  permanent arrangement in Amphioxus, but the stage of the three
+  vesicles is a transitory one, and is not found in the adult of any
+  existing animal. From the sides of the prosencephalon, the optic
+  vesicles grow out before the neural tube is completely closed, and
+  eventually form the optic nerves and retinae, while, soon after this,
+  the cerebral hemispheres bulge from the antero-dorsal part of the
+  first primary vesicle, their points of evagination being the _foramina
+  of Munro_. From the ventral parts of these cerebral hemispheres the
+  olfactory lobes are constricted off, while just behind the openings
+  of the foramina of Munro a constriction occurs which divides the
+  prosencephalon into two secondary vesicles, the anterior of which,
+  containing the foramina of Munro, is called the _telencephalon_, while
+  the posterior is the _thalamencephalon_ or _diencephalon_. A
+  constriction also occurs in the hind vesicle or _rhombencephalon_,
+  dividing it into an anterior part, the _metencephalon_, from which the
+  cerebellum is developed, and a posterior or _myelencephalon_, the
+  primitive _medulla oblongata_. At this stage the general resemblance
+  of the brain to that of the lamprey is striking.
+
+  Before the secondary constrictions occur three vertical flexures begin
+  to form. The first is known as the _cephalic_, and is caused by the
+  prosencephalon bending sharply downward, below and in front of the
+  mesencephalon. The second is the _cervical_, and marks the place where
+  the brain ends and the spinal cord begins; the concavity of this
+  flexure is ventral. The third to appear has a ventral convexity and is
+  known as the _pontine_, since it marks the site of the future _pons
+  Varolii_; it resembles the permanent flexure in the reptilian brain.
+
+  [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_.
+
+  FIG. 23.--Lateral view of cerebral hemisphere of Gorilla
+  (_Anthropopithecus gorilla_).]
+
+  It will now be seen that the original neural canal, which is lined by
+  ciliated epithelium, forms the ventricles of the brain, while
+  superficial to this epithelium (_ependyma_) the grey and white matter
+  is subsequently formed. It has been shown by His that the whole neural
+  tube may be divided into _dorsal_ or _alar_, and _ventral_ or _basal_
+  laminae, and, as the cerebral hemispheres bud out from the dorsal part
+  of the anterior primary vesicle, they consist entirely of alar
+  laminae. The most characteristic feature of the human and anthropoid
+  brain is the rapid and great expansion of these hemispheres,
+  especially in a backward direction, so that the mesencephalon and
+  metencephalon are hidden by them from above at the seventh month of
+  intra-uterine life. At first the foramina of Munro form a
+  communication not only between the third and lateral ventricles, but
+  between the two lateral ventricles, so that the cavity of each
+  hemisphere is continuous with that of the other; soon, however, a
+  median longitudinal fissure forms, into which the mesoderm grows to
+  form the falx, and so the foramina of Munro are constricted into a
+  V-shaped canal. In the floor of the hemispheres the corpora striata
+  are developed at an early date by a multiplication of nerve cells, and
+  on the external surface a depression, called the _Sylvian fossa_,
+  marks the position of the future central lobe, which is afterwards
+  hidden as the lips of the fossa (_opercula_) gradually close in on it
+  to form the Sylvian fissure. The real fissures are complete infoldings
+  of the whole thickness of the vesicular wall and produce swellings in
+  the cavity. Some of them, like the choroidal on the mesial surface,
+  are developed very early, while the vesicle is little more than
+  epithelial, and contain between their walls an inpushing of mesoderm
+  to form the choroid plexus. Others, like the hippocampal and
+  calcarine, appear in the second and third months and correspond to
+  invaginations of the nervous tissue, the hippocampus major and minor.
+  The sulci appear later than the fissures and do not affect the
+  internal cavity; they are due to the rapid growth of the cortex in
+  certain areas. The corpus callosum and fornix appear about the third
+  month and their development is somewhat doubtful; they are probably
+  modifications of the lamina terminalis, but they may be secondary
+  adhesions between the adjacent surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres
+  where the cortical grey matter has not covered the white. They begin
+  at their antero-ventral part near the genu of the corpus callosum and
+  the anterior pillars of the fornix, and these are the parts which
+  first appear in the lower mammals. The original anterior vesicle from
+  which the hemispheres evaginate is composed, as already shown, of an
+  anterior part or telencephalon and a posterior or thalamencephalon;
+  the whole forming the third ventricle in the adult. Here the alar and
+  basal laminae are both found, but the former is the more important;
+  from it the optic thalami are derived, and more posteriorly the
+  geniculate bodies. The anterior wall, of course, is the lamina
+  terminalis, and from it are formed the _lamina cinerea_, the _corpus
+  callosum_, _fornix_ and _septum lucidum_. The roof largely remains
+  epithelial and is invaginated into the ventricle by the mesoderm to
+  form the _choroid plexuses_ of the third ventricle, but at the
+  posterior part it develops the _ganglia habenulae_ and the pineal
+  body, from a structure just in front of which both a lens and retinal
+  elements are derived in the lower forms. This is one great difference
+  between the development of this organ and that of the true eyes;
+  indeed it has been suggested that the pineal is an organ of thermal
+  sense and not the remains of a median eye at all. The floor of the
+  third ventricle is developed from the basal laminae, which here are
+  not very important and from which the _tuber cinereum_ and, until the
+  fourth month, single _corpus mammillare_ are developed. The
+  _infundibulum_ or stalk of the posterior part of the pituitary body at
+  first grows down in front of the _tuber cinereum_ and, according to
+  Gaskel's theory, represents an ancestral mouth to which the ventricles
+  of the brain and the central canal of the cord acted as the stomach
+  and intestine (_Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci._ 31, p. 379; and _Journ. of
+  Phys._ v. 10, p. 153). The reason why the basal lamina is here small
+  is because it contains the nuclei of no cranial nerves. The anterior
+  and posterior commissures appear before the middle and the middle
+  before the _corpus callosum_, as they do in phylogeny. In connexion
+  with the thalamencephalon, though not really belonging to it, may be
+  mentioned the anterior lobes of the pituitary body; these begin as an
+  upward _diverticulum_ from the posterior wall of the primitive pharynx
+  or _stomatodaeum_ about the fourth week. This _pouch of Rathke_, as it
+  is called, becomes nipped off by the developing base of the skull, and
+  its bifid blind end meets and becomes applied to the posterior part of
+  the body, which comes down from the brain. In the mesencephalon the
+  alar laminae form the _corpora quadrigemina_; these at first are
+  bigeminal and hollow as they are in the lower vertebrates. The basal
+  laminae thicken to form the _crura cerebri_. In the rhombencephalon
+  the division into basal and alar laminae is better marked than in any
+  other part; there is a definite groove inside the fourth ventricle,
+  which remains in the adult as the superior and inferior _fovea_ and
+  which marks the separation between the two laminae. In the basal
+  laminae are found the deep origins of most of the motor cranial
+  nerves, while those of the sensory are situated in the alar laminae.
+  The roof of the fourth ventricle widens out very much and remains
+  largely epithelial as the superior and inferior medullary vela. The
+  cerebellum develops in the anterior part of the roof of the
+  rhombencephalon as two lateral rudiments which unite in the mid line
+  and so form a transverse bar similar to that seen in the adult
+  lamprey; at the end of the second month the flocculus and
+  paraflocculus become marked, and later on a series of transverse
+  fissures occur dividing the various lobes. Of the cerebellar peduncles
+  the inferior develops first (third month), then the middle forming the
+  _pons_ (fourth month), and lastly the _superior_ (fifth month) (Elliot
+  Smith, _Review of Neurology and Psychiatry_, October 1903; W. Kuithan,
+  "Die Entwicklung des Kleinhirns bei Saugetieren," _Munchener Med.
+  Abhandl._, 1895; B. Stroud, "Mammalian cerebellum," _Journ. of Comp.
+  Neurology_, 1895). Much of our knowledge of the tracts of fibres in
+  the brain is due to the fact that they acquire their white sheaths at
+  different stages of development, some long after birth.
+
+  For further details and references see Quain's _Anat._ vol. i. (1908);
+  Minot's _Human Embryology_ (New York); W. His, _Anat. menschlicher
+  Embryonen_ (Leipzig, 1881); Marshall's _Vertebrate Embryology_;
+  Kolliker, _Grundriss der Entwickelungsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1880); A.
+  Keith, _Human Embryology and Morphology_ (London, 1904); O. Hertwig,
+  _Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen Entwickelungslehre
+  der Wirbeltiere_, Bd. 2, part 3 (Jena, 1902-1906); _Development of the
+  Human Body_, J.P. McMurrich (1906).     (F. G. P.)
+
+
+2. PHYSIOLOGY
+
+The nervous system has as its function the co-ordinating of the
+activities of the organs one with another. It puts the organs into such
+mutual relation that the animal reacts as a whole with speed, accuracy
+and self-advantage, in response to the environmental agencies which
+stimulate it. For this office of the nervous system there are two
+fundamental conditions. The system must be thrown into action by
+agencies at work in the environment. Light, gravity, mechanical impacts,
+and so on, which are conditions significant for animal existence, must
+find the system responsive and through it evoke appropriate activity in
+the animal organs. And in fact there have been evolved in the animal a
+number of structures called receptive organs which are selectively
+excitable by different environmental agencies. Connected with these
+receptive organs lies that division of the nervous system which is
+termed _afferent_ because it conducts impulses inwards towards the
+nervous centres. This division consists of elongated nerve-cells, in man
+some two million in number for each half of the body. These are living
+threads of microscopic tenuity, each extending from a receptive organ to
+a central nervous mass. These central nervous masses are in vertebrates
+all fused into one, of which the part which lies in the head is
+especially large and complex, because directly connected with
+particularly important and delicate receptive organs. The part of the
+central nervous organ which lies in the head has, in consequence of its
+connexion with the most important receptive organs, evolved a dominant
+importance in the nervous system, and this is especially true of the
+higher animal forms. This head part of the central nervous organ is
+sufficiently different from the rest, even to anatomical examination, to
+have received a separate name, the _brain_. But the fact of its having
+received a separate name ought not to obscure the singleness and
+solidarity of the whole central nervous organ as one entity. The
+functions of the whole central nervous organ from region to region are
+essentially similar throughout. One of its essential functions is
+reception, via afferent nerves, of nervous impulses generated in the
+receptive organs by environmental agents as stimuli. In other words,
+whatever the nature of the agent, its result on the receptive organs
+enters the central nervous organ as a nervous impulse, and all segments
+of the central nervous organ receive impulses so generated. Further, it
+is not known that nervous impulses present qualitative differences among
+themselves. It is with these impulses that the central nervous organ
+whether spinal cord or brain has to deal.
+
+_Material and Psychical Signs of Cerebral Activity._--In the central
+nervous organ the action resulting from entrant impulses has issue in
+three kinds of ways. The reaction may die out, be suppressed, and so far
+as discoverable lead to nothing; or the impulses may evoke effect in
+either or both of two forms. Just as from the receptive organs, nerves
+lead into the central nervous organ, so conversely from the central
+organ other nerves, termed _efferent_, lead to various organs of the
+body, especially glands and muscles. The reaction of the central nervous
+organ to impulses poured into it commonly leads to a discharge of
+impulses from it into glands and muscles. These centrifugal impulses
+are, so far as is known, qualitatively like the centripetal impulses. On
+reaching the glands and muscles they influence the activity of those
+organs. Since those organs are therefore the mechanisms in which the
+ultimate effect of the nervous reaction takes place, they are often
+termed from this point of view _effector organs_. A change ensuing in
+effector organs is often the only sign an observer has that a nervous
+reaction has occurred, unless the nervous system under observation be
+the observer's own.
+
+If the observer turns to his own nervous system for evidence of
+reaction, he meets at once in numberless instances with _sensation_ as
+an outcome or sign of its reaction. This effect he cannot show to any
+being beside himself. He can only describe it, and in describing it he
+cannot strictly translate it into any term of material existence. The
+unbridged gulf between sensation and the changes produced in effector
+organs necessitates a separate handling of the functions of the nervous
+system according as their office under consideration is sensation or
+material effect. This holds especially in the case of the brain, and for
+the following reasons.
+
+_Psychosis and the Fore-Brain._--Hippocrates wrote, "It is through the
+brain that we become mad, that delirium seizes us, that fears and
+terrors assail us." "We know that pleasure and joy on the one hand and
+pain and grief on the other are referable to the brain. It is in virtue
+of it that we think, understand, see, hear, know ugliness and beauty,
+evil and good, the agreeable and the disagreeable." Similarly and more
+precisely Descartes indicated the brain, and the brain alone, as the
+seat of consciousness. Finally, it was Flourens who perhaps first
+definitely insisted on the restriction of the seat of consciousness in
+higher animals to that part of the brain which is the fore-brain. A
+functional distinction between the fore-brain and the remainder of the
+nervous system seems, in fact, that consciousness and physical reactions
+are adjunct to the fore-brain in a way in which they are not to the rest
+of the system. After transection of the spinal cord, or of the brain
+behind the fore-brain, psychical phenomena do not belong to the
+reactions of the nervous arcs posterior to the transection, whereas they
+do still accompany reactions of the nervous arcs in front and still
+connected with the fore-brain. A man after severance of the spinal cord
+does not possess in the strict sense consciousness of the limbs whose
+afferent nerves lie behind the place of spinal severance. He can see
+them with his eyes, and if the severance lie between the arms and the
+legs, can feel the latter with his hands. He knows them to be a part of
+his body. But they are detached from his consciousness. Sensations
+derived from them through all other channels of sense than their own do
+not suffice to restore them in any adequate measure to his
+consciousness. He must have the sensations so called "resident" in them,
+that is, referred to them, without need of any logical inference. These
+can be yielded only by the receptive organs resident in the part itself,
+its skin, its joints, its muscles, &c., and can only be yielded by those
+receptive organs so long as the nerve impulses from them have access to
+the fore-brain. Consciousness, therefore, does not seem to attach to any
+portion of the nervous system of higher animals from which the
+fore-brain has been cut off. In the dog it has been found that no sign
+of memory, let alone intelligence, has been forthcoming after removal of
+the greater part of the fore-brain.
+
+In lower vertebrates it is not clear that consciousness in primitive
+form requires always the co-operation of the fore-brain. In them the
+fore-brain does not seem a _conditio sine qua non_ for psychosis--so far
+as we may trust the rather hazardous inferences which study of the
+behaviour of fish, &c., allows. And the difference between higher and
+lowlier animal forms in respect of the fore-brain as a condition for
+psychosis becomes more marked when the Arthropoda are examined. The
+behaviour of some Insecta points strongly to their possessing memory,
+rudimentary in kind though it may be. But in them no homologue of the
+fore-brain of vertebrates can be indisputably made out. The head ganglia
+in these Invertebrates may, it is true, be analogous in function in
+certain ways to the brain of vertebrates. Some experiments, not
+plentiful, indicate that destruction of these head ganglia induces
+deterioration of behaviour such as follows loss of psychical functions
+in cases of destruction of the fore-brain in vertebrates. Though,
+therefore, we cannot be clear that the head ganglia of these
+Invertebrates are the same structure morphologically as the brain of
+vertebrates, they seem to hold a similar office, exercising analogous
+functions, including psychosis of a rudimentary kind. We can, therefore,
+speak of the head ganglia of Arthropods as a brain, and in doing so must
+remember that we define by physiological evidence rather than by
+morphological.
+
+_Cerebral Control over Lower Nervous Centres._--There accrues to the
+brain, especially to the fore-brain of higher Vertebrates, another
+function besides that of grafting psychical qualities upon the reactions
+of the nervous system. This function is exhibited as power to control in
+greater or less measure the pure reflexes enacted by the system. These
+pure reflexes have the character of fatality, in the sense that, given a
+particular stimulus, a particular reaction unvaryingly follows; the same
+group of muscles or the same gland is invariably thrown into action in
+the same way. Removal of the fore-brain, i.e. of that portion of the
+central nervous organ to which psychosis is adjunct, renders the nervous
+reactions of the animal more predictable and less variable. The animal,
+for instance, a dog, is given over more completely to simple reflexes.
+Its skin is touched and it scratches the spot, its jaw is stroked and it
+yawns, its rump is rubbed and it shakes itself, like a dog coming out of
+water; and these reactions occur fatally and inopportunely, for
+instance, when food is being offered to it, when the dog normally would
+allow no such insignificant skin stimuli as the above to defer his
+appropriate reaction. Goltz relates the behaviour of a dog from which
+almost the whole fore-brain had been removed. The animal lived healthily
+under the careful treatment accorded it. At feeding time a little
+quinine (bitter) added to its sop of meat and milk led to the morsels,
+after being taken into the mouth, being at once and regularly rejected.
+None was ever swallowed, nor was the slightest hesitation in their
+rejection ever obtained by any coaxing or command, or encouragement of
+the animal by the attendant who constantly had charge of it. On the
+other hand, directly an undoctored piece had entered the mouth it was
+swallowed at once. Goltz threw to his own house-dog a piece of the same
+doctored meat. The creature wagged its tail and took it eagerly, then
+after receiving it into its mouth pulled a wry face and hesitated,
+astonished. But on encouragement to go on eating it the dog did so.
+Perhaps it deemed it unseemly to appear ungrateful to the giver and
+reject the gift. It overcame its reflex of rejection, and by its
+self-control gave proof of the intact cerebrum it possessed.
+
+There seems a connexion between consciousness and the power to modify
+reflex action to meet the exigencies of the occasion. Pure reflexes are
+admirably adapted to certain ends. They are reactions which have long
+proved advantageous to the phylum of which the existent animal is the
+representative embodiment. But the reflexes have a machine-like
+fatality, and conscious aim does not forerun their execution. The
+subject as active agent does not direct them. Yet they lie under the
+control of higher centres. The cough, the eye-closure, the impulse to
+smile, all these can be suppressed. The innate respiratory rhythm can be
+modified to meet the requirements of vocal utterance. In other words,
+the reaction of reflex arcs is controllable by the mechanism to whose
+activity consciousness is adjunct. The reflexes controlled are often
+reactions but slightly affecting consciousness, but consciousness is
+very distinctly operative with the centres which exert the control. It
+may be that the primary aim, object and purpose of consciousness is
+control. "Consciousness in a mere automaton," writes Professor Lloyd
+Morgan, "is a useless and unnecessary epiphenomenon." As to _how_ this
+conscious control is operative on reflexes, how it intrudes its
+influence on the running of the reflex machinery, little is known.
+
+_The Cerebrum an Organ giving Adaptation and Readjustment of Motor
+Acts._--The exercise of this control and the acquirement of skilled
+actions have obviously elements in common. By skilled actions, we
+understand actions not innately given, actions acquired by training in
+individual experience. The controlling centres pick out from an
+ancestral motor action some part, and isolate and enhance that until it
+becomes a skilled act. The motor co-ordination ancestrally provided for
+the ring finger gives an extending of it only in company with extension
+of the fingers on either side of it. The isolated lifting of the ring
+finger can, however, soon be acquired by training. In such cases the
+higher centre with conscious effort is able to dissociate a part from an
+ancestral co-ordination, and in that way to add a skilled adapted act to
+the powers of the individual.
+
+The nervous organs of control form, therefore, a special instrument of
+adaptation and of readjustment of reaction, for better accommodation to
+requirements which may be new. The attainment of more precision and
+speed in the use of a tool, or the handling of a weapon, means a process
+in which nervous organs of control modify activities of reflex centres
+themselves already perfected ancestrally for other though kindred
+actions. This process of learning is accompanied by conscious effort.
+The effort consists not so much in any course of reasoning but rather in
+the acquiring of new sensorimotor experience. To learn swimming or
+skating by simple cogitation or mere visual observation is of course
+impossible. The new ideas requisite cannot be constructed without motor
+experience, and the training must include that motor experience. Hence
+the training for a new skilled motor manoeuvre must be simply _ad hoc_,
+and is of itself no training for another motor co-ordination.
+
+The more complex an organism the more points of contact does it have
+with its environment, and the more does it need readjustment amid an
+environment of shifting relationships. Hence the organs of consciousness
+and control, being organs of adaptation and readjustment of reaction,
+will be more pronounced the farther the animal scale is followed upward
+to its crowning species, man. The cerebrum and especially the cerebral
+cortex may be regarded as the highest expression of the nervous organ
+of individual adaptation of reactions. Its high development in man makes
+him the most successful animal on earth's surface at the present epoch.
+The most important part of all this adjustment in his case, as he stands
+now, consists doubtless in that nervous activity which is intellectual.
+The mentality attached to his cerebrum includes reason in higher measure
+than is possessed by the mentality of other animals. He, therefore, more
+than they, can profitably forecast the future and act suitably to meet
+it from memory of the past. The cerebrum has proved itself by his case
+the most potent weapon existent for extending animal dominance over the
+environment.
+
+_Means and Present Aims of Physiological Study of the Brain._--The
+aspects of cerebral activity are therefore twofold. There is the
+contribution which it makes to the behaviour of the animal as seen in
+the creature's doings. On the other hand there is its product in the
+psychical life of the animal. The former of these is subject matter for
+physiology; the latter is especially the province of psychology.
+Physiology does, however, concern itself with the psychical aspect of
+cerebral functions. Its scope, embracing the study of the bodily organs
+in regard to function, includes the psychic as well as the material,
+because as just shown the former inextricably interlace with the latter.
+But the relation between the psychic phenomena and the working of the
+brain in regard to any data of fundamental or intimate character
+connecting the two remains practically as unknown to us as to the Greek
+philosophers. What physiology has at present to be content with in this
+respect is the mere assigning of certain kinds of psychic events to
+certain local regions of the cerebrum. This primitive quest constitutes
+the greater part of the "neurology" of our day, and some advance has
+been made along its lines. Yet how meagre are really significant facts
+will be clear from the brief survey that follows. Before passing finally
+from these general considerations, we may note that it becomes more and
+more clear that the brain, although an organ than can be treated as a
+whole, is complex in the sense that separable functions belong in some
+measure to its several parts.
+
+The means principally adopted in studying the functions of the
+brain--and it must be remembered that this study in its present phase is
+almost exclusively a mere search for localization--are four. These are
+the physiological, the clinico-pathological, the histological and the
+zoological. The first named proceeds by observing the effects of
+artificial excitation, chiefly electric, of various parts of the brain,
+and the defects produced by destruction or removal of circumscribed
+portions. The clinico-pathological proceeds by observing the
+disturbances of body and mind occurring in disease or injury, and
+ascertaining the extent of the disease or injury, for the most part
+_post mortem_. The histological method examines the microscopic
+structure of the various regions of the brain and the characters and
+arrangement of the nerve-cells composing it. The zoological follows and
+compares the general features of the brain, as represented in the
+various types of animal creation.
+
+It is on the functions of the fore-brain that interest now mainly
+focuses, for the reasons mentioned above. And the interest in the
+fore-brain itself chiefly attaches to the functions of its cortex. This
+is due to several causes. In man and the animals nearest him the cortex
+forms by far the larger part of the whole cerebral hemisphere. More than
+any other part it constitutes the distinctively human feature. It lies
+accessible to various experimental observations, as also to traumatic
+lesions and to the surgeon's art. It is composed of a great unbroken
+sheet of grey matter; for that reason it is a structure wherein
+processes of peculiar interest for the investigation in view are likely
+to occur. To make this last inference more clear a reference to the
+histology of nervous tissue must be made. The whole physiological
+function of the nervous system may be summed up in the one word
+"conduction." This "conduction" may be defined as the transmission of
+states of excitement (nerve-impulses) along the neural arcs composing
+the system. The whole nervous system is built up of chains of
+nerve-cells (neurones) which are nervous conductors, the chains often
+being termed arcs. Each neurone is an elongated cell which transmits
+nerve-impulses from its one end to its other, without so far as is known
+modifying the impulses in transit, unless in that part of the nerve-cell
+where the nucleus lies. That part of the neurone or nerve-cell is called
+the perikaryon or cell-body, and from that part usually many branches of
+the cell (each branch being a nerve-fibre) ramify. There is no evidence
+that impulses are modified in transit along a branch of a nerve-cell,
+but there is clear evidence of manifold modification of nerve-impulses
+in transit along the nerve-arcs of the nervous system. These nerve-arcs
+are neurone-chains. In them one neurone continues the line of conduction
+where the immediately foregoing neurone left it. That is, the neurones
+are laid in conductive series, the far end of one apposed to the near
+end of its precursor. The place of juxtaposition of the end of one
+neurone against the beginning of another is called the _synapse_. At it
+the conduction which has so far been wholly intra-neuronic is replaced
+by an inter-neuronic process, in which the nerve impulse passes from one
+neurone to the next. The process there, it is natural to think, must be
+physiologically different from that conductive process that serves for
+transmission merely within the neurone itself. It may be that to this
+inter-neuronic conduction are due the differences between conduction in
+nerve-_arcs_ and nerve-_trunks_ (nerve-fibres) respectively. Significant
+of the former are changes in rhythm, intensity, excitability and
+modifications by summation and inhibition; in fact a number of the main
+features of nervous reaction. These characters impressed upon conduction
+in nerve arcs (neurone-chains) would therefore be traceable to the
+intercalation of perikarya and synapses, for both these structures are
+absent from nerve-trunks. It is therefore probably to perikarya and
+synapses that the greater part of the co-ordination, elaboration and
+differentiation of nervous reactions is due. Now, perikarya and synapses
+are not present in the _white_ matter of the central nervous organ, any
+more than they are in nerve-trunks. They are confined exclusively to
+those portions of the central organ which consist of _grey_ matter (so
+called from its naked-eye appearance). Hence it is to the great sheet of
+grey matter which enfolds the cerebrum that the physiologist turns, as
+to a field where he would expect to find evidences of the processes of
+cerebral co-ordination at work. It is therefore to items regarding the
+functions of the great sheet of cerebral cortex that we may now pass.
+
+_The Cerebral Cortex and its Functions._--The main question which vexed
+the study of the physiology of the cerebral hemispheres in the 19th
+century was whether differences of function are detectible in the
+different regions of the hemisphere and especially in those of its
+cortex. One camp of experimenters and observers held that the cortex was
+identical in function throughout its extent. These authorities taught
+that the various faculties and senses suffer damage in proportion to the
+amount of cortex removed or injured, and that it is a matter of
+indifference what may be the particular region wherein the destruction
+takes place. Against this an opposed set of observers held that
+different regions perform different functions, and this latter
+"differential" view was raised in two wholly dissimilar forms in the
+first and last quarters of the 19th century respectively. In the first
+quarter of the century, a school, with which the name of Gall is
+prominently associated, held that each faculty of a set of particular
+so-called "faculties," which it assumed constituted intelligence, has in
+the brain a spatially separate organ proper to itself. Gall's doctrine
+had two fundamental propositions. The first was that intelligence
+resides exclusively in the brain: the second, that intelligence consists
+of twenty-seven "faculties," each with a separate local seat in the
+brain. The first proposition was not new. It is met with in Hippocrates,
+and it had been elaborated by Descartes and others. But Bichat in his
+_Anatomie generale_ had partly wandered from the gradually established
+truth and referred the emotions to the visceral organs, returning to a
+naive view popularly prevalent. Gall's first proposition was probably
+raised especially in reaction against Bichat. But Gall's proposition was
+retrograde from the true position of the science of his time. Flourens
+and others of his contemporaries had already shown not only that
+intelligence was resident exclusively in the brain, but that it was
+resident exclusively in that part of the brain which is the fore-brain.
+Now Gall placed certain of his twenty-seven intellectual faculties in
+the cerebellum, which is part of the hind-brain.
+
+_Phrenology._--As to Gall's second proposition, the set of faculties
+into which he analysed intelligence shows his power of psychological
+analysis to have been so weak that it is matter of surprise his doctrine
+could obtain even the ephemeral vogue it actually did. Among his
+twenty-seven faculties are, for instance, "_l'amour de la progeniture,
+l'instinct carnassier, l'amitie, la ruse, la sagacite comparative,
+l'esprit metaphysique, le talent poetique, la mimique_," &c. Such
+crudity of speculation is remarkable in one who had undoubtedly
+considerable insight into human character. Each of the twenty-seven
+faculties had its seat in a part of the brain, and that part of the
+brain was called its "organ." The mere spatial juxtaposition or
+remoteness of these organs one from another in the brain had, according
+to Gall, an influence on the constitution of the mind. "_Comme l'organe
+des arts est place loin de l'organe du sens des couleurs, cette
+circonstance explique pourquoi les peintres d'histoire ont ete rarement
+coloristes_." All these "faculty-organs" were placed by Gall at the
+surface of the brain. "This explains the correspondence which exists
+between craniology and the doctrine of the functions of the brain
+(cerebral physiology), the single aim of my researches." Gall wrote that
+he found the bump of pride (_la bosse de l'orgueil_) as far down in the
+animal series as the goat. Broussais traced the "organ" of veneration as
+far down as the sheep. Gall found the bump of murder (_bosse du
+meurtre_) in the carnivora. Later it was traced also in herbivora.
+Broussais added apologetically that "the herbivora cause a real
+destruction of plants."
+
+Gall's doctrine enjoyed enormous vogue. He himself had the gifts and the
+demerits of quackery. His doctrine possessed, apart from its falsity,
+certain other mischievous qualities. "_Que ces hommes si glorieux, qui
+font egorger les nations par millions, sachent qu'ils n'agissent point
+de leur propre chef, que c'est la nature qui a place dans leur coeur la
+rage de la destruction_." One of his scientific opponents rejoined,
+"Nay, it is not that which they should know. What they should know is
+that if providence has allowed to man the possibility of doing evil, it
+has also endowed him with the power to do good." The main cause of the
+success of phrenology (q.v.) has been no doubt the common desire of men
+to read the characters and hidden thoughts of others by external signs.
+Each bump or "bosse" on the cranium was supposed to indicate the
+existence and degree of development of one or other of the twenty-seven
+"faculties." One such "bosse" showed the development of the organ of
+"goodness," and another the development of the organ of "murder." Such
+an easy means to arrive at information so curious delighted many
+persons, and they were not willingly undeceived.
+
+_Modern Localization Doctrines._--The crude localization of the
+phrenologists is therefore too clumsy to possess an interest it might
+otherwise have had as an early expression of belief in cerebral
+localization, a belief which other labours have subsequently justified,
+although on facts and lines quite different from these imagined by Gall
+and his followers. Patient scientific toil by the hands of E. Hitzig and
+D. Ferrier and their followers has slowly succeeded in obtaining certain
+facts about the _cortex cerebri_ which not only show that different
+regions of it are concerned with different functions, but, for some
+regions at least, outline to some extent the kind of function exercised.
+It is true that the greater part of the cortex remains still _terra
+incognita_ unless we are content with mere descriptive features
+concerning its coarse anatomy. For several scattered regions some
+knowledge of their function has been gained by physiological
+investigation. These scattered regions are the _visual_, the _auditory_,
+the _olfactory_ and the _precentral_.
+
+The grey matter of the cerebral cortex is broadly characterized
+histologically by the perikarya (nerve-cells bodies) which lie in it
+possessing a special shape; they are pyramidal. The dendrite fibres of
+these cells--that is, their fibres which conduct _towards_ the
+perikarya--are branches from the apex and corners of the pyramid. From
+the base often near its middle arises one large fibre--the axone fibre,
+which conducts impulses away from the perikaryon. The general appearance
+and arrangement of the neurones in a particle of cortical grey matter
+are shown in fig. 15, above. The apices of the pyramidal perikarya are
+turned towards the free surface of the cortex. The figure as interpreted
+in terms of functional conduction means that the cortex is beset with
+conductors, each of which collects nerve-impulses, from a minute but
+relatively wide field by its branched dendrites, and that these
+nerve-impulses converge through its perikaryon, issue by its axone, and
+are carried whithersoever the axone runs. In some few cells the axone
+breaks up into branches in the immediate neighbourhood of its own
+perikaryon in the cortex. In most cases, however, the axone runs off
+into the subjacent white matter, leaving the cortex altogether. On
+reaching the subjacent white matter it mingles with other fibres and
+takes one of the following courses:--(1) to the grey matter of the
+cortex of the same hemisphere, (2) to the grey matter of the cortex of
+the opposite hemisphere, (3) to the grey matter of the pons, (4) to the
+grey matter of the bulb or spinal cord. It is noteworthy that the
+dendrite fibres of these cortical neurones do not transgress the limits
+of the grey cortex and the immediate neighbourhood of the perikaryon to
+which they belong; whereas the discharging or axone fibre does in the
+vast majority of cases transgress the limits of the grey matter wherein
+its perikaryon lies. The cortical neurone therefore collects impulses in
+the region of cortex just about its perikaryon and discharges them to
+other regions, some not cortical or even cerebral, but spinal, &c. One
+question which naturally arises is, do these cells spontaneously
+generate their impulses or are they stirred to activity by impulses
+which reach them from without? The tendency of physiology is to regard
+the actions of the cortex as reactions to impulses communicated to the
+cortical cells by nerve-channels reaching them from the sense organs.
+The neurone conductors in the cortex are in so far considered to
+resemble those of reflex centres, though their reactions are more
+variable and complex than in the use of the spinal. The chains of
+neurones passing through the cortex are more complex and connected with
+greater numbers of associate complex chains than are those of the spinal
+centres. But just as the reflex centres of the cord are each attached to
+afferent channels arriving from this or that receptive-organ, for
+instance, tactile-organs of the skin, or spindles of muscle-sense, &c.,
+so the regions of cortex whose function is to-day with some certainty
+localized seem to be severally related each to some particular
+sense-organ. The localization, so far as ascertained, is a localization
+which attaches separate areas of cortex to the several species of sense,
+namely the visual, the auditory, the olfactory, and so on. This being
+so, we should expect to find the sensual representation in the cortex
+especially marked for the organs of the great distance-receptors, the
+organs which--considered as _sense_ organs--initiate sensations having
+the quality of projicience into the sensible environment. The organs of
+distance-receptors are the olfactory, the visual and the auditory. The
+environmental agent which acts as stimulus in the case of the first
+named is chemical, in the second is radiant, and in the last is
+mechanical.
+
+_Olfactory Region of Cortex._--There is phylogenetic evidence that the
+development of the _cortex cerebri_ first occurred in connexion with the
+distance-receptors for chemical stimuli--that is, expressed with
+reference to psychosis, in connexion with olfaction. The olfactory
+apparatus even in mammals still exhibits a neural architecture of
+primitive pattern. The cell which conducts impulses to the brain from
+the olfactory membrane in the nose resembles cells in the skin of the
+earthworm, in that its cell-body lies actually amid the epithelium of
+the skin-surface and is not deeply buried near or in the central nervous
+organ. Further, it has at its external end tiny hairlets such as occur
+in specially receptive-cells but not usually in purely nervous cells.
+Hence we must think that one and the same cell by its external end
+receives the environmental stimulus and by its deep end excites the
+central nervous organ. The cell under the stimulation of the
+environmental agent will therefore generate in itself a nervous impulse.
+This is the clearest instance we have of a neurone being actually
+excited under natural circumstances by an agent of the environment
+_directly_, not indirectly. The deep ends of these olfactory neurones
+having entered the central nervous organ come into contact with the
+dendrites of large neurones, called, from their shape, mitral. In the
+dog, an animal with high olfactory sense, the axone of each olfactory
+neurone is connected with five or six mitral cells. In man each
+olfactory neurone is connected with a single mitral cell only. We may
+suppose that the former arrangement conduces to intensification of the
+central reaction by summation. At the same time it is an arrangement
+which could tend to smother sharp differentiation of the central
+reaction in respect to locality of stimulus at the receptive surface.
+Considering the diffuse way in which olfactory stimuli are applied in
+comparison, for instance, with visual, the exact localization of the
+former can obviously yield little information of use for locating the
+exact position of their source. On the other hand, in the case of visual
+stimuli the locus of incidence, owing to the rectilinear propagation of
+light, can serve with extraordinary exactitude for inferences as to the
+position of their source. The adaptation of the neural connexions of the
+two organs in this respect is therefore in accord with expectation.
+
+The earliest cerebral cortex is formed in connexion with the
+neurone-chains coming into the central nervous organ from the patch of
+olfactory cells on the surface of the head. The region of cerebrum thus
+developed is the so-called olfactory lobe and hippocampal formation. The
+greater part of the cerebral hemisphere is often termed the _pallium_,
+because as its development extends it folds cloak-wise over the older
+structures at the base of the brain. The olfactory lobe, from its
+position, is sometimes called the _pallium basale_, and the hippocampal
+formation the _pallium marginale_; and these two parts of the pallium
+form what, on account of their phylogenetic history, Elliott Smith well
+terms the _archipallium_. A fissure, the limbic fissure, marks off more
+or less distinctly this archipallium from the rest of the pallium, a
+remainder which is of later development and therefore designated by
+Elliott Smith the _neopallium_. Of the archipallium, the portion which
+constitutes the olfactory lobe is well formed in the selachian fish. In
+the reptilian cerebrum the hippocampal region, the pallium marginale,
+coexists in addition. These are both of them olfactory in function. Even
+so high up in the animal scale as the lowest mammals they still form one
+half of the entire pallium. But in the higher apes and in man the
+olfactory portion of the pallium is but a small fraction of the pallium
+as a whole. It is indeed so relatively dwarfed and obscured as to be
+invisible when the brain is regarded from the side or above. The
+olfactory part of the pallium exhibits little variation in form as
+traced up through the higher animals. It is of course small in such
+animals as Cetaceans, which are _anosmatic_. In highly osmatic such as
+the dog it is large. The _uncus_, and _subiculum cornu ammonis_ of the
+human brain, belong to it. Disease of these parts has been accompanied
+by disturbance of the sense of smell. When stimulated electrically (in
+the rabbit) the olfactory pallium occasions peculiar torsion of the nose
+and lips (Ferrier), and change, often slowing or arrested, of the
+respiratory rhythm. P.E. Flechsig has shown that the nerve-fibres of
+this part of the pallium attain the final stage of their growth, that is
+to say, acquire their sheaths of myelin, early in the ontogenetic
+development of the brain. In the human brain they are myelinate before
+birth. This is significant from the point of view of function, for
+reasons which have been made clear especially by the researches of
+Flechsig himself.
+
+The completion of the growth of the nerve-fibres entering and leaving
+the cortex occurs at very various periods in the growth of the brain.
+Study of the development of the fibres entering and leaving the various
+regions of the pallium in the human brain, discovers that the regions
+may be conveniently grouped into those whose fibres are perfected before
+birth and those whose fibres are perfected during the first post-natal
+month, and those whose fibres are perfected after the first but before
+the end of the fourth post-natal month. The regions thus marked out by
+completion before birth are five in number, and are each connected, as
+also shown by collateral evidence, with one or other particular species
+of sense-organ. And these regions have another character in common
+recognizable in the nerve-fibres entering and leaving them, namely, they
+possess fibres projected to or from parts of the nervous system
+altogether outside the cortex itself. These fibres are termed
+"projection" fibres. Other regions of the cortex possess fibres coming
+from or going to various regions of the cortex itself, but do not
+possess in addition, as do the five primitive cortical fields, the
+fibres of projection. So that the facts established by Flechsig for the
+regions of pallium, which other evidence already indicated as connected
+with the sense-organ of smell, support that evidence and bring the
+olfactory region of cortex into line with certain other regions of
+cortex similarly primarily connected with organs of sense.
+
+It will be noted that what has been achieved by these various means of
+study in regard to the region of the cortex to which olfactory functions
+are attributed amounts at present to little more than the bare
+ascertainment of the existence there of nervous mechanisms connected
+with olfaction, and to the delimiting roughly of their extent and of
+their ability to influence certain movements, and in man sensations,
+habitually associated with exercise of the olfactory organ. As to what
+part the cortical mechanism has in the elaboration or association of
+mental processes to which olfaction contributes, no evidence worth the
+name seems as yet forthcoming. In this respect our knowledge, or rather
+our want of knowledge, of the functions of the olfactory region of the
+cortex, is fairly typical of that to which we have to confess in regard
+to the other regions of the cortex, even the best known.
+
+_Visual Region of the Cortex._--There is a region of the cortex
+especially connected with vision. The _optic nerve_ and _tract_
+constitute the second link in the chain of neurones joining the retina
+to the brain. They may therefore be regarded as the equivalent of an
+intraspinal tract connecting the deep ends of the afferent neurones from
+the skin with higher nervous centres. In the bony fishes the optic tract
+reaches the grey matter of the optic lobe, a part of the mid-brain, to
+which the so-called anterior colliculus is equivalent in the mammalian
+brain. In the optic lobe the axones of the neurones of the optic tract
+meet neurones whose axones pass in turn to the motor neurones of the
+muscles moving the eyeballs, and also to other motor neurones. But in
+these fish the optic tract has no obvious connexion with the fore-brain
+or with any cerebral pallium. Ascending, however, to the reptilian brain
+is found an additional arrangement: a small portion of the optic tract
+passes to grey matter in front of the optic lobe. This grey matter is
+the lateral geniculate body. From this geniculate body a number of
+neurones extend to the pallial portion of the cerebrum, for in the
+reptilian brain the pallium is present. The portion of pallium connected
+with the lateral geniculate body lies above and behind the olfactory or
+archipallium. It is a part of what was mentioned above as neopallium.
+
+In the mammalian brain the portion of the optic tract which goes to the
+optic lobe (_ant. colliculus_ of the mammal) is dwarfed by great
+development of the part which goes to the geniculate body and an
+adjoining grey mass, the pulvinar (part of the optic thalamus). From
+these latter pass large bands of fibres to the occipital region of the
+neopallium. In mammals this visual region of the cortex is distinguished
+in its microscopic features from the cortex elsewhere by a layer of
+myelinate nerve-fibres, many of which are the axones of neurones of the
+geniculate body and pulvinar. Thus, whereas in the bony fishes all the
+third links of the conductive chain from the retina lead exclusively to
+the final neurones of motor centres for muscles, in the mammal the
+majority of the third links conduct to grey matter of the cortex
+cerebri.
+
+The application of electric stimuli to the surface of the cortex does
+not for the greater part of the extent of the cortex evoke in higher
+mammalian brains any obvious effect; no muscular act is provoked. But
+from certain limited regions of the cortex such stimulation does evoke
+muscular acts, and one of these regions is that to which the neurones
+forming the third link of the conductive chain from the retina pass. The
+muscular acts thus provoked from that region are movements of the
+eyeballs and of the neck turning the head. In the monkey the movement is
+the turning of both eyeballs and the head away from the side stimulated.
+In short, the gaze is directed as to an object on the opposite side. The
+newer conductive chain traceable through the cortex does therefore,
+after all, like the older one through the optic lobe, lead ultimately to
+the motor neurones of the eye muscles and the neck, only it takes a
+longer course thither and is undoubtedly much more complex. What gain is
+effected by this new and as it were alternative and longer route, which
+takes a path up to the cerebral cortex and down again, we can only
+conjecture, but of one point we may rest well assured, namely, that a
+much richer inter-connexion with other arcs of the nervous system is
+obtained by the path that passes via the cortex. The functional
+difference between the old conductive circuit and the new can at present
+hardly indeed be stated even in outline. A natural inference might be
+that the phylogenetically older and less complex path is concerned with
+functions purely reflex-motor, not possessing sensation as an attribute.
+But fish, which possess only the older path, can be trained to seize
+bait of one colour and not of another colour, even against what appeared
+to be an original colour-preference in them. Such discrimination
+individually acquired seems to involve memory, though it may be
+rudimentary in kind. Where motor reaction to visual stimuli appears to
+involve memory--and without memory the training could hardly be
+effective--some germ of consciousness can hardly be denied to the visual
+reactions, although the reactions occurred in complete absence of a
+cortical path and indeed of a visual cortex altogether.
+
+Removal of the visual pallium in the tortoise produces little or no
+obvious defect in vision; but in the bird such a lesion greatly impairs
+the vision of the eye of the side opposite to the lesion. The impairment
+does not, however, amount to absolute blindness. Schrader's hawk, after
+removal of the pallium, reacted to movements of the mice with which it
+was caged. But the reactions were impaired: they lacked the sustained
+purpose of the normal reactions. The bird saw the mice; that was
+certain, for their movements across its field of vision made it turn its
+gaze towards them. But on their ceasing to move, the reaction on the
+part of the bird lapsed. Neither did their continuing to move excite the
+attack upon them which would have been the natural reaction on the part
+of the bird of prey towards its food. The bird apparently did not
+recognize them as prey, but saw them merely as moving objects. It saw
+them perhaps as things to which mental association gave no significance.
+Similarly, a dog after ablation of the occipital lobes of the cortex is
+able to see, for it avoids obstacles in its path; but if food is offered
+to it or the whip held up to it, it does not turn towards the food or
+away from the whip. It sees these things as if it saw them for the first
+time, but without curiosity, and as if it had no experience of their
+meaning. It gives no hint that it any longer understands the meaning of
+even familiar objects so long as these are presented to it through the
+sense of vision. Destruction of the visual cortex of one hemisphere
+alone produces in the dog impairment of vision, not as in the bird
+practically exclusively in the opposite eye, but in one lateral half of
+each eye, and that half the half opposite the hemisphere injured. Thus
+when the cortex destroyed is of the right cerebral hemisphere, the
+resultant visual defect is in the left half of the field of vision of
+both eyes. And this is so in man also.
+
+In man disturbances of sensation can be better studied because it is
+possible to obtain from him his description of his condition. The
+relation of the _cortex cerebri_ to human vision can be summarized
+briefly as follows. The visual cortex is distinguishable in higher
+mammals by a thin white stripe, the stripe of Gennari, seen in its grey
+matter when that is sectioned. This stripe results from a layer of
+nerve-fibres, many of which are axones from the neurones of the lateral
+geniculate body and the pulvinar, the grey masses directly connected
+with the optic nerve-fibres. In the dog, and in such monkeys as the
+Macaque, the region of cortex containing this stripe traceable to optic
+fibres forms practically the whole occipital lobe. But in the man-like
+apes and in man this kind of cortex is confined to one region of the
+occipital lobe, namely, that of the calcarine fissure and the _cuneus_
+behind that. This region of cortex thus delimited in man is one of
+Flechsig's areas of earlier myelinization. It is also one of his areas
+possessing projection fibres; and this last fact agrees with the
+yielding by this area, when under electrical stimulation, of movements
+indicating that impulses have been discharged from it into the motor
+neurones of the muscles of the eyes and neck. Evidence from cases of
+disease show that destruction of the cortex of the upper lip of the
+calcarine fissure, say in the right half of the brain, causes in man
+impairment in the upper right-hand quadrant of both retinae: destruction
+of the lower lip of the fissure causes impairment in the lower
+right-hand quadrants. Destruction of the calcarine region of one
+hemisphere produces therefore "crossed hemianopia," that is, loss of the
+opposite half of the field of vision. But in this hemianopia the region
+of central vision is always spared. That is, the piece of visual field
+which corresponds with the yellow spot of the retina is not affected in
+either eye, unless the calcarine regions of both hemispheres are
+destroyed. This central point of vision is connected therefore not with
+one side of the brain only but with both.
+
+The impairment of sight is more severe in men than in lower animals.
+Where the destruction of the visuo-sensory cortex in one calcarine
+region is complete, a candle-flame offered in the hemianopic field
+cannot even be perceived. It may hardly excite a reflex contraction of
+the pupil. In such cases the visual defect amounts to blindness. But
+this is a greater defect than is found in the dog even after entire
+removal of both occipital lobes. The dog still avoids obstacles as it
+walks. Its defect is rather, as said above, a complete loss of interest
+in the visual images of things. But a dog or monkey after loss of the
+visual cortex hesitates more and avoids obstacles less well in a
+familiar place than it does when entirely blind from loss of the
+peripheral organ of vision. In man extensive destruction of the visual
+cortex has as one of its symptoms loss of memory of localities, thus, of
+the paths of a garden, of the position of furniture, and of accustomed
+objects in the patient's own room. This loss of memory of position does
+not extend to spatial relations ordinarily appreciated by touch, such as
+parts of the patient's own person or clothing. There is nothing like
+this in the symptoms following blindness by loss of the eye itself.
+Those who lose their sight by disease of the retina retain good memorial
+pictures of positions and directions appreciated primarily by vision.
+
+Cases of disease are on record in which loss of visual memory has
+occurred without hemianopia. Visual hallucinations referred to the
+hemianopic side have been observed. This suggests that the function of
+visual memory in regard to certain kinds of percepts must belong to
+localities of cortex different from those pertaining to other visual
+percepts. The area of cortex characterized by the stripe of Gennari
+occupies in man, as mentioned, the calcarine and cuneate region. It is
+surrounded by a cortical field which, though intimately connected with
+it by manifold conducting fibres, &c., is yet on various grounds
+distinct from it. This field of cortex surrounding the visuo-sensory of
+the calcarine-cuneate region is a far newer part of the neopallium than
+the region it surrounds. Both in the individual (Flechsig) and in the
+phylum (Bolton, Campbell, Mott) its development occurs far later than
+that of the visuo-sensory which it surrounds. Flechsig finds that it has
+no "projection" fibres, that is, that it receives none of the optic
+radiations from the lower visual centres and gives no centrifugal fibres
+in the reverse direction. This field encompassing the visuo-sensory
+region differs from the latter in its microscopic structure by absence
+of the lower layer of stellate cells and by the presence in it of a
+third or deep layer of pyramidal cells (Mott). Its fibres are on the
+average smaller than are those of the visuo-sensory (W.A. Campbell).
+This zonal field is small in the lower apes, and hardly discoverable in
+the dog. In the anthropoid apes it is much larger. In man it is
+relatively much larger still. The impairment of visual memory and visual
+understanding in regard to direction and locality is said to be observed
+in man only when the injury of the cortex includes not only the
+calcarine-cuneate region but a wide area of the occipital lobe. From
+this it is argued that the zonal field is concerned with memories and
+recognitions of a kind based on visual perceptions. It has therefore
+been termed the _visuo-psychic_ area. It is one of Flechsig's
+"association-areas" of the cortex.
+
+Adjoining the antero-lateral border of the just-described _visuo-psychic
+area_ lies another region separate from it and yet related to it. This
+area is even later in its course of development than is the
+visuo-psychic. It is one of Flechsig's "terminal fields," and its fibres
+are among the last to ripen in the whole cortex. This terminal field is
+large in man. It runs forward in the parietal lobe above and in the
+temporal lobe below. Its wide extent explains, in the opinion of Mott,
+the displacement of the visuo-sensory field from the outer aspect of the
+hemisphere in the lower monkeys to the median aspect in man. To this
+terminal field all the more interest attaches because it includes the
+angular gyrus, which authorities hold to be concerned with the visual
+memory of words. Study of diseased conditions of speech has shown that
+the power to understand _written_ words may be lost or severely impaired
+although the words may be perfectly distinct to the sight and although
+the power to understand _heard_ words remains good. This condition is
+asserted by many physicians to be referable to destruction of part of
+the angular gyrus. Close beneath the cortex of the angular gyrus runs a
+large tract of long fibres which pass from the visual cortex (see above)
+to the auditory cortex (see below) in the superior temporal gyrus and to
+the lower part of the frontal lobe. This lower part of the frontal lobe
+is believed--and has long been believed--to be concerned intimately with
+the production of the movements of speech. A difficulty besetting the
+investigation of the function of the angular gyrus is the fact that
+lesion of the cortex there is likely to implicate the underlying tract
+of fibres in its damage. It cannot be considered to have been as yet
+clearly ascertained whether the condition of want of recognition of seen
+words--"word-blindness"--is due to cortical injury apart from
+subcortical, to the angular gyrus itself apart from the underlying
+tract. Word-blindness seems, in the right-handed, to resemble the
+aphasia believed to be connected with the lower part of the frontal
+lobe, in that it ensues upon lesions of the left hemisphere, not of the
+right. In left-handed persons, on the contrary, it seems to attach to
+the right hemisphere.
+
+_Auditory Region of the Cortex._--Besides the two great organs of
+distance-receptors, namely, the nose and eye, whose cerebral apparatus
+for sensation has just been mentioned, those of a third great
+distance-receptor have to be considered. The agents of stimulation of
+the two former are respectively chemical (olfactory) and radiant
+(visual); the mode of stimulation of the third is mechanical, and the
+sensations obtained by it are termed auditory. Their cerebral
+localization is very imperfectly ascertained. Electric stimuli applied
+to a part of the uppermost temporal gyrus excites movements of the ears
+and eyes in the dog. Destruction of the same region when executed on
+both hemispheres is argued by several observers to impair the sense of
+hearing. To this region of cortex fibres have been traced from the lower
+centres connected with the nerve-fibres coming from the cochlea of the
+ear. From each cochlear nerve a path has been traced which passes to the
+_insulae_ and the above-mentioned _temporal_ region of cortex of both
+the cerebral hemispheres. The insula is a deeper-seated area of cortex
+adjoining the uppermost temporal convolution. To it Flechsig's
+chronological studies also impute a connexion with the nerves of the
+ear. Early myelinization of fibres, presence of ascending and descending
+"projection" tracts to and from lower centres outside the cortex,
+calibre of fibres, microscopic characters of its cortical cells, all
+those kinds of indirect items of evidence that obtain for the visual
+cortex likewise mark out this insular-temporal area as connected fairly
+directly with a special sense-organ, as in fact a sensory field of the
+cortex; and the suspicion is that it is auditory. Clinical observation
+supports the view in a striking way, but one requiring, in the opinion
+of some, further confirmation. It is widely believed that destruction of
+the upper and middle part of the uppermost temporal convolution produces
+"word-deafness," that is, an inability to recognize familiar words when
+heard, although the words are recognized when seen.
+
+More precise information regarding this auditory region of the cortex
+has recently been obtained by the experiments of Kalischer. These show
+that after removal of this region from both sides of the brain in the
+dog the animal shows great defect in answering to the call of its
+master. Whereas prior to the operation the animal will prick its ears
+and attend at once to the lightest call, it requires after the removal
+of the auditory regions great loudness and insistence of calling to make
+it attend and react as it did. This is the more striking in view of
+other experimental results obtained. Kalischer trained a number of his
+dogs not to take meat offered them except at the sound of a particular
+note given by an organ pipe or a harmonium. The dogs rapidly learned not
+to take the food on the sounding of notes of other pitch than the one
+taught them as the permissive signal. This reaction on the part of the
+animal was not impaired by the removal of the so-called auditory regions
+of the cortex. Kalischer suggests that this reaction taught by training
+is not destroyed by the operation which so greatly impairs the common
+reaction to the master's call, because the former is a simpler process
+more allied to reflex action. In it the attention of the dog is already
+fastened upon the object, namely the food, and the stimulus given by the
+note excites a reaction which simply allows the act of seizing the food
+to take place, or on the other hand stops it. In the case of answering
+the call of the master the stimulus has to excite attention, to produce
+perception of the locality whence it comes, and to invoke a complicated
+series of movements of response. He finds that destruction of the
+posterior colliculi of the mid-brain, which have long been known to be
+in some way connected with hearing, likewise destroys the response to
+the call of the master, but did not destroy the trick taught to his dogs
+of taking meat offered at the sound of a note of one particular pitch
+but not at notes of other pitch given by the same instrument.
+
+_Other Senses and Localization in the Cortex Cerebri._--Turning now to
+the connexion between the function of the cortex and the senses other
+than those of the great distance-receptors just dealt with, even less is
+known. Disturbance and impairment of skin sensations are observable both
+in experiments on the cerebrum of animals and in cases of cerebral
+disease in man. But the localization in the cortex of regions specially
+or mainly concerned with cutaneous sensation has not been made
+sufficiently clear to warrant statement here. Still less is there
+satisfactory knowledge regarding the existence of cortical areas
+concerned with sensations originated in the alimentary canal. The least
+equivocal of such evidence regards the sense of taste. There is some
+slight evidence of a connexion between this sense and a region of the
+hippocampal gyrus near to but behind that related to smell.
+
+As to the sensations excited by the numerous receptors which lie not in
+any of the surface membranes of the body but embedded in the masses of
+the organs and between them, the _proprioceptors_, buried in muscles,
+tendons and joints, there is little doubt that these sensations may be
+disturbed or impaired by injury of the _cortex cerebri_. They may
+probably also be excited by cortical stimulation. But evidence of
+localization of their seat in, and their details of connexion with, the
+cortex, is at present uncertain. Many authorities consider it probable
+that sensations of touch and the sensations initiated by the
+proprioceptors of muscles and joints (the organs of the so-called
+muscular sense) are specially related to the post-central gyrus and
+perhaps to the pre-central gyrus also. The clearest items on this point
+are perhaps the following.
+
+Besides the regions instanced above, in the limbic (olfactory),
+occipital (visual), and temporal (auditory) lobes, as exhibiting
+precocity of development, there is a region showing similar precocity in
+the fronto-parietal portion of the hemisphere. This is the region which
+in the Primates includes the large _central fissure_ (sometimes called
+the fissure of Rolando). To it fibres are traced which seem to continue
+a path of conduction that began with afferent tracts belonging to the
+spinal cord, and tracts which there is reason to think conduct impulses
+from the receptor-organs of skin and muscles. The part of the cortex
+immediately behind the _central fissure_ seems to be the main cortical
+goal for these upward-conducting paths. That _post-central_ strip of
+cortex would in this view bear to these paths a relation similar to that
+which the occipital and temporal regions bear to afferent tracts from
+the retina and the cochlea. There are observations which associate
+impaired tactual sense and impaired perception of posture and movement
+of a limb with injury of the _central region_ of the cortex. But there
+are a number also which show that the motor defect which is a
+well-ascertained result of injury of the _pre-central_ gyrus is
+sometimes unaccompanied by any obvious defect either of touch or of
+muscular sense. It seems then that the motor centres of this region are
+closely connected with the centres for cutaneous and muscular sense, yet
+are not so closely interwoven with them that mechanical damage inflicted
+on the one of necessity heavily damages the other as well. There is
+evidence that the sensory cortex in this region lies posterior to that
+which has been conveniently termed the "motor." These latter in the
+monkey and the man-like apes and man lie in front of the central
+fissure: the sensory lie probably behind it. A.W. Campbell has found
+changes in the cortex of the post-central convolution ensuing in the
+essentially sensory disease, _tabes dorsalis_, a disease in which
+degeneration of sensory nerve-fibres of the muscular sense and of the
+skin senses is prominent. He considers that in man and the man-like apes
+the part of the post-central gyrus which lies next to and enters into
+the _central fissure_ is concerned with simpler sensual recognitions,
+while the adjoining part of that convolution farther back is a "psychic
+region" concerned with more complex psychosis connected with the senses
+of skin and muscle. His subdivision of the post-central gyrus is based
+on histological differences which he discovers between its anterior and
+its posterior parts and on the above-described analogous differentiation
+of a "sensory" from a "psychic" part in the visual region of cortex.
+
+It will be noted that although certain regions of the cortex are found
+connected closely with certain of the main sense organs, there are
+important receptive organs which do not appear to have any special
+region of cortex assigned to their sensual products. Thus, there is the
+"vestibular labyrinth" of the ear. This great receptive organ, so
+closely connected in function with the movements and adjustment of the
+postures of the head and eyes, and indeed of the whole body, is
+prominent in the co-ordination necessary for the equilibrium of the
+body, an essential part of the fundamental acts of progression,
+standing, &c. Yet neither structural nor functional connexion with any
+special region of the cortex has been traced as yet for the labyrinthine
+receptors. Perceptions of the position of the head and of the body are
+of course part of our habitual and everyday experience. It may perhaps
+be that these perceptions are almost entirely obtained through sense
+organs which are not labyrinthine, but visual, muscular, tactual, and so
+on. The labyrinth may, though it controls and adjusts the muscular
+activities which maintain the balance of the body, operate reflexly
+without in its operation exciting of itself sensations. The results of
+the unconscious reflexes it initiated and guided would be perceptible
+through other organs of sense. But against this purely unconscious
+functioning of the labyrinth and its nervous apparatus stands the fact
+that galvanic stimulation of the labyrinth is accompanied by well-known
+distinctive sensations--including giddiness, &c. Moreover, the prominent
+factor in sea-sickness, a disorder richly suffused with sensations, is
+probably the labyrinth. Yet there is marked absence of evidence of any
+special and direct connexion between the _cortex cerebri_ and the
+labyrinth organs.
+
+Also there is curiously little evidence of connexion of the cortex with
+the nervous paths of conduction concerned with pain. As far as the
+present writer can find from reference to books and from the clinical
+experience of others, "pain" is unknown as an _aura_ in cortical
+epilepsy, or at most is of equivocal occurrence.
+
+The preceding brief exposition of some of the main features of the
+localization of function in the _cortex cerebri_, gradually deciphered
+by patient inquiry, shows that the scheme of partition of function so
+far perceptible does not follow the quaint lines of analysis of the
+phrenologists with their supposed mental entities, so-called
+"faculties." On the contrary it is based, as some of those who early
+favoured a differential arrangement of function in the cerebrum had
+surmised, on the _separateness of the incoming channels from peripheral
+organs of sense_. These organs fall into groups separate one from
+another not only by reason of their spatial differentiation at the
+surface and in the thickness of the body, but also because each group
+generates sensations which introspection tells us are of a species
+unbridgeably separate from those generated by the other groups. Between
+sensations of hearing and sensations of sight there is a dissimilarity
+across which no intermediate series of sensual phenomena extend. The two
+species of sensations are wholly disparate. Similarly there is a total
+and impassable gap between sensations of touch and sensations of sight
+and sound. In other words the sensations fall into groups which are
+wholly disparate and are hence termed species. But within each species
+there exist multifold varieties of the specific sensation, e.g.
+sensations of red, of yellow, &c. We should expect, therefore, that the
+conducting paths from the receptive organs which in their function as
+sense-organs yield wholly disparate sensations would in so far as
+subserving sensation diverge and pass to separate neural mechanisms.
+That these sense-organs should in fact be found to possess in the cortex
+of the cerebrum separate fields for their sensual nervous apparatus is,
+therefore, in harmony with what would be the _a priori_ supposition.
+
+But, as emphasized at the beginning of this article, the receptive
+organs belonging to the surfaces and the depths of the body and forming
+the starting-points for the whole system of the afferent nerves, have
+two functions more or less separate. One of these functions is to excite
+sensations and the other is to excite movements, by reflex action,
+especially in glands and muscles. In this latter function, namely the
+reflexifacient, all that the receptive organs effect is effected by
+means of the efferent nerves. They all have to use the efferent,
+especially the motor, nerves of the body. So rich is the connexion of
+the receptive organs with the efferent nerves that it is not improbable
+that, through the central nervous organ, each receptive organ is
+connected with every motor nerve of the whole nervous system,--the facts
+of strychnine poisoning show that if this is not literally true it is at
+least approximately so. Hence one of the goals to which each afferent
+fibre from a receptive organ leads is a number of motor nerves. Their
+conducting paths must, therefore, converge in passing to the
+starting-points of the motor nerves; because these latter are
+instruments common to the use of a number of different receptive organs
+in so far as they excite reflex actions. On the other hand those of
+their conducting paths which are concerned in the genesis of sensation,
+instead of converging, diverge, at least as far as the _cortex cerebri_,
+or if not divergent, remain separate. These considerations would make it
+appear likely that the conducting path from each receptive organ divides
+in the central nervous system into two main lines, one of which goes off
+to its own particular region of the _cortex cerebri_ whither run
+conductors only of similar sensual species to itself, while the other
+main line passes with many others to a great motor station where, as at
+a telephone exchange, coordinate use of the outgoing lines is assured to
+them all. Now there is in fact a portion of the cortex in mammals the
+functions of which are so pre-eminently motor, as judged by our present
+methods, that it is commonly designated the _motor cortex_ (see fig.
+24). This region of the cortex occupies in the Primates, including Man,
+the pre-central gyrus. Among the items of evidence which reveal its
+motor capabilities are the following.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of
+Foci in the Motor Field of Chimpanzee.]
+
+_The Precentral or Motor Region of the Cortex._--The application to it
+of electric currents excites movements in the skeletal muscles. The
+movements occur in the half of the body of the side crossed from that of
+the hemisphere excited. The "motor representation," as it is termed, is
+in the cortex better described as a representation of definite actions
+than of particular muscles. The actions "represented" in the top part of
+the gyrus, namely next the great longitudinal fissure, move the leg;
+those in the lowest part of the gyrus belong to the tongue and mouth.
+The topical distribution along the length of the gyrus may be described
+in a general way as following a sequence resembling that of the motor
+representation in the spinal cord, the top of the gyrus being taken as
+corresponding with the caudal end of the spinal cord. The sequence as
+the gyrus is followed downwards runs: perineum, foot, knee, hip,
+abdomen, chest, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand, eyelids and ear, nose,
+mouth and tongue. The nature of the movement is very fairly constant for
+separate points of this motor cortex as observed both in the same and in
+similar experiments. Thus flexion of the arm will be excitable from one
+set of points, and extension of the arm from another set of points;
+opening of the jaw from one set and closure from another, and so on.
+These various movements if excited strongly tend to have characters like
+those of the movements seen in an epileptic convulsion. Strong
+stimulation excites in fact a convulsion like that of epilepsy,
+beginning with the movement usual for the point stimulated and spreading
+so as to assume the proportions of a convulsion affecting the entire
+skeletal musculature of one half or even of the whole body. The
+resemblance to an epileptic seizure is the closer because the movement
+before it subsides becomes clonic (rhythmic) as in epilepsy. The
+determination of the exact spots of cortex in which are represented the
+various movements of the body has served a useful practical purpose in
+indicating the particular places in the cortex which are the seat of
+disease. These the physician can localize more exactly by reason of this
+knowledge. Hence the surgeon, if the nature of the disease is such as
+can be dealt with by surgical means, can without unnecessarily damaging
+the skull and brain, proceed directly to the point which is the seat of
+the mischief.
+
+The motor representation of certain parts of the body is much more
+liberal than is that of others. There is little correspondence between
+the mere mass of musculature involved and the area of the cortex devoted
+to its representation. Variety of movement rather than force or energy
+of movement seems to demand extent of cortex. The cortical area for the
+thumb is larger than those for the whole abdomen and chest combined. The
+cortical area for the tongue is larger than that for the neck. Different
+movements of one and the same part are very unequally represented in the
+cortex. Thus, flexion of the leg is more extensively represented than is
+extension, opening of the jaw has a much larger cortical area than has
+closure of the jaws. It is interesting that certain agents, for instance
+strychnine, and the poison of the bacilli which cause the disease known
+as tetanus or lock-jaw, upset this normal topography, and replace in the
+cortex flexion of the limb by extension of the limb, and opening of the
+jaw by closure of the jaw. There is, however, no evidence that they do
+this by changing in any way the cortical mechanisms themselves. It is
+more likely that their action is confined to the lower centres, bulbar
+and spinal, upon which the discharge excited from the cortex plays. The
+change thus induced in the movement excited by the cortex does, however,
+show that the point of cortex which causes for instance opening of the
+mouth is connected with the motor nerves to the closing muscles as well
+as with those of the opening muscles. This is an item of evidence that
+the "centres" of the cortex are connected with the motor nerves of
+antagonistic muscles in such a way that when the "centre" excites one
+set of the muscles to contract, it simultaneously under normal
+circumstances causes inhibition of the motor neurones of the opposed set
+of muscles (reciprocal innervation). In the great majority of movements
+excited from the motor cortex of a single hemisphere of the cerebrum,
+the movement evoked is confined to one side of the body, namely to that
+opposite to the hemisphere stimulated. There are, however, important
+exceptions to this. Thus, adduction of both vocal cords is excited from
+the cortex of either hemisphere. The movement of closure of the eyelids
+is usually bilateral, unless the stimulation be very weak; then the
+movement is of the eyelids of the opposite side only. The same holds
+true for the movements of the jaw. It, therefore, seems clear that with
+many movements which are usually bilaterally performed in ordinary life,
+such as opening of the jaw, blinking, &c., the symmetrical areas of the
+motor regions of both hemispheres are simultaneously in action.
+
+In regard to all these movements elicitable by artificial stimuli from
+the motor cortex it is obvious that were there clearer evidence that the
+pallial region from which they are elicitable is fairly directly
+connected with corticopetal paths subserving cutaneous sensation or
+"muscular sense," the movements might be regarded as falling into the
+category of higher reflexes connected with the organs of touch, muscular
+sense, &c., just as the movements of the eyeball excitable from the
+visual cortex may be regarded as higher reflexes connected with vision.
+The evidence of the connexion of the reactions of the motor cortex with
+cutaneous and muscular senses appears, however, scarcely sufficient to
+countenance at present this otherwise plausible view, which has on
+general grounds much to commend it.
+
+It is remarkable that movements of the eyeball itself, i.e. apart from
+movement of the lids, are not in the category of movements elicitable
+from the precentral gyrus, the "motor" cortex. They are found
+represented in a region farther forward, namely in front of the
+precentral gyrus altogether, and occupying a scattered set of points in
+the direction frontal from the areas for movements of arm and face. This
+frontal area yields on excitation conjugate movements of both eyeballs
+extremely like if not exactly similar to those yielded by excitation of
+the occipital (visual) region of the cortex. It is supposed by some that
+this frontal area yielding eye-movements has its function in this
+respect based upon afferent conductors from other parts of the eyeball
+than the retina, for instance upon kinaesthetic (Bastian) impressions or
+upon sensual impressions derived from the cornea and the coats of the
+eyeball including the ciliary and iris muscles. The ocular muscles are
+certainly a source of centripetal impulses, but their connexion with the
+cortex is not clear as to either their nature or their seat. The
+question seems for the present to allow no clearer answer. It is
+certain, however, that the frontal area of eye movements has
+corticofugal paths descending from it to the lower motor centres of the
+eyeballs quite independent of those descending from the occipital
+(visual) area of eye-movements. Further, it seems clear that in many
+animals there is another cortical region, a third region, the region
+which we saw above might be considered auditory, where movements of the
+eyeball similar to those elicitable in the occipital and frontal cortex
+can be provoked. A. Tschermak is inclined to give the eyeball movements
+of the frontal region the significance of reflex movements which carry
+the visual field in various directions in answer to demands made by
+sensory data derived from touch, &c., as for instance from the hand. The
+movements of the eyeballs elicitable from the occipital region of the
+cortex he regards as probably concerned with directing the gaze toward
+something seen, for instance, in the peripheral field of vision. The
+occipital movement would, therefore, be excited through the retina, and
+would result in bringing the yellow spot region of the retinae of both
+eyes to bear upon the object. This view has much to justify it. The
+movements of the eyeballs excited from the cortex of the auditory region
+would in a similar way be explicable as bringing the gaze to bear upon a
+direction in which a sound had been located, auditory initiation
+replacing the visual and tactual of the occipital and the frontal
+regions respectively.
+
+Turning from these still speculative matters to others less suggestive
+but of actual ascertainment, we find that the motor nature of the
+precentral cortex as ascertained by electric stimuli is further
+certified by the occurrence of disturbance and impairment of motor power
+and adjustment following destruction of that region of the cortex. The
+movements which such a part as a limb executes are of course manifold in
+purpose. The hind limb of a dog is used for standing, for stepping, for
+scratching, for squatting, and, where a dog, for instance, has been
+trained to stand or walk on its hind legs alone, for skilled acts
+requiring a special training for their acquisition. It is found that
+when the motor area of the brain has been destroyed, the limb is at
+first paralysed for all these movements, but after a time the limb
+recovers the ability to execute some of them, though not all. The
+scratching movement suffers little, and rapid improvement after cerebral
+injury soon effaces the impairment, at first somewhat pronounced, in the
+use of the limb for walking, running, &c., and ordinary movements of
+progression. Even when both hemispheres have been destroyed the dog can
+still stand and walk and run. Destruction of the motor region of the
+cortex renders the fore limbs of the dog unable to execute such skilled
+movements as the steadying of a bone for gnawing or the trained act of
+offering the paw in answer to the command of the master. Skilled acts of
+the limb, apart from conjoined movements in which it, together with all
+the other limbs, takes part, assume of course a larger share of the
+office of the limb in the Primates than in the dog; and this is
+especially true for the fore limb. It is when the fore-foot becomes a
+hand that opportunity is given for its more skilled individual use and
+for its training in movements as a tool, or for the handling of tools
+and weapons. It is these movements which suffer most heavily and for the
+longest period after injury of the motor region of the cortex. Hence the
+disablement ensuing upon injury to the cortex would be expected to be
+most apparent in the Primates; and it is so, and most of all in Man.
+Further, in Man there ensues a condition called "contracture," which is
+not so apparent or frequent a result in other animals,--indeed, does not
+occur at all in other animals except the monkey. In contracture the
+muscles of the paretic limb are not flaccid, as they are usually in
+paralysis, but they are tense and the limb is more or less rigidly fixed
+by them in a certain position, usually one of flexion at elbow and
+wrist. This condition does not occur at first, but gradually supervenes
+in the course of a number of weeks. In Man the destruction of the motor
+area of the cortex cripples the limb even for the part it should play in
+the combined limb movements of walking, &c., and cripples it to an
+extent markedly contrasting with the slight disturbances seen in the
+lower mammals, e.g. the dog.
+
+As regards the recovery of motor power after lesions of the motor
+cortex, two processes seem at work which are termed respectively
+_restitution_ and _compensation_. By the former is understood the
+recovery obtained when a part of a "centre" is destroyed, and the rest
+of the centre, although thrown out of function at first, recovers and
+supplements the deficiency later. An example of restitution would be the
+recovery from temporary hemianopia caused by a small injury in one
+occipital lobe. By compensation is understood the improvement of an
+impaired nervous function, traceable to other centres different from
+those destroyed supplying means to compass the reaction originally
+dependent on the centres subsequently destroyed. Instances of such
+compensation are the recovery of taxis for equilibrium subsequent to
+destruction of the labyrinth of the ear, where the recovery is traceable
+to assistance obtained through the eye. It will be noted that these
+instances of recovery by restitution and by compensation respectively
+are taken, from cases of injury inflicted on receptive rather than on
+motor centres. It is doubtful how far they really apply to the undoubted
+improvement that does within certain limits progress and succeed in
+partially effacing the paresis immediately consequent on lesions of the
+motor area. It has to be remembered that in all cases of traumatic
+injury to the nervous system, especially where the trauma implicates the
+central nervous organ, the first effects and impairment of function
+resulting are due to a mixed cause, namely on the one hand the
+mechanical rupture of conducting paths actually broken by solution of
+their continuity, and on the other hand the temporary interruption of
+conducting paths by "shock." Shock effects are not permanent: they pass
+off. They are supposed to be due to a change at the synapses connecting
+neurone with neurone in the grey matter. They amount in effect to a
+long-lasting and gradually subsiding inhibition.
+
+  For diseases of the brain see NEUROPATHOLOGY, INSANITY, SKULL
+  (_Surgery_), &c.     (C. S. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The literature of the pineal region is enormous. Studnicka (in
+    _Oppels Vergleichende mikrosk. Anat._ Teile 4-5, 1904, 1905) gives
+    285 references. The present conception of the generalized arrangement
+    is: ([alpha]) A single glandular median organ from the fore-brain
+    called the paraphysis. ([beta]) A pouch of the ependymal roof of the
+    ventricle called the dorsal sac. ([gamma]) A right and left
+    epiphysis, one of which may be wholly or partially suppressed. These
+    may change their position to anterior and posterior in some animals.
+
+
+
+
+BRAINERD, DAVID (1718-1747), American missionary among the Indians, was
+born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the 20th of April 1718. He was orphaned
+at fourteen, and studied for nearly three years (1739-1742) at Yale. He
+then prepared for the ministry, being licensed to preach in 1742, and
+early in 1743 decided to devote himself to missionary work among the
+Indians. Supported by the Scottish "Society for Promoting Christian
+Knowledge," he worked first at Kaunaumeek, an Indian settlement about 20
+m. from Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and subsequently, until his death,
+among the Delaware Indians in Pennsylvania (near Easton) and New Jersey
+(near Cranbury). His heroic and self-denying labours, both for the
+spiritual and for the temporal welfare of the Indians, wore out a
+naturally feeble constitution, and on the 19th of October 1747 he died
+at the house of his friend, Jonathan Edwards, in Northampton,
+Massachusetts.
+
+  His _Journal_ was published in two parts in 1746 by the Scottish
+  Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; and in 1749, at Boston,
+  Jonathan Edwards published _An Account of the Life of the Late Rev.
+  David Brainerd, chiefly taken from his own Diary and other Private
+  Writings_, which has become a missionary classic. A new edition, with
+  the _Journal_ and Brainerd's letters embodied, was published by Sereno
+  E. Dwight at New Haven in 1822; and in 1884 was published what is
+  substantially another edition, _The Memoirs of David Brainerd_, edited
+  by James M. Sherwood.
+
+
+
+
+BRAINERD, a city and the county-seat of Crow Wing county, Minnesota,
+U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 127 m. N.W. of
+Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 5703; (1900) 7524, of whom 2193 were
+foreign-born; (1905) 8133; (1910) 8526. It is served by the Minnesota &
+International and the Northern Pacific railways. The latter maintains
+here large car and repair shops, and a sanatorium for its employees.
+There are also the Sisters of St Joseph hospital, a county court house,
+a public library and a Y.M.C.A. building. A dam across the Mississippi
+provides water power (about 60,000 H.P.) which is utilized extensively
+for manufacturing purposes. Lumbering is an important industry, and
+there are saw mills and planing mills, and an extensive creosote plant
+for treating railway ties and timber. There are also flour mills, paper
+and pulp mills, cigar factories, a brewery, a large foundry and a grain
+elevator. In 1906 large quantities of iron ore were discovered in the
+vicinity, the new range, the Cuyuna, running through the city from
+north-east to south-west. Brainerd, named in honour of David Brainerd,
+was settled in 1870, and chartered as a city in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BRAINTREE, a market town in the Maldon parliamentary division of Essex,
+England; 45 m. N.E. of London by a branch line from Witham of the Great
+Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district, 5330. The parish church of St
+Michael is a fine edifice of Early English work with later additions. A
+corn exchange, mechanics' institute and public hall may also be
+mentioned. The bishops of London had formerly a palace in the town, but
+there are no remains of the building. The manufactures of silk and crape
+have superseded that of woollen cloth, which was introduced by the
+Flemings who fled to England to escape the persecution of the duke of
+Alva. Matting and brushes are also made. On the north lies the large
+village of BOCKING, with the Perpendicular parish church of St Mary,
+similar industries, and a population of 3347.
+
+
+
+
+BRAINTREE, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the
+Monatiquot river about 10 m. S. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 4848; (1900)
+598l, including 1250 foreign-born; (1905, state census) 6879; (1910)
+8066. The New York, New Haven & Hartford railway crosses the town and
+has stations at its villages of Braintree, South Braintree and East
+Braintree, which are also served by suburban electric railways. In South
+Braintree are the Thayer Academy (co-educational; opened 1877) and the
+Thayer public library, both founded by and named in honour of General
+Sylvanus Thayer (1785-1872), a well-known military engineer born in
+Braintree, who was superintendent of the United States Military Academy
+in 1817-1833 and has been called the "father of West Point." There are
+large shoe factories and other manufactories. Bog iron was early found
+in Braintree, and iron-works, among the first in America, were
+established here in 1644. Braintree was first incorporated in 1640 from
+land belonging to Boston and called Mount Wollaston, and was named from
+the town in England. At Merry Mount, in that part of Braintree which is
+now Quincy, a settlement was established by Thomas Morton in 1625, but
+the gay life of the settlers and their selling rum and firearms to the
+Indians greatly offended the Pilgrims of Plymouth, who in 1627 arrested
+Morton; soon afterward Governor John Endecott of Massachusetts Bay
+visited Merry Mount, rebuked the inhabitants and cut down their Maypole.
+Later the place was abandoned, and in 1634 a Puritan settlement was made
+here. In 1708 the town was divided into the North Precinct and the South
+Precinct, and it was in the former, now Quincy, that John Adams, John
+Hancock and John Quincy Adams were born. Quincy was separated from
+Braintree in 1792 (there were further additions to Quincy from Braintree
+in 1856), and Randolph in 1793.
+
+  See D.M. Wilson, _Quincy, Old Braintree and Merry Mount_ (Boston,
+  1906); C.F. Adams, Jr., _Three Episodes of Massachusetts History_
+  (Boston, 1892 and 1896); W.S. Pattee, _History of Old Braintree and
+  Quincy_ (Quincy, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+BRAKE, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Oldenburg, on the left
+bank of the Weser, about halfway between Bremen and the mouth of the
+river. Pop. 5000. It was for centuries the port of Bremen; and though,
+since the founding of Bremerhaven, it no longer possesses a monopoly of
+the river traffic as before, it still continues to flourish. Large docks
+have been constructed, and the place has a considerable import trade in
+English coal. Shipbuilding and weaving are carried on to some extent.
+
+Brake in Oldenburg must be distinguished from the village of the same
+name in the principality of Lippe, known as Brake bei Limgo, which gave
+its name to the cadet line of the counts of Lippe-Brake (1621-1709).
+
+
+
+
+BRAKE. (1) A term for rough-tangled undergrowth, connected, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, with "break," to separate. The
+"brake-fern" (_Pteris aquilina_) is the common "bracken," and is a
+shortened form of that northern Eng. word, derived from a Scand. word
+for "fern" (cf. Swed. _braken_), though often confused with "brake,"
+undergrowth. (2) A term applied to many implements and mechanical and
+other appliances, often spelled "break." Here there are probably several
+words, difficult to separate in origin, connected either with "break,"
+to separate, and its derived meanings, or with the Fr. _braquer_
+(appearing in such expressions as _braquer un canon_, to turn or point a
+gun), from O. Fr. _brac_, modern _bras_, an arm, Lat. _bracchium_. The
+word is thus used of a toothed instrument for separating the fibre of
+flax and hemp; of the "break-rolls" employed in flour manufacture; of a
+heavy wheeled vehicle used for "breaking in" horses, and hence of a
+large carriage of the wagonette type; of an arm or lever, and so of the
+winch of a crossbow and of a pump handle, cf. "brake-pump"; of a curb or
+bridle for a horse; and of a mechanical appliance for checking the speed
+of moving vehicles, &c. It is noteworthy that the two last meanings are
+also possessed by the Fr. _frein_ and the Ger. _Bremse_.
+
+Brakes, in engineering, are instruments by means of which mechanical
+energy may be expended in overcoming friction. They are used for two
+main classes of purpose: (1) to limit or decrease the velocity of a
+moving body, or to bring it completely to rest; and (2) to measure
+directly the amount of frictional resistance between two bodies, or
+indirectly the amount of energy given out by a body or bodies in motion.
+Machines in which brakes are employed for purposes of the second class
+are commonly known as dynamometers (q.v.). The other class is
+exemplified in the brakes used on wheeled vehicles and on cranes, lifts,
+&c. Here a body, or system of bodies, originally at rest, has been set
+in motion and has received acceleration up to a certain velocity, the
+work which has been done in that acceleration being stored up as "actual
+energy" in the body itself. Before the body can be brought to rest it
+must part with this energy, expending it in overcoming some external
+resistance. If the energy be great in proportion to the usual resistance
+tending to stop the body, the motion will continue for a long time, or
+through a long distance, before the energy has been completely expended
+and the body brought to rest. But in certain cases considerations of
+safety or convenience require that this time or distance be greatly
+shortened, and this is done by artificially increasing the external
+resistance for the time being, by means of a brake.
+
+A simple method of obtaining this increased resistance is by pressing a
+block or shoe of metal or wood against the rim of a moving wheel, or by
+tightening a flexible strap or band on a rotating pulley or drum. In
+wheeled road vehicles, a wheel may be prevented from rotating by a chain
+passed through its spokes and attached to the body of the vehicle, when
+the resistance is increased by the substitution of a rubbing for a
+rolling action; or the same effect may be produced by fixing a slipper
+or skid under the wheel. Other forms of brake depend, not on the
+friction between two solid bodies, but on the frictional resistance of a
+fluid, as in "fan" and "pump" brakes. Thus the motion of revolving
+blades may be opposed by the resistance of the air or of a liquid in
+which they are made to work, or the motion of a plunger fitting tightly
+in a cylinder filled with a fluid may be checked by the fluid being
+prevented from escape except through a narrow orifice. The fly used to
+regulate the speed of the striking train in a clock is an example of a
+fan brake, while a pump brake is utilized for controlling the recoil of
+guns and in the hydraulic buffers sometimes fitted at terminal railway
+stations to stop trains that enter at excessive speed. On electric
+tramcars a braking effect is sometimes obtained by arranging the
+connexions of the motors so that they act as generators driven by the
+moving car. In this way a counter-torque is exerted on the axles. The
+current produced is expended by some means, as by being made to operate
+some frictional braking device, or to magnetize iron shoes carried on
+the car just over, but clear of, the running rails, to which they are
+then magnetically attracted (see TRACTION).
+
+The simplest way of applying a brake is by muscular force, exerted
+through a hand or foot lever or through a screw, by which the brake
+block is pressed against the rim of the wheel or the band brake
+tightened on its drum. This method is sufficient in the case of most
+road vehicles, and is largely used on railway vehicles. But the power
+thus available is limited, and becomes inadequate for heavy vehicles
+moving at high speeds. Moreover, on a train consisting of a number of
+vehicles, the hand brakes on each of which are independent of all
+others, either a brakesman must be carried on each, or a number of the
+brakes must be left unused, with consequent loss of stopping power;
+while even if there is a brakesman on every vehicle it is impossible to
+secure that all the brakes throughout the train are applied with the
+promptness that is necessary in case of emergency.
+
+Considerations of this sort led to the development of power brakes for
+railway trains. Of these there are five main classes:--
+
+
+  Railway power brakes.
+
+(1) Mechanical brakes, worked by springs, friction wheels on the axle,
+chains wound on drums, or other mechanical devices, or by the force
+produced when, by reason of a sudden checking of the speed of the
+locomotive, the momentum of the cars causes pressure on the draw-bars or
+buffing devices. (2) Hydraulic brakes, worked by means of water forced
+through pipes into proper mechanism for transmitting its force to the
+brake-shoes. (3) Electric brakes. (4) Air and vacuum brakes, worked by
+compressed air or by air at atmospheric pressure operating on a vacuum.
+(5) Brakes worked by steam or water from the boiler of the engine,
+operating by means of a cylinder; the use of these is generally limited
+to the locomotive. Of this kind is the counter-pressure or water brake
+of L. le Chatelier. If the valve gear of a locomotive in motion be
+reversed and the steam regulator be left open, the cylinders act as
+compressors, pumping air from the exhaust pipe into the boiler against
+the steam pressure. A retarding effect is thus exercised, but at the
+cost of certain inconveniences due to the passage of hot air and cinders
+from the smoke box through the cylinders. To remedy these, le Chatelier
+arranged that a jet of hot water from the boiler should be delivered
+into the exhaust pipe, so that steam and not the hot flue gases should
+be pumped back.
+
+Power brakes may be either continuous or independent--continuous if
+connected throughout the train and with the locomotive by pipes, wires,
+&c., as the compressed air, vacuum and electric brakes; independent if
+not so connected, as the buffer-brakes and hand-brakes. Continuous
+brakes may be divided into two other great classes--automatic and
+non-automatic. The former are so arranged that they are applied
+automatically on all the coaches of the train if any important part of
+the apparatus is broken, or the couplings between cars are ruptured; in
+an emergency they can be put on by the guard, or (in some cases) by a
+passenger. Non-automatic brakes can be applied only by the person
+(usually the engine-driver) to whom the management of them is given;
+they may become inoperative on all the coaches, and always on those
+which have become detached, if a coupling or other important and
+generally essential part is broken. Many mechanical and several
+hydraulic and electrical continuous brakes have been invented and tried;
+but experience has shown them so inadequate in practice that they have
+all practically disappeared, leaving the field to the air and the vacuum
+brakes. At first these were non-automatic, but in 1872 the automatic
+air-brake was invented by George Westinghouse, and the automatic
+vacuum-brake was developed a few years later.
+
+Those respects in which non-automatic brakes are inadequate will be
+understood from the following summary of the requirements most important
+in a train-braking apparatus: (1) It must be capable of application to
+every wheel throughout the train. (2) It must be so prompt in action
+that the shortest possible time shall elapse between its first
+application and the moment when the full power can be exerted throughout
+the train. (3) It must be capable of being applied by the engine-driver
+or by any of the officials in charge of the train, either in concert or
+independently. (4) The motion of the train must be arrested in the
+shortest possible distance. (5) The failure of a vital part must declare
+itself by causing the brake to be applied and to remain applied until
+the cause of failure is removed. (6) The breaking of the train in two or
+more parts must cause immediate automatic application of the brakes on
+all the coaches. (7) When used in ordinary service stops it must be
+capable of gradual and uniform application (followed, if necessary, by a
+full emergency application at any part of the service application) and
+of prompt release under all conditions of application. (8) It must be
+simple in operation and construction, not liable to derangement, and
+inexpensive in maintenance.
+
+
+    Simple air-brake.
+
+  The Westinghouse non-automatic or "straight" air-brake, patented in
+  1869, consists in its simplest form of a direct-acting, steam-driven
+  air-pump, carried on the locomotive, which forces compressed air into
+  a reservoir, usually placed under the foot-plate of the locomotive.
+  From this reservoir a pipe is led through the engine cab, where it is
+  fitted with a three-way cock, to the rear of the locomotive tender,
+  where it terminates in a flexible hose, on the end of which is a
+  coupling. The coaches are furnished with a similar pipe, having hose
+  and coupling at each end, which communicates with one end of a
+  cylinder containing a piston, to the rod of which the brake-rods and
+  levers are connected. The application of the brakes is effected by the
+  engine-driver turning the three-way cock, so that compressed air flows
+  through the pipe and, acting against one side of the brake-cylinder
+  piston, applies the brake-shoes to the wheels by the movement of this
+  piston and the rods and levers connected to it. To release the brakes
+  the three-way cock is turned to cut off communication between the main
+  reservoir and the train-pipe, and to open a port permitting the escape
+  of the compressed air in the train-pipe and brake-cylinders. This
+  brake was soon found defective and inadequate in many ways. An
+  appreciable time was required for the air to flow through the pipes
+  from the locomotive to the car-cylinders, and this time increased
+  quickly with the length of the trains. Still more objectionable,
+  however, was the fact that on detached coaches the air-brakes could
+  not be applied, the result being sometimes serious collisions between
+  the front and rear portions of the train.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Westinghouse Air-Brake.
+
+  Section through Triple-Valve and Brake-Cylinder.]
+
+
+    Automatic air-brake.
+
+  In the Westinghouse "ordinary" automatic air-brake a main air
+  reservoir on the engine is kept charged with compressed air at 80 lb.
+  per sq. in. by means of the steam-pump, which may be controlled by an
+  automatic governor. On electric railways a pump, driven by an electric
+  motor, is generally employed; but occasionally, on trains which run
+  short distances, no pump is carried, the main reservoir being charged
+  at the terminal points with sufficient compressed air for the journey.
+  Conveniently placed to the driver's hand is the driver's valve, by
+  means of which he controls the flow of air from the main reservoir to
+  the train-pipe, or from the train-pipe to the atmosphere. A
+  reducing-valve is attached to the driver's valve, and in the normal or
+  running position of the latter reduces the pressure of the air flowing
+  from the main reservoir to the train-pipe by 10 or 15 lb. per sq. in.
+  From the engine a train-pipe runs the whole length of the train, being
+  rendered continuous between each vehicle and between the engine and
+  the rest of the train by flexible hose couplings. Each vehicle is
+  provided with a brake-cylinder H (fig. 1), containing a piston, the
+  movement of which applies the brake blocks to the wheels, an
+  "auxiliary air-reservoir" G, and an automatic "triple-valve" F. The
+  auxiliary reservoir receives compressed air from the train-pipe and
+  stores it for use in the brake-cylinder of its own vehicle, and both
+  the auxiliary reservoir and the triple-valve are connected directly or
+  indirectly with the train-pipe through the pipe E. The automatic
+  action of the brake is due to the construction of the triple-valve,
+  the principal parts of which are a piston and slide-valve, so arranged
+  that the air in the auxiliary reservoir acts at all times on the side
+  of the piston to which the slide-valve is attached, while the air in
+  the train-pipe exerts its pressure on the opposite side. So long as
+  the brakes are not in operation, the pressures in the train-pipe,
+  triple-valve and auxiliary reservoir are all equal, and there is no
+  compressed air in the brake-cylinder. But when, in order to apply the
+  brake, the driver discharges air from the train-pipe, this
+  equilibrium is destroyed, and the greater pressure in the auxiliary
+  reservoir forces the triple-valve to a position which allows air from
+  the auxiliary reservoir to pass directly into the brake-cylinder. This
+  air forces out the piston of the brake-cylinder and applies the
+  brakes, connexion being made with the brake-rigging at R. The purpose
+  of the small groove n which establishes communication between the two
+  sides of the piston when the brakes are off, is to prevent their
+  unintended application through slight leakage from the train-pipe. To
+  release the brakes, the driver, by moving the handle of his valve to
+  the release position, admits air from the main reservoir to the
+  train-pipe, the pressure in which thus becomes greater than that in
+  the auxiliary reservoir; the piston and slide-valve of the
+  triple-valve are thereby forced back to their normal position, the
+  compressed air in the brake-cylinder is discharged, and the piston is
+  brought back by the coiled spring, thus releasing the brakes. At the
+  same time the auxiliary reservoir is recharged.
+
+
+    Quick-acting air-brake.
+
+  With this "ordinary" brake, since an appreciable time is required for
+  the reduction of pressure to travel along the train-pipe from the
+  engine, the brakes are applied sensibly sooner at the front than at
+  the end of the train, and with long trains this difference in the time
+  of application becomes a matter of importance. The "quick-acting"
+  brake was introduced to remedy this defect. For it the triple valve is
+  provided with a supplementary mechanism, which, when the air pressure
+  in the train-pipe is suddenly or violently reduced, opens a passage
+  whereby air from the train-pipe is permitted to enter the
+  brake-cylinder directly. The result is twofold: not only is the
+  pressure from the auxiliary reservoir acting in the brake-cylinder
+  reinforced by the pressure in the train-pipe, but the pressure in the
+  train-pipe is reduced locally in every vehicle in extremely rapid
+  succession instead of at the engine only, and in consequence all the
+  brakes are applied almost simultaneously throughout the train. The
+  same effect is produced should the train break in two, or a hose or
+  any part of the train-pipe burst; but during ordinary or "service"
+  stops the triple-valve acts exactly as in the ordinary brake, the
+  quick-acting portion, that is, the vertical piston and valve seen in
+  fig. 1, not coming into operation. When the handle Z is turned to the
+  position X the quick-acting mechanism is rendered inoperative, and
+  when it is at Y the brake on the vehicle concerned is wholly cut out
+  of action.
+
+  A further improvement introduced in the Westinghouse brake in 1906 was
+  designed to give quick action for service as well as emergency stops.
+  In this the triple-valve is substantially the same as in the ordinary
+  brake. The additional mechanism of the quick-acting portion is
+  dispensed with, but instead, a small chamber, normally containing air
+  at atmospheric pressure, is provided on each vehicle, and is so
+  arranged that it is put into communication with the train-pipe by the
+  first movement of the triple-valve. As soon, therefore, as the driver,
+  by lowering the pressure in the train-pipe, causes the triple-valve in
+  the foremost vehicle of the train to operate, a certain quantity of
+  air rushes out of the train-pipe into the small chamber; a further
+  local reduction in the pressure of the train-pipe in that vehicle is
+  thereby effected, and this almost instantaneously actuates the
+  triple-valve of the succeeding vehicle, and so on throughout the
+  train. In this way, on a train 1800 ft. long, consisting of sixty
+  30-ft. vehicles, the brake-blocks may be applied, with equal force, on
+  the last vehicle about 2-1/2 seconds later than on the first.
+
+
+    High-speed air-brake.
+
+  Brake-blocks can be applied, without skidding the wheels, with greater
+  pressure at high speeds than at low. Advantage is taken of this fact
+  in the design of the Westinghouse "high-speed" brake, invented in
+  1894, which consists of attachments enabling the pressure in the
+  train-pipe and reservoirs to be increased at the will of the driver.
+  The increased pressure acting in the brake-cylinder increases in the
+  same proportion the pressure of the brake-shoes against the wheels.
+  Attached to the brake cylinder is a valve for automatically reducing
+  the pressure therein proportionately to the reduction in speed, until
+  the maximum pressure under which the brakes are operated in making
+  ordinary stops is reached, when this valve closes and the maximum safe
+  pressure for operating the brakes at ordinary speeds is retained until
+  a stop is made.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2--Automatic Vacuum-Brake, showing its general
+  arrangement.]
+
+
+    Automatic Vacuum-Brake.
+
+  In the automatic vacuum-brake, the exhausting apparatus generally
+  consists of a combined large and small ejector (a form of jet-pump)
+  worked by steam and under the control of the driver, though sometimes
+  a mechanical air-pump, driven from the crosshead of the locomotive, is
+  substituted for the small ejector. These ejectors, of which the small
+  one is at work continuously while the large one is only employed when
+  it is necessary to create vacuum quickly, e.g. to take off the brakes
+  after a short stop, produce in the train-pipe a vacuum equal to about
+  20 in. of mercury, or in other words reduce the pressure within it to
+  about one-third of an atmosphere. The train-pipe extends the whole
+  length of the train and communicates under each vehicle with a
+  cylinder, to the piston of which, by suitable rods and levers, the
+  brake-shoes are connected. The communication between the train-pipe
+  and the cylinder is controlled by a ball-valve, one form of which is
+  shown in fig. 2. The release-valve is for the purpose of withdrawing
+  the ball from its seat when it is necessary to take off the brakes by
+  hand; it is made air-tight by a small diaphragm, the pressure of
+  which, when there is vacuum in the pipe, pulls in the spindle and
+  allows the ball to fall freely into its seat. When air is exhausted
+  through the train-pipe it travels out from below the piston direct,
+  and from above it past the ball, which is thus forced off its seat, to
+  roll back again when the exhaustion is complete. In this state of
+  affairs the piston is held in equilibrium and the brake-blocks are
+  free of the wheels. To apply them, air is admitted to the train-pipe,
+  either purposely by the guard or driver, or accidentally by the
+  rupture of the train-pipe or coupling-hose between the vehicles. The
+  air passes to the lower side of the piston, but is prevented from
+  gaining access to the upper side by the ball-valve which blocks the
+  passage; hence the pressure becomes different on the two sides of the
+  piston, which in consequence is forced upwards and thus applies the
+  brakes. They are released by the re-establishment of equilibrium (by
+  the use of the large ejector if necessary); when this is done the
+  piston falls and the brakes drop off. The general arrangement of the
+  apparatus is shown in fig. 2. To render the application of the brakes
+  nearly simultaneous throughout a long train, the valve in the guard's
+  van is arranged to open automatically when the driver suddenly lets in
+  air to the train-pipe. This valve has a small hole through its stem,
+  and is secured at the top by a diaphragm to a small dome-like chamber,
+  which is exhausted when a vacuum is created in the train-pipe. A
+  gradual application destroys the vacuum in the chamber as quickly as
+  in the pipe and the diaphragm remains unmoved; but with a sudden one
+  the vacuum below the valve is destroyed more quickly, and with the
+  difference of pressure the diaphragm lifts the valve and admits air. A
+  rapid-acting valve (fig. 3) is sometimes interposed between the
+  train-pipe and the cylinder on each vehicle. In the normal or running
+  position, a vacuum is maintained below the valve A and above the
+  diaphragm B, while the chamber below B and above A is at atmospheric
+  pressure. For an emergency application of the brake, air is suddenly
+  admitted to the train-pipe and thus to the lower side of A, and the
+  pressure acting on the under side of B is sufficient to cause it to
+  lift the valve A, and to admit air from the atmosphere, both to the
+  brake-cylinder and the train-pipe, through the clappet-valve D, which
+  also rises because of the difference of pressure on its two sides. In
+  a graduated application, neither D nor A rises from its seat, but air
+  from the train-pipe finds access to the brake-cylinder by passing
+  around the peg C, which is so proportioned as to allow the necessary
+  amount of air to enter the brake-cylinder, and so obtain simultaneous
+  action of the brake throughout the train. When the handle E is turned
+  so as to prevent the clappet D from rising, the rapid action is cut
+  out and the brake acts as an ordinary vacuum automatic brake. A
+  modification of the device for obtaining accelerated action, described
+  above in connexion with the Westinghouse brake, is also applicable.
+  Accelerating chambers, again containing air at atmospheric pressure,
+  are provided on each vehicle and are connected with the train-pipe by
+  valves which open as the vacuum in the latter begins to decrease with
+  the operation of the driver's valve. The air thus admitted into the
+  train-pipe effects a still further local reduction of the vacuum,
+  which is sufficient to actuate the accelerating valve of each next
+  succeeding vehicle and is thus rapidly propagated throughout the
+  train.
+
+
+    Brake trials.
+
+  Famous tests of railway brakes were those made by Sir Douglas Galton
+  and Mr George Westinghouse on the London, Brighton and South Coast
+  railway, in England, in 1878, and by a committee of the Master Car
+  Builders' Association, near Burlington, Iowa, in 1886 and 1887. The
+  object of the former series (for accounts of which see _Proc. Inst.
+  Mech. Eng._, 1878, 1879) was to determine the co-efficient of friction
+  between the brake-shoe and the wheel, and between the wheel and rail
+  at different velocities when the wheels were revolving and when
+  skidded, i.e. stopped in their rotation and caused to slide. These
+  experiments were the first of their kind ever undertaken, and for many
+  years their results furnished most of the trustworthy data obtainable
+  on the friction of motion. It was found that the co-efficient of
+  friction between cast-iron shoes and steel-tired wheels increased as
+  the speed of the train decreased, varying from 0.111 at 55 m. an hour
+  to 0.33 when the train was just moving. It also decreased with the
+  time during which the brakes were applied; thus at 20 m. an hour the
+  co-efficient was at the beginning 0.182, after ten seconds 0.133,
+  after twenty seconds 0.099. Generally speaking, especially at moderate
+  speeds, the decrease in the co-efficient of friction due to time is
+  less than the increase due to decrease of speed, although when the
+  time is long the reverse may be true. When the wheels are skidded the
+  retardation of the train is always reduced; therefore, for the
+  greatest braking effect, the pressures on the brake-shoes should never
+  be sufficient to cause the wheels to slide on the rails. The
+  Burlington brake tests were undertaken to determine the practicability
+  of using power brakes on long and heavy freight trains. In the 1886
+  tests there were five competitors--three buffer-brakes, one
+  compressed-air brake, and one vacuum-brake. The tests comprised stops
+  with trains of twenty-five and fifty vehicles, at 20 and 40 m. an
+  hour, on the level and on gradients of 1 in 100. They demonstrated
+  that the buffer-brakes were inadequate for long trains, and that
+  considerable improvements in the continuous brakes, both
+  compressed-air and vacuum, would be needed to make them act quickly
+  enough to avoid excessive shocks in the rear vehicles. In 1887 the
+  trials of the year before were repeated by the same committee, and at
+  the same place. Trains of fifty vehicles, about 2000 ft. long and
+  fitted with each brake, were again provided, and there were again five
+  competitors, but they all entered continuous brakes--three
+  compressed-air brakes, one vacuum and one electric. The results of the
+  first day's test of the train equipped with Westinghouse brakes are
+  shown in Table I., the distances in which are the feet run by the
+  train after the brakes were set, and the times the seconds that
+  elapsed from the application of the brakes to full stop.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3--Rapid-acting Vacuum-Brake Valve.]
+
+
+  TABLE I.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1887--Automatic
+  Air-Brakes._
+
+    +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+
+    | Speed in  | Distance | Time in  | Equivalent Distance |
+    | Miles per | in Feet. | Seconds. |  at 20 m. and 40 m. |
+    |   Hour.   |          |          |                     |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |  19-1/2   |   186    |   9-3/4  |   196    |   . .    |
+    |  19-1/4   |   215    |  11      |   233    |   . .    |
+    |  36-1/2   |   588    |  17      |   . .    |   693    |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  The remarkable shortness of these stops is the more evident when they
+  are compared with the best results obtained in 1886, as shown in Table
+  II.
+
+
+  TABLE II.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1886--Automatic
+  Air-Brakes._
+
+    +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+
+    | Speed in  | Distance | Time in  | Equivalent Distance |
+    |   Miles.  | in Feet. | Seconds. |  at 20 m. and 40 m. |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |   23.5    |   424    |  17-1/2  |   307    |    . .   |
+    |   20.3    |   354    |  16      |   340    |    . .   |
+    |   40      |   922    |  22-1/2  |   . .    |    922   |
+    |   40      |   927    |  22-3/4  |   . .    |    927   |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  The time that elapsed between the application of the brakes on the
+  engine and on the fiftieth vehicle was almost twice as great in 1886
+  as in 1887, being in the latter tests only five to six seconds, and in
+  1887 the stops were made in less than two-thirds the distance required
+  in 1886. Still, violent shocks were caused by the rear vehicles
+  running against those in front, before the brakes on the former were
+  applied with sufficient force to hold them, and these shocks were so
+  severe as to make the use of the brakes in practice impossible on long
+  trains. When the triple-valves were actuated electrically, however,
+  the stops were still further improved, as shown in Table III.
+
+
+  Table III.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars--Electric
+  Application of Air-Brakes._
+
+    +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+
+    | Speed in  | Distance | Time in  | Equivalent Distance |
+    |   Miles.  | in Feet. | Seconds. |  at 20 m. and 40 m. |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |  21-1/2   |   160    |   7      |   139    |    . .   |
+    |  23       |   183    |   8      |   138    |    . .   |
+    |  38       |   475    |  14-1/2  |   . .    |    519   |
+    |  36-1/2   |   460    |  14      |   . .    |    545   |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  Although the same levers, shoes, rods and other connexions were used,
+  there were no shocks in the fiftieth car of the train on any stop,
+  whether on the level or on a gradient. The committee in charge
+  reported that the best type of brake for long freight trains was one
+  operated by air, in which the valves were actuated by electricity, but
+  they expressed doubt of the practicability of using electricity on
+  freight trains. The Westinghouse Company then proceeded to quicken the
+  action of the triple-valve, operated by air only, so that stops with
+  fifty-car trains could be made without shock, and without electrically
+  operated valves; and they were so successful in this respect that,
+  towards the end of the same year, 1887, with a train of fifty
+  vehicles, stops were made without shock, fully equalling in quickness
+  and shortness of distance run any that had been made at the trials by
+  the electrically operated brakes.
+
+  In 1889 some further tests were made by Sir Douglas Galton with the
+  automatic vacuum-brake, on a practically level portion of the
+  Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (now the Great Central).
+  The train was composed of an engine, tender and forty carriages, the
+  total length over buffers being 1464 ft., and the total weight 574
+  tons, of which 423 tons were braked. At a speed of about 32 m. an hour
+  this train was brought to a standstill in twelve seconds after the
+  application of the brakes, in a distance of 342 ft.
+
+
+
+
+BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE (fl. 1200), English monk, and author of a
+chronicle narrating the fortunes of the monastery of Bury St Edmunds
+between 1173 and 1202. He is only known to us through his own work. He
+was a native of Bury St Edmunds; he served his novitiate under Samson of
+Tottington, who was at that time master of the novices, but afterwards
+sub-sacrist, and, from 1182, abbot of the house. Jocelyn took the habit
+of religion in 1173, during the time of Abbot Hugo (1157-1180), through
+whose improvidence and laxity the abbey had become impoverished and the
+inmates dead to all respect for discipline. The fortunes of the abbey
+changed for the better with the election of Samson as Hugo's successor.
+Jocelyn, who became abbot's chaplain within four months of the election,
+describes the administration of Samson at considerable length. He tells
+us that he was with Samson night and day for six years; the picture
+which he gives of his master, although coloured by enthusiastic
+admiration, is singularly frank and intimate. It is all the more
+convincing since Jocelyn is no stylist. His Latin is familiar and easy,
+but the reverse of classical. He thinks and writes as one whose
+interests are wrapped up in his house; and the unique interest of his
+work lies in the minuteness with which it describes the policy of a
+monastic administrator who was in his own day considered as a model.
+
+Jocelyn has also been credited with an extant but unprinted tract on the
+election of Abbot Hugo (Harleian MS. 1005, fo. 165); from internal
+evidence this appears to be an error. He mentions a (non-extant) work
+which he wrote, before the _Cronica_, on the miracles of St Robert, a
+boy whom the Jews of Bury St Edmunds were alleged to have murdered
+(1181).
+
+  See the editions of the _Cronica Jocelini de Brakelonda_ by T. Arnold
+  (in _Memorials of St Edmund's Abbey_, vol. i. Rolls series, 1890), and
+  by J.G. Rokewood (Camden Society, 1840); also Carlyle's _Past and
+  Present_, book ii. A translation and notes are given in T.E. Tomlin's
+  _Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century in the Chronicle of
+  Jocelyn de Brakelond_ (1844). There is also a translation of Jocelyn
+  by Sir E. Clarke (1907).
+
+
+
+
+BRAMAH, JOSEPH (1748-1814), English engineer and inventor, was the son
+of a farmer, and was born at Stainborough, Yorkshire, on the 13th of
+April 1748. Incapacitated for agricultural labour by an accident to his
+ankle, on the expiry of his indentures he worked as a cabinet-maker in
+London, where he subsequently started business on his own account. His
+first patent for some improvements in the mechanism of water-closets was
+taken out in 1778. In 1784 he patented the lock known by his name, and
+in 1795 he invented the hydraulic press. For an important part of this,
+the collar which secured water-tightness between the plunger and the
+cylinder in which it worked, he was indebted to Henry Maudslay, one of
+his workmen, who also helped him in designing machines for the
+manufacture of his locks. In 1806 he devised for the Bank of England a
+numerical printing machine, specially adapted for bank-notes. Other
+inventions of his included the beer-engine for drawing beer, machinery
+for making aerated waters, planing machines, and improvements in
+steam-engines and boilers and in paper-making machinery. In 1785 he
+suggested the possibility of screw propulsion for ships, and in 1802 the
+hydraulic transmission of power; and he constructed waterworks at
+Norwich in 1790 and 1793. He died in London on the 9th of December 1814.
+
+
+
+
+BRAMANTE, or BRAMANTE LAZZARI (c. 1444-1514), Italian architect and
+painter, whose real name was Donate d'Augnolo, was born at
+Monte-Asdrualdo in Urbino, in July 1444. He showed a great taste for
+drawing, and was at an early age placed under Fra Bartolommeo, called
+Fra Carnavale. But though he afterwards gained some fame as a painter,
+his attention was soon absorbed by architecture. He appears to have
+studied under Scirro Scirri, an architect in his native place, and
+perhaps under other masters. He then set out from Urbino, and proceeded
+through several of the towns of Lombardy, executing works of various
+magnitudes, and examining patiently all remains of ancient art. At last,
+attracted by the fame of the great Duomo, he reached Milan, where he
+remained from 1476 to 1499. He seems to have left Milan for Rome about
+1500. He painted some frescoes at Rome, and devoted himself to the study
+of the ancient buildings, both in the city and as far south as Naples.
+About this time the Cardinal Caraffa commissioned him to rebuild the
+cloister of the Convent della Pace. Owing to the celerity and skill with
+which Bramante did this, the cardinal introduced him to Pope Alexander
+VI. He began to be consulted on nearly all the great architectural
+operations in Rome, and executed for the pope the palace of the
+Cancelleria or chancery. Under Julius II., Alexander's successor,
+Bramante's talents began to obtain adequate sphere of exercise. His
+first large work was to unite the straggling buildings of the palace and
+the Belvedere. This he accomplished by means of two long galleries or
+corridors enclosing a court. The design was only in part completed
+before the death of Julius and of the architect. So impatient was the
+pope and so eager was Bramante, that the foundations were not
+sufficiently well attended to; great part of it had, therefore, soon to
+be rebuilt, and the whole is now so much altered that it is hardly
+possible to decipher the original design.
+
+Besides executing numerous smaller works at Rome and Bologna, among
+which is specially mentioned by older writers a round temple in the
+cloister of San Pietro-a-Montorio, Bramante was called upon by Pope
+Julius to take the first part in one of the greatest architectural
+enterprises ever attempted--the rebuilding of St Peter's. Bramante's
+designs were complete, and he pushed on the work so fast that before his
+death he had erected the four great piers and their arches, and
+completed the cornice and the vaulting in of this portion. He also
+vaulted in the principal chapel. After his death on the 11th of March
+1514, his design was much altered, in particular by Michelangelo.
+
+  See Pungileoni, _Memoire intorno alla vita ed alle opere di Bramante_
+  (Rome, 1836); H. Semper, _Donato Bramante_ (Leipzig, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS, BARON (1817-1907), English judge, was born at
+Hitchin, on the 14th of September 1817. He received his education at
+Bedford school. The son of a solicitor, he was early familiarized with
+legal principles. Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1843, he at
+once joined the old home circuit, and after enjoying a lucrative
+practice as a junior, took silk in 1859. His name is identified with
+many of the famous trials of the reign of Queen Victoria. He was engaged
+in the Simon Bernard case (of the Orsini plot celebrity), in that of
+_Roupell_ v. _Waite_, and in the Overend-Gurney prosecutions. The two
+_causes celebres_, however, in which Hawkins attained his highest legal
+distinction were the Tichborne trials and the great will case of
+_Sugden_ v. _Lord St Leonards_. In both of these he was victorious. In
+the first his masterly cross-examination of the witness Baigent was one
+of the great features of the trial. He did a lucrative business in
+references and arbitrations, and acted for the royal commissioners in
+the purchase of the site for the new law courts. Election petitions also
+formed another branch of his extensive practice. Hawkins was raised to
+the bench in 1876, and was assigned to the then exchequer division of
+the High Court, not as baron (an appellation which was being abolished
+by the Judicature Act), but with the title of Sir Henry Hawkins. He was
+a great advocate rather than a great lawyer. His searching voice, his
+manner, and the variety of his facial expression, gave him an enormous
+influence with juries, and as a cross-examiner he was seldom, if ever,
+surpassed. He was an excellent judge in chambers, where he displayed a
+clear and vigorous grasp of details and questions of fact. His knowledge
+of the criminal law was extensive and intimate, the reputation he gained
+as a "hanging" judge making him a terror to evil-doers; and the court
+for crown cases reserved was never considered complete without his
+assistance. In 1898 he retired from the bench, and was raised to the
+peerage under the title of Baron Brampton. He frequently took part in
+determining House of Lords appeals, and his judgments were distinguished
+by their lucidity and grasp. He held for many years the office of
+counsel to the Jockey Club, and as an active member of that body found
+relaxation from his legal and judicial duties at the leading race
+meetings, and was considered a capable judge of horses. In 1898 he was
+received into the Roman Catholic Church, and in 1903 he presented, in
+conjunction with Lady Brampton (his second wife), the chapel of SS.
+Augustine and Gregory to the Roman Catholic cathedral of Westminster,
+which was consecrated in that year. In 1904 he published his
+_Reminiscences_. He died in London on the 6th of October 1907, and Lady
+Brampton in the following year.
+
+
+
+
+BRAMPTON, a market town in the Eskdale parliamentary division of
+Cumberland, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Carlisle, on a branch of the North
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2494. It is picturesquely situated in a
+narrow valley opening upon that of the Irthing. The town has an
+agricultural trade, breweries, and manufactures of cotton and tweeds.
+The neighbourhood is rich in historical associations. Two miles N.E. of
+Brampton is the castle of Naworth, a fine example of a Border fortress.
+It was built in the reign of Edward III., by a member of the family of
+Dacre, who for many generations had had their stronghold here.
+Overlooking a deep wooded ravine, with streams to the east and west, the
+great quadrangular castle was naturally defended except on the south,
+where it was rendered secure by a double moat and drawbridge. By
+marriage in 1577 with Lady Elizabeth Dacre it passed into the hands of
+William Howard, afterwards lord warden of the Marches, the "Belted Will"
+of Sir Walter Scott and the Border ballads, who acquired great fame by
+his victories over the Scottish moss-troopers. The castle, the walls of
+which have many secret passages and hiding-places, is inhabited, and in
+its hall are numerous fine pictures, including a portrait of Charles I.
+by Van Dyck. Not far distant is Lanercost Priory, where in 1169 an
+Augustinian monastery was established. In 1311 Robert Bruce and his army
+were quartered here, and the priory was pillaged in 1346 by David, king
+of Scotland. From this time its prosperity declined, and at its
+dissolution under Henry VIII. it consisted only of a prior and seven
+canons. The Early English church has a restored nave, but retains much
+fine carving. The chancel is ruined, but the interesting crypt is
+preserved.
+
+
+
+
+BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL, BARON (1808-1892), English
+judge, was born in London on the 12th of June 1808, being the eldest son
+of George Bramwell, of the banking firm of Dorrien, Magens, Dorrien &
+Mello. He was educated privately, and at the age of sixteen he entered
+Dorriens' bank. In 1830 he gave up this business for the law, being
+admitted as a student at Lincoln's Inn in 1830, and at the Inner Temple
+in 1836. At first he practised as a special pleader, but was eventually
+called to the bar at both Inns in 1838. He soon worked his way into a
+good practice both in London and the home circuit, his knowledge of law
+and procedure being so well recognized that in 1850 he was appointed a
+member of the Common Law Procedure Commission, which resulted in the
+Common Law Procedure Act of 1852. This act he drafted jointly with his
+friend Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Willes, and thus began the abolition
+of the system of special pleading. In 1851 Lord Cranworth made Bramwell
+a queen's counsel, and the Inner Temple elected him a bencher--he had
+ceased to be a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1841. In 1853 he served on the
+royal commission to inquire into the assimilation of the mercantile laws
+of Scotland and England and the law of partnership, which had as its
+result the Companies Act of 1862. It was he who, during the sitting of
+this commission, suggested the addition of the word "limited" to the
+title of companies that sought to limit their liability, in order to
+prevent the obvious danger to persons trading with them in ignorance of
+their limitation of liability. As a queen's counsel Bramwell enjoyed a
+large and steadily increasing practice, and in 1856 he was raised to the
+bench as a baron of the court of exchequer. In 1867, with Mr Justice
+Blackburn and Sir John Coleridge, he was made a member of the judicature
+commission. In 1871 he was one of the three judges who refused the seat
+on the judicial committee of the privy council to which Sir Robert
+Collier, in evasion of the spirit of the act creating the appointment,
+was appointed; and in 1876 he was raised to the court of appeal, where
+he sat till the autumn of 1881. As a puisne judge he had been
+conspicuous as a sound lawyer, with a strong logical mind unfettered by
+technicalities, but endowed with considerable respect for the common
+law. His rulings were always clear and decisive, while the same quality
+marked his dealings with fact, and, coupled with a straightforward,
+unpretentious manner, gave him great influence with juries. In the court
+of appeal he was perhaps not so entirely in his element as at _nisi
+prius_, but the same combination of sound law, strong common sense and
+clear expression characterized his judgments. His decisions during the
+three stages of his practical career are too numerous to be referred to
+particularly, although _Ryder_ v. _Wombwell_ (L.R. 3 Ex. 95); _R._ v.
+_Bradshaw_ (14 Cox C.C. 84); _Household Fire Insurance Company_ v.
+_Grant_ (4 Ex. Div. 216); _Stonor_ v. _Fowle_ (13 App. Cas. 20), _The
+Bank of England_ v. _Vagliano Brothers_ (App. Cas. 1891) are good
+examples. Upon his retirement, announced in the long vacation of 1881,
+twenty-six judges and a huge gathering of the bar entertained him at a
+banquet in the Inner Temple hall. In December of the same year he was
+raised to the peerage, taking the title Baron Bramwell of Hever, from
+his home in Kent. In private life Bramwell had simple tastes and enjoyed
+simple pleasures. He was musical and fond of sports. He was twice
+married: in 1830 to Jane (d. 1836), daughter of Bruno Silva, by whom he
+had one daughter, and in 1861 to Martha Sinden. He died on the 9th of
+May 1892.
+
+His younger brother, Sir Frederick Bramwell (1818-1903), was a
+well-known consulting engineer and "expert witness."
+
+  At all times Lord Bramwell had been fond of controversy and
+  controversial writing, and he wrote constant letters to _The Times_
+  over the signature B. (he also signed himself at different times
+  Bramwell, G.B. and L.L.). He joined in 1882 the Liberty and Property
+  Defence League, and some of his writings after that date took the form
+  of pamphlets published by that society.
+
+
+
+
+BRAN, in Celtic legend, the name of (1) the hero of the Welsh _Mabinogi
+of Branwen_, who dies in the attempt to avenge his sister's wrongs; he
+is the son of Llyr (= the Irish sea-god Ler), identified with the Irish
+Bran mac Allait, Allait being a synonym of Ler; (2) the son of Febal,
+known only through the 8th-century Irish epic, _The Voyage of Bran_ (to
+the world below); (3) the dog of Ossian's Fingal. Bran also appears as a
+historical name, Latinized as _Brennus_. See Kuno Meyer and D. Nutt,
+_The Voyage of Bran_ (London, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+BRAN, the ground husk of wheat, oats, barley or other cereals, used for
+feeding cattle, packing and other purposes (see FLOUR). The word occurs
+in French _bren_ or _bran_, in the dialects of other Romanic languages,
+and also in Celtic, cf. Breton _brenn_, Gaelic _bran_. The _New English
+Dictionary_ considers these Celtic forms to be borrowed from French or
+English. In modern French _bren_ means filth, refuse, and this points to
+some connexion with Celtic words, e.g. Irish _brean_, manure. If so, the
+original meaning would be refuse. "Bran-new," i.e. quite new, is now
+the common form of "brand-new," that which is fresh from the "brand,"
+the branding-iron used for marking objects, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BRANCH (from the Fr. _branche_, late Lat. _branca_, an animal's paw), a
+limb of a tree; hence any offshoot, e.g. of a river, railway, &c., of a
+deer's antlers, of a family or genealogical tree, and generally a
+subdivision or department, as in "a branch of learning." The phrase, to
+destroy "root and branch," meaning to destroy utterly, taken originally
+from Malachi iv. 1, was made famous in 1641 by the so-called "Root and
+Branch" Bill and Petition for the abolition of episcopal government, in
+which petition occurred the sentence, "That the said government, with
+all its dependencies, roots and branches, be destroyed." Among technical
+senses of the word "branch" are: the certificate of proficiency given to
+pilots by Trinity House; and in siege-craft a length of trench forming
+part of a zigzag approach.
+
+
+
+
+BRANCO, or PARIMA, a river of northern Brazil and tributary of the Rio
+Negro, formed by the confluence of the Takutu, or "Upper Rio Branco,"
+and Uraricoera, about 3 deg. N. lat. and 60 deg. 28' W. long., and
+flowing south by west to a junction with the Negro. It has rapids in its
+upper course, but the greater part of its length of 348 m. is navigable
+for steamers of light draught. The Takutu rises in the Roraima and
+Coirrit ranges on the Guiana frontier, while the Uraricoera rises in the
+Serra de Parima, on the Venezuelan frontier, and has a length of 360 m.
+before reaching the Branco. These are white water rivers, from which the
+Branco (white) derives its name, and at its junction with the Negro the
+two differently-coloured streams flow side by side for some distance
+before mingling.
+
+
+
+
+BRANCOVAN, or BRANCOVEANU, the name of a family which has played an
+important part in the history of Rumania. It was of Servian origin and
+was connected with the family of Branko or Brankovich. Constantine
+Brancovan, the most eminent member of the family, was born in 1654, and
+became prince of Walachia in 1689. In consequence of his anti-Turkish
+policy of forming an alliance first with Austria and then with Russia,
+he was denounced to the Porte, deposed from his throne, brought under
+arrest to Constantinople and imprisoned (1710) in the fortress of Yedi
+Kuleh (Seven Towers). Here he was tortured by the Turks, who hoped thus
+to discover the fortune of L3,000,000, which Constantine was alleged to
+have amassed. He was beheaded with his four sons on the 26th of August
+1714. His faithful friend Enake Vacarescu shared his fate. Constantine
+Brancovan became, through his tragic death, the hero of Rumanian popular
+ballads. His family founded and endowed the largest hospital in
+Walachia, the so-called Spital Brancovanescu.
+
+  See O.G. Lecca, _Familiile Boeresti Romane_ (Bucharest, 1899), p. 90,
+  sqq.     (M. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAND, JOHN (1744-1806), English antiquary, was born on the 19th of
+August 1744 at Washington, Durham, where his father was parish clerk.
+His early years were spent at Newcastle-on-Tyne with his uncle, a
+cordwainer, to whom he was apprentice in his fourteenth year. Showing
+promise, however, at Newcastle grammar school, friends interested
+themselves in him and assisted him to go to Oxford. It was not, however,
+until his twenty-eighth year that he matriculated at Lincoln College,
+but before this he had been ordained, holding in succession the curacies
+of Bolam, Northumberland, of St Andrew's, Newcastle, and of Cramlington,
+8 m. from the county town. He graduated in 1775 and two years later was
+elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Having for a short time
+been under-usher at the Newcastle grammar school, the duke of
+Northumberland, a former patron, gave him in 1784 the rectory of the
+combined parishes of St Mary-at-Hill and St Mary Hubbard, London.
+Appointed secretary to the Society of Antiquaries in the same year, he
+was annually re-elected until his death in 1806. He was buried in the
+chancel of his church. His most important work is _Observations on
+Popular Antiquities: including the whole of Mr Bourne's "Antiquitates
+Vulgares," with addenda to every chapter of that work_. This was
+published in London in 1777, and after Brand's death, a new edition
+embodying the MSS. left by him, was published by Sir Henry Ellis in
+1813. Brand also published a poem entitled: _On Illicit Love, written
+among the ruins of Godstow Nunnery, near Oxford_ (1775, Newcastle); _The
+History and Antiquities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne_ (2 vols., London, 1789),
+and many papers in the _Archaeologia_.
+
+
+
+
+BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY (1823-1888), president of the Orange Free State,
+was the son of Sir Christoffel Brand, speaker of the House of Assembly
+of the Cape Colony. He was born at Cape Town on the 6th of December
+1823, and was educated at the South African College in that city.
+Continuing his studies at Leiden, he took the degree of D.C.L. in 1845.
+He was called to the English bar from the Inner Temple in 1849, and
+practised as an advocate in the supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope
+from that year until 1863. In 1858 he was appointed professor of law in
+the South African College. He was elected president of the Orange Free
+State in 1863, and subsequently re-elected for five years in 1869, 1874,
+1879 and 1884. In 1864 he resisted the pressure of the Basuto on the
+Free State boundary, and after vainly endeavouring to induce Moshesh,
+the Basuto chief, to keep his people within bounds, he took up arms
+against them in 1865. This first war ended in the treaty of Thaba
+Bosigo, signed on the 3rd of April 1866; and a second war, caused by the
+treachery of the Basuto, ended in the treaty of Aliwal North, concluded
+on the 12th of February 1869. In 1871 Brand was solicited by a large
+party to become president of the Transvaal, and thus unite the two Dutch
+republics of South Africa; but as the project was hostile to Great
+Britain he declined to do so, and maintained his constant policy of
+friendship towards England, where his merits were recognized in 1882 by
+the honour of the G.C.M.G. He died on the 14th of July 1888. (See ORANGE
+FREE STATE: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS (1788-1866), English chemist, was born in London
+on the 11th of January 1788. After leaving Westminster school, he was
+apprenticed, in 1802, to his brother, an apothecary, with the view of
+adopting the profession of medicine, but his bent was towards chemistry,
+a sound knowledge of which he acquired in his spare time. In 1812 he was
+appointed professor of chemistry to the Apothecaries' Society, and
+delivered a course of lectures before the Board of Agriculture in place
+of Sir Humphry Davy, whom in the following year he succeeded in the
+chair of chemistry at the Royal Institution, London. His _Manual of
+Chemistry_, first published in 1819, enjoyed wide popularity, and among
+other works he brought out a _Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art_
+in 1842, on a new edition of which he was engaged when he died at
+Tunbridge Wells on the 11th of February 1866.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDENBURG, the name of a margraviate and electorate which played an
+important part in German history, and afterwards grew into the kingdom
+of Prussia. During the early years of the Christian era, the district
+was inhabited by the Semnones, and afterwards by various Slavonic
+tribes, who were partially subdued by Charlemagne, but soon regained
+their independence. The history of Brandenburg begins when the German
+king, Henry the Fowler, defeated the Havelli, or Hevelli, and took their
+capital, Brennibor, from which the name Brandenburg is derived. It soon
+came under the rule of Gero, margrave of the Saxon east mark, who
+pressed the campaign against the Slavs with vigour, while Otto the Great
+founded bishoprics at Havelberg and Brandenburg. When Gero died in 965,
+his mark was divided into two parts, the northern portion, lying along
+both banks of the middle Elbe, being called the north or old mark, and
+forming the nucleus of the later margraviate of Brandenburg. After Otto
+the Great died, the Slavs regained much of their territory, Brandenburg
+fell again into their hands, and a succession of feeble margraves ruled
+only the district west of the Elbe, together with a small district east
+of that river.
+
+
+  Albert the Bear.
+
+A new era began in 1106 when Lothair, count of Supplinburg, became duke
+of Saxony. Aided by Albert the Bear, count of Ballenstadt, he renewed
+the attack on the Slavs, and in 1134 appointed Albert margrave of the
+north mark. The new margrave continued the work of Lothair, and about
+1140 made a treaty with Pribislaus, the childless duke of Brandenburg,
+by which he was recognized as the duke's heir. He took at once the
+title margrave of Brandenburg, but when Pribislaus died in 1150, a
+stubborn contest followed with Jazko, a relation of the late duke, which
+was terminated in 1157 in Albert's favour. Albert was the real founder
+of Brandenburg. Under his rule Christianity and civilization were
+extended, bishoprics were restored and monasteries founded. The country
+was colonized with settlers from the lower Rhineland, land was brought
+under cultivation, forts were built, German laws and customs introduced,
+and gradually the woods and marshes were converted into lands of
+comparative fertility.
+
+
+  Otto III.
+
+When Albert died in 1170, Brandenburg fell to his eldest son, Otto I.
+(c. 1130-1184), who compelled the duke of Pomerania to own his
+supremacy, and slightly increased by conquest the area of the mark.
+Otto's son, Otto II., was the succeeding margrave, and having quarrelled
+with his powerful neighbour, Ludolf, archbishop of Magdeburg, was forced
+to own the archbishop's supremacy over his allodial lands. He died in
+1205, and was followed by his step-brother, Albert II. (c. 1174-1220),
+who assisted the emperor Otto IV. in various campaigns, but later
+transferred his allegiance to Otto's rival, Frederick of Hohenstaufen,
+afterwards the emperor Frederick II. His sons, John I. and Otto III.,
+ruled Brandenburg in common until the death of John in 1266, and their
+reign was a period of growth and prosperity. Districts were conquered or
+purchased from the surrounding dukes; the marriage of Otto with
+Beatrice, daughter of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, in 1253, added upper
+Lusatia to Brandenburg; and the authority of the margraves was extended
+beyond the Oder. Many monasteries and towns were founded, among them
+Berlin; the work of Albert the Bear was continued, and the prosperity of
+Brandenburg formed a marked contrast to the disorder which prevailed
+elsewhere in Germany. Brandenburg appears about this time to have fallen
+into three divisions--the old mark lying west of the Elbe, the middle
+mark between the Elbe and the Oder, and the new mark, as the newly
+conquered lands beyond the Oder began to be called. When Otto died in
+1267, the area of the mark had been almost doubled, and the margraves
+had attained to an influential position in the Empire. The
+_Sachsenspiegel_, written before 1235, mentions the margrave as one of
+the electors, by virtue of the office of chamberlain, which had probably
+been conferred on Albert the Bear by the German king Conrad III.
+
+
+  Otto IV.
+
+In 1258 John and Otto had agreed upon a division of their lands, but the
+arrangement only took effect on Otto's death in 1267, when John's son,
+John II., received the electoral dignity, together with the southern
+part of the margraviate, which centred around Stendal, and Otto's son,
+John III., the northern or Saltzwedel portion. John II.'s brother, Otto
+IV., who became elector in 1281, had passed his early years in struggles
+with the archbishop of Magdeburg, whose lands stretched like a wedge
+into the heart of Brandenburg. In 1280 he was wounded in the head with a
+dart, and as he retained there a part of the weapon for a year, he was
+called "Otto with the dart." He secured the appointment of his brother
+Eric as archbishop of Magdeburg in 1283, and was afterwards engaged in
+various feuds. Songs attributed to him are found in F.H. von der Hagen's
+_Minnesinger_. Otto was succeeded in 1309 by his nephew, Valdemar, who,
+assisted by other members of his family, conquered Pomerellen, which he
+shared with the Teutonic order in 1310, and held his own in a struggle
+with the kings of Poland, Sweden and Denmark and others, over the
+possession of Stralsund.
+
+In order to pay for these wars, and to meet the expenses of a splendid
+court, the later margraves had sold various rights to the towns and
+provinces of Brandenburg, and so aided the development of local
+government. John III. of Saltzwedel had shared his possessions with his
+brothers, but in 1303 they were reunited by his nephew Hermann, who
+purchased lower Lusatia in the same year. Hermann's daughter Agnes
+married the elector Valdemar, and on the death of her only brother, John
+VI., in 1317, the possessions of the Saltzwedel branch of the family
+passed to Valdemar, together with Landsberg and the Saxon Palatinate,
+which had been purchased from Albert the Degenerate, landgrave of
+Thuringia. Valdemar thus gathered the whole of the mark under his rule,
+together with upper and lower Lusatia, and various outlying districts.
+He died childless in 1319, and was succeeded by his nephew Henry II.,
+who died in 1320, when the Ascanian family, as the descendants of Albert
+the Bear were called, from the Latinized form of the name of their
+ancestral castle of Aschersleben, became extinct.
+
+
+  Wittelsbach dynasty.
+
+Brandenburg now fell into a deplorable condition, portions were seized
+by neighbouring princes, and the mark itself was disputed for by various
+claimants. In 1323 King Louis IV. took advantage of this condition to
+bestow the mark upon his young son, Louis, and thus Brandenburg was
+added to the possessions of the Wittelsbach family, although Louis did
+not receive the extensive lands of the Ascanian margraves. Upper and
+lower Lusatia, Landsberg, and the Saxon Palatinate had been inherited by
+female members of the family, and passed into the hands of other
+princes, the old mark was retained by Agnes, the widow of Valdemar, who
+was married again to Otto II., duke of Brunswick, and the king was
+forced to acknowledge these claims, and to cede districts to Mecklenburg
+and Bohemia. During the early years of the reign of Louis, who was
+called the margrave Louis IV. or V., Brandenburg was administered by
+Bertold, count of Henneberg, who established the authority of the
+Wittelsbachs in the middle mark, which, centring round Berlin, was the
+most important part of the margraviate. The quarrel between King Louis
+and Pope John XXII. was inimical to the interests of Brandenburg, which
+was ravaged by the Poles, torn by the strife of contending clerical
+factions, and alternately neglected and oppressed by the margrave. Trade
+and commerce were at a standstill, agriculture was neglected, the
+privileges and estates of the margrave passed into private hands, the
+nobles were virtually independent, and the towns sought to defend
+themselves by means of alliances. During the struggle between the
+families of Wittelsbach and Luxemburg, which began in 1342, there
+appeared in Brandenburg an old man who claimed to be the margrave
+Valdemar. He was gladly received by the king of Poland, and other
+neighbouring princes, welcomed by a large number of the people, and in
+1348 invested with the margraviate by King Charles IV., who eagerly
+seized this opportunity to deal a blow at his enemy. This step compelled
+Louis to make peace with Charles, who abandoned the false Valdemar,
+invested Louis and his step-brothers with Brandenburg, and in return was
+recognized as king. Louis recovered the old mark in 1348, drove his
+opponent from the land, and in 1350 made a treaty with his
+step-brothers, Louis the younger and Otto, at Frankfort-on-Oder, by
+which Brandenburg was handed over to Louis the younger and Otto. Louis,
+who then undertook the government, made peace with his neighbours,
+finally defeated the false Valdemar, and was recognized by the Golden
+Bull of 1356 as one of the seven electors. The emperor Charles IV. took
+advantage of a family quarrel over the possessions of Louis the elder,
+who died in 1361, to obtain a promise from Louis the younger and Otto,
+that the margraviate should come to his own son, Wenceslaus, in case the
+electors died childless. Louis the younger died in 1365, and when his
+brother Otto, who had married a daughter of Charles IV., wished to leave
+Brandenburg to his own family Charles began hostilities; but in 1373 an
+arrangement was made, and Otto, by the treaty of Furstenwalde, abandoned
+the margraviate for a sum of 500,000 gold gulden.
+
+
+  Imperial control.
+
+Under the Wittelsbach rule, the estates of the various provinces of
+Brandenburg had obtained the right to coin money, to build fortresses,
+to execute justice, and to form alliances with foreign states. Charles
+invested Wenceslaus with the margraviate in 1373, but undertook its
+administration himself, and passed much of his time at a castle which he
+built at Tangermunde. He diminished the burden of taxation, suppressed
+the violence of the nobles, improved navigation on the Elbe and Oder,
+and encouraged commerce by alliances with the Hanse towns, and in other
+ways. He caused a _Landbook_ to be drawn up in 1375, in which are
+recorded all the castles, towns and villages of the land with their
+estates and incomes. When Charles died in 1378, and Wenceslaus became
+German and Bohemian king, Brandenburg passed to the new king's
+half-brother Sigismund, then a minor, and a period of disorder ensued.
+Soon after Sigismund came of age, he pledged a part of Brandenburg to
+his cousin Jobst, margrave of Moravia, to whom in 1388 he handed over
+the remainder of the electorate in return for a large sum of money, and
+as the money was not repaid, Jobst obtained the investiture in 1397 from
+King Wenceslaus. Sigismund had also obtained the new mark on the death
+of his brother John in 1396, but sold this in 1402 to the Teutonic
+order. Jobst paid very little attention to Brandenburg, and the period
+was used by many of the noble families to enrich themselves at the
+expense of the poorer and weaker towns, to plunder traders, and to carry
+on feuds with neighbouring princes. When in 1410 Sigismund and Jobst
+were rivals for the German throne, Sigismund, anxious to obtain another
+vote in the electoral college, declared the bargain with Jobst void, and
+empowered Frederick VI. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, to
+exercise the Brandenburg vote at the election. (See FREDERICK I.,
+ELECTOR OF BRANDENBURG.) In 1411 Jobst died and Brandenburg reverted to
+Sigismund, who appointed Frederick as his representative to govern the
+margraviate, and a further step was taken when, on the 30th of April
+1415, the king invested Frederick of Hohenzollern and his heirs with
+Brandenburg, together with the electoral privilege and the office of
+chamberlain, in return for a payment of 400,000 gold gulden, but the
+formal ceremony of investiture was delayed until the 18th of April 1417,
+when it took place at Constance.
+
+
+  Condition before the Hohenzollern rule.
+
+During the century which preceded the advent of the Hohenzollerns in
+Brandenburg its internal condition had become gradually worse and worse,
+and had been accompanied by a considerable loss of territory. The
+central power had become weakened and the central organization relaxed,
+while the electorate had lost most of the advantages which formerly
+distinguished it from other German fiefs. Under the rule of the earliest
+margraves, it was the official side of their position that was
+prominent, and it was not forgotten that they were technically only the
+representatives of the emperor. But in the 13th century this feeling
+began to disappear, and Brandenburg enjoyed an independence and carried
+out an independent policy in a way that was not paralleled by any other
+German state. The emperor was still suzerain indeed, but his relations
+with the mark were so insignificant that they exercised practically no
+influence on its development; and so the power of the Ascanian margraves
+was virtually unlimited. This independence was enhanced by the fact that
+few great nobles had followed Albert the Bear in his work of conquest,
+and that consequently there were few large lordships with their crowd of
+dependents. The towns, the village communities and the knights held
+their lands and derived their rights directly from the margraves. The
+towns and villages had generally been laid out by contractors or
+_locatores_, men not necessarily of noble birth, who were installed as
+hereditary chief magistrates of the communities, and received numerous
+encouragements to reclaim waste lands. This mode of colonization was
+especially favourable to the peasantry, who seem in Brandenburg to have
+retained the disposal of their persons and property at a time when
+villenage or serfdom was the ordinary _status_ of their class elsewhere.
+The dues paid by these contractors in return for the concessions formed
+the main source of the revenue of the margraves. Gradually, however, the
+expenses of warfare, liberal donations to the clergy, and the
+maintenance of numerous and expensive households, compelled them to
+pledge these dues for sums of ready money. This proceeding gave the
+barons and knights an opportunity to buy out the village magistrates and
+to replace them with nominees of their own. Thus the condition of the
+peasants grew worse, and their freedom was practically destroyed when
+the emperor Louis IV. recognized the jurisdiction of the nobles over
+their estates. Henceforth the power of the nobles steadily increased at
+the expense of the peasants, who soon sank into servitude. Instead of
+communicating directly with the margrave through his burgraves and
+bailiffs, or _vogts_, the village communities came to be represented by
+the nobles who had obtained possession of their lands. Many of the towns
+were forced into the same position. Others were able to maintain their
+independence, and to make use of the pecuniary needs of the margraves to
+become practically municipal republics. Their strength, however, was
+perhaps more usefully shown in their ability to resist the nobles, a
+proceeding which saved industry and commerce from extinction at a time
+of unbridled lawlessness. In the pecuniary embarrassments of the
+margraves also originated the power of the _Stande_, or estates,
+consisting of the nobles, the clergy and the towns. The first recorded
+instance of the _Stande_ co-operating with the rulers occurred in 1170;
+but it was not till 1280 that the margrave solemnly bound himself not to
+raise a _bede_ or special voluntary contribution without the consent of
+the estates. In 1355 the _Stande_ secured the appointment of a permanent
+councillor, without whose concurrence the decrees of the margraves were
+invalid. In the century which followed the extinction of the Ascanian
+house, liberty degenerated into licence, and the country was given over
+to anarchy. Only the most powerful towns were able to maintain their
+independence; others, together with the clergy, regularly paid blackmail
+to the neighbouring nobles. Under these conditions it is no wonder that
+the electorate not only completely lost its political importance, but
+also suffered a considerable diminution of territory. Upper and lower
+Lusatia, the new mark of Brandenburg, and other outlying districts had
+been shorn away, and the electorate now consisted of the old mark, the
+middle mark with Priegnitz, Uckermark and Sternberg, a total area of not
+more than 10,000 sq.m.
+
+
+  Frederick of Hohenzollern, 1412.
+
+Such was the condition and extent of Brandenburg in 1411 when Frederick
+of Hohenzollern became the representative of King Sigismund therein.
+Entering the electorate with a strong force in June 1412, his authority
+was quickly recognized in the middle mark, but the nobles of the old
+mark and of Priegnitz refused to follow this example. The two succeeding
+years were skilfully used by Frederick to make peace with the
+neighbouring princes, and having thus isolated his domestic enemies, he
+turned his arms against them early in 1414. Their strongholds were
+stormed, and in a few weeks their leaders were either prisoners or
+fugitives. A general peace was then declared at Tangermunde which
+enabled Frederick to leave the mark to the rule of his wife, Elizabeth,
+and to turn his attention elsewhere. Returning to Brandenburg as elector
+in 1416, the last flickers of the insurrection were extinguished; and
+when Frederick was invested at Constance in April 1417 his authority
+over the mark was undisputed. His next difficulty was with Pomerania,
+which had been nominally under the suzerainty of Brandenburg since 1181.
+The revival of this claim by the elector provoked an invasion of the
+mark by an army of Pomeranians with their allies in 1420, when Frederick
+inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Angermunde; but in 1424 a
+temporary coolness between the elector and the emperor Sigismund led to
+a renewal of the attack which Frederick was unable to repulse. This
+reverse, together with the pressure of other business, induced him to
+leave Brandenburg in January 1426, after handing over its government to
+his eldest son, John. John, called the "Alchemist," who was born in
+1403, had been disappointed in his hope of obtaining the vacant
+electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg in 1423. Lacking the diplomatic and
+military qualities of his father, his difficulties were augmented by the
+poverty of the country, and the evils which Frederick had suppressed
+quickly returned. The feeling of security vanished, the towns banded
+themselves together for defensive purposes, the rights of the margrave
+were again pledged to provide money, and in 1432 the land was ravaged by
+the Hussites. John never attained to the electoral dignity; for, in
+1437, his father in arranging a division of his territories decided that
+Brandenburg should pass to his second and fourth sons, both of whom were
+named Frederick. The elder of the two took up the government at once,
+whereupon John left the mark for South Germany, where he remained until
+his death in 1464.
+
+
+  Frederick II.
+
+Frederick II., who became elector on his father's death in September
+1440, was born on the 19th of November 1413, and earned the surname of
+"Iron" through his sternness to his country's enemies. He had little
+difficulty in repressing the turbulence of the nobles which had been
+quickened into life during the regency of his brother, but found it less
+easy to deal with the towns. Three strong leagues had been formed among
+them about 1431, and the spirit of municipal independence was most
+prominently represented by the neighbouring and allied towns of Berlin
+and Coln. In his conflict with the towns over his refusal to ratify all
+their privileges the elector's task was lightened by a quarrel between
+the magistrates and the burghers of Berlin, which he was called in to
+decide in 1442. He deposed the governing oligarchy, changed the
+constitution of the town, forbade all alliances and laid the foundations
+of a castle. The inhabitants soon chafed under these restrictions. A
+revolt broke out in 1447, but the power of the elector overawed the
+people, who submitted their case to the estates, with the result that
+the arrangement of 1442 was re-established. In 1447 Frederick was
+compelled to cede the old mark and Priegnitz to his younger brother,
+Frederick, under whose feeble rule they quickly fell into disorder. In
+1463, however, when the younger Frederick died childless, the elector
+united them again with his own possessions and took measures to suppress
+the prevailing anarchy. In his dealings with neighbouring rulers
+Frederick pursued a peaceful and conciliatory policy. In 1442 he
+obtained some small additions to his territory, and the right of
+succession to the duchy of Mecklenburg in case the ducal family should
+die out. In 1445 an old feud with the archbishop of Magdeburg was
+settled, and in 1457 a treaty of mutual succession was made with the
+houses of Saxony and Hesse. Cottbus and Peitz in Lusatia were acquired,
+and retained after a quarrel with George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and
+the new mark of Brandenburg was purchased from the Teutonic order in
+1454. An attempt, however, to secure the duchy of Pomerania-Stettin
+failed, and the concluding years of this reign were troubled by warfare
+with the Pomeranians.
+
+The general success of Frederick's rule was secured by the sedulous care
+with which he confined himself to the work of government. He is said to
+have refused the thrones of Poland and Bohemia; and although he made
+pilgrimages to the Holy Land and to Rome, his interest in ecclesiastical
+questions was mainly directed towards quickening the religious life of
+his people. He obtained important concessions from Pope Nicholas V. with
+regard to the appointment of bishops and other ecclesiastical matters in
+1447, and in general maintained cordial relations with the papacy. About
+1467 his only son, John, died, and increasing infirmity led him to
+contemplate abdication. An arrangement was made with his brother, Albert
+Achilles, to whom early in 1470 the mark was handed over, and Frederick
+retired to Plassenburg where he died on the 10th of February 1471.
+
+
+  Albert Achilles.
+
+Albert appeared in Brandenburg early in the same year, and after
+receiving the homage of his people took up the struggle with the
+Pomeranians, which he soon brought to a satisfactory conclusion; for in
+May 1472 he not only obtained the cession of several districts, but was
+recognized as the suzerain of Pomerania and as its future ruler. The
+expenses of this war led to a quarrel with the estates. A subsidy was
+granted which the elector did not regard as adequate, and by a dexterous
+use of his power he established his right to take an excise on beer.
+Albert's most important contribution to the history of Brandenburg was
+the issue on the 24th of February 1473 of the _Dispositio Achillea_. By
+this instrument the elector decreed that the electoral mark should pass
+in its entirety to his eldest son, an establishment of primogeniture
+which had considerable influence on the future development of the
+country. He then entrusted the government to his eldest son, John, and
+left Brandenburg. Handicapped by poverty, John had to face attacks from
+two quarters. The Pomeranians, inspired by the declaration of the
+emperor Frederick III. that their land was a direct fief of the Empire,
+and aided by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, took up arms; and a
+quarrel broke out with John, duke of Sagan, over the possessions of
+John's brother-in-law, Henry XI., duke of Glogau. To deal with these
+difficulties Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, and during his stay
+drove back the Pomeranians, and added Crossen and other parts of duke
+Henry's possessions to the electorate. Again left in charge of the
+country, John beat back a fresh attack made by John of Sagan in 1482;
+and he became elector on his father's death in March 1486. He added the
+county of Zossen to his possessions in 1490, and in 1493 made a fresh
+treaty with the duke of Pomerania. Although he brought a certain degree
+of order into the finances, his poverty and the constant inroads of
+external enemies prevented him from seriously improving the condition of
+the country. John, who was called "Cicero," either on account of his
+eloquence, or of his knowledge of Latin, was interested in learning,
+welcomed Italian scholars to the electorate, and strove to improve the
+education of his people. He died at Arneburg on the 9th of January 1499,
+and was succeeded by his son Joachim I.
+
+
+  Joachim.
+
+When Joachim undertook the government of Brandenburg he had to deal with
+an amount of disorder almost as great as that which had taxed the
+energies of Frederick I. a century before. Highway robbery was general,
+the lives and property of traders were in continual jeopardy, and the
+machinery for the enforcement of the laws was almost at a standstill.
+About 1504 an attack of unusual ferocity on some Frankfort traders
+aroused the elector's wrath, and during the next few years the execution
+of many lawbreakers and other stern measures restored some degree of
+order. In this and in other ways Joachim proved himself a sincere friend
+to the towns and a protector of industry. Following the economic
+tendencies of the time he issued sumptuary laws and encouraged
+manufactures; while to suppress the rivalry among the towns he
+established an order of precedence for them. Equally important was his
+work in improving the administration of justice, and in this direction
+he was aided by scholars from the university which he had founded at
+Frankfort-on-Oder in 1506. He gave a new organization to the highest
+court of justice, the _Kammergericht_, secured for himself an important
+voice in the choice of its members, and ordered that the local law
+should be supplemented by the law of Rome. He did not largely increase
+the area of Brandenburg, but in 1524 he acquired the county of Ruppin,
+and in 1529 he made a treaty at Grimnitz with George and Barnim XI.,
+dukes of Pomerania, by which he surrendered the vexatious claim to
+suzerainty in return for a fresh promise of the succession in case the
+ducal family should become extinct. Joachim's attitude towards the
+teaching of Martin Luther which had already won many adherents in the
+electorate, was one of unrelenting hostility. The Jews also felt the
+weight of his displeasure, and were banished in 1510.
+
+
+  Joachim II.
+
+Ignoring the _Dispositio Achillea_, the elector bequeathed Brandenburg
+to his two sons. When he died in July 1535 the elder, Joachim II.,
+became elector, and obtained the old and middle marks, while the
+younger, John, received the new mark. John went definitely over to the
+side of the Lutherans in 1538, while Joachim allowed the reformed
+doctrines free entrance into his dominions in 1539. The elector,
+however, unlike his brother, did not break with the forms of the Church
+of Rome, but established an ecclesiastical organization independent of
+the pope, and took up a position similar to that of King Henry VIII. in
+England. Many of the monasteries were suppressed, a consistory was set
+up to take over the functions of the bishops and to act as the highest
+ecclesiastical court of the country. In 1541 the new ecclesiastical
+system was confirmed by the emperor Charles V. With regard to this
+policy the elector was probably influenced by considerations of greed.
+The bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus were secularized;
+their administration was entrusted to members of the elector's family;
+and their revenues formed a welcome addition to his impoverished
+exchequer. Nor did Joachim neglect other opportunities for adding to his
+wealth and possessions. In 1537 he had concluded a treaty with Frederick
+III., duke of Liegnitz, which guaranteed to the Hohenzollerns the
+succession to the Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau in the
+event of the ducal family becoming extinct; this arrangement is
+important as the basis of the claim made by Frederick the Great on
+Silesia in 1740. The treaty was declared invalid by the German king,
+Ferdinand I.; but the elector insisted on its legality, and in 1545
+strengthened his position by arranging a double marriage between members
+of his own family and that of Duke Frederick. Of more immediate
+consequence was an arrangement made in 1569 with the representatives of
+Joachim's kinsman, Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, after which the
+elector obtained the joint investiture of the duchy of Prussia from
+Sigismund II., king of Poland, and was assured of the succession if the
+duke's family became extinct. Joachim's luxurious habits, his partiality
+for adventurers, and his delight in building, led him to incur such a
+heavy expenditure that after pledging many of his lands and rights he
+was compelled in 1540 to appeal for help to the estates. Taking
+advantage of his difficulties, the estates voted him a sum of money as
+the price of valuable concessions, the most important of which was that
+the elector should make no alliance without their consent. Fresh
+liabilities were soon incurred, and in spite of frequent contributions
+from the estates Joachim left at his death in January 1571 a heavy
+burden of debt to his son and successor, John George.
+
+
+  John George.
+
+The elector's death was followed ten days later by that of his brother,
+John, and as John left no sons the whole of Brandenburg, together with
+the districts of Beeskow and Storkow which had been added by purchase to
+the new mark, were united under the rule of his nephew, John George.
+Born on the 11th of September 1525 this prince had served in the field
+under Charles V., and, disliking his father's policy and associates, had
+absented himself from Berlin, and mainly confined his attention to
+administering the secularized bishopric of Brandenburg which he had
+obtained in 1560. When he became elector he hastened to put his ideas
+into practice. His father's favourites were exiled; foreigners were
+ousted from public positions and their places taken by natives; and
+important economies were effected, which earned for John George the
+surname of _Oekonom_, or steward. To lighten the heavy burden of debt
+left by Joachim the elector proposed a tax on wheat and other cereals.
+Some opposition was shown, but eventually the estates of both divisions
+of the mark assented; only, however at the price of concessions to the
+nobles, predominant in the diet, which thrust the peasantry into
+servitude. Thus the rule of John George was popular with the nobles, and
+to some extent with the towns. Protestant refugees from France and the
+Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Brandenburg, and a period of
+peace was beneficial to a land, the condition of which was still much
+inferior to that of other parts of Germany. In religion the elector was
+a follower of Luther, whose doctrines were prevalent among his people.
+He had accepted the _Formula Concordiae_, a Lutheran document
+promulgated in June 1580, and sought to prevent any departure from its
+tenets. His dislike of Calvinism, or his antipathy to external
+complications, however, prevented him from taking any serious steps to
+defend Protestantism from the attacks of the counter-reformation. He did
+indeed join the league of Torgau, which voted assistance to Henry IV. of
+France in 1591; but he refused to aid the United Provinces, or even to
+give assistance to his eldest son, Joachim Frederick, administrator of
+the archbishopric of Magdeburg, whose claim to sit and vote in the
+imperial diet was contested, or to his grandson, John George, whose
+election to the bishopric of Strassburg was opposed by a Roman Catholic
+minority in the chapter. This indifference to the welfare of the
+Protestants added to the estrangement between the elector and his eldest
+son, which was further accentuated when John George, ignoring the
+_Dispositio Achillea_, bequeathed the new mark to one of his younger
+sons. He died on the 8th of January 1598.
+
+
+  Joachim Frederick.
+
+Joachim Frederick, who now became elector, was born on the 27th of
+January 1546. Since 1553 he had held the bishopric of Havelberg, since
+1555 that of Lebus; he had been administrator of Magdeburg since 1566,
+and of Brandenburg since 1571. Resigning these dignities in 1598, he
+contested his father's will, and was successful in preventing a
+division of the electorate. An agreement with George Frederick, the
+childless margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth, paved the way for an
+arrangement with the elector's younger brothers, who after the
+margrave's death in April 1603, shared his lands in Franconia, and were
+compensated in other ways for surrendering all claims on Brandenburg.
+This agreement, known as the Gera Bond, ratified the _Dispositio
+Achillea_. By George Frederick's death, Joachim became administrator of
+the duchy of Prussia, ruled nominally by the weak-minded Albert
+Frederick, but he had some difficulty in asserting his position. In
+Brandenburg he made concessions to the nobles at the expense of the
+peasantry, and admitted the right of the estates to control taxation. In
+religious matters he was convinced of the necessity of a union between
+Lutherans and Calvinists, and took steps to bring this about. Public
+opinion, however, in Brandenburg was too strong for him, and he was
+compelled to fall back upon the Lutheran _Formula_ and the religious
+policy of his father. Joachim seems to have been a wise ruler, who
+improved in various ways the condition of the mark. He married
+Catherine, daughter of John, margrave of Brandenburg-Custrin, and when
+he died, on the 18th of July 1608, was succeeded by his eldest son John
+Sigismund.
+
+
+  John Sigismund.
+
+The new elector, born on the 8th of November 1572, had married in 1594
+Anna, daughter of Albert Frederick of Prussia, a union which not only
+strengthened the pretensions of the electors of Brandenburg to the
+succession in that duchy, but gave to John Sigismund a claim on the
+duchies of Cleves, Julich and Berg, and other Rhenish lands should the
+ruling family become extinct. In March 1609 the death of Duke John
+William left these duchies without a ruler, and by arrangement they were
+occupied jointly by the elector and by his principal rival, Wolfgang,
+son of Philip Louis, count palatine of Neuburg. This proceeding aroused
+some opposition, and, complicated by religious considerations and by the
+excited state of European politics, almost precipitated a general war.
+However, in November 1614 the dispute was temporarily settled by the
+treaty of Xanten. Brandenburg obtained the duchy of Cleves with the
+counties of Mark and Ravensberg, but as the Dutch and Spanish garrisons
+were not withdrawn, these lands were only nominally under the elector's
+rule. In 1609, John Sigismund had joined the Evangelical Union, probably
+to win support in the Rhineland, and the same consideration was
+doubtless one reason why, in 1613, he forsook the Lutheran doctrines of
+his family, and became an adherent of the reformed, or Calvinist, faith.
+This step aroused grave discontent in the electorate, and, quickly
+abandoning his attempts to proselytize, the elector practically conceded
+religious liberty to his subjects. Over the Cleves-Julich succession,
+John Sigismund had incurred heavy expenses, and the public debt had
+again mounted up. He was thus obliged to seek aid from the estates, and
+in return for grants to make concessions to the nobles. The elector
+spent much of his time in Prussia striving to assert his authority in
+that duchy, and in August 1618, according to the arrangement of 1569,
+became duke by the death of Albert Frederick. He only enjoyed this
+dignity for a short time, as he died on the 23rd of December 1619. He
+was succeeded by his eldest son, George William.
+
+
+  George William.
+
+The new elector, born on the 3rd of November 1597, proved a weak and
+incapable ruler. He had married Elizabeth, daughter of Frederick IV.,
+elector palatine of the Rhine, and sister of the elector Frederick V.,
+afterwards king of Bohemia, and before his accession had acted as his
+father's representative in Cleves. Although a Protestant he was under
+the influence of Adam, count of Schwarzenberg, who was a Roman Catholic
+of imperialist sympathies. As a result the elector remained neutral
+during the early years of the Thirty Years' War in spite of his
+relationship with Frederick of the Palatinate, and the obvious danger to
+his Rhenish lands. This attitude was not successful. Brandenburg was
+ravaged impartially by both parties, and in 1627 George William attacked
+his brother-in-law, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who was using Prussia
+as a base of operations for his war against Poland. This campaign was
+short and inglorious for Brandenburg, and the elector was soon compelled
+to make peace. Although alarmed by the edict of restitution of 1629,
+George William took no steps to help the Protestants. In 1631, however,
+Gustavus Adolphus marched on Berlin, compelled the elector to cede the
+fortress of Spandau, and to aid him with men and money. The Brandenburg
+troops then assisted the Swedes until after the death of Gustavus in
+1632, and the Swedish defeat at Nordlingen in 1634, when the elector
+assented to the treaty of Prague, which was made in May 1635 between the
+emperor Ferdinand II. and John George I., elector of Saxony. The
+imperialists did nothing, however, to drive the Swedes from Brandenburg,
+and the unfortunate land was entirely at the mercy of the enemy. This
+was the principal reason why the elector was unable to annex Pomerania
+when its last duke, Bogislaus XIV., died in 1637. In 1638 George William
+transferred his residence to Konigsberg, leaving Schwarzenberg to
+administer the electorate. Although his harsh measures aroused some
+irritation, the count did something to rid the land of the Swedes and to
+mitigate its many evils; but its condition was still very deplorable
+when George William died at Konigsberg on the 1st of December 1640,
+leaving an only son, Frederick William. The most important facts in the
+internal history of Brandenburg during the 16th century were the
+increase in the power of the estates, owing chiefly to the continuous
+pecuniary needs of the electors; the gradual decline in the political
+importance of the towns, due mainly to intestine feuds; and the lapse of
+the peasantry into servitude. These events gave a preponderance of power
+to the nobles, but concurrently a number of circumstances were silently
+preparing the way for a great increase of authority on the part of the
+ruler. The substitution of the elector for the pope as head of the
+church; the introduction of Roman law with its emphasis on a central
+authority and a central administration; the determined and successful
+efforts to avoid any partition of the electorate; and the increasing
+tendency of the separate sections of the diet to act independently; all
+tended in this direction. This new order was heralded in 1604 by the
+establishment of a council of state, devoted to the interests of the
+elector, which strengthened his authority, and paved the way for a
+bureaucratic government.
+
+
+  Frederick William, the "Great Elector."
+
+When Frederick William, the "Great Elector," became ruler of Brandenburg
+in 1640 he found the country in a very deplorable condition. Trade and
+agriculture were almost destroyed, and the inhabitants, compelled to
+support the Swedish army of occupation, suffered also from the
+disorderly conduct of the native soldiers. Although the young elector
+spent the two first years of his reign mainly in Prussia, he was by no
+means forgetful of Brandenburg, and began resolutely to root out the
+many evils which had sprung up during the feeble rule of his father. The
+powers of Schwarzenberg were curtailed; the state council was restored;
+and the licence of the soldiers was restrained, while their numbers were
+reduced. Then turning his attention to the Swedes a truce was arranged,
+and soon afterwards, in return for an indemnity, they agreed to evacuate
+the electorate. Having returned to Brandenburg in 1643, Frederick
+William remained neutral during the concluding years of the Thirty
+Years' War, and set to work to organize an army and to effect financial
+reforms. About the same time diplomatic methods freed Cleves, Mark and
+Ravensberg from foreign troops, but the estates of these lands gained a
+temporary victory when the elector attacked their privileges. However,
+in 1647 his title was formally admitted by Wolfgang, count palatine of
+Neuburg.
+
+The terms of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 are the best commentary on
+the general success of the elector's policy. Although he was obliged to
+give up his claim to the western part of Pomerania in favour of Sweden,
+he secured the eastern part of that duchy, together with the secularized
+bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden and Kammin, and other lands, the whole
+forming a welcome addition to the area of Brandenburg. He was also
+promised the archbishopric of Magdeburg when its administrator,
+Augustus, duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, should die. This event happened in
+1680 when he secured the lands of the archbishopric. The elector did
+not, however, take possession of the newly-acquired territories at once.
+Fresh difficulties arose with Sweden, and it was not until 1653 that
+eastern Pomerania was freed from her soldiers. Meanwhile a new quarrel
+had broken out with Wolfgang of Neuburg. In 1650 Frederick William
+attacked his rival, but a variety of circumstances, among others a
+change of government in the Netherlands, and the resistance of the
+estates of Cleves, thwarted his plans, and he was compelled to listen to
+the mediating powers, and to acquiesce in the _status quo_.
+
+Profiting by these reverses the elector then undertook a series of
+internal reforms, tending to strengthen the central authority, and to
+mitigate the constant lack of money, which was perhaps his chief
+obstacle to success; a work in which he was aided by George, count of
+Waldeck (1620-1692), who became his chief adviser about this time. In
+1651 the powers of the state council were extended to include all the
+lands under the elector's rule; and a special committee was appointed to
+effect financial economies, and so to augment the electoral resources.
+In imperial politics Frederick William supported the election of
+Ferdinand, son of the emperor Ferdinand III., as king of the Romans in
+1653; but when the emperor failed to fulfil his promises, influenced by
+Waldeck, he acted in opposition to the imperial interests, and even
+formed a plan for a great alliance against the Habsburgs. These projects
+were disturbed by the war which broke out in 1655 between Sweden and
+Poland. In this struggle the elector fought first on one side and then
+on the other; but the important consequences of his conduct belong
+rather to the history of the duchy of Prussia (q.v.). The transfer of
+the elector's support from Sweden to Poland in 1656 was followed by the
+fall from power of Waldeck, who was succeeded by Otto von Schwerin
+(1616-1679), under whose influence the elector's relations with the
+emperor became more cordial.
+
+The increase in the prestige of Brandenburg was due chiefly to his army,
+which was gradually brought to a high state of efficiency. A proper
+organization was established to superintend the pay and maintenance of
+the soldiers, and they were commanded by experienced officers, among
+others by Georg Derfflingen (1606-1695), and Otto von Sparr (1605-1668).
+The general poverty, however, made the estates reluctant to support a
+standing army, and after the peace of Oliva in 1660, it was reduced to
+about 3500 men. The continual difficulties with the estates of his
+different dominions had harassed and hampered the elector, and the
+general peace which followed the treaty of Oliva offered a favourable
+opportunity to curtail their powers. Undaunted by two previous rebuffs
+he attacked the estates of Cleves, and by a display of force gained a
+substantial victory. Some important privileges were annulled, and he
+obtained a considerable sum of money. The _Landtag_ of Brandenburg was
+not cowed so easily into submission, but an increase of revenue was
+obtained, and the stubborn struggle which ensued in Prussia ended in a
+victory for the ruler. This increased income enabled the elector to take
+a more considerable part in European politics. In 1663 he assisted the
+imperialists in their struggle with the Turks; in 1666 the dispute over
+Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg was finally settled, and Brandenburg were
+confirmed in the possession of these lands; and in the same year a
+reconciliation was effected with Sweden. Several disputes which
+threatened to disturb the peace of the Empire were settled through his
+mediation, and he compelled the citizens of Magdeburg to do homage to
+him. In religious matters he interceded with the emperor and the diet
+for the Protestants, and sought, but without success, to bring about a
+reconciliation between Lutherans and Calvinists in Brandenburg.
+
+The elector's relations with Louis XIV. of France are full of interest.
+After the conclusion of the war of devolution in 1667, he allied himself
+with Louis, and together they agreed to support the candidature of
+Wolfgang of Neuburg for the vacant Polish throne. In 1668, moreover, he
+refused to join the triple alliance against France, but soon afterwards
+became aware of the danger to his country from the aggressive policy of
+Louis. The United Provinces were bound to him by religious interests,
+political considerations, and family ties alike, and he could not be
+indifferent when their position was threatened by France. In spite of
+tempting offers from Louis, he was the first to join the Dutch when they
+were attacked by Louis in 1672, and conducted an ineffectual campaign on
+the Rhine until June 1673, when he was forced to make peace. In July
+1674, however, he joined the Empire, the United Provinces and Spain, and
+in return for a subsidy, fought against France in Alsace. Meanwhile
+Louis had instigated the Swedes to invade Brandenburg, which had been
+left to the care of John George II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau. Hastening
+from Franconia to defend the electorate, Frederick William gained a
+complete victory over a superior number of the enemy at Fehrbellin on
+the 28th of June 1675, a great and glorious day for the arms of
+Brandenburg. Aided by the imperialists and the Danes, he followed up
+this success, and cleared Brandenburg and Pomerania of the Swedes,
+capturing Stettin in 1677 and Stralsund in 1678, while an attack made by
+Sweden on Prussia was successfully repelled. The general peace of
+Nijmwegen was followed by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye in June 1679
+between Sweden and Brandenburg. Owing, however, to the insistence of
+Louis XIV. and the indifference, or weakness, of the emperor Leopold I.,
+the elector was forced to restore western Pomerania to Sweden, in return
+for the payment of 300,000 crowns by France. This feebleness on the part
+of his ally induced Frederick William to listen more readily to the
+overtures of Louis, and in 1679, and again in 1681, he bound himself to
+support the interests of France. He had, moreover, a further grievance
+against the emperor as Leopold refused to recognize his right to the
+Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, which had been left
+without a ruler in 1675. About 1684, however, the foreign policy of
+Brandenburg underwent another change. Disliking the harshness shown by
+Louis to the Protestants, the elector concluded an alliance with
+William, prince of Orange, in August 1685; and entered into more
+friendly relations with the emperor. Further incensed against France by
+the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, he made an alliance with
+Leopold in January 1686, agreeing in return for a subsidy to send troops
+against the Turks. Soon afterwards he received Schwiebus to compensate
+him for abandoning his claim on the Silesian duchies, and in a secret
+treaty made promises of support to Leopold. The great elector died in
+May 1688, leaving his territories to his eldest son, Frederick.
+
+The remarkable services of Frederick William to his country can best be
+judged by comparing its condition in 1640 with that in 1688. At his
+accession the greater part of his territory was occupied by strangers
+and devastated by war, and in European politics Brandenburg was merely
+an appendage of the empire. Its army was useless; its soil was poor; its
+revenue was insignificant. At his death the state of Brandenburg-Prussia
+was a power to be reckoned with in all European combinations. Inferior
+to Austria alone among the states of the Empire, it was regarded as the
+head of the German Protestantism; while the fact that one-third of its
+territory lay outside the Empire added to its importance. Its area had
+been increased to over 40,000 sq. m.; its revenue had multiplied
+sevenfold; and its small army was unsurpassed for efficiency. The
+elector had overthrown Sweden and inherited her position on the Baltic,
+and had offered a steady and not ineffectual resistance to the ambition
+of France.
+
+While thus winning for himself a position in the councils of Europe,
+Frederick William was not less active in strengthening the central
+authority within his own dominions. He found Brandenburg a
+constitutional state, in which the legislative power was shared between
+the elector and the diet; he left it to his successor substantially an
+absolute monarchy. Many circumstances assisted to bring about this
+change, among the chief of which were the want of harmonious action on
+the part of the estates, and the decline in the political power of the
+towns. The substitution of a permanent excise for the subsidies granted
+from time to time by the estates also tended to increase his
+independence, and the officials or _Steuerrathe_, appointed by him to
+collect this tax in the towns, gradually absorbed many of the
+administrative functions of the local authorities. The nobles and
+prelates generally preferred to raise their share of the revenue by the
+old method of a _bede_, or contribution, thus weakening the remaining
+bond between them and the burghers.
+
+In matters of general administration Frederick William showed himself a
+prudent and careful ruler, and laid the foundation of the future
+greatness of Prussia in almost every department. The wounds inflicted by
+the Thirty Years' War were in a great measure healed, and the finances
+and credit of the state were established on a firm basis. Agriculture
+and commerce were improved and encouraged by a variety of useful
+measures, and in this connexion the settlement of a large number of
+Flemings, and the welcome extended to French Protestants, both before
+and after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, were of incalculable
+service. A small but efficient navy was founded, and strict economy,
+together with increasing resources, enabled a disciplined army to be
+maintained. Education was not neglected, a trading company was
+established, and colonies were founded on the west coast of Africa. In
+religious matters Calvinists and Lutherans were placed upon an equality,
+but the elector was unable to impress his own spirit of tolerance upon
+the clergy, who were occupied with ecclesiastical squabbles while the
+state of education and of public morals left much to be desired. The
+condition of the peasantry, however, during this reign reached its
+lowest point, and the "recess," or charter, of 1653 practically
+recognizes the existence of villenage. While the nobles had been losing
+power with regard to the ruler they had been increasing it at the
+expense of the peasants. The Thirty Years' War afforded them frequent
+opportunities of replacing the village _Schulzen_, or magistrates, with
+officials of their own; and the fact that their share of taxation was
+wholly wrung from the peasants made the burden of the latter much
+heavier than that of the townsmen.
+
+
+  Frederick III.
+
+The new elector, Frederick III., followed in general the policy of his
+father. Having persuaded his step-brothers to surrender the
+principalities bequeathed to them by the great elector, he assisted
+William of Orange to make his descent on England; then in 1688 allied
+himself with other German princes against Louis XIV., and afterwards
+fought for the Empire against both France and Turkey. Before he became
+elector Frederick had promised the emperor that he would restore
+Schwiebus, and he was now called upon to fulfil this engagement, which
+after some murmuring he did in 1695. This fact, however, together with
+some slights put upon him at the peace of 1697, led him to look with
+less favour upon imperial interests. Frederick's chief adviser about
+this time was Eberhard Danckelmann (1643-1722), whose services in
+continuing the reforming work of the great elector were very valuable;
+but having made many enemies, the electress Sophia among them, he fell
+from power in 1697, and was imprisoned for several years. The most
+important work of the elector was to crown the labours of his father by
+securing the kingly title for himself and his descendants. Broached in
+1692 this matter was brought up again in 1698 when the emperor and his
+ministers, faced with the prospect of a fight over the Spanish
+succession, were anxious to conciliate Brandenburg. It was at length
+decided that the title should be taken from Prussia rather than from
+Brandenburg as the former country lay outside the Empire, and in return
+Frederick promised to assist Leopold with 8000 men. The coronation
+ceremony took place at Konigsberg on the 18th of January 1701. The
+territorial additions to Brandenburg during this reign were few and
+unimportant, but the comparative wealth and prosperity enabled the
+elector to do a good deal for education, and to spend some money on
+buildings. In 1694 the university of Halle was founded; academies for
+arts and sciences were established, and Berlin was greatly improved. The
+subsequent history of Brandenburg is merged in that of Prussia (q.v.).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. Brosien, _Geschichte der Mark Brandenburg in
+  Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1887); G.G. Kuster, _Bibliotheca historica
+  Brandenburgensis_ (Breslau, 1743); and _Accessiones_ (Breslau, 1768),
+  and _Collectio opusculorum historiam marchicam illustrantium_
+  (Breslau, 1731-1733); A. Voss and G. Stimming, _Vorgeschichtliche
+  Alterthumer aus der Mark Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1886-1890); F. Voigt,
+  _Geschichte des brandenburgisch-preussischen Staats_ (Berlin, 1878);
+  E. Berner, _Geschichte des preussischen Staats_ (Berlin, 1890-1891);
+  A.F. Riedel, _Codex diplomaticus Brandenburgensis_ (Berlin,
+  1838-1865); J. Heidemann, _Die Reformation in der Mark Brandenburg_
+  (Berlin, 1889); _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen und preussischen
+  Geschichte_, edited by R. Koser (Leipzig, 1888 fol.); T. Carlyle,
+  _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. i. (London, 1858); J.G.
+  Droysen, _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_ (Berlin, 1855-1886); E.
+  Lavisse, _Etude sur une des origines de la monarchie prussienne_
+  (Paris, 1875); B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_, Band
+  ii. (Leipzig, 1901).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+BRANDENBURG, the central and one of the largest provinces of Prussia,
+consisting of a part of the former electorate of Brandenburg from which
+it derives its name. With the other territories of the elector of
+Brandenburg, it was merged in 1701 in the kingdom of Prussia, and when
+the administration of Prussia was reformed in 1815, Brandenburg became
+one of the provinces of Prussia. The boundaries of the new province,
+however, differed considerably from those of the old district. The old
+mark, the district on the left bank of the Elbe, was added to the
+province of Saxony, and in return a district to the south, taken from
+the kingdom of Saxony, was added to the province of Brandenburg. It has
+an area of 15,382 sq. m., and is divided into the two governments of
+Potsdam and Frankfort-on-Oder; the capital, Berlin, forming a separate
+jurisdiction. The province is a sandy plain interspersed with numerous
+fertile districts and considerable stretches of woodland, mostly pine
+and fir. Its barrenness was formerly much exaggerated, when it was
+popularly described as the "sandbox of the Holy Roman Empire." It is
+generally well watered by tributaries of its two principal rivers, the
+Elbe and the Oder, and is besides remarkable for the number of its
+lakes, of which it contains between 600 and 700. The mineral products
+comprise lignite, limestone, gypsum, alum and potter's earth; barley and
+rye are the usual cereals; fruits and vegetables are abundant; and
+considerable quantities of hemp, flax, hops and tobacco are raised. The
+breeding of sheep receives much attention, and the province exports wool
+in considerable quantity. Bees are largely kept, and there is an
+abundance of game. The rivers and lakes also furnish fish, particularly
+carp, of excellent quality. The climate is cold and raw in winter,
+excessively hot in summer, and there are frequently violent storms of
+wind. The manufacturing industry of the province is both varied and
+extensive, but is for the most part concentrated in the principal towns.
+The most important branches are the spinning and weaving of wool and
+cotton, the manufacturing of paper, and the distillation of brandy. Pop.
+(1895) 2,821,695; (1905) 3,529,839.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the district and province of
+same name, on the river Havel, 36 m. S.W. from Berlin, on the main line
+to Magdeburg and the west. Pop. (1905) 51,251, including 3643 military.
+The town is enclosed by walls, and is divided into three parts by the
+river--the old town on the right and the new town on the left bank,
+while on an island between them is the "cathedral town,"--and is also
+called, from its position, "Venice." Many of the houses are built on
+piles in the river. There are five old churches (Protestant), all more
+or less noteworthy. These are the Katharinenkirche (nave 1381-1401,
+choir c. 1410, western tower 1583-1585), a Gothic brick church with a
+fine carved wooden altar and several interesting medieval tombs; the
+Petrikirche (14th century Gothic); the cathedral (Domkirche), originally
+a Romanesque basilica (1170), but rebuilt in the Gothic style in the
+14th century, with a good altar-piece (1465), &c., and noted for its
+remarkable collection of medieval vestments; the Gothardskirche, partly
+Romanesque (1160), partly Gothic (1348); the Nikolaikirche (12th and
+13th centuries), now no longer used. There is also a Roman Catholic
+church. Of other buildings may be mentioned the former town hall of the
+"old town" (Altstadt Rathaus), built in the 13th and 14th centuries, now
+used as government offices; the new Real-gymnasium; and the town hall in
+the Neustadt, before which, in the market-place, stands a Rolandssaule,
+a colossal figure 18 ft. in height, hewn out of a single block of stone.
+A little north of the town is the Marienberg, or Harlungerberg, on which
+the heathen temple of Triglaff and afterwards the church and convent of
+St Mary were built. On the top stands a lofty monument to the soldiers
+from the Mark who fell in the wars of 1864, 1866 and 1870-71. The town
+has a considerable trade, with manufactures of woollens, silks, linens,
+hosiery and paper, as well as breweries, tanneries, boat-building and
+bicycle factories.
+
+Brandenburg, originally _Brennaburg_ (_Brennabor_) or _Brendanburg_, was
+originally a town of the Slavic tribe of the Hevelli, from whom it was
+captured (927-928) by the German king Henry I. In 948 Otto I. founded a
+bishopric here, which was subordinated first to the archdiocese of
+Mainz, but from 968 onwards to the newly created archbishopric of
+Magdeburg. It was, however, destroyed by the heathen Wends in 983, and
+was only restored when Albert the Bear recaptured the town from them in
+1153. In 1539 the bishop of Brandenburg, Matthias von Jagow, embraced
+the Lutheran faith, and five years later the Protestant worship was
+established in the cathedral. The see was administered by the elector of
+Brandenburg until 1598 and then abolished, its territories being for the
+most part incorporated in the electoral domains. The cathedral chapter,
+however, survived, and though suppressed in 1810, it was restored in
+1824. It consists of twelve canons, of whom three only are spiritual,
+the other nine prebends being held by noblemen; all are in the gift of
+the king of Prussia.
+
+The "old" and "new" towns of Brandenburg were for centuries separate
+towns, having been united under a single municipality so late as 1717.
+
+  See Schillmann, _Geschichte der Stadt Brandenburg_ (Brandenburg,
+  1874-1882).
+
+
+
+
+BRANDER, GUSTAVUS (1720-1787), English naturalist, who came of a Swedish
+family, was born in London in 1720, and was brought up as a merchant, in
+which capacity he achieved success and became a director of the Bank of
+England. His leisure time was occupied in scientific pursuits, and at
+his country residence at Christchurch in Hampshire he became interested
+in the fossils so abundant in the clays of Hordwell and Barton. A set of
+these was presented by him to the British Museum, and they were
+described by D.C. Solander in the beautifully illustrated work entitled
+_Fossilia Hantoniensia collecta, et in Musaeo Britannico deposita a
+Gustavo Brander_ (London, 1766). Brander was elected F.R.S. in 1754, and
+he was also a trustee of the British Museum. He died on the 21st of
+January 1787.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN (1842- ), Danish critic and literary
+historian, was born in Copenhagen on the 4th of February 1842. He became
+a student in the university in 1859, and first studied jurisprudence.
+From this, however, his maturer taste soon turned to philosophy and
+aesthetics. In 1862 he won the gold medal of the university for an essay
+on _The Nemesis Idea among the Ancients_. Before this, indeed since
+1858, he had shown a remarkable gift for verse-writing, the results of
+which, however, were not abundant enough to justify separate
+publication. Brandes, indeed, did not collect his poems till so late as
+1898. At the university, which he left in 1864, Brandes was much under
+the influence of the writings of Heiberg in criticism and Soren
+Kierkegaard in philosophy, influences which have continued to leave
+traces on his work. In 1866 he took part in the controversy raised by
+the works of Rasmus Nielsen in a treatise on "Dualism in our Recent
+Philosophy." From 1865 to 1871 he travelled much in Europe, acquainting
+himself with the condition of literature in the principal centres of
+learning. His first important contribution to letters was his _Aesthetic
+Studies_ (1868), in which, in several brief monographs on Danish poets,
+his maturer method is already foreshadowed. In 1870 he published several
+important volumes, _The French Aesthetics of Our Days_, dealing chiefly
+with Taine, _Criticisms and Portraits_, and a translation of _The
+Subjection of Women_ of John Stuart Mill, whom he had met that year
+during a visit to England. Brandes now took his place as the leading
+critic of the north of Europe, applying to local conditions and habits
+of thought the methods of Taine. He became _docent_ or reader in _Belles
+Lettres_ at the university of Copenhagen, where his lectures were the
+sensation of the hour. On the professorship of Aesthetics becoming
+vacant in 1872, it was taken as a matter of course that Brandes would be
+appointed. But the young critic had offended many susceptibilities by
+his ardent advocacy of modern ideas; he was known to be a Jew, he was
+convicted of being a Radical, he was suspected of being an atheist. The
+authorities refused to elect him, but his fitness for the post was so
+obvious that the chair of Aesthetics in the university of Copenhagen
+remained vacant, no one else daring to place himself in comparison with
+Brandes. In the midst of these polemics the critic began to issue the
+most ambitious of his works, _Main Streams in the Literature of the
+Nineteenth Century_, of which four volumes appeared between 1872 and
+1875 (English translation, 1901-1905). The brilliant novelty of this
+criticism of the literature of the chief countries of Europe at the
+beginning of the 19th century, and his description of the general revolt
+against the pseudo-classicism of the 18th century, at once attracted
+attention outside Denmark. The tumult which gathered round the person of
+the critic increased the success of the work, and the reputation of
+Brandes grew apace, especially in Germany and Russia. Among his later
+writings must be mentioned the monographs on _Soren Kierkegaard_ (1877),
+on _Esaias Tegner_ (1878), on _Benjamin Disraeli_ (1878), _Ferdinand
+Lassalle_ (in German, 1877), _Ludvig Holberg_ (1884), on _Henrik Ibsen_
+(1899) and on _Anatole France_ (1905). Brandes has written with great
+fulness on the main contemporary poets and novelists of his own country
+and of Norway, and he and his disciples have long been the arbiters of
+literary fame in the north. His _Danish Poets_ (1877), containing
+studies of Carsten Hauch, Ludwig Bodtcher, Christian Winther, and
+Paludan-Muller, his _Men of the Modern Transition_ (1883), and his
+_Essays_ (1889), are volumes essential to the proper study of modern
+Scandinavian literature. He wrote an excellent book on _Poland_ (1888;
+English translation, 1903), and was one of the editors of the German
+version of _Ibsen_. In 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen and settled in
+Berlin, taking a considerable part in the aesthetic life of that city.
+His political views, however, made Prussia uncomfortable for him, and he
+returned in 1883 to Copenhagen, where he found a whole new school of
+writers and thinkers eager to receive him as their leader. The most
+important of his recent works has been his study of Shakespeare
+(1897-1898), which was translated into English by William Archer, and at
+once took a high position. It was, perhaps, the most authoritative work
+on Shakespeare, not principally intended for an English-speaking
+audience, which had been published in any country. He was afterwards
+engaged on a history of modern Scandinavian literature. In his critical
+work, which extends over a wider field than that of any other living
+writer, Brandes has been aided by a singularly charming style, lucid and
+reasonable, enthusiastic without extravagance, brilliant and coloured
+without affectation. His influence on the Scandinavian writers of the
+'eighties was very great, but a reaction, headed by Holger Drachmann,
+against his "realistic" doctrines, began in 1885 (see DENMARK:
+_Literature_). In 1900 he collected his works for the first time in a
+complete and popular edition, and began to superintend a German complete
+edition in 1902.
+
+His brother Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), also a well-known critic, was the
+author of a number of plays, and of two psychological novels: _A
+Politician_ (1889), and _Young Blood_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+BRANDING (from Teutonic _brinnan_, to burn), in criminal law a mode of
+punishment; also a method of marking goods or animals; in either case by
+stamping with a hot iron. The Greeks branded their slaves with a Delta,
+[Delta], for [Greek: doulos]. Robbers and runaway slaves were marked by
+the Romans with the letter F (_fur_, _fugitivus_); and the toilers in
+the mines, and convicts condemned to figure in gladiatorial shows, were
+branded on the forehead for identification. Under Constantine the face
+was not permitted to be so disfigured, the branding being on the hand,
+arm or calf. The canon law sanctioned the punishment, and in France
+galley-slaves could be branded "TF" (_travaux forces_) until 1832. In
+Germany, however, branding was illegal. The punishment was adopted by
+the Anglo-Saxons, and the ancient law of England authorized the penalty.
+By the Statute of Vagabonds (1547) under Edward VI. vagabonds, gipsies
+and brawlers were ordered to be branded, the first two with a large V on
+the breast, the last with F for "fraymaker." Slaves, too, who ran away
+were branded with S on cheek or forehead. This law was repealed in 1636.
+From the time of Henry VII. branding was inflicted for all offences
+which received benefit of clergy (q.v.), but it was abolished for such
+in 1822. In 1698 it was enacted that those convicted of petty theft or
+larceny, who were entitled to benefit of clergy, should be "burnt in the
+most visible part of the left cheek, nearest the nose." This special
+ordinance was repealed in 1707. James Nayler, the mad Quaker, who in the
+year 1655 claimed to be the Messiah, had his tongue bored through and
+his forehead branded B for blasphemer.
+
+In the Lancaster criminal court a branding-iron is still preserved in
+the dock. It is a long bolt with a wooden handle at one end and an M
+(malefactor) at the other. Close by are two iron loops for firmly
+securing the hands during the operation. The brander, after examination,
+would turn to the judge and exclaim, "A fair mark, my lord." Criminals
+were formerly ordered to hold up their hands before sentence to show if
+they had been previously convicted.
+
+Cold branding or branding with cold irons became in the 18th century the
+mode of nominally inflicting the punishment on prisoners of higher rank.
+"When Charles Moritz, a young German, visited England in 1782 he was
+much surprised at this custom, and in his diary mentioned the case of a
+clergyman who had fought a duel and killed his man in Hyde Park. Found
+guilty of manslaughter he was _burnt_ in the hand, if that could be
+called burning which was done with a cold iron" (Markham's _Ancient
+Punishments of Northants_, 1886). Such cases led to branding becoming
+obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except in the case of deserters
+from the army. These were marked with the letter D, not with hot irons
+but by tattooing with ink or gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were
+also branded with BC (bad character). By the British Mutiny Act of 1858
+it was enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other penalty,
+may order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 in. below the
+armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than 1 in. long.
+In 1879 this was abolished.
+
+  See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle,
+  _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1790-1867), German philologist and historian
+of philosophy, was born at Hildesheim and educated at Kiel University.
+In 1812 he graduated at Copenhagen, with a thesis _Commentationes
+Eleaticae_ (a collection of fragments from Xenophanes, Parmenides and
+Melissus). For a time he studied at Gottingen, and in 1815 presented as
+his inaugural dissertation at Berlin his essay _Von dem Begriff der
+Geschichte der Philosophie_. In 1816 he refused an extraordinary
+professorship at Heidelberg in order to accompany B.G. Niebuhr to Italy
+as secretary to the Prussian embassy. Subsequently he assisted I. Bekker
+in the preparation of his edition of Aristotle. In 1821 he became
+professor of philosophy in the newly founded university of Bonn, and in
+1823 published his _Aristotelius et Theophrasti Metaphysica_. With
+Boeckh and Niebuhr he edited the _Rheinisches Museum_, to which he
+contributed important articles on Socrates (1827, 1829). In 1836-1839 he
+was tutor to the young king Otho of Greece. His great work, the
+_Handbuch der Geschichte der griechisch-rom. Philos_. (1835-1866;
+republished in a smaller and more systematic form, _Gesch. d.
+Entwickelungen d. griech. Philos_., 1862-1866), is characterized by
+sound criticism. Brandis died on the 21st of July 1867.
+
+  See Trendelenburg, _Zur Erinnerung an C. A. B_. (Berlin, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+BRANDON, a city and port of entry of Manitoba, Canada, on the
+Assiniboine river, and the Canadian Pacific and Canadian Northern
+railways, situated 132 m. W. of Winnipeg, 1184 ft. above the sea. Pop.
+(1891) 3778; (1907) 12,519. It is in one of the finest agricultural
+sections and contains a government experimental farm, grain elevators,
+saw and grist mills. It was first settled in 1881, and incorporated as a
+city in 1882.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDON, a market town in the Stowmarket parliamentary division of
+Suffolk, England, on the Little Ouse or Brandon river, 86-1/2 m. N.N.E.
+from London by the Ely-Norwich line of the Great Eastern railway. Pop.
+(1901) 2327. The church of St Peter is Early English with earlier
+portions; there is a free grammar school founded in 1646; and the town
+has some carrying trade by the Little Ouse in corn, coal and timber.
+Rabbit skins of fine texture are dressed and exported. Extensive
+deposits of flint are worked in the neighbourhood, and the work of the
+"flint-knappers" has had its counterpart here from the earliest eras of
+man. Close to Brandon, but in Norfolk across the river, at the village
+of Weeting, are the so-called Grimes' Graves, which, long supposed to
+show the foundations of a British village, and probably so occupied,
+were proved by excavation to have been actually neolithic flint
+workings. The pits, though almost completely filled up (probably as they
+became exhausted), were sunk through the overlying chalk to the depth of
+20 to 60 ft., and numbered 254 in all. Passages branched out from them,
+and among other remains picks of deer-horn were discovered, one actually
+bearing in the chalk which coated it the print of the workman's hand.
+
+
+
+
+BRANDY, an alcoholic, potable spirit, obtained by the distillation of
+grape wine. The frequently occurring statement that the word "brandy" is
+derived from the High German _Branntwein_ is incorrect, inasmuch as the
+English word (as Fairley has pointed out) is quite as old as any of its
+continental equivalents. It is simply an abbreviation of the Old English
+_brandewine_, _brand-wine_ or _brandy wine_, the word "brand" being
+common to all the Teutonic languages of northern Europe, meaning a thing
+burning or that has been burnt. John Fletcher's _Beggar's Bush_ (1622)
+contains the passage, "Buy brand wine"; and from the Roxburgh _Ballads_
+(1650) we have "It is more fine than brandewine." The word "brandy" came
+into familiar use about the middle of the 17th century, but the
+expression "brandywine" was retained in legal documents until 1702
+(Fairley). Thus in 1697 (_View Penal Laws_, 173) there occurs the
+sentence, "No aqua vitae or brandywine shall be imported into England."
+The _British Pharmacopoeia_ formerly defined French brandy, which was
+the only variety mentioned (officially _spiritus vini gallici_), as
+"Spirit distilled from French wine; it has a characteristic flavour, and
+a light sherry colour derived from the cask in which it has been kept."
+In the latest edition the Latin title _spiritus vini gallici_ is
+retained, but the word _French_ is dropped from the text, which now
+reads as follows: "A spirituous liquid distilled from wine and matured
+by age, and containing not less than 36-1/2% by weight or 43-1/2% by
+volume of ethyl hydroxide." The _United States Pharmacopoeia_ (1905),
+retains the Latin expression _spiritus vini gallici_ (English title
+_Brandy_), defined as "an alcoholic liquid obtained by the distillation
+of the fermented, unmodified juice of fresh grapes."
+
+Very little of the brandy of commerce corresponds exactly to the former
+definition of the _British Pharmacopoeia_ as regards colouring matter,
+inasmuch as trade requirements necessitate the addition of a small
+quantity of caramel (burnt sugar) colouring to the spirit in the
+majority of cases. The object of this is, as a rule, not that of
+deceiving the consumer as to the apparent age of the brandy, but that of
+keeping a standard article of commerce at a standard level of colour. It
+is practically impossible to do this without having recourse to caramel
+colouring, as, practically speaking, the contents of any cask will
+always differ slightly, and often very appreciably, in colour intensity
+from the contents of another cask, even though the age and quality of
+the spirits are identical.
+
+The finest brandies are produced in a district covering an area of
+rather less than three million acres, situated in the departments of
+Charente and Charente Inferieure, of which the centre is the town of
+Cognac. It is generally held that only brandies produced within this
+district have a right to the name "cognac." The Cognac district is
+separated into district zones of production, according to the quality of
+the spirit which each yields. In the centre of the district, on the left
+bank of the Charente, is the _Grande Champagne_, and radiating beyond it
+are (in order of merit of the spirit produced) the _Petite Champagne_,
+the _Borderies_ (or _Premiers Bois_), the _Fins Bois_, the _Bons Bois_,
+the _Bois Ordinaires_, and finally the _Bois communs dits a terroir_.
+Many hold that the brandy produced in the two latter districts is not
+entitled to the name of "cognac," but this is a matter of controversy,
+as is also the question as to whether another district called the
+_Grande Fine Champagne_, namely, that in the immediate neighbourhood of
+the little village of Juillac-le-Coq, should be added to the list. The
+pre-eminent quality of the Cognac brandies is largely due to the
+character of the soil, the climate, and the scientific and systematic
+cultivation of the vines. For a period--from the middle 'seventies to
+the 'nineties of the 19th century--the cognac industry was, owing to the
+inroads of the phylloxera, threatened with almost total extinction, but
+after a lengthy series of experiments, a system of replanting and
+hybridizing, based on the characteristics of the soils of the various
+districts, was evolved, which effectually put a stop to the further
+progress of the disease. In 1907 the area actually planted with the vine
+in the Cognac district proper was about 200,000 acres, and the
+production of cognac brandy, which, however, varies widely in different
+years, may be put down at about five million gallons per annum. The
+latter figure is based on the amount of wine produced in the two
+Charentes (about forty-five million gallons in 1905).
+
+
+GENUINE COGNAC BRANDIES.
+
+(Excepting the alcohol, results are expressed in grammes per 100 litres
+of absolute alcohol.)
+
+  +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+
+  |                                     | Alcohol |Total|  Non-  |       | "Higher  |         |         |
+  |               Age, &c.              |% by vol.|Acid.|volatile|Esters.|Alcohols."|Aldehyde.|Furfural.|
+  |                                     |         |     |  Acid. |       |          |         |         |
+  +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+
+  | 1. _New_ 1904                       |  61.7   |  45 |    5   |   82  |   125    |    8    |   2.3   |
+  | 2. _New_, still heated by steam coil|  56.3   |  22 |    4   |   61  |   100    |    3    |   1.2   |
+  | 3. _New_                            |  67.7   |  51 |   ..   |  158  |   152    |    6    |   1.3   |
+  | 4. _Five years old_, 1900 vintage   |  57.7   |  92 |   37   |  125  |   ..     |   ..    |   ..    |
+  | 5. _1875 vintage_, pale             |  46.7   | 144 |   37   |  177  |   261    |   55    |   1.0   |
+  | 6. _1848 vintage_, brown            |  38.5   | 254 |  109   |  190  |   488    |   32    |   2.1   |
+  +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+
+
+  _Note._--In the above table the acid is expressed in terms of acetic
+  acid, the esters are expressed as ethyl acetate, and the aldehyde as
+  acetaldehyde. The "Higher Alcohol" figures do not actually represent
+  these substances, but indicate the relative coloration obtained with
+  sulphuric acid when compared with an iso-butyl standard under certain
+  conditions.
+
+Brandy is also manufactured in numerous other districts in France, and
+in general order of commercial merit may be mentioned the brandies of
+Armagnac, Marmande, Nantes and Anjou. The brandies commanding the lowest
+prices are broadly known as the _Trois-Six de Monlpellier_. In a class
+by themselves are the _Eaux-de-vie de Marc_, made from the wine
+pressings or from the solid residues of the stills. Some of these,
+particularly those made in Burgundy, have characteristic qualities, and
+are considered by many to be very fine. The consumption is chiefly
+local. Brandy of fair quality is also made in other wine-producing
+countries, particularly in Spain, and of late years colonial (Australian
+and Cape) brandies have attracted some attention. The comsumption of
+brandy in the United Kingdom amounts to about two million gallons.
+
+Brandy, in common with other potable spirits, owes its flavour and aroma
+to the presence of small quantities of substances termed secondary or
+by-products (sometimes "impurities"). These are dissolved in the ethyl
+alcohol and water which form over 99% of the spirit. The nature and
+quantity of all of these by-products have not yet been fully
+ascertained, but the knowledge in this direction is rapidly progressing.
+Ch. Ordonneau fractionally distilled 100 litres of 25-year-old cognac
+brandy, and obtained the following substances and quantities thereof:--
+
+                                        Grammes in
+                                        100 Litres.
+
+  Normal propyl alcohol                     40.0
+  Normal butyl alcohol                     218.6
+  Amyl alcohol                              83.8
+  Hexyl alcohol                              0.6
+  Heptyl alcohol                             1.5
+  Ethyl acetate                             35.0
+  Ethyl propionate, butyrate and caproate    3.0
+  Oenanthic ether (about)                    4.0
+  Aldehyde                                   3.0
+  Acetal                                   traces
+  Amines                                   traces
+
+Most of the above substances, in fact probably all of them, excepting
+the oenanthic ether, are contained in other spirits, such as whisky and
+rum. The oenanthic ether (ethyl pelargonate) is one of the main
+characteristics which enable us chemically to differentiate between
+brandy and other distilled liquors. Brandy also contains a certain
+quantity of free acid, which increases with age, furfural, which
+decreases, and small quantities of other matters of which we have as yet
+little knowledge.
+
+The table gives analyses, by the present author (excepting No. 3, which
+is by F. Lusson), of undoubtedly genuine commercial cognac brandies of
+various ages.
+
+_Storage and Maturation._--Brandy is stored in specially selected oak
+casks, from which it extracts a certain quantity of colouring matter and
+tannin, &c. Commercial cognac brandies are generally blends of different
+growths and vintages, the blending being accomplished in large vats some
+little time prior to bottling. The necessary colouring and sweetening
+matter is added in the vat. In the case of pale brandies very little
+colouring and sweetening are added, the usual quantity being in the
+neighbourhood of 1/2 to 1%. Old "brown brandies," which are nowadays not
+in great demand, require more caramel and sugar than do the pale
+varieties. The preparation of the "liqueur," as the mixed caramel and
+sugar syrup is termed, is an operation requiring much experience, and
+the methods employed are kept strictly secret. Fine "liqueur" is
+prepared with high-class brandy, and is stored a number of years prior
+to use. Brandy, as is well known, improves very much with age (for
+chemical aspects of maturation see SPIRITS), but this only holds good
+when the spirit is in _wood_, for there is no material appreciation in
+quality after bottling. It is a mistake to believe, however, that brandy
+improves indefinitely, even when kept in wood, for, as a matter of fact,
+after a certain time--which varies considerably according to the type of
+brandy, the vintage, &c.--there is so much evaporation of alcohol that a
+number of undesirable changes come about. The brandy begins to "go
+back," and becomes, as it is called, "worn" or "tired." It is necessary,
+therefore, that the bottling should not be deferred too long. Sometimes,
+for trade reasons, it is necessary to keep brandy in cask for a long
+period, and under these conditions the practice is to keep a series of
+casks, which are treated as follows:--The last cask is kept filled by
+occasionally adding some spirit from the cask next in order, the latter
+is filled up by spirit taken from the third cask from the end, and so
+on, until the first cask in the row is reached. The latter is filled up
+or "topped" with some relatively fresh spirit.
+
+Brandy is much employed medicinally as a food capable of supplying
+energy in a particularly labile form to the body, as a stimulant,
+carminative, and as a hypnotic.
+
+_Adulteration._--A good deal has been written about the preparation of
+artificial brandy by means of the addition of essential oils to potato
+or beetroot spirit, but it is more than doubtful whether this practice
+was really carried on on a large scale formerly. What undoubtedly did
+occur was that much beet, potato or grain spirit was used for blending
+with genuine grape spirit. Prosecutions under the Food and Drugs Act, by
+certain English local authorities in the year 1904, resulted in the
+practical fixation of certain chemical standards which, in the opinion
+of the present writer, have, owing to their arbitrary and unscientific
+nature, resulted in much adulteration of a type previously non-existent.
+There is no doubt that at the present time artificial esters and higher
+alcohols, &c., are being used on an extensive scale for the preparation
+of cheap brandies, and the position, in this respect, therefore, has not
+been inproved. Where formerly fraud was practically confined to the
+blending of genuine brandy with spirit other than that derived from the
+grape, it is now enhanced by the addition of artificial essences to the
+blend of the two spirits.     (P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BRANDYWINE, the name of a stream in Pennsylvania and Delaware, U.S.A.,
+which runs into the Delaware river a few miles east of Wilmington,
+Delaware. It is famous as the scene of the battle of Brandywine in the
+American War of Independence, fought on the 11th of September 1777 about
+10 m. north-west of Wilmington, and a few miles inside the Pennsylvania
+border. Sir William Howe, the British commander-in-chief, while opposed
+to Washington's army in New Jersey, had formed the plan of capturing
+Philadelphia from the south side by a movement by sea to the head of
+Delaware Bay. But contrary winds and accidents delayed the British
+transports so long that Washington, who was at first puzzled, was able
+to divine his opponents' intentions in time; and rapidly moving to the
+threatened point he occupied a strong entrenched position at the fords
+over the Brandywine, 25 m. south-west of Philadelphia. Here on the 11th
+of September the British attacked him. Howe's plan, which was carefully
+worked out and exactly executed, was to deliver an energetic feint
+attack against the American front, to take a strong column 12 m. up the
+stream, and crossing beyond Washington's right to attack his
+entrenchments in rear. Washington was successfully held in play during
+the movement, and General Sullivan, the commander of the American right
+wing, misled by the conflicting intelligence which reached him from
+up-stream, was surprised about noon by definite information as to the
+approach of Cornwallis on his right rear. Changing front "right back" in
+the dense country, he yet managed to oppose a stubborn resistance to the
+flanking attack, and with other troops that were hurried to the scene
+his division held its ground for a time near Birmingham meeting-house.
+But Howe pressed his attack sharply and drove back the Americans for 2
+m.; the holding attack of the British right was converted into a real
+one, and by nightfall Washington was in full retreat northward toward
+Chester, protected by General Greene and a steady rear-guard, which held
+off Howe's column for the necessary time. The British were too exhausted
+to pursue, and part of Howe's force was inextricably mixed up with the
+advancing troops of the frontal attack. The American loss in killed,
+wounded and prisoners was about 1000; that of the British less than 600.
+Howe followed up his victory, and on the 27th of September entered
+Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+BRANFORD, a township, including a borough of the same name, in New Haven
+county, Connecticut, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Branford river and at
+the head of a short arm of Long Island Sound, about 7 m. E.S.E. of New
+Haven. Pop. of the township (1890) 4460; (1900) 5706 (1968
+foreign-born);(1910) 6047; of the borough (1910) 2560. The borough is
+served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by an electric
+line connecting with New Haven. A range of rocky hills commands fine
+views of the Sound, the shore is deeply indented, the harbour and bays
+are dotted with islands, and the harbour is deep enough for small craft,
+and these natural features attract many visitors during the summer
+season. In Branford is the James Blackstone Memorial library (1896),
+designed by Solon Spencer Beman (b. 1853) in the Ionic style (the
+details being taken from the Erechtheum at Athens). On the interior of
+the dome which covers the rotunda are a series of paintings by Oliver
+Dennett Grover (b. 1861) illustrating the evolution of book-making, and
+between the arches are medallion portraits, by the same artist, of New
+England authors--Longfellow, Emerson, Hawthorne, Lowell, Bryant,
+Whittier, Holmes and Mrs Stowe. The library was erected by Timothy B.
+Blackstone (1829-1900), a native of Branford, and president of the
+Chicago & Alton railway from 1864 to 1899--as a memorial to his father,
+a descendant of William Blackstone (d. 1675), the New England pioneer.
+The principal industries of Branford are the manufacture of malleable
+iron fittings, locks and general hardware, the quarrying of granite, and
+oyster culture.
+
+The territory of Totoket (now the township of Branford) was purchased
+from the Indians by the New Haven Plantation, in December 1638, for
+eleven coats of trucking cloth and one coat of English cloth, but with
+the reservation for a few Indians of what is still known as Indian Neck.
+In 1640 the general court of New Haven granted it to the Rev. Samuel
+Eaton (1596?-1665), a brother of Theophilus Eaton, on condition that he
+brought friends from England to settle it. As Eaton went to England and
+did not return, Totoket was granted in 1644 to settlers mostly from
+Wethersfield, Conn., on condition that they should organize a church
+state after the New Haven model and join the New Haven Jurisdiction. The
+settlement was made in the same year, and about two years later several
+new families came from Southampton, Long Island, under the leadership of
+the Rev. Abraham Pierson (c. 1608-1678), an ardent advocate of the
+church state, who was chosen pastor at Totoket. The present name of the
+township, derived from Brentford, England, was adopted about 1645. After
+the members of the New Haven Jurisdiction had submitted to Connecticut,
+Pierson, in 1666-1667, led the most prominent citizens of Branford to
+New Jersey, where they were leaders in founding Newark. The borough of
+Branford was incorporated in 1893.
+
+  See E.C. Baldwin, _Branford Annals_, in Papers of New Haven Colony
+  Historical Society (New Haven, 1882 and 1888).
+
+
+
+
+BRANGWYN, FRANK (1867-), English painter, was born at Bruges, and
+received his first instruction from his father, the owner of an
+establishment for church embroideries and kindred objects, who took a
+leading part in the Gothic revival under Pugin. When the family moved to
+England, Brangwyn attracted the attention of William Morris by a drawing
+on which he was engaged at South Kensington museum. He worked for some
+time in Morris's studio, and then travelled more than once to the East,
+whereby his sense of colour and the whole further development of his art
+became deeply influenced. Indeed, the impressions he then received, and
+his love of Oriental decorative art--tiles and carpets--exercised a
+greater influence on him than any early training or the works of any
+European master. His whole tendency is essentially decorative: a
+colour-sense of sumptuous richness is wedded to an equally strong sense
+of well-balanced, harmonious design. These qualities, together with a
+summary suppression of the details which tie a subject to time and
+place, give his compositions a nobly impressive and universal character,
+such as may be seen in his decorative panel "Modern Commerce" in the
+ambulatory of the Royal Exchange, London. Among other decorative schemes
+executed by him are those for "L'Art nouveau" in the rue de Provence,
+Paris; for the hall of the Skinners' Company, London; and for the
+British room at the Venice International Exhibition, 1905. The
+Luxembourg museum has his "Trade on the Beach"; the Venice municipal
+museum, the "St Simon Stylites"; the Stuttgart gallery, the "St John the
+Baptist"; the Munich Pinakothek, the "Assisi"; the Carnegie Institute in
+Pittsburg, his "Sweetmeat Seller"; the Prague gallery, his "Turkish
+Boatmen"; and the National Gallery of New South Wales, "The Scoffers."
+Brangwyn embarked successfully in many fields of applied art, and made
+admirable designs for book decoration, stained glass, furniture,
+tapestry, metal-work and pottery. He devoted himself extensively to
+etching, and executed many plates of astonishing vigour and dramatic
+intensity. He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BRANKS, (probably akin to Irish _brancas_, a halter; Ger. _Pranger_,
+fetter, pillory), or SCOLDING-BRIDLE, a contrivance formerly in use
+throughout England and Scotland for the punishment of scolding women. It
+is said to have originated in the latter country. It seems to have never
+been a legalized form of punishment; but corporations and lords of
+manors in England, town councils, kirk-sessions and barony courts in
+Scotland assumed a right to inflict it. While specially known as the
+"Gossip's or Scold's Bridle" the branks was also used for women
+convicted of petty offences, breaches of the peace, street-brawling and
+abusive language. It was the equivalent of the male punishments of the
+stocks and pillory. In its earliest form it consisted of a hoop
+head-piece of iron, opening by hinges at the side so as to enclose the
+head, with a flat piece of iron projecting inwards so as to fit into
+the mouth and press the tongue down. Later it was made, by a
+multiplication of hoops, more like a cage, the front forming a mask of
+iron with holes for mouth, nose and eyes. Sometimes the mouth-plate was
+armed with a short spike. With this on her head the offending woman was
+marched through the streets by the beadle or chained to the market-cross
+to be gibed at by passers. The date of origin is doubtful. It was used
+at Edinburgh in 1567, at Glasgow in 1574, but not before the 17th
+century in any English town. A brank in the church of Walton-on-Thames,
+Surrey, bears date 1633; while another in a private collection has the
+crowned cipher of William III. The Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, the
+Scottish National Museum of Antiquities at Edinburgh, the towns of
+Lichfield, Shrewsbury, Leicester and Chester have examples of the brank.
+As late as 1856 it was in use at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
+
+  See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle,
+  _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (Chicago, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BRANT, JOSEPH (1742-1807), American Indian chief of the Mohawk tribe,
+known also by his Indian name, THAYENDANEGEA, was born on the banks of
+the Ohio river in 1742. In early youth he attracted the attention of Sir
+William Johnson, who sent him to be educated by Dr Eleazar Wheelock at
+Lebanon, Conn., in Moor's Indian charity school, in which Dartmouth
+College had its origin. He took part, on the side of the English, in the
+French and Indian War, and in 1763 fought with the Iroquois against
+Pontiac. Subsequently he settled at Canajoharie, or Upper Mohawk Castle
+(in what is now Montgomery county, New York), where, being a devout
+churchman, he devoted himself to missionary work, and translated the
+Prayer Book and St Mark's Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (1787). When Guy
+Johnson (1740-1788) succeeded his uncle, Sir William, as superintendent
+of Indian affairs in 1774, Brant became his secretary. At the outbreak
+of the War of Independence, he remained loyal, was commissioned colonel,
+and organized and led the Mohawks and other Indians allied to the
+British against the settlements on the New York frontier. He took part
+in the Cherry Valley Massacre, in the attack on Minisink and the
+expedition of General St Leger which resulted in the battle of Oriskany
+on the 6th of August 1777. After the war he discouraged the continuance
+of Indian warfare on the frontier, and aided the commissioners of the
+United States in securing treaties of peace with the Miamis and other
+western tribes. Settling in Upper Canada, he again devoted himself to
+missionary work and in 1786 visited England, where he raised funds with
+which was erected the first Episcopal church in Upper Canada. His
+character was a peculiar compound of the traits of an Indian
+warrior--with few rivals for daring leadership--and of a civilized
+politician and diplomat of the more conservative type. He died on an
+estate granted him by the British government on the banks of Lake
+Ontario on the 24th of November 1807. A monument was erected to his
+memory at Brantford, Ontario, Canada (named in his honour) in 1886.
+
+  See W.L. Stone, _Life of Joseph Brant_ (2 vols., New York, 1838; new
+  ed., Albany, 1865); Edward Eggleston and Elizabeth E. Seelye, _Brant
+  and Red Jacket_ in "Famous American Indians" (New York, 1879); and a
+  _Memoir_ (Brantford, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+BRANT, SEBASTIAN (1457-1521), German humanist and satirist, was born at
+Strassburg about the year 1457. He studied at Basel, took the degree of
+doctor of laws in 1489, and for some time held a professorship of
+jurisprudence there. Returning to Strassburg, he was made syndic of the
+town, and died on the 10th of May 1521. He first attracted attention in
+humanistic circles by his Latin poetry, and edited many ecclesiastical
+and legal works; but he is now only known by his famous satire, _Das
+Narrenschiff_(1494), a work the popularity and influence of which were
+not limited to Germany. Under the form of an allegory--a ship laden with
+fools and steered by fools to the fools' paradise of Narragenia--Brant
+here lashes with unsparing vigour the weaknesses and vices of his time.
+Although, like most of the German humanists, essentially conservative in
+his religious views, Brant's eyes were open to the abuses in the church,
+and the _Narrenschiff_ was a most effective preparation for the
+Protestant Reformalion. Alexander Barclay's _Ship of Fools_ (1509) is a
+free imitation of the German poem, and a Latin version by Jacobus
+Locher (1497) was hardly less popular than the German original. There is
+also a large quantity of other "fool literature." Nigel, called Wireker
+(fl. 1190), a monk of Christ Church Priory, Canterbury, wrote a
+satirical _Speculum stultorum_, in which the ambitious and discontented
+monk figured as the ass Brunellus, who wanted a longer tail. Brunellus,
+who has been educated at Paris, decides to found an order of fools,
+which shall combine the good points of all the existing monastic orders.
+_Cock Lovell's Bote_ (printed by Wynkyn de Worde, c. 1510) is another
+imitation of the _Narrenschiff_. Cock Lovell is a fraudulent currier who
+gathers round him a rascally collection of tradesmen. They sail off in a
+riotous fashion up hill and down dale throughout England. Brant's other
+works, of which the chief was a version of Freidank's _Bescheidenheit_
+(1508), are of inferior interest and importance.
+
+  Brant's _Narrenschiff_ has been edited by F. Zarncke (1854); by K.
+  Goedeke (1872); and by F. Bobertag (Kurschner's _Deutsche
+  Nationalliteratur_, vol. xvi., 1889). A modern German translation was
+  published by K. Simrock in 1872. On the influence of Brant in England
+  see especially C.H. Herford, _The Literary Relations of England and
+  Germany in the 16th Century_ (1886).
+
+
+
+
+BRANTFORD, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, on the Grand
+river, and on the Grand Trunk, and Toronto, Hamilton & Buffalo railways.
+The river is navigable to within 2-1/2 m. of the town; for the remaining
+distance a canal has been constructed. Agricultural implements, plough,
+engine, bicycle and stove works, potteries and large railway shops
+constitute the important industrial establishments. It contains an
+institute for the education of the blind, maintained by the provincial
+government, and a women's college. The city is named in honour of the
+Mohawk Indian chief, Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), who settled in the
+neighbourhood after the American War of Independence, in which he had
+led the Six Nations (Iroquois) on the British side. The amalgamated
+tribes of the Six Nations still make it their headquarters, and a
+monument to Brant has been erected in Victoria Square. Brantford is one
+of the most flourishing industrial towns of the province, and its
+population rose from 9616 in 1881 to 20,713 in 1907.
+
+
+
+
+BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE (d. 1394), English lord treasurer and bishop of
+Exeter, came of a Durham family. An older relative, Ralph de
+Brantingham, had served Edward II. and Edward III., and Thomas was made
+a clerk in the treasury. Edward III. obtained preferment for him in the
+church, and from 1361 to 1368 he was employed in France in responsible
+positions. He was closely associated with William of Wykeham, and while
+the latter was in power as chancellor, Brantingham was lord treasurer
+(1369-1371, and 1377-1381), being made bishop of Exeter in 1370. He
+continued to play a prominent part in public affairs under Richard II.,
+and in 1389 was again lord treasurer for a few months. He died in 1394
+and was buried in Exeter cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+BRANTOME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE, SEIGNEUR AND ABBE DE (c. 1540-1614),
+French historian and biographer, was born in Perigord about 1540. He was
+the third son of the baron de Bourdeille. His mother and his maternal
+grandmother were both attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois, and
+at her death in 1549 he went to Paris, and later (1555) to Poitiers, to
+finish his education. He was given several benefices, the most important
+of which was the abbey of Brantome (see below), but he had no
+inclination for an ecclesiastical career. At an early age he entered the
+profession of arms. He showed himself a brave soldier, and was brought
+into contact with most of the great leaders who were seeking fame or
+fortune in the wars that distracted the continent. He travelled much in
+Italy; in Scotland, where he accompanied Mary Stuart (then the widow of
+Francis I.); in England, where he saw Queen Elizabeth (1561, 1579); in
+Morocco (1564); and in Spain and Portugal. He fought on the galleys of
+the order of Malta, and accompanied his great friend, the French
+commander Philippe Strozzi (grandson of Filippo Strozzi, the Italian
+general, and nephew of Piero), in his expedition against Terceira, in
+which Strozzi was killed (1582). During the wars of religion under
+Charles IX. he fought in the ranks of the Catholics, but he allowed
+himself to be won over temporarily by the ideas of the reformers, and
+though he publicly separated himself from Protestantism it had a marked
+effect on his mind. A fall from his horse compelled him to retire into
+private life about 1589, and he spent his last years in writing his
+_Memoirs_ of the illustrious men and women whom he had known. He died on
+the 15th of July 1614.
+
+Brantome left distinct orders that his manuscript should be printed; a
+first edition appeared, however, late (1665-1666) and not very complete.
+Of the later editions the most valuable are: one in 15 volumes (1740);
+another by Louis Jean Nicolas Monmerque (1780-1860) in 8 volumes
+(1821-1824), reproduced in Buchan's _Pantheon litteraire_; that of the
+Bibliotheque elzevirienne, begun (1858) by P. Merimee and L. Lacour, and
+finished, with vol. xiii., only in 1893; and Lalanne's edition for the
+Societe de l'Histoire de France (12 vols., 1864-1896). Brantome can
+hardly be regarded as a historian proper, and his _Memoirs_ cannot be
+accepted as a very trustworthy source of information. But he writes in a
+quaint conversational way, pouring forth his thoughts, observations or
+facts without order or system, and with the greatest frankness and
+naivete. His works certainly gave an admirable picture of the general
+court-life of the time, with its unblushing and undisguised profligacy.
+There is not a _homme illustre_ or a _dame galante_ in all his gallery
+of portraits who is not stained with vice; and yet the whole is narrated
+with the most complete unconsciousness that there is anything
+objectionable in their conduct.
+
+  The edition of L. Lalanne has great merit, being the first to indicate
+  the Spanish, Italian and French sources on which Brantome drew, but it
+  did not utilize all the existing MSS. It was only after Lalanne's
+  death that the earliest were obtained for the Bibliotheque Nationale.
+  At Paris and at Chantilly (Musee Conde) all Brantome's original MSS.,
+  as revised by him several times, are now collected (see the
+  _Bibliotheque de l'ecole des Chartes_, 1904), and a new and definitive
+  edition has therefore become possible. Brantome's poems (which amount
+  to more than 2200 verses) were first published in 1881; see Lalanne's
+  edition.
+
+
+
+
+BRANTOME, a town of south-western France, in the department of Dordogne,
+20 m. N. by W. of Perigueux by steam-tramway. Pop. (1906) 1230. The town
+is built, in great part, on an island in the river Dronne. It is well
+known for the remains of an abbey founded by Charlemagne about 770 and
+afterwards destroyed by the Normans. The oldest existing portion is a
+square tower dating from the 11th century, built upon a rock beside the
+church which it overlooks. It communicates by a staircase with the
+church, a rectangular building partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, to the
+west of which are the remains of a cloister. The abbey buildings date
+from the 18th century, and now serve as hotel-de-ville, magistrature and
+schools. Caves in the neighbouring rocks were inhabited by the monks
+before the building of the abbey; one of them, used as an oratory,
+contains curious carvings, representing the Last Judgment and the
+Crucifixion. In the middle of the 16th century Pierre de Bourdeille came
+into possession of the abbey, from which he took the name of Brantome.
+
+Brantome has some old houses and a church of the 15th century, which was
+once fortified and is now used as a market. Truffles are the chief
+article of commerce; and there are quarries of freestone in the
+neighbourhood. The dolmen which is known as Pierre-Levee, to the east of
+the town, is the most remarkable in Perigord.
+
+
+
+
+BRANXHOLM, or BRANKSOME, a feudal castle, now modernized, and an ancient
+seat of the Buccleuchs, on the Teviot, 3 m. S.W. of Hawick, Roxburgh,
+Scotland. It was at Branksome Hall that Sir Walter Scott laid the scene
+of _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_.
+
+
+
+
+BRANXTON, or BRANKSTON, a village of Northumberland, England, 10-1/2 m.
+E. by N. of Kelso, and 2 m. E.S.E. of Coldstream, and 10 m. N.W. of
+Wooler. It was on Branxton Hill, immediately south of the village, that
+the battle of Flodden (q.v.) was fought between the English and the
+Scots on the 9th of September 1513. During the fight the Scots centre
+pushed as far as Branxton church, but "the King's Stone," which lies
+N.W. of the church and is popularly supposed to mark the spot where
+James IV. fell, is some three-quarters of a mile from the scene of the
+battle; it is believed in reality to mark the sepulchre of a chieftain,
+whose name had already perished in the 16th century. Branxton church,
+dedicated to St Paul, was rebuilt in 1849 in Norman style. Of the older
+building nothing remains save the chancel arch.
+
+
+
+
+BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE (d. 1211), lord of Brecknock, Radnor and Limerick,
+spent the early part of his life fighting the Welsh in Radnorshire. He
+was high in King John's favour, received a large number of honours, and
+was even given the custody of Prince Arthur. But John and he quarrelled,
+probably over money (1207). In 1208 John began to suspect the fidelity
+of the whole family, and William had to fly to Ireland. After a number
+of attempted reconciliations, he was outlawed (1210) and died at Corbeil
+(1211). It is said that his wife and son were starved to death by John.
+
+  See _Foedera_, i. 107; _Histoire des ducs_ (ed. Michel), Wendover;
+  Kate Norgate's _John Lackland_.
+
+A descendant, William de Braose (d. 1326), lord of Gower, was a devoted
+follower of Edward I., and in 1299 was summoned to parliament as baron
+de Braose; and his nephew Thomas de Braose (d. 1361) also distinguished
+himself in the wars and was summoned as baron de Braose in 1342. This
+latter barony became extinct in 1399; but a claim to the barony of
+William de Braose, which, as he had no son, fell into abeyance between
+his two daughters and co-heirs, Alina (wife of Lord Mowbray) and Joan
+(wife of John de Bohun), or their descendants, may still be traced by
+careful genealogists in various noble English families.
+
+
+
+
+BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND (1804-1867), French painter, was born at
+Bordeaux, and studied art in Paris, where in 1825 he won a _prix de
+Rome_ with a picture ("Chasse de Meleagre") now in the Bordeaux gallery.
+He went to Italy and painted a number of landscapes which were exhibited
+between 1827 and 1835; but subsequently he devoted himself mainly to
+animal-painting, in which his reputation as an artist was made. His
+"Lutte de taureaux" (1837), in the _musee_ at Nantes, and his "Vache
+attaquee par des loups" (1845), in the Leipzig museum, were perhaps the
+best of his pictures; but he was remarkable for his accuracy of
+observation and correct drawing. He was elected a member of the
+Institute in 1846. He died at Paris on the 28th of February 1867.
+
+
+
+
+BRAS D'OR, a landlocked and tideless gulf or lake of high irregular
+outline, 50 m. long by 20 m. broad, almost separating Cape Breton Island
+(province of Nova Scotia, Canada) into two parts. A ship canal across
+the isthmus (about 1 m. wide) completes the severance of the island. The
+entrance to the gulf is on the N.E. coast of the island, and it is
+connected with the Atlantic by the Great and Little Bras d'Or channels,
+which are divided by Boulardeire Island. One channel is 25 m. long and
+from 1/4 m. to 3 m. broad, but is of little depth, the other (used by
+shipping) is 22 m. long, 1 to 1-1/2 m. wide, and has a depth of 60
+fathoms. The gulf or lake is itself divided into two basins, the inner
+waters being known as the Great Bras d'Or Lake. The waters are generally
+from 12 to 60 fathoms deep, but in the outer basin (known as the Little
+Bras d'Or Lake) are soundings said to reach nearly 700 ft. The shores of
+the gulf are very picturesque and well wooded and have attracted many
+tourists. Sea fishing (cod, mackerel, &c.) is the chief industry. The
+name is said to be a corruption of an Indian word, but it assumed its
+present form during the French occupation of Cape Breton Island.
+
+
+
+
+BRASDOR, PIERRE (1721-1799), French surgeon, was born in the province of
+Maine. He took his degree in Paris as master of surgery in 1752, and was
+appointed regius professor of anatomy and director of the Academy of
+Surgery. He was a skilful operator, whose name was long attached to a
+ligature of his invention; and he was an ardent advocate of inoculation.
+He died in Paris on the 28th of September 1799.
+
+
+
+
+BRASIDAS (d. 422 B.C.), a Spartan officer during the first decade of the
+Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Tellis and Argileonis, and won his
+first laurels by the relief of Methone, which was besieged by the
+Athenians (431 B.C.). During the following year he seems to have been
+eponymous ephor (Xen. _Hell_. ii. 3, 10), and in 429 he was sent out as
+one of the three commissioners ([Greek: symbouloi]) to advise the
+admiral Cnemus. As trierarch he distinguished himself in the assault on
+the Athenian position at Pylos, during which he was severely wounded
+(Thuc. iv. n. 12).
+
+In the next year, while Brasidas mustered a force at Corinth for a
+campaign in Thrace, he frustrated an Athenian attack on Megara (Thuc.
+iv. 70-73), and immediately afterwards marched through Thessaly at the
+head of 700 helots and 1000 Peloponnesian mercenaries to join the
+Macedonian king Perdiccas. Refusing to be made a tool for the
+furtherance of Perdiccas's ambitions, Brasidas set about the
+accomplishment of his main object, and, partly by the rapidity and
+boldness of his movements, partly by his personal charm and the
+moderation of his demands, succeeded during the course of the winter in
+winning over the important cities of Acanthus, Stagirus, Amphipolis and
+Torone as well as a number of minor towns. An attack on Eion was foiled
+by the arrival of Thucydides, the historian, at the head of an Athenian
+squadron. In the spring of 423 a truce was concluded between Athens and
+Sparta, but its operation was at once imperilled by Brasidas's refusal
+to give up Scione, which, the Athenian partisans declared, revolted two
+days after the truce began, and by his occupation of Mende shortly
+afterwards. An Athenian fleet under Nicias and Nicostratus recovered
+Mende and blockaded Scione, which fell two years later (421 B.C.).
+Meanwhile Brasidas joined Perdiccas in a campaign against Arrhabaeus,
+king of the Lyncesti, who was severely defeated. On the approach of a
+body of Illyrians, who, though summoned by Perdiccas, unexpectedly
+declared for Arrhabaeus, the Macedonians fled, and Brasidas's force was
+rescued from a critical position only by his coolness and ability. This
+brought to a head the quarrel between Brasidas and Perdiccas, who
+promptly concluded a treaty with Athens, of which some fragments have
+survived (_I.G._ i. 42).
+
+In April 422 the truce with Sparta expired, and in the same summer Cleon
+was despatched to Thrace, where he stormed Torone and Galepsus and
+prepared for an attack on Amphipolis. But a carelessly conducted
+reconnaissance gave Brasidas the opportunity for a vigorous and
+successful sally. The Athenian army was routed with a loss of 600 men
+and Cleon was slain. On the Spartan side only seven men are said to have
+fallen, but amongst them was Brasidas. He was buried at Amphipolis with
+impressive pomp, and for the future was regarded as the founder ([Greek:
+oikistaes]) of the city and honoured with yearly games and sacrifices
+(Thuc. iv. 78-v. 11). At Sparta a cenotaph was erected in his memory
+near the tombs of Pausanias and Leonidas, and yearly speeches were made
+and games celebrated in their honour, in which only Spartiates could
+compete (Paus. in. 14).
+
+Brasidas united in himself the personal courage characteristic of Sparta
+with those virtues in which the typical Spartan was most signally
+lacking. He was quick in forming his plans and carried them out without
+delay or hesitation. With an oratorical power rare amongst the
+Lacedaemonians he combined a conciliatory manner which everywhere won
+friends for himself and for Sparta (Thuc. iv. 81).
+
+  See in particular Thucydides, ii.-v.; what Diodorus xii. adds is
+  mainly oratorical elaboration or pure invention. A fuller account will
+  be found in the histories of Greece (e.g. those of Grote, Beloch,
+  Busolt, Meyer) and in G. Schimmelpfeng, _De Brasidae Spartani rebus
+  gestis atque ingenio_ (Marburg, 1857).
+
+
+
+
+BRASS, a river, town and district of southern Nigeria, British West
+Africa. The Brass river is one of the deltaic branches of the Niger,
+lying east of the Rio Nun or main channel of the river. From the point
+of divergence from the main stream to the sea the Brass has a course of
+about 100 m., its mouth being in 6 deg. 20' E., 4 deg. 35' N. Brass town
+is a flourishing trading settlement at the mouth of the river. It is the
+headquarters of a district commissioner and the seat of a native court.
+Its most conspicuous building is a fine church, the gift of a native
+chief. The capital of the Brass tribes is Nimbe, 30 m. up river.
+
+The Brass river, called by its Portuguese discoverers the Rio Bento, is
+said to have received its English name from the brass rods and other
+brass utensils imported by the early traders in exchange for palm-oil
+and slaves. The Brass natives, of the pure negro type, were noted for
+their savage character. In 1856 their chiefs concluded a treaty with
+Great Britain agreeing to give up the slave-trade in exchange for a duty
+on the palm-oil exported. Finding their profitable business as middlemen
+between the up-river producer and the exporter threatened by the
+appearance of European traders, they made ineffective complaints to the
+British authorities. The establishment of the Royal Niger Company led to
+further loss of trade, and on the 29th of January 1895 the natives
+attacked and sacked the company's station at Akassa on the Rio Nun, over
+forty prisoners being killed and eaten as a sacrifice to the fetish
+gods. In the following month a punitive expedition partially destroyed
+Nimbe, and a heavy fine was paid by the Brass chiefs. Since then the
+country has settled down under British administration. The trade
+regulations of which complaint had been made were removed in 1900 on the
+establishment of the protectorate of Southern Nigeria (see NIGERIA).
+
+  Valuable information concerning the country and people will be found
+  in the _Report by Sir John Kirk on the Disturbances at Brass (Africa_,
+  No. 3, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BRASS (O. Eng. _braes_), an alloy consisting mainly if not exclusively
+of copper and zinc; in its older use the term was applied rather to
+alloys of copper and tin, now known as bronze (q.v.)Thus the brass of
+the Bible was probably bronze, and so also was much of the brass of
+later times, until the distinction between zinc and tin became clearly
+recognized. The Latin word _aes_ signifies either pure copper or bronze,
+not brass, but the Romans comprehended a brass compound of copper and
+zinc under the term _orichalcum_ or _aurichalcum_, into which Pliny
+states that copper was converted by the aid of cadmia (a mineral of
+zinc).
+
+In England there is good evidence of the manufacture of brass with zinc
+at the end of the 16th century, for Queen Elizabeth by patent granted to
+William Humfrey and Christopher Schutz the exclusive right of working
+calamine and making brass. This right subsequently devolved upon a body
+called the "Governors, Assistants and Societies of the City of London of
+and for the Mineral and Battery Works," which continued to exercise its
+functions down to the year 1710.
+
+When a small percentage of zinc is present, the colour of brass is
+reddish, as in _tombac_ or red brass, which contains about 10%. With
+about 20% the colour becomes more yellow, and a series of metals is
+obtained which simulate gold more or less closely; such are _Dutch
+metal, Mannheim gold, similar_ and _pinchbeck_, the last deriving its
+name from a London clockmaker, Christopher Pinchbeck, who invented it in
+1732. Ordinary brass contains about 30% of zinc, and when 40% is
+present, as in _Muntz, yellow_ or _patent_ metal (invented by G.F. Muntz
+in 1832), the colour becomes a full yellow. When the proportion of zinc
+is largely increased the colour becomes silver-white and finally grey.
+The limit of elasticity increases with the percentage of zinc, as also
+does the amount of elongation before fracture, the maximum occurring
+with 30%. The tenacity increases with the proportion of zinc up to a
+maximum with 45%; then it decreases rapidly, and with 50% the metals are
+fragile. By varying the proportion between 30 and 43% a series of alloys
+may be prepared presenting very varied properties. The most malleable of
+the series has an elongation of about 60%, with a tensile strength of
+17.5 tons per sq. in. Increase in the proportion of zinc gives higher
+tensile strength, accompanied, however, by a smaller percentage of
+elongation and a materially increased tendency to produce unsound
+castings. The quality of copper-zinc alloys is improved by the addition
+of a small quantity of iron, a fact of which advantage is taken in the
+production of Aich's metal and delta metal. Of the latter there are
+several varieties, modified in composition to suit different purposes.
+Some of them possess high tensile strength and ductility. They are
+remarkably resistant to corrosion by sea-water, and are well suited for
+screw-propellers as well as for pump-plungers, pistons and glands.
+Heated to a dull red delta metal becomes malleable and can be worked
+under the hammer, press or stamps. By such treatment an ultimate tensile
+strength of 30 tons per sq. in. may be obtained, with an elongation of
+32% in 2 in. and a contraction of area of 30%.
+
+In the arts brass is a most important and widely used alloy. As compared
+with copper its superior hardness makes it wear better, while being more
+fusible it can be cast with greater facility. It is readily drawn into
+fine wire, and formed into rolled sheets and rods which are machined
+into a huge number of useful and ornamental articles. It is susceptible
+of a fine polish, but tarnishes with exposure to the air; the brilliancy
+of the surface can, however, be preserved if the metal is thoroughly
+cleansed by "dipping" in nitric acid and "lacquered" with a coating of
+varnish consisting of seed-lac dissolved in spirit.
+
+
+
+
+BRASSES, MONUMENTAL, a species of engraved sepulchral memorials which in
+the early part of the 13th century began to take the place of tombs and
+effigies carved in stone. Made of hard _latten_ or sheet brass, let into
+the pavement, and thus forming no obstruction in the space required for
+the services of the church, they speedily came into general use, and
+continued to be a favourite style of sepulchral memorial for three
+centuries. Besides their great value as historical monuments, they are
+interesting as authentic contemporary evidence of the varieties of
+armour and costume, or the peculiarities of palaeography and heraldic
+designs, and they are often the only authoritative records of the
+intricate details of family history. Although the intrinsic value of the
+metal has unfortunately contributed to the wholesale spoliation of these
+interesting monuments, they are still found in remarkable profusion in
+England, and they were at one time equally common in France, Germany and
+the Low Countries. In France, however, those that survived the troubles
+of the 16th century were totally swept away during the reign of terror,
+and almost the only evidence of their existence is now supplied by the
+collection of drawings bequeathed by Gough to the Bodleian library. The
+fine memorials of the royal house of Saxony in the cathedrals of Meissen
+and Freiberg are the most artistic and striking brasses in Germany.
+Among the 13th-century examples existing in German churches are the
+full-length memorials of Yso von Welpe, bishop of Verden (1231), and of
+Bernard, bishop of Paderborn (1340). Many fine Flemish specimens exist
+in Belgium, especially at Bruges. Only two or three examples, and these
+of late date, are known in Scotland, among which are the memorials of
+Alexander Cockburn (1564) at Ormiston; of the regent Murray (1569) in
+the collegiate church of St Giles, Edinburgh; and of the Minto family
+(1605) in the south aisle of the nave of Glasgow cathedral. England is
+the only country which now possesses an extensive series of these
+interesting memorials, of which it is calculated that there may be about
+4000 still remaining in the various churches. They are most abundant in
+the eastern counties, and this fact has been frequently adduced in
+support of the opinion that they were of Flemish manufacture. But in the
+days when sepulchral brasses were most in fashion the eastern counties
+of England were full of commercial activity and wealth, and nowhere do
+the engraved memorials of civilians and prosperous merchants more abound
+than in the churches of Ipswich, Norwich, Lynn and Lincoln. Flemish
+brasses do occur in England, but they were never numerous, and they are
+readily distinguished from those of native workmanship. The Flemish
+examples have the figures engraved in the centre of a large plate, the
+background filled in with diapered or scroll work, and the inscription
+placed round the edge of the plate. The English examples have the
+figures cut out to the outline and inserted in corresponding cavities in
+the slab, the darker colour of the stone serving as a background. This
+is not an invariable distinction, however, as "figure-brasses" of
+Flemish origin are found both at Bruges and in England. But the
+character of the engraving is constant, the Flemish work being more
+florid in design, the lines shallower, and the broad lines cut with a
+chisel-pointed tool instead of the lozenge-shaped burin. The brass of
+Robert Hallum, bishop of Salisbury, the envoy of Henry V. to the council
+of Constance, who died and was interred there in 1416, precisely
+resembles the brasses of England in the peculiarities which distinguish
+them from continental specimens. Scarcely any of the brasses which now
+exist in England can be confidently referred to the first half of the
+13th century, though several undoubted examples of this period are on
+record. The full-sized brass of Sir John d'Aubernon at Stoke d'Abernon
+in Surrey (c. 1277) has the decorations of the shield filled in with a
+species of enamel. Other examples of this occur, and the probability is,
+that, in most cases, the lines of the engraving were filled with
+colouring-matter, though brass would scarcely bear the heat requisite to
+fuse the ordinary enamels. A well-known 13th-century example is that of
+Sir Roger de Trumpington (c. 1290), who accompanied Prince Edward in his
+expedition to Palestine and is represented cross-legged. About half a
+dozen instances of this peculiarity are known. The 14th-century brasses
+are much more numerous, and present a remarkable variety in their
+details. The finest specimen is that of Nicholas Lord Burnell (1315) in
+the church of Acton Burnell, Shropshire. In the 15th century the design
+and execution of monumental brasses had attained their highest
+excellence. The beautiful brass of Thomas Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d.
+1401), and his wife Margaret, which formerly covered the tomb in St
+Mary's church, Warwick, is a striking example. One of the best specimens
+of plate armour is that of Sir Robert Stantoun (1458) in Castle
+Donnington church, Leicestershire, and one of the finest existing
+brasses of ecclesiastics is that of Abbot de la Mare of St Albans. It is
+only in the 16th century that the engraved representations become
+portraits. Previous to that period the features were invariably
+represented conventionally, though sometimes personal peculiarities were
+given. A large number of brasses in England are _palimpsests_, the back
+of an ancient brass having been engraved for the more recent memorial.
+Thus a brass commemorative of Margaret Bulstrode (1540) at Hedgerley, on
+being removed from its position, was discovered to have been previously
+the memorial of Thomas Totyngton, abbot of St Edmunds, Bury (1312). The
+abbey was only surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1539, so that before the
+year was out the work of spoliation had begun, and the abbot's brass had
+been removed and re-engraved to Margaret Bulstrode. In explanation of
+the frequency with which ancient brasses have thus been stolen and
+re-erected after being engraved on the reverse, as at Berkhampstead, it
+may be remarked that all the sheet brass used in England previous to the
+establishment of a manufactory at Esher by a German in 1649, had to be
+imported from the continent.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Sir John D'Abernon, 1277. Stoke D'Abernon Surrey.
+
+  Fig. 2.--Margaret de Camoys. 1310. Trotton, Sussex.
+
+  Fig. 3.--Henry de Grofhurst, c. 1330 Horsemonden, Kent.
+
+  Fig. 4.--Sir Nicholas Burnell, 1382. Acton Burnell, Shropshire.
+
+  Fig. 5.--Margaret Lady Cobham, 1385. Cobham, Kent.
+
+  Fig. 6.--Sir John Corp and Eleanor, his grand-daughter 1391, 1361.
+  Stoke Fleming, Devonshire.
+
+  Fig. 7.--Sir Symon de Felbrigge and Margaret his wife, 1400.
+  Felbrigge, Norfolk.
+
+  Figs. 1 and 6 from Waller's _Monumental Brasses._
+
+  Figs. 5 and 7 from Boutell's _Monumental Brasses._
+
+  Figs. 2, 3, and 4 by permission of the _Monumental Brass Society_.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Thomas de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick and Lady, 1406 and 1401.
+  St. Mary's Church, Warwick.
+
+  Fig. 2.--Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin, 1417. New College,
+  Oxford.
+
+  Fig. 3.--Sir William Vernon and Lady, 1467. Tong Church, Shropshire.
+
+  Fig. 4.--John Shelley, Esq., 1526, and his wife Elizabeth, 1513.
+  Clapham, Sussex.
+
+  Fig. 5.--Dame Margaret Chute, 1614. Mardon, Herefordshire.
+
+  Fig. 6.--Sir Edward Filmer and Lady, 1638. East Sutton, Kent.
+
+  Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 6 from Waller's _Monumental Brasses_.
+
+  Figs. 4 and 5 by permission of the _Monumental Brass Society_.]
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(1) General: _Manual for the Study of Monumental
+  Brasses_ (Oxford, 1848); Boutell's _Monumental Brasses of England_,
+  engravings on wood, folio (London, 1849); _Manual of Monumental
+  Brasses_, by H. Haines (2 vols. 8vo, 1861); Waller's _Series of
+  Monumental Brasses in England_ (London and Oxford, Parkers, 1863);
+  _Monumental Brasses_, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, 1890); _The Brasses of
+  England_, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, London, 1907). (2) English Counties:
+  Cotman's _Engravings of the most Remarkable of the Sepulchral Brasses
+  of Norfolk_ (4to, London, 1813-1816); and second edition, with plates
+  and notes by Meyrick, Albert Way and Sir Harris Nicholas (2 vols.
+  folio, London, 1839); _Illustrations of Monumental Brasses in
+  Cambridge_ (4to, Camden Society, 1846); _Monumental Brasses of
+  Northamptonshire_, by F. Hudson (folio, 1853); _The Monumental Brasses
+  of Wiltshire_, by G. Kite (8vo, London, 1860); _Architectural and
+  Historical Notes of the Churches of Cambridgeshire_, by A.C. Hill
+  (8vo, 1880); _Monumental Brasses of Cornwall_, by E.H.W. Dunken (4to,
+  London, 1882); _Monumental Brasses of Worcestershire and
+  Herefordshire_, ed. by C.T. Davis (1884); _Kentish Brasses_, by W.D.
+  Belcher (4to, London, 1888); _List of Monumental Brasses in the County
+  of Norfolk_, by the Rev. E. Farrer (Norwich, 1890); _The Monumental
+  Brasses of Lancashire and Cheshire_, by James Thornby (8vo, Hull,
+  1893); _Monumental Brasses in the Bedfordshire Churches_, by Grace
+  Isherwood (8vo, London, 1906), a large collection of rubbings of
+  special interest and value. (3) Foreign: _Monumental Brasses and
+  Incised Slabs in Belgium_ (8vo, 1849); _Books of Facsimiles of
+  Monumental Brasses of the Continent of Europe_, folio (1884), by the
+  Rev. W.F. Greeny.
+
+
+
+
+BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ETIENNE (1814-1874), Belgian
+ethnographer, was born at Bourbourg, near Dunkirk, on the 8th of
+September 1814. He entered the Roman Catholic priesthood, was professor
+of ecclesiastical history in the Quebec seminary in 1845, vicar-general
+at Boston in 1846, and from 1848 to 1863 travelled as a missionary,
+chiefly in Mexico and Central America. He gave great attention to
+Mexican antiquities, published in 1857-1859 a history of Aztec
+civilization, and from 1861 to 1864 edited a collection of documents in
+the indigenous languages. In 1863 he announced the discovery of a key to
+Mexican hieroglyphic writing, but its value is very questionable. In
+1864 he was archaeologist to the French military expedition in Mexico,
+and his _Monuments anciens du Mexique_ was published by the French
+Government in 1866. Perhaps his greatest service was the publication in
+1861 of a French translation of the _Popol Vuh_, a sacred book of the
+Quiche Indians, together with a Quiche grammar, and an essay on Central
+American mythology. In 1871 he brought out his _Bibliotheque
+Mexico-Guatemalienne_, and in 1869-1870 gave the principles of his
+decipherment of Indian picture-writing in his _Manuscrit Troano, etudes
+sur le systeme graphique et la langue des Mayas._ He died at Nice on the
+8th of January 1874. His chief merit is his diligent collection of
+materials; his interpretations are generally fanciful.
+
+
+
+
+BRASSEY, THOMAS (1805-1870), English railway contractor, was born at
+Buerton, near Chester, on the 7th of November 1805. His father, besides
+cultivating land of his own, held a large farm of the marquess of
+Westminster; his ancestors, according to family tradition, having been
+settled for several centuries at Bulkeley, near Malpas, Cheshire, before
+they went to Buerton in 1663. Thomas Brassey received an ordinary
+commercial education at a Chester school. At the age of sixteen he was
+apprenticed to a surveyor, and on the completion of his term became the
+partner of his master, eventually assuming the sole management of the
+business. In the local surveys to which he devoted his attention during
+his early years he acquired the knowledge and practical experience which
+were the necessary foundation of his great reputation. His first
+engagement as railway contractor was entered upon in 1835, when he
+undertook the execution of a portion of the Grand Junction railway, on
+the invitation of the distinguished engineer Joseph Locke, who soon
+afterwards entrusted him with the completion of the London and
+Southampton railway, a task which involved contracts to the amount of
+L4,000,000 sterling and the employment of a body of 3000 men. At the
+same time he was engaged on portions of several other lines in the north
+of England and in Scotland. In conjunction with his partner, W.
+Mackenzie, Brassey undertook, in 1840, the construction of the railway
+from Paris to Rouen, of which Locke was engineer. He subsequently
+carried out the extension of the same line. A few years later he was
+engaged with his partner on five other French lines, and on his own
+account on the same number of lines in England, Wales and Scotland.
+Brassey was now in control of an industrial army of 75,000 men, and the
+capital involved in his various contracts amounted to some L36,000,000.
+But his energy and capacity were equal to still larger tasks. He
+undertook in 1851 other works in England and Scotland; and in the
+following year he engaged in the construction of railways in Holland,
+Prussia, Spain and Italy. One of his largest undertakings was the Grand
+Trunk railway of Canada, 1100 m. in length, with its fine bridge over
+the St Lawrence. In this work he was associated with Sir M. Peto and
+E.L. Betts. In the following years divisions of his industrial army were
+found in almost every country in Europe, in India, in Australia and in
+South America. Besides actual railway works, he originated and
+maintained a great number of subordinate assistant establishments, coal
+and iron works, dockyards, &c., the direction of which alone would be
+sufficient to strain the energies of an ordinary mind. His profits were,
+of course, enormous, but prosperity did not intoxicate him; and when
+heavy losses came, as sometimes they did, he took them bravely and
+quietly. Among the greatest of his pecuniary disasters were those caused
+by the fall of the great Barentin viaduct on the Rouen and Havre
+railway, and by the failure of Peto and Betts. Brassey was one of the
+first to aim at improving the relations between engineers and
+contractors, by setting himself against the corrupt practices which were
+common. He resolutely resisted the "scamping" of work and the bribery of
+inspectors, and what he called the "smothering of the engineer"; and he
+did much in this way to bring about a better state of things.
+Large-hearted and generous to a rare degree, modest and simple in his
+taste and manners, he was conscious of his power as a leader in his
+calling, and knew how to use it wisely and for noble ends. Honours came
+to him unsought. The cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred on him.
+From Victor Emmanuel he received the cross of the Order of St Maurice
+and St Lazarus; and from the emperor of Austria the decoration of the
+Iron Crown, which it is said had not before been given to a foreigner.
+He died at St Leonards on the 8th of December 1870. His life and labours
+are commemorated in a volume by Sir Arthur Helps (1872).
+
+He left three sons, of whom the eldest, THOMAS (b. 1836), was knighted
+and afterwards (1886) created BARON BRASSEY. Lord Brassey, who was
+educated at Rugby and Oxford, entered parliament as a liberal in 1865,
+and devoted himself largely to naval affairs. He was civil lord of the
+admiralty (1880-1883), and secretary to the admiralty (1883-1885); and
+both before and after his elevation to the peerage did important work on
+naval and statistical inquiries for the government. In 1893-1805 he was
+president of the Institution of Naval Architects. In 1894 he was a
+lord-in-waiting, and from 1895 to 1900 was governor of Victoria. In 1908
+he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque Ports. His voyages in his
+yacht "Sunbeam" from 1876 onwards, with his first wife (d. 1887), who
+published an interesting book on the subject, took him all over the
+world. Lord Brassey married a second time in 1890. Among other
+publications, his inauguration of the _Naval Annual_ (1886 onwards), and
+his volumes on _The British Navy_, are the most important. His eldest
+son Thomas, who edited the _Naval Annual_ (1890-1904), and
+unsuccessfully contested several parliamentary constituencies, was born
+in 1862.
+
+
+
+
+BRASSO (Ger. _Kronstadt_; Rumanian, _Brasov_), a town of Hungary, in
+Transylvania, 206 m. S.E. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900) 34,511. It
+is the capital of the comitat (county) of the same name, also known as
+Burzenland, a fertile country inhabited by an industrious population of
+Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. Brasso is beautifully situated on the
+slopes of the Transylvanian Alps, in a narrow valley, shut in by
+mountains, and presenting only one opening on the north-west towards the
+Burzen plain. The town is entirely dominated by the Zinne of
+Kapellenberg, a mountain rising 1276 ft. above the town (total altitude
+3153 ft.), from which a beautiful view is obtained of the lofty
+mountains around and of the carefully cultivated plain of the
+Burzenland, dotted with tastefully built and well-kept villages. On the
+summit of the mountain is one of the numerous monuments erected in 1896
+in different parts of the country to commemorate the thousandth
+anniversary of the foundation of the Hungarian state. It is known as
+Arpad's Monument, and consists of a Doric column erected on a circular
+pedestal, which supports the bronze figure of a warrior from the time of
+Arpad.
+
+Brasso consists of the inner town, which is the commercial centre, and
+the suburbs of Blumenau, Altstadt and Obere Vorstadt or Bolgarszeg,
+inhabited respectively by Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. To the east of
+the inner town rises the Schlossberg, crowned by the citadel, which was
+erected in 1553, and constitutes the principal remaining fragment of the
+old fortifications with which Brasso was encircled. The most interesting
+building in the town is the Protestant church, popularly called the
+Black Church, owing to its smoke-stained walls, caused by the great fire
+of 1689. This church, the finest in Transylvania, is a Gothic edifice
+with traces of Romanesque influence, and was built in 1385-1425. In the
+square in front of it is the statue of Johannes Honterus (1498-1549),
+"the apostle of Transylvania," who was born in Brasso, and established
+here the first printing-press in Transylvania. In the principal square
+of the inner town stands the town hall, built in 1420 and restored in
+the 18th century, with a tower 190 ft. high. Brasso is the most
+important commercial and manufacturing town of Transylvania. Lying near
+the frontier of Rumania, with easy access through the Tomos pass, it
+developed from the earliest time an active trade with that country and
+with the whole of the Balkan states. Its chief industries are iron and
+copper works, wool-spinning, turkey-red dyeing, leather goods, paper,
+cement and petroleum refineries. The timber industry in all its
+branches, with a speciality for the manufacture of the wooden bottles
+largely used by the peasantry in Hungary and in the Balkan states, as
+well as the dairy industry, and ham-curing are also fully developed. A
+peculiarity of Brasso, which constitutes a survival of the old methods
+of trade with the Balkan states, is the number of money-changers who ply
+their trade at small movable tables in the market-place and in the open
+street. Brasso is the most populous town of Transylvania, and its
+population is composed in about equal numbers of Germans, Magyars and
+Rumanians. The town, especially on market days, presents an animated and
+picturesque aspect. Here are seen Germans, Szeklers, Magyars, Rumanians,
+Armenians and Gipsies, each of them wearing their distinctive national
+costume, and talking and bargaining in their own special idiom.
+
+Amongst the places of interest round Brasso is the watering-place
+Zaizon, 15 m. to the east, with ferruginous and iodine waters; while
+about 17 m. to the south-west lies the pretty Rumanian village of
+Zernest, where in 1690 the Austrian general Heussler was defeated and
+taken prisoner by Imre (Emerich) Tokoly, the usurper of the
+Transylvanian throne.
+
+Brasso was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1211, and soon became a
+flourishing town. Through the activity of Honterus it played a leading
+part in the introduction of the Reformation in Transylvania in the 16th
+century. The town was almost completely destroyed by the big fire of
+1689. During the revolution of 1848-1849 it was besieged by the
+Hungarians under General Bern from March to July 1849, and several
+engagements between the Austrian and the Hungarian troops took place in
+its neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+BRATHWAIT, RICHARD (1588-1673), English poet, son of Thomas Brathwait,
+was born in 1588 at his father's manor of Burneshead, near Kendal,
+Westmorland. He entered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1604, and remained
+there for some years, pursuing the study of poetry and Roman history. He
+removed to Cambridge to study law and afterwards to London to the Inns
+of Court. Thomas Brathwait died in 1610, and the son went down to live
+on the estate he inherited from his father. In 1617 he married Frances
+Lawson of Nesham, near Darlington. On the death of his elder brother,
+Sir Thomas Brathwait, in 1618, Richard became the head of the family,
+and an important personage in the county, being deputy-lieutenant and
+justice of the peace. In 1633 his wife died, and in 1639 he married
+again. His only son by this second marriage, Sir Stafford Brathwait, was
+killed in a sea-fight against the Algerian pirates. Richard Brathwait's
+most famous work is _Barnabae Itinerarium or Barnabees Journall_ [1638],
+by "Corymbaeus," written in English and Latin rhyme. The title-page says
+it is written for the "travellers' solace" and is to be chanted to the
+old tune of "Barnabe." The story of "drunken Barnabee's" four journeys
+to the north of England contains much amusing topographical information,
+and its gaiety is unflagging. Barnabee rarely visits a town or village
+without some notice of an excellent inn or a charming hostess, but he
+hardly deserves the epithet "drunken." At Banbury he saw the Puritan who
+has become proverbial,
+
+  "Hanging of his cat on Monday
+   For killing of a Mouse on Sunday."
+
+Brathwait's identity with "Corymbaeus" was first established by Joseph
+Haslewood. In his later years he removed to Catterick, where he died on
+the 4th of May 1673. Among his other works are: _The Golden Fleece_
+(1611), with a second title-page announcing "sonnets and madrigals," and
+a treatise on the _Art of Poesy_, which is not preserved; _The Poets
+Willow; or the Passionate Shepheard_ (1614); _The Prodigals Teares_
+(1614); _The Schollers Medley, or an intermixt Discourse upon Historicall
+and Poeticall relations_ (1614), known in later editions as a _Survey of
+History_ (1638, &c.); a collection of epigrams and satires entitled _A
+Strappado for the Divell_ (1615), with which was published incongruously
+_Loves Labyrinth_ (edited, 1878, by J.W. Ebsworth); _Natures Embassie;
+or, the wildemans measures; danced naked by twelve satyres_ (1621),
+thirty satires finding antique parallels for modern vices; with these are
+bound up _The Shepheards Tales_ (1621), a collection of pastorals, one
+section of which was reprinted by Sir Egerton Brydges in 1815; two
+treatises on manners, _The English Gentleman_ (1630) and _The English
+Gentlewoman_ (1631); _Anniversaries upon his Panarete_ (1634), a poem in
+memory of his wife; _Essaies upon the Five Senses_ (1620); _The Psalmes
+of David ... and other holy Prophets, paraphras'd in English_ (1638); _A
+Comment upon Two Tales of ... Jeffray Chaucer_ (1665; edited for the
+Chaucer Soc. by C. Spurgeon, 1901). Thomas Hearne, on whose testimony
+(MS. collections for the year 1713, vol. 47, p. 127) the authorship of
+the _Itinerarium_ chiefly rests, not inappropriately called him "the
+scribler of those times," and the list just given of his works, published
+under various pseudonyms, is by no means complete.
+
+  A full bibliography is given in Joseph Haslewood's edition of
+  _Barnabee's Journall_ (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1876). See also J. Corser,
+  _Collectanea_ (Chetham Soc., 1860, &c.).
+
+
+
+
+BRATIANU (or BRATIANO), ION C. (1821-1891), Rumanian statesman, was born
+at Pitesci in Walachia on the 2nd of June 1821. He entered the Walachian
+army in 1838, and visited Paris in 1841 for purposes of study. Returning
+to Walachia, he took part, with his friend C.A. Rosetti and other
+prominent politicians, in the Rumanian rebellion of 1848, and acted as
+prefect of police in the provisional government formed in that year. The
+restoration of Russian and Turkish authority shortly afterwards drove
+him into exile. He took refuge in Paris, and endeavoured to influence
+French opinion in favour of the proposed union and autonomy of the
+Danubian principalities. In 1854, however, he was sentenced to a fine of
+L120 and three months' imprisonment for sedition, and later confined in
+a lunatic asylum; but in 1856 he returned home with his brother,
+Dimitrie Bratianu, afterwards one of his foremost political opponents.
+During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Bratianu figured
+prominently as one of the Liberal leaders. He assisted in 1866 in the
+deposition of Cuza and the election of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern,
+under whom he held several ministerial appointments during the next four
+years. He was arrested for complicity in the revolution of 1870, but
+soon released. In 1876, aided by C.A. Rosetti, he formed a Liberal
+cabinet, which remained in power until 1888. For an account of his work
+in connexion with the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the Berlin congress,
+the establishment of the Rumanian kingdom, the revision of the
+constitution, and other reforms, see RUMANIA. After 1883 Bratianu acted
+as sole leader of the Liberals, owing to a quarrel with C.A. Rosetti,
+his friend and political ally for nearly forty years. His long tenure of
+office, without parallel in Rumanian history, rendered Bratianu
+extremely unpopular, and at its close his impeachment appeared
+inevitable. But any proceedings taken against the minister would have
+involved charges against the king, who was largely responsible for his
+policy; and the impeachment was averted by a vote of parliament in
+February 1890. Bratianu died on the 16th of May 1891. Besides being the
+leading statesman of Rumania during the critical years 1876-1888, he
+attained some eminence as a writer. His French political pamphlets,
+_Memoire sur l'empire d'Autriche dans la question d'Orient_ (1855),
+_Reflexions sur la situation_ (1856), _Memoire sur la situation de la
+Moldavie depuis le traite de Paris_ (1857), and _La Question religieuse
+en Roumanie_ (1866), were all published in Paris.
+
+  For his other writings and speeches see _Din Scrierile si cuvintarile
+  lui I.C. Bratianu_, 1821-1891 (Bucharest, 1903, &c.), edited with a
+  biographical introduction by D.A. Sturza. A brief anonymous biography,
+  _Ion C. Bratianu_, appeared at Bucharest in 1893.
+
+
+
+
+BRATLANDSDAL (i.e. Bratland valley), a gorge of southern Norway in
+Stavanger _amt_ (county), formed by the Bratland river, a powerful
+torrent issuing into Lake Suldal. A remarkable road traverses the gorge
+by means of cuttings and a tunnel, and the scenery is among the most
+magnificent in Norway. It is usually approached from Stavanger by way of
+Sand and Lake Suldal, and the road divides above the gorge, branches
+running north to Odde and south-east through Telemarken. The junction
+of the roads is near Breifond, 13 m. above Naes at the mouth of the
+river, on the west shore of Lake Roldal, which is fed by the snowfield
+to the west, north and east, and is drained by the Bratland river.
+
+
+
+
+BRATTISHING, or BRANDISHING (from the Fr. _breteche_), in architecture,
+a sort of crest or ridge on a parapet, or species of embattlement. The
+term, however, is generally employed to describe the ranges of flowers
+which form the crests of so many parapets in the Tudor period.
+
+
+
+
+BRATTLEBORO, a village of Windham county, Vermont, U.S.A., in a township
+(pop. 1910, 7541) of the same name, in the south-east part of the state,
+60 m. N. of Springfield, Massachusetts, on the Connecticut river. Pop.
+(1890) 5467; (1900) 5297 (686 foreign-born); (1910) 6517. It is served
+by the Central Vermont and the Boston & Maine railways. Situated in a
+hilly, heavily wooded country, it is an attractive place, with a few
+houses dating from the 18th century. Among the manufactures are toys,
+furniture, overalls and organs, the Estey and the Carpenter organs being
+made there. First settled about 1753, Brattleboro took its name from one
+of the original patentees, William Brattle (1702-1776), a Massachusetts
+loyalist. It was incorporated ten years later.
+
+  See H. Burnham, _Brattleboro_ (Brattleboro, 1880), and H.M. Burt, _The
+  Attractions of Brattleboro, Glimpses of Past and Present_
+  (Brattleboro, 1866).
+
+
+
+
+BRAUNAU (Czech _Broumov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 139 m. E.N.E. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7622, chiefly German. The town is built on a
+rocky eminence on the right bank of the Steine. It has an imposing
+Benedictine abbey, once a castle, but converted into a religious house
+in 1322, when Ottakar I. gave the district to the Benedictines.
+Noteworthy also is the great church of Saints Wenceslaus and Adalbert,
+built between 1683 and 1733. This stands on the site where, in 1618, the
+Protestants attempted to build a church, the forcible prevention of
+which by Abbot Wolfgang Solander was the immediate cause of the protest
+of the Bohemian estates and the "defenestration" of the ministers
+Martinic and Slavata, which opened the Thirty Years' War. After the
+battle of the White Hill, near Prague (1620), the town was deprived of
+all its privileges, which were, however, in great part restored nine
+years later. It is now a manufacturing centre (cloth, woollen and cotton
+stuffs, &c.) and has a considerable trade.
+
+
+
+
+BRAUNSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, 38 m. by rail
+S.W. of Konigsberg, on the Passarge, 4 m. from its mouth in the Frisches
+Haff. Pop. (1900) 12,497. It possesses numerous Roman Catholic
+institutions, of which the most important is the Lyceum Hosianum
+(enjoying university rank), founded in 1564 by the cardinal bishop
+Stanislaus Hosius. Brewing, tanning, and the manufactures of soap,
+yeast, carriages and bricks are the most important industries of the
+town, which also carries on a certain amount of trade in corn, ship
+timber and yarn. The river is navigable for small vessels. The castle of
+Braunsberg was built by the Teutonic knights in 1241, and the town was
+founded ten years later. Destroyed by the Prussians in 1262, it was
+restored in 1279. The town, which was the seat of the bishops of
+Ermeland from 1255 to 1298, was granted the "law of Lubeck" by its
+bishop in 1284, and admitted to the Hanseatic League. After numerous
+vicissitudes it fell into the hands of the Poles in 1520, and in 1626 it
+was captured by Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedes kept possession till 1635.
+It fell to Prussia by the first partition of Poland in 1772.
+
+
+
+
+BRAVO (Ital. for "brave"), the name for hired assassins such as were
+formerly common in Italy. The word had at first no evil meaning, but was
+applied to the retainers of the great noble houses, or to the
+cavalier-type of swashbucklers familiar in fiction. In later Italian
+history, especially in that of Venice, the _bravi_ were desperate
+ruffians who for payment were ready to commit any crime, however foul.
+
+
+
+
+BRAWLING (probably connected with Ger. _brallen_, to roar, shout), in
+law, the offence of quarrelling, or creating a disturbance in a church
+or churchyard. During the early stages of the Reformation in England
+religious controversy too often became converted into actual
+disturbance, and the ritual lawlessness of the parochial clergy very
+frequently provoked popular violence. To repress these disturbances an
+act was passed in 1551, by which it was enacted "that if any person
+shall, by words only, quarrel, chide or brawl in any church or
+churchyard, it shall be lawful for the ordinary of the place where the
+same shall be done and proved by two lawful witnesses, to suspend any
+person so offending, if he be a layman, from the entrance of the church,
+and if he be a clerk, from the ministration of his office, for so long
+as the said ordinary shall think meet, according to the fault." An act
+of 1553 added the punishment of imprisonment until the party should
+repent. The act of 1551 was partly repealed in 1828 and wholly repealed
+as regards laymen by the Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860.
+Under that act, which applies to Ireland as well as to England, persons
+guilty of riotous, violent or indecent behaviour, in churches and
+chapels of the Church of England or Ireland, or in any chapel of any
+religious denomination, or in England in any place of religious worship
+duly certified, or in churchyards or burial-grounds, are liable on
+conviction before two justices to a penalty of not more than L5, or
+imprisonment for any term not exceeding two months. This enactment
+applies to clergy as well as to laity, and a clergyman of the Church of
+England convicted under it may also be dealt with under the Clergy
+Discipline Act of 1892 (_Girt v. Fillingham_, 1901, L.R. Prob. 176).
+When Mr J. Kensit during an ordination service in St Paul's cathedral
+"objected" to one of the candidates for ordination, on grounds which did
+not constitute an impediment or notable crime within the meaning of the
+ordination service, he was held to have unlawfully disturbed the bishop
+of London in the conduct of the service, and to be liable to conviction
+under the act of 1860 (_Kensit_ v. _Dean and Chapter of St Paul's_,
+1905, L.R. 2 K.B. 249). The public worship of Protestant Dissenters,
+Roman Catholics and Jews in England had before 1860 been protected by a
+series of statutes beginning with the Toleration Act of 1689, and ending
+with the Liberty of Religious Worship Act 1855. These enactments, though
+not repealed, are for practical purposes superseded by the summary
+remedy given by the act of 1860. In Scotland disturbance of public
+worship is punishable as a breach of the peace (_Dougall_ v. _Dykes_,
+1861, 4 Irvine 101).
+
+In British possessions abroad interference with religious worship is
+usually dealt with by legislation, and not as a common-law offence. In
+India it is an offence voluntarily to cause disturbance to any assembly
+lawfully engaged in the performance of religious worship or religious
+ceremonies (Penal Code, s. 296). Under the Queensland Criminal Code of
+1899 (s. 207) penalties are imposed on persons who wilfully and without
+lawful justification or excuse (the proof of which lies on them)
+disquiet or disturb any meeting of persons lawfully assembled for
+religious worship, or assault any forces lawfully officiating at such
+meeting, or any of the persons there assembled.
+
+In the United States disturbance of religious worship is treated as an
+offence under the common law, which is in many states supplemented by
+legislation (see Bishop, _Amer. Crim. Law_, 8th ed. 1892, vol. i. s.
+542, vol. ii. ss. 303-305; California Penal Code, s. 302; _Revised Laws
+of Massachusetts_, 1902, chap. 212, s. 30.).
+
+
+
+
+BRAY, SIR REGINALD (d. 1503), British statesman and architect, was the
+second son of Sir Richard Bray, one of the privy council of Henry VI.
+Reginald was born in the parish of St John Bedwardine, near Worcester,
+but the date of his birth is uncertain. He was receiver-general and
+steward of the household to Sir Henry Stafford, second husband of
+Margaret, countess of Richmond, whose son afterwards became King Henry
+VII. The accession of the king Henry VII. favoured the fortunes of
+Reginald Bray, who was created a knight of the Bath at the coronation
+and afterwards a knight of the Garter. In the first year of Henry VII.'s
+reign he was given a grant of the constableship of Oakham Castle in
+Rutland, and was appointed joint chief justice with Lord Fitz Walter of
+all the forest south of Trent and chosen of the privy council.
+Subsequently he was made high treasurer and chancellor of the duchy of
+Lancaster. In October 1494 he became high steward of the university of
+Oxford, and he was a member of the parliament summoned in the 11th year
+of Henry VII's reign. In June 1497 he was at the battle of Blackheath,
+and his services in repressing the Cornish rebels were rewarded with a
+gift of estates and the title of knight banneret. His taste and skill in
+architecture are attested by Henry VII.'s chapel at Westminster and St
+George's chapel at Windsor. He directed the building of the former, and
+the finishing and decoration of the latter, to which, moreover, he was a
+liberal contributor, building at his own expense a chapel still called
+by his name and ornamented with his crest, the initial letters of his
+name, and a device representing the hemp-bray, an instrument used by
+hemp manufacturers. He died in 1503, before the Westminster chapel was
+completed, and was interred in St George's chapel.
+
+
+
+
+BRAY, THOMAS (1656-1730), English divine, was born at Marton,
+Shropshire, in 1656, and educated at All Souls' College, Oxford. After
+leaving the university he was appointed vicar of Over-Whitacre, and
+rector of Sheldon in Warwickshire, where he wrote his famous
+_Catechetical Lectures_. Henry Compton, bishop of London, appointed him
+in 1696 as his commissary to organize the Anglican church in Maryland,
+and he was in that colony in 1699-1700. He took a great interest in
+colonial missions, especially among the American Indians, and it is to
+his exertions that the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel owes
+its existence. He also projected a successful scheme for establishing
+parish libraries in England and America, out of which grew the Society
+for Promoting Christian Knowledge. From 1706 till his death in February
+1730 he was rector of St Botolph-Without, Aldgate, London, being
+unceasingly engaged in philanthropic and literary pursuits.
+
+
+
+
+BRAY, a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire,
+England, beautifully situated on the west (right) bank of the Thames, 1
+m. S. of Maidenhead Bridge. Pop. (1901) 2978. There are numerous
+riverside residences in the locality. The church of St Michael has
+portions of various dates from the Early English period onward, and is
+much restored. It contains a number of brasses of the 14th, 15th, 16th
+and 17th centuries. A well-known ballad, "The Vicar of Bray," tells how
+a vicar held his position by easy conversions of faith according to
+necessity, from the days of Charles II. until the accession of George I.
+and the foundation of "the illustrious house of Hanover" (1714). One
+Francis Carswell, who is buried in the church, was vicar for forty-two
+years, approximately during this period, dying in 1709; but the legend
+is earlier, and the name of the vicar who gave rise to it is not
+certainly known. That of Simon Aleyn, who held the office from c. 1540
+to 1588, is generally accepted, as, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward
+VI., Mary and Elizabeth, he is said to have been successively Papist,
+Protestant, Papist and Protestant. The name of Simon Simonds is also
+given on the authority of the vicar of the parish in 1745; Simonds died
+a canon of Windsor in 1551, but had been vicar of Bray. Tradition
+ascribes the song to a soldier in Colonel Fuller's troop of dragoons in
+the reign of George I.
+
+
+
+
+BRAY, a seaport and watering-place of Co. Wicklow, Ireland, 12 m. S.S.E.
+of Dublin on the Dublin & South-Eastern railway, situated on both sides
+of the river Bray. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7424. For parliamentary
+purposes it is divided between the eastern division of county Wicklow
+and the southern of county Dublin. A harbour was constructed by the
+urban district council (the harbour authority) which accommodates ships
+of 400 tons. There is some industry in brewing, milling and fishing, but
+the town, which is known as the "Irish Brighton," is almost wholly
+dependent for its prosperity on visitors from Dublin and elsewhere. It
+therefore possesses all the equipments of a modern seaside resort; there
+is a fine sea-wall with esplanade upwards of a mile in length; the
+bathing is good, and race meetings are held. The town is rapidly
+increasing in size. The coast, especially towards the promontory of Bray
+Head, offers beautiful sea-views, and some of the best inland scenery in
+the county is readily accessible, such as the Glens of the Dargle and
+the Downs, the demesne of Powerscourt, the Bray river, with its loughs,
+and the pass of the Scalp. The demesne of Kilruddery, the seat of the
+earls of Meath, is specially beautiful. About 1170 Bray was bestowed by
+Richard de Clare or Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and Strigul, on Walter
+de Reddesford, who took the title of baron of Bray, and built a castle.
+
+
+
+
+BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE (1773-1854), English antiquary and topographer,
+was born at Lambeth, London, in 1773. He was apprenticed to the
+enamelling trade, but early developed literary tastes. He formed a close
+friendship with John Britton, which lasted for sixty-five years. They
+entered into a literary partnership, and after some small successes at
+song and play writing they became joint editors of _The Beauties of
+England and Wales_, themselves writing many of the volumes. Long after
+he had become famous as a topographer, Brayley continued his enamel
+work. In 1823 he was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He
+died in London on the 23rd of September 1854. His other works include
+_Sir Reginalde or the Black Tower_ (1803); _Views in Suffolk, Norfolk
+and Northamptonshire, illustrative of works of Robt. Bloowifield_
+(1806); _Lambeth Palace_ (1806); _The History of the Abbey Church of
+Westminster_ (2 vols., 1818); _Topographical Sketches of
+Brighthelmstone_ (1825); _Historical and Descriptive Accounts of
+Theatres of London_ (1826); _Londiniana_ (1829); _History of Surrey_ (5
+vols., 1841-1848).
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIER (from the Fr. _brasier_, which comes from _braise_, hot
+charcoal), a metal receptacle for holding burning coals or charcoal,
+much used in southern Europe and the East for warming rooms. Braziers
+are often elegant in form, and highly artistic in ornamentation, with
+chased or embossed feet and decorated exteriors.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL, or BRASIL, a legendary island in the Atlantic Ocean. The name
+connects itself with the red dye-woods so called in the middle ages,
+possibly also applied to other vegetable dyes, and so descending from
+the _Insulae Purpurariae_ of Pliny. It first appears as the _I. de
+Brazi_ in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco (1436), where it is found
+attached to one of the larger islands of the Azores. When this group
+became better known and was colonized, the island in question was
+renamed Terceira. It is probable that the familiar existence of "Brazil"
+as a geographical name led to its bestowal upon the vast region of South
+America, which was found to supply dye-woods kindred to those which the
+name properly denoted. The older memory survived also, and the Island of
+Brazil retained its place in mid-ocean, some hundred miles to the west
+of Ireland, both in the traditions of the forecastle and in charts. In
+J. Purdy's _General Chart of the Atlantic_, "corrected to 1830," the
+"Brazil Rock (high)" is marked with no indication of doubt, in 51 deg.
+10' N. and 15 deg. 50' W. In a chart of currents by A.G. Findlay, dated
+1853, these names appear again. But in his 12th edition of Purdy's
+_Memoir Descriptive and Explanatory of the N. Atlantic Ocean_ (1865),
+the existence of Brazil and some other legendary islands is briefly
+discussed and rejected. (See also ATLANTIS.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL, a republic of South America, the largest political division of
+that continent and the third largest of the western hemisphere. It is
+larger than the continental United States excluding Alaska, and slightly
+larger than the great bulk of Europe lying east of France. Its extreme
+dimensions are 2629 m. from Cape Orange (4 deg. 21' N.) almost due south
+to the river Chuy (33 deg. 45' S. lat.), and 2691 m. from Olinda (Ponta
+de Pedra, 8 deg. 0' 57" S., 34 deg. 50' W.) due west to the Peruvian
+frontier (about 73 deg. 50' W.). The most northerly point, the Serra
+Roraima on the Venezuela and British Guiana frontier (5 deg. 10' N.), is
+56 m. farther north than Cape Orange. The area, which was augmented by
+more than 60,000 sq. m. in 1903 and diminished slightly in the boundary
+adjustment with British Guiana (1904), is estimated to have been
+3,228,452 sq. m. in 1900 (A. Supan, _Die Bevolkerung der Erde_, Gotha,
+1904). A subsequent planimetric calculation, which takes into account
+these territorial changes, increases the area to 3,270,000 sq. m.
+
+_Boundaries._--Brazil is bounded N. by Colombia, Venezuela and the
+Guianas, N.E., E. and S.E. by the Atlantic, S. by Uruguay, Paraguay and
+Bolivia, and W. by Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and
+Colombia. Its territory touches that of every South American nation,
+except Chile, and with each one there has been a boundary dispute at
+some stage in its political life. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns
+attempted to define the limits between their American colonies in 1750
+and 1777, and the lines adopted still serve in great part to separate
+Brazil from its neighbours. Lack of information regarding the
+geographical features of the interior, however, led to some indefinite
+descriptions, and these have been fruitful sources of dispute ever
+since. The Portuguese were persistent trespassers in early colonial
+times, and their land-hunger took them far beyond the limits fixed by
+Pope Alexander VI. In the boundary disputes which have followed, Brazil
+seems to have pursued this traditional policy, and generally with
+success.
+
+Beginning at the mouth of the Arroyo del Chuy, at the southern extremity
+of a long sandbank separating Lake Mirim from the Atlantic (33 deg.45'
+S. lat.), the boundary line between Brazil and Uruguay passes up that
+rivulet and across to the most southerly tributary of Lake Mirim, thence
+down the western shore of that lake to the Jaguarao and up that river to
+its most southerly source. The line then crosses to the hill-range
+called Cuchilla de Sant' Anna, which is followed in a north-west
+direction to the source of the Cuareim, or Quarahy, this river becoming
+the boundary down to the Uruguay. This line was fixed by the treaty of
+1851, by which the control of Lake Mirim remains with Brazil. Beginning
+at the mouth of the Quarahy, the boundary line between Brazil and
+Argentina ascends the Uruguay, crosses to the source of the Santo
+Antonio, and descends that small stream and the Iguassu to the Parana,
+where it terminates. This line was defined by the treaty of 1857, and by
+the decision of President Cleveland in 1895 with regard to the small
+section between the Uruguay and Iguassu rivers. The boundary with
+Paraguay was definitely settled in 1872. It ascends the Parana to the
+great falls of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and thence westward along the
+water-parting of the Sierra de Maracayu to the _cerro_ of that name,
+thence northerly along the Sierra d'Amambay to the source of the
+Estrella, a small tributary of the Apa, and thence down those two
+streams to the Paraguay. From this point the line ascends the Paraguay
+to the mouth of the Rio Negro, the outlet of the Bahia Negra, where the
+Bolivian boundary begins. As regards the Peruvian boundary, an agreement
+was reached in 1904 to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the
+president of Argentina in case further efforts to reach an amicable
+settlement failed. The provisional line, representing the Brazilian
+claim, begins at the termination of the Bolivian section (the
+intersection of the 11th parallel with the meridian of 72 deg. 26' W.
+approx.) and follows a semicircular direction north-west and north to
+the source of the Javary (or Yavary), to include the basins of the Purus
+and Jurua within Brazilian jurisdiction. The line follows the Javary to
+its junction with the Amazon, and runs thence north by east direct to
+the mouth of the Apaporis, a tributary of the Yapura, in about 1 deg.
+30' S. lat., 69 deg. 20' W. long., where the Peruvian section ends. The
+whole of this line, however, was subject to future adjustments, Peru
+claiming all that part of the Amazon valley extending eastward to the
+Madeira and lying between the Beni and the east and west boundary line
+agreed upon by Spain and Portugal in 1750 and 1777, which is near the
+7th parallel. With regard to the section between the Amazon and the
+Apaporis river, already settled between Brazil and Peru, the territory
+has been in protracted dispute between Peru, Ecuador and Colombia; but a
+treaty of limits between Brazil and Ecuador was signed in 1901 and
+promulgated in 1905. The boundary with Colombia, fixed by treaty of
+April 24, 1907, follows the lower rim of the Amazon basin, as defined by
+Brazil. The Colombian claim included the left bank of the Amazon
+eastward to the Auahy or Avahy-parana channel between the Amazon and
+Yapura, whence the line ran northward to the Negro near the intersection
+of the 66th meridian. The Brazilian line ran north and north-west from
+the mouth of the Apaporis to the 70th meridian, which was followed to
+the water-parting south of the Uaupes basin, thence north-east to the
+Uaupes river, which was crossed close to the 69th meridian, thence
+easterly along the Serra Tunaji and Isana river to Cuyari, thence
+northerly up the Cuyari and one of its small tributaries to the Serra
+Capparro, and thence east and south-east along this range to the Cucuhy
+rock (Pedra de Cucuhy) on the left bank of the Negro, where the
+Colombian section ends. Negotiations for the settlement of this
+controversy, which involved fully one-third of the state of Amazonas,
+were broken off in 1870, but were resumed in 1905. The boundary with
+Venezuela, which was defined by a treaty of 1859, runs south-eastward
+from Cucuhy across a level country intersected by rivers and channels
+tributary to both the Negro and Orinoco, to the Serra Cupuy watershed
+which separates the rivers of the Amazon and Orinoco valleys. This
+watershed includes the ranges running eastward and northward under the
+names of Imeri, Tapiira-peco, Curupira, Parima and Pacaraima, the
+Venezuelan section terminating at Mt. Roraima. On the 9th of December
+1905 protocols were signed at Caracas accepting the line between Cucuhy
+and the Serra Cupuy located in 1880, and referring the remainder, which
+had been located by a Brazilian commission in 1882 and 1884, to a mixed
+commission for verification.
+
+The disputed boundary between Brazil and British Guiana, which involved
+the possession of a territory having an estimated area of 12,741 sq. m.,
+was settled by arbitration in 1904 with the king of Italy as arbitrator,
+the award being a compromise division by which Great Britain received
+about 7336 sq. m. and Brazil about 5405. The definite boundary line
+starts from Mt. Roraima and follows the water-parting east and south to
+the source of the Ireng or Mahu river, which with the Takutu forms the
+boundary as far south as 1 deg. N. to enclose the basin of the Essequibo
+and its tributaries, thence it turns east and north of east along the
+Serra Acaria to unite with the unsettled boundary line of Dutch Guiana
+near the intersection of the 2nd parallel north with the 56th meridian.
+Negotiations were initiated in 1905 for the definite location of the
+boundary with Dutch Guiana. Running north-east and south-east to enclose
+the sources of the Rio Paru, it unites with the French Guiana line at 2
+deg. 10' N., 55 deg. W., and thence runs easterly along the
+water-parting of the Serra Tumuc-Humac to the source of the Oyapok,
+which river is the divisional line to the Atlantic coast. The boundary
+with French Guiana (see GUIANA), which had long been a subject of
+dispute, was settled by arbitration in 1900, the award being rendered by
+the government of Switzerland. The area of the disputed territory was
+about 34,750 sq. m.
+
+  _Physical Geography._--A relief map of Brazil shows two very irregular
+  divisions of surface: the great river basins, or plains, of the
+  Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata, which are practically connected by low
+  elevations in Bolivia, and a huge, shapeless mass of highlands filling
+  the eastern projection of the continent and extending southward to the
+  plains of Rio Grande do Sul and westward to the Bolivian frontier.
+  Besides these there are a narrow coastal plain, the low plains of Rio
+  Grande do Sul, and the Guiana highlands on the northern slope of the
+  Amazon basin below the Rio Negro.
+
+
+    Relief.
+
+  The coastal plain consists in great part of sandy beaches, detritus
+  formations, and partially submerged areas caused by uplifted beaches
+  and obstructed river channels. Mangrove swamps, lagoons and marshes,
+  with inland canals following the coast line for long distances, are
+  characteristic features of a large extent of the Brazilian coast.
+  Parts of this coastal plain, however, have an elevation of 100 to 200
+  ft., are rolling and fertile in character, and terminate on the coast
+  in a line of bluffs. In the larger depressions, like that of the
+  Reconcavo of Bahia, there are large alluvial areas celebrated for
+  their fertility. This plain is of varying width, and on some parts of
+  the coast it disappears altogether. In Rio Grande do Sul, where two
+  large lakes have been created by uplifted sand beaches, the coastal
+  plain widens greatly, and is merged in an extensive open, rolling
+  grassy plain, traversed by ridges of low hills (_cuchillas_), similar
+  to the neighbouring republic of Uruguay. The western part of this
+  plain is drained by the Uruguay and its tributaries, which places it
+  within the river Plate (La Plata) basin.
+
+  The two great river basins of the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata
+  comprise within themselves, approximately, three-fifths of the total
+  area of Brazil. Large areas of these great river plains are annually
+  flooded, the flood-plains of the Amazon extending nearly across the
+  whole country and comprising thousands of square miles. The Amazon
+  plain is heavily forested and has a slope of less than one inch to the
+  mile within Brazilian territory--one competent authority placing it at
+  about one-fifth of an inch per mile. The La Plata basin is less
+  heavily wooded, its surface more varied, and its Brazilian part stands
+  at a much higher elevation.
+
+  Of the two highland regions of Brazil, that of the northern slope of
+  the Amazon basin belongs physically to the isolated mountain system
+  extending eastward from the Negro and Orinoco to the Atlantic, the
+  water-parting of which forms the boundary line between the Guianas and
+  Brazil. The culminating point is near the western extremity of this
+  chain and its altitude is estimated at 8500 ft. The ranges gradually
+  diminish in elevation towards the east, the highest point of the
+  Tumuc-Humac range, on the frontier of French Guiana, being about 2600
+  ft. The Brazilian plateau slopes southward and eastward, traversed by
+  broken ranges of low mountains and deeply eroded by river courses. The
+  table-topped hills of Almeyrin (or Almeirim) and Erere, which lie near
+  the lower Amazon and rise to heights of 800 and 900 ft., are generally
+  considered the southernmost margin of this plateau, though Agassiz and
+  others describe them as remains of a great sandstone sheet which once
+  covered the entire Amazon valley. Its general elevation has been
+  estimated to be about 2000 ft. It is a stony, semi-arid region, thinly
+  wooded, having good grazing _campos_ in its extreme western section.
+  Its semi-arid character is due to the mountain ranges on its northern
+  frontier, which extract the moisture from the north-east trades and
+  leave the Brazilian plateau behind them with a very limited rainfall,
+  except near the Atlantic coast. The more arid districts offer no
+  inducement for settlement and are inhabited only by a few roving bands
+  of Indians, but there were settlements of whites in the grazing
+  districts of the Rio Branco at an early date, and a few hundreds of
+  adventurers have occupied the mining districts of the east. In
+  general, Brazilian Guiana, as this plateau region is sometimes called,
+  is one of the least attractive parts of the republic.
+
+  The great Brazilian plateau, which is the most important physical
+  division of Brazil, consists of an elevated tableland 1000 to 3000 ft.
+  above the sea-level, traversed by two great mountain systems, and
+  deeply eroded and indented by numerous rivers. A thick sandstone sheet
+  once covered the greater part if not all of it, remains of which are
+  found on the elevated _chapadas_ of the interior and on isolated
+  elevations extending across the republic toward its western frontier.
+  These chapadas and elevations, which are usually described as mountain
+  ranges, are capped by horizontal strata of sandstone and show the
+  original surface, which has been worn away by the rivers, leaving here
+  and there broad flat-topped ridges between river basins and narrower
+  ranges of hills between river courses. From the valleys their rugged,
+  deeply indented escarpments, stretching away to the horizon, have the
+  appearance of a continuous chain of mountains. The only true mountain
+  systems, however, so far as known, are the two parallel ranges which
+  follow the contour of the coast, and the central, or Goyana, system.
+  The first consists of an almost continuous range crossing the northern
+  end of Rio Grande do Sul and following the coast northward to the
+  vicinity of Cape Frio, and thence northward in broken ranges to the
+  vicinity of Cape St Roque, and a second parallel range running from
+  eastern Sao Paulo northeast and north to the eastern margin of the Sao
+  Francisco basin in northern Bahia, where that river turns eastward to
+  the Atlantic. The first of these is generally known as the Serra do
+  Mar, or Coast Range, though it is locally known under many names. Its
+  culminating point is in the Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgaos), near
+  Rio de Janeiro, which reaches an elevation of 7323 ft. The inland
+  range, which is separated from the Coast Range in the vicinity of Rio
+  de Janeiro by the valley of the Parahyba do Sul river, is known as the
+  Serra da Mantiqueira, and from the point where it turns northward to
+  form the eastern rim of the Sao Francisco basin, as the Serra do
+  Espinhaco. This range is also known under various local names. Its
+  culminating point is toward the western extremity of the Mantiqueira
+  range where the Itatiaya, or Itatiaia-assu, peak rises to an elevation
+  of 8898 ft. (other measurements give 9823 ft.), probably the highest
+  summit in Brazil. This range forms the true backbone of the maritime
+  mountainous belt and rises from the plateau itself, while the Coast
+  Range rises on its eastern margin and forms a rim to the plateau.
+  North of Cape Frio the Coast Range is much broken and less elevated,
+  while the Serra do Espinhaco takes a more inland course and is
+  separated from the coast by great gently-sloping, semi-barren
+  terraces. The second system--the Central or Goyana--consists of two
+  distinct chains of mountains converging toward the north in the
+  elevated _chapadao_ between the Tocantins and Sao Francisco basins.
+  The eastern range of this central system, which crosses western Minas
+  Geraes from the so-called Serra das Vertentes to the valley of the
+  Paracatu, a western tributary of the Sao Francisco, is called the
+  Serra da Canastra and Serra da Matta da Corde. Its culminating point
+  is toward its southern extremity in the Serra da Canastra, 4206 ft.
+  above sea-level. The western range, or what is definitely known of it,
+  runs across southern Goyaz, south-west to north-east, and forms the
+  water-parting between the Parana and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. Its
+  culminating point is in the Montes Pyreneos, near the city of Goyaz,
+  and is about 4500 ft. above sea-level.
+
+  The great part of this immense region consists of _chapadoes_, as the
+  larger table-land areas are called, _chapadas_ or smaller sections of
+  the same, and broadly excavated river valleys. How extensive this work
+  of erosion has been may be seen in the Tocantins-Araguaya basin, where
+  a great pear-shaped depression, approximately 100 to 500 m. wide, 700
+  m. long, and from 1000 to 1500 ft. deep, has been excavated northward
+  from the centre of the plateau. Southward the Parana has excavated
+  another great basin and eastward the Sao Francisco another. Add to
+  these the eroded river basins of the Xingu, Tapajos and Guapore on the
+  north and west, the Paraguay on the south-west, and the scores of
+  smaller rivers along the Atlantic coast, and we may have some
+  conception of the agencies that have been at work in breaking down and
+  shaping this great table-land, perhaps the oldest part of the
+  continent. The most southern of these _chapadoes_, that of the Parana
+  basin, in which may be included the northern part of the Uruguay and
+  eastern part of the Paraguay basins, includes the greater part of the
+  states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Parana and Sao Paulo,
+  the south-western corner of Minas Geraes, a part of southern Goyaz,
+  and the south-eastern corner of Matto Grosso. The greatest elevation
+  is on its eastern or Atlantic margin where the average is about 3280
+  ft. above sea-level. The plateau breaks down abruptly toward the sea,
+  and slopes gradually some hundreds of feet toward the south and west.
+  There has been considerable denudation toward the west, the eastern
+  tributaries of the Parana rising very near the coast. The northern and
+  western parts of this plateau have an average elevation a little less
+  than that of the Atlantic margin, and their slopes are toward the
+  south and east, those of Goyaz and Matto Grosso being abrupt and
+  deeply eroded. This great _chapadao_ is in many respects the best part
+  of Brazil, having a temperate climate, extensive areas of fertile
+  soil, rich forests and a regular rainfall. Its Atlantic slopes are
+  heavily wooded, but the western slopes exhibit grass-covered _campos_
+  between the river courses. The Sao Francisco _chapadao_, which has a
+  general elevation of about 2600 ft., covers the greater part of the
+  states of Minas Geraes and Bahia, and a small part of western
+  Pernambuco, and might also be considered continuous with those of the
+  Parnahyba and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. This region is more tropical
+  in character, partially barren, and has an uncertain rainfall, a large
+  part of the Sao Francisco basin and the upper Atlantic slope of its
+  eastern rim being subject to long-continued droughts. This region is
+  well wooded along the river courses of Minas Geraes, the lower
+  Atlantic slopes of Bahia, which are perhaps outside the plateau
+  proper, and on the weather side of some of the elevated ridges where
+  the rainfall is heavy and regular. It has extensive _campos_ and large
+  areas of exposed rock and stony steppes, but is richly provided with
+  mineral deposits. It breaks down less abruptly toward the Atlantic,
+  the slopes in Bahia being long and gradual. The Parnahyba _chapadao_
+  covers the state of Piauhy, the southern part of Maranhao, and the
+  western part of Ceara. Its general elevation is less than that of the
+  Sao Francisco region, owing to the slope of the plateau surface toward
+  the Amazon depression and to denudation. It resembles the Sao
+  Francisco region in its uncertain rainfall and exposure to droughts,
+  and in having large areas of _campos_ suitable for grazing purposes.
+  It is thinly wooded, except in the north, where the climatic
+  conditions approach those of the Amazon valley. Its climate is more
+  tropical and its development has gone forward less rapidly than in the
+  more temperate regions of the south. The Amazonian _chapadao_, which
+  includes the remainder of the great Brazilian plateau west of the Sao
+  Francisco and Parnahyba regions and which appears to be the
+  continuation of these tablelands westward, is much the largest of
+  these plateau divisions. It covers the greater part of the states of
+  Matto Grosso and Goyaz, a large part of southern Para, the southern
+  margin of Amazonas, and a considerable part of western Maranhao. It
+  includes the river basins of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingu, Tapajos,
+  and the eastern tributaries of the Guapore-Madeira. A considerable
+  part of it has been excavated by these rivers to a level which gives
+  their valleys the elevation and character of lowlands, though isolated
+  hills and ranges with the characteristic overlying horizontal
+  sandstone strata of the ancient plateau show that it was once a
+  highland region. The southern margin of this plateau breaks down
+  abruptly toward the south and overlooks the Parana and Paraguay basins
+  from elevations of 2600 to 3000 ft. There is great diversity in the
+  character and appearance of this extensive region. It lies wholly
+  within the tropics, though its more elevated districts enjoy a
+  temperate climate. Its _chapadas_ are covered with extensive _campos_,
+  its shallow valleys with open woodlands, and its deeper valleys with
+  heavy forests. The rainfall is good, but not heavy. The general slope
+  is toward the Amazon, and its rivers debouch upon the Amazonian plain
+  through a succession of falls and rapids.
+
+  There remains only the elevated valley of the Parahyba do Sul, lying
+  between the so-called Serra das Vertentes of southern Minas Geraes and
+  the Serra do Mar, and extending from the Serra da Bocaina, near the
+  city of Sao Paulo, eastward to Cape Frio and the coastal plain north
+  of that point. It includes a small part of eastern Sao Paulo, the
+  greater part of the state of Rio de Janeiro, a small corner of
+  Espirito Santo, and a narrow strip along the southern border of Minas
+  Geraes. It is traversed by two mountain chains, the Serra da
+  Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar, and the broad, fertile valley of the
+  Parahyba do Sul which lies between them, and which slopes gently
+  toward the east from a general elevation exceeding 2000 ft. in Sao
+  Paulo. This region is the smallest of the _chapadao_ divisions of the
+  great plateau, and might be considered either a southward extension of
+  the Sao Francisco or an eastward extension of the Parana _chapadao_.
+  It is one of the most favoured regions of Brazil, having an abundant
+  rainfall, extensive forests of valuable timber, and large areas of
+  fertile soil. The mountain slopes are still masses of dense forest,
+  though their lower elevations and neighbouring valleys have been
+  cleared for cultivation and by dealers in rosewood and other valuable
+  woods. This elevated valley is noted for its fertility and was once
+  the principal coffee-producing district of Brazil.
+
+  [Illustration: BRAZIL
+
+  Scale, 1:17,000,000]
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  Outside the two great river systems of the Amazon and river Plate (Rio
+  de la Plata), which are treated under their respective titles, the
+  rivers of Brazil are limited to the numerous small streams and three
+  or four large rivers which flow eastward from the plateau regions
+  directly into the Atlantic. The Amazon system covers the entire
+  north-western part of the republic, the state of Amazonas, nearly the
+  whole of Para and the greater part of Matto Grosso being drained by
+  this great river and its tributaries. If the Tocantins-Araguaya basin
+  is included in the hydrographic system, the greater part of Goyaz and
+  a small part of Maranhao should be added to this drainage area. The
+  Tocantins is sometimes treated as a tributary of the Amazon because
+  its outlet, called the Rio Para, is connected with that great river by
+  a number of inland channels. It is an entirely separate river,
+  however, and the inland communication between them is due to the
+  slight elevation of the intervening country above their ordinary
+  levels and to the enormous volume of water brought down by the Amazon,
+  especially in the flood season. As the outlet of the Tocantins is so
+  near to that of the Amazon, and their lower valleys are conterminous,
+  it is convenient to treat them as parts of the same hydrographic
+  basin.
+
+  In the extreme north-east corner of the republic where the Brazilian
+  Guiana plateau slopes toward the Atlantic there is a small area lying
+  outside the drainage basin of the Amazon. Its rivers flow easterly
+  into the Atlantic and drain a triangular-shaped area of the plateau
+  lying between the northern frontier and the southern and western
+  watersheds of the Araguary, whose extreme limits are about 0 deg. 30'
+  N. lat. and 53 deg. 50' W. long. The more important of these rivers
+  are the Araguary, Amapa, Calcoene, Cassipore and Oyapok. The Araguary
+  rises in the Tumuc-Humac mountains, in about 2 deg. 30' N. lat., 52
+  deg. 10' W. long., and follows a tortuous course south and north-east
+  to the Atlantic. Its largest tributary, the Amapary, rises still
+  farther west. Little is known of the country through which it flows,
+  and its channel is broken by rapids and waterfalls where it descends
+  to the coastal plain. The Amapa is a short river rising on the eastern
+  slopes of the same range and flowing across a low, wooded plain,
+  filled with lagoons. The Calcoene and Cassipore enter the Atlantic
+  farther north and have a north-east course across the same plain. All
+  these small rivers are described as auriferous and have attracted
+  attention for this reason. The Oyapok, or Vicente Pinzon, is the
+  best-known of the group and forms the boundary line between Brazil and
+  French Guiana under the arbitration award of 1900. It rises in about 2
+  deg. 05' N., 53 deg. 48' W., and flows easterly and north-easterly to
+  the Atlantic. Its course is less tortuous than that of the Araguary.
+
+  The rivers of the great Brazilian plateau which flow directly to the
+  Atlantic coast may be divided into two classes: those of its northward
+  slope which flow in a northerly and north-easterly direction to the
+  north-east coast of the republic, and those which drain its eastern
+  slope and flow to the sea in an easterly direction. The former reach
+  the coastal plain over long and gradual descents, and are navigable
+  for considerable distances. The latter descend from the plateau much
+  nearer the coast, and are in most cases navigable for short distances
+  only. In both classes navigation is greatly impeded by sandbars at the
+  mouths of these rivers, while in the districts of periodical rainfall
+  it is greatly restricted in the dry season. The more important rivers
+  of the first division, which are described in more detail under the
+  titles of the Brazilian states through which they flow, are the
+  following: the Gurupy, Tury-assu, Mearim, Itapicuru and Balsas, in the
+  state of Maranhao; the Parnahyba and its tributaries in Piauhy;
+  Jaguaribe in Ceara; and the Apody and Piranhas in Rio Grande do Norte.
+  Of these the Parnahyba is the most important, having a total length of
+  about 900 m., broken at intervals by rapids and navigable in sections.
+  It receives only one important tributary from Maranhao--the Rio das
+  Balsas, 447 m. long--and five from Piauhy, the Urussuhy-assu,
+  Gurgueia, Caninde, Poty and Longa. Piauhy is wholly within its
+  drainage basin, although the river forms the boundary line between
+  that state and Maranhao throughout its entire length. All the rivers
+  in this division are influenced by the periodical character of the
+  rainfall, their navigable channels being greatly shortened in the dry
+  season (August-January). In Ceara the smaller rivers become dry
+  channels in the dry season, and in protracted droughts the larger ones
+  disappear also.
+
+  The rivers of the second division are included in a very great
+  extension of coast and are influenced by wide differences in climate.
+  Their character is also determined by the distance of the Serra do Mar
+  from the coast, the more southern rivers having short precipitous
+  courses. The more northern rivers are subject to periodical variations
+  in volume caused by wet and dry seasons, but the greater distance of
+  the coast range and the more gradual breaking down of the plateau
+  toward the sea, give them longer courses and a greater extent of
+  navigable water. North of the Sao Francisco the watershed projecting
+  from the plateau eastward toward Cape St Roque, known as the Serra da
+  Borborema in Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte where its direction
+  becomes north-east, leaves a triangular section of the easterly slope
+  in which the river courses are short and much broken by rapids. The
+  rainfall, also, is limited and uncertain. The largest of this group of
+  small rivers is the Parahyba do Norte, belonging to the state of
+  Parahyba, whose length is said to be less than 200 m., only 5 or 6 m.
+  of which are navigable for small steamers. The Sao Francisco, which
+  belongs to the inland plateau region, is the largest river of the
+  eastern coast of Brazil and exists by virtue of climatic conditions
+  wholly different from those of the coast where it enters the Atlantic.
+  The tributaries of the lower half of this great river, which belong to
+  the Atlantic coast region, are small and often dry, but the upper
+  river where the rainfall is heavier and more regular receives several
+  large affluents. The river is navigable up to the Paulo Affonso falls,
+  192 m. from the coast, and above the falls there is a much longer
+  stretch of navigable water.
+
+  From the Sao Francisco to Cape Frio there are many short rivers rising
+  on the slopes of the plateau and crossing the narrow coastal plain to
+  the sea. There are also a few of greater length which rise far back on
+  the plateau itself and flow down to the plain through deeply cut,
+  precipitous courses. The navigable channels of these rivers are
+  restricted to the coastal plain, except where a river has excavated
+  for itself a valley back into the plateau. The more important of these
+  rivers are the Itapicuru, Paraguassu, Contas or Jussiape, Pardo or
+  Patype, and Jequitinhonha, of Bahia; the Mucury, and Doce, of Espirito
+  Santo; and the Parahyba do Sul of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Of the
+  Bahia group, the Jequitinhonha, sometimes called the Belmonte on its
+  lower course, is the longest and most important, rising near Serro in
+  the state of Minas Geraes and flowing in a curving north-east
+  direction for a distance of about 500 m., 84 of which are navigable
+  inland from the sea. The Mucury and Doce also rise in Minas Geraes,
+  and are much broken in their descent to the lower plains, the former
+  having a navigable channel of 98 m. and the latter of 138 m. The
+  Parahyba, or Parahyba do Sul, which enters the sea about 30 m. north
+  of Cape S. Thome, is the largest and most important of the Atlantic
+  coast rivers south of the Sao Francisco. It rises on an elevated
+  tableland in the state of Sao Paulo and flows across the state of Rio
+  de Janeiro from west to east, through a broad fertile valley producing
+  coffee in its most elevated districts and sugar on its alluvial
+  bottom-lands nearer the sea. It has a total length of 658 m., 57 of
+  which are navigable between S. Fidelis and its mouth, and about 90 m.
+  of its upper course.
+
+  South of Cape Frio there are no large rivers along the coast because
+  of the proximity of the Serra do Mar--the coastal plain being very
+  narrow and in places disappearing altogether. There are many short
+  streams along this coast, fed by heavy rainfalls, but they have no
+  geographic importance and no economic value under existing conditions.
+  The largest of these and the only one of commercial value is the
+  Ribeira de Iguape, which has its source on the tablelands of Parana
+  and after receiving several affluents west of the Serra do Mar breaks
+  through a depression in that range and discharges into the Atlantic
+  some miles below Santos on the southern boundary of the state of Sao
+  Paulo. This river has a navigable channel of 118 m. below Xiririca,
+  and communicates with an inland canal or waterway extending for many
+  miles along this coast and known as the Iguape, or Mar Pequeno. In Rio
+  Grande do Sul the Atlantic coastal plain extends westward more than
+  half-way across the state, and is well watered by numerous streams
+  flowing eastward to the Lagoa dos Patos. Of these only two are of
+  large size--the Guayba and Camaquam. The first is formed by the
+  confluence of the Jacuhy, Cahy, Sinos and Gravatahy, and is known
+  under this name only from Porto Alegre to the Ponta de Itapua, where
+  it enters the Lagoa dos Patos. This river system drains a large part
+  of the northern mountainous region of the state, and has a
+  considerable extension of navigable channels between the plateau
+  margin and the lake. In the extreme southern part of the state, the
+  Lagoa Mirim empties into the Lagoa dos Patos through a navigable
+  channel 61-1/2 m. long, called the Rio Sao Goncalo.
+
+  The Brazilian rivers of the Rio de la Plata system are numerous and
+  important. Those of the Paraguay drain the south-western part of Matto
+  Grosso, and the tributaries of the Parana cover the western slopes of
+  the Serra do Mar from Rio Grande do Sul north to the south-west part
+  of Minas Geraes, and include the south-east part of Matto Grosso and
+  the south part of Goyaz within their drainage basin. This is one of
+  the most important fluvial systems of Brazil, but its economic value
+  is impaired by the great waterfalls of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and
+  Uribu-punga, and by the rapids and waterfalls in the majority of its
+  affluents near their junction with the main stream. Between the two
+  great waterfalls of the Parana there is an open channel of 276 m.,
+  passing through a rich and healthy country, and receiving large
+  tributaries from one of the most fertile regions of Brazil. Among the
+  larger of these are the great falls of the Iguassu, near the junction
+  of that river with the Parana. Though the Uruguay plays a less
+  important part, its relations to the country are similar to those of
+  the Parana, and its tributaries from the plateau region are similarly
+  broken by falls and rapids. The Paraguay is in great part a lowland
+  river, with a sluggish current, and is navigable by large river
+  steamers up to Corumba, and by smaller steamers to Cuyaba and the
+  mouth of the Jauru.
+
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  Compared with the number, length and volume of its rivers, Brazil has
+  very few lakes, only two of which are noticeable for their size. There
+  are a number of lakes in the lowland region of the Amazon valley, but
+  these are mainly overflow reservoirs whose areas expand and contract
+  with the rise and fall of the great river. The coastal plain is also
+  intersected by lagoons, lakes and inland channels formed by uplifted
+  beaches. These inland channels often afford many miles of sheltered
+  navigation. The lakes formed in this manner are generally shallow, and
+  are sometimes associated with extensive swamps, as in southern Bahia.
+  The lakes of the Alagoas coast, however, are long, narrow and deep,
+  occupying valleys which were deeply excavated when the land stood at a
+  higher level, and which were transformed into lakes by the elevation
+  of the coast. The largest of these are the Lagoa do Norte, on whose
+  margin stands the city of Maceio, and the Lagoa do Sul, a few miles
+  south of that city. Both have outlets to the sea, and the former is
+  salt There is a large number of these lakes along the coasts of
+  Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, some of them of considerable size.
+  The two largest lakes of this class are on the coast of Rio Grande do
+  Sul and are known as the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim. Both of
+  these lakes lie nearly parallel with the coast line, are separated
+  from the ocean by broad sand beaches filled with small lakes, and
+  communicate with the ocean through the same channel. The Lagoa dos
+  Patos is about 124 m. long with a maximum width of 37 m., and Lagoa
+  Mirim is 108 m. long with a maximum width of 15 m. Both are navigable,
+  though comparatively shallow and filled with sandbanks. So far as
+  known, there are no lakes of noteworthy size in the interior of the
+  country. There are a few small lakes in Maranhao and Piauhy, some in
+  Goyaz in the great valley of the Araguaya, and a considerable number
+  in Matto Grosso, especially in the Paraguay basin, where the sluggish
+  current of that river is unable to carry away the rainfall in the
+  rainy season.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  The coast of Brazil is indented with a number of almost landlocked
+  bays, forming spacious and accessible harbours. The larger and more
+  important of these are Todos os Santos, on which is located the city
+  of Sao Salvador or Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro or Guanabara, beside
+  which stands the capital of the republic. These two are freely
+  accessible to the largest ships afloat. The bays of Espirito Santo,
+  Paranagua and Sao Francisco have similar characteristics, but they are
+  smaller and more difficult of access. The first is the harbour for the
+  city of Victoria, and the other two for ports of the same name in
+  southern Brazil. The port of Pernambuco, or Recife, is formed by a
+  stone reef lying across the entrance to a shallow bay at the mouth of
+  two small rivers, Beberibe and Capibaribe, and is accessible to
+  steamers of medium draught. Santa Catharina and Maranhao have
+  well-sheltered harbours formed by an island lying in the mouth of a
+  large bay, but the latter is shallow and difficult of access. Para,
+  Parnahyba, Parahyba, Santos and Rio Grande do Sul are river ports
+  situated near the sea on rivers having the same name; but, with the
+  exception of Para and Santos, they are difficult of access and are of
+  secondary importance. There are still other bays along the coast which
+  are well adapted for commercial purposes but are used only in the
+  coasting trade. Many of the Atlantic coast rivers would afford
+  excellent port facilities if obstructions were removed from their
+  mouths.
+
+  _Geology._--Brazil is a region which has been free from violent
+  disturbances since an early geological period. It has, indeed, been
+  subject to oscillations, but the movements have been regional in
+  character and have not been accompanied by the formation of any
+  mountain chain or any belt of intense folding. From the Devonian
+  onwards the beds lie flat or dip at low angles. They are faulted but
+  not sharply folded. The mountain ranges of the east of Brazil, from
+  Cape St Roque to the mouth of the river Plate, are composed chiefly of
+  crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Some of the metamorphic rocks may
+  belong to the older Palaeozoic period, but the greater part of the
+  series is probably Archaean. Similar rocks cover a large area in the
+  province of Goyaz and in the south of the Matto Grosso, and they form,
+  also, the hills which border the basin of the Amazon on the confines
+  of Venezuela and Guiana. They constitute, in fact, an incomplete rim
+  around the basin of sedimentary beds which occupies the Amazonian
+  depression. In a large part of this basin the covering of sedimentary
+  deposits is comparatively thin. The crystalline floor is exposed in
+  the valleys of the Madeira, Xingu, &c. Some of the rocks thus exposed
+  are, however, eruptive (e.g. in the Tapajoz), and probably do not
+  belong to the Archaean. The crystalline rocks are succeeded by beds
+  which have been referred to the Cambrian and Silurian systems. In the
+  valley of the Trombetas, one of the northern tributaries of the
+  Amazon, fossils have been found which indicate either the top of the
+  Ordovician or the bottom of the Silurian. In the Maecuru, another
+  northern affluent, graptolites of Ordovician age have been discovered,
+  and Silurian fossils are said to have been found in the Maraca.
+  Elsewhere the identification of the Silurian and older systems does
+  not rest on palaeontological evidence. Devonian beds cover a much more
+  extensive area. They crop out in a band some 25 to 50 m. north of the
+  lower Amazon and in another band at a still greater distance south of
+  that river. These bands are often concealed by more recent deposits,
+  but it is clear that in this region the Devonian beds form a basin or
+  synclinal with the Amazon for its axis. Devonian beds also lie upon
+  the older rocks in the Matto Grosso and other provinces in the
+  interior of Brazil, where they generally form plateaux of nearly
+  horizontal strata. Fossils have been found in many localities. They
+  belong to either the lower or the middle division of the Devonian
+  system. The fauna shows striking analogies with that of the Bokkeveld
+  beds of South Africa on the one hand and of the Hamilton group of
+  North America on the other. The Carboniferous system in Brazil
+  presents itself under two facies, the one marine and the other
+  terrestrial. In the basin of the Lower Amazon the Carboniferous beds
+  lie within the Devonian synclinal and crop out on both sides of the
+  river next to the Devonian bands. There is a lower series consisting
+  of sandstone and an upper series of limestone. The former appears to
+  be almost unfossiliferous, the latter has yielded a rich marine fauna,
+  which belongs to the top of the Carboniferous or to the
+  Permo-carboniferous. In southern Brazil, on the other hand, in Rio
+  Grande do Sul, Parana, &c., the beds of this period are of terrestrial
+  origin, containing coal seams and remains of plants. Some of the
+  plants are European forms, others belong to the Glossopteris flora
+  characteristic of India and South Africa. The beds are homotaxial with
+  the Karharbari series of India, and represent either the top of the
+  Carboniferous or the base of the Permian of Europe. The only Mesozoic
+  system which is represented in Brazil by marine beds is the
+  Cretaceous, and the marine facies, is restricted to the coasts and the
+  basin of the Amazon. In the province of Sergipe, on the east coast,
+  the beds are approximately on the horizon of the Cenomanian; in the
+  valley of the Amazon they belong to the highest parts of the
+  Cretaceous system, and the fauna shows Tertiary affinities. In the
+  interior of Brazil, the Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid by a
+  series of red sandstones, &c., which appear to be of continental
+  origin and of which the age is uncertain. Tertiary beds cover a
+  considerable area, especially in the Amazonian depression. They
+  consist chiefly of sands and clays of aeolian and freshwater origin.
+  Of the Pleistocene and recent deposits the most interesting are the
+  remains of extinct animals (_Glyptodon_, _Mylodon_, _Megatherium_,
+  &c.) in the caves of the Sao Francisco.
+
+  From the above account it will appear that, excepting near the coast
+  and in the basin of the Amazon, there is no evidence that any part of
+  Brazil has been under the sea since the close of the Devonian period.
+  During the Triassic and Jurassic periods even the basin of the Amazon
+  appears to have been dry land. Eruptive rocks occur in the Devonian
+  and Carboniferous beds, but there is no evidence of volcanic activity
+  since the Palaeozoic epoch. The remarkable "stone reefs" of the
+  north-east coast are ancient beaches hardened by the infiltration of
+  carbonate of lime. They are quite distinct in their formation from the
+  coral reefs of the same coast.
+
+  _Climate._--Brazil lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, less
+  than one-twelfth of its area lying south of the tropic of Capricorn.
+  In general terms, it is a tropical country, with sub-tropical and
+  temperate areas covering its three southern states and a great part of
+  the elevated central plateau. The forest-covered, lowland valley of
+  the Amazon is a region of high temperatures which vary little
+  throughout the year, and of heavy rainfall. There is no appreciable
+  change of seasons, except that produced by increased rainfall in the
+  rainy season. The average temperature according to Castelnau is about
+  78 deg.F., or 82.40 deg. to 84.20 deg. F. according to Agassiz. There
+  is an increase in the rainfall from August to October, and again from
+  November to March, the latter being the regular rainy season, but the
+  time varies considerably between the valley of the upper Amazon and
+  those of the upper Madeira and Negro. There is usually a short dry
+  season on the upper Amazon in January and February, which causes two
+  annual floods--that of November-December, and the great flood of
+  March-June. The subsidence of the latter usually lasts until October.
+  The average rainfall throughout the whole Amazon valley is estimated
+  by Reclus as "probably in excess of 2 metres" (78.7 in.), and the
+  maximum rise of the great flood is about 45 ft. The prevailing winds
+  in the Amazon valley are easterly and westerly (or south-westerly),
+  the former warm and charged with moisture, the latter dry and cold.
+  The easterly winds, which are deflections of the trade winds, blow
+  upstream with great regularity and force, more especially in the
+  winter or dry season, and are felt as far inland as the mouths of the
+  Madeira and Negro. Above these they are less regular and are attracted
+  northward by the heated _llanos_ of Venezuela in winter, or southward
+  by the heated _campos_ of Matto Grosso in summer. The cold
+  south-westerly winds are felt when the sun is north of the equator,
+  and are most severe, for a few days, in the month of May, when a
+  _tempo da friagem_ (cold period) causes much discomfort throughout the
+  upper Amazon region. There are winter winds from the Andes, but in the
+  summer season there are cold currents of air from up-river (_ventos da
+  cima_) which are usually followed by downpours of rain.
+
+  The coastal plain as far south as Santos is a region of high
+  temperatures and great humidity. The year is usually divided into a
+  winter (_inverno_) and summer (_verao_), corresponding approximately
+  to a dry and wet season. The "dry" season, however, is a season of
+  moderate rainfall, except on the north-east coast where arid
+  conditions prevail. Another exception is that of the Pernambuco coast,
+  where the rainy season comes between March and August, with the
+  heaviest rainfall from May to July, which is the time of the southern
+  winter. Going southward there is also a gradual decrease in the mean
+  annual temperature, the difference between Rio de Janeiro and the
+  Amazon being about 5 deg. The north-east coast, which is sandy and
+  barren, shows an average mean annual temperature (at Fortaleza) of
+  nearly 80 deg. F., which is slightly higher than those of Maranhao and
+  Para. At Pernambuco the mean summer temperature is 79.5 deg. and that
+  of winter 76.8 deg., which are about 3 deg. lower than the mean
+  temperature of Bahia in summer, and 5 deg. higher than the Bahia mean
+  in winter. South of Bahia there is a gradual increase in the rainfall,
+  that of Rio de Janeiro exceeding 43 in. per annum. At Santos the
+  rainfall is exceptionally heavy and the mean temperature high, but
+  below that point the climatic conditions are considerably modified,
+  the range in temperature being greater, the mean annual temperature
+  lower, and the rainfall more evenly distributed throughout the year.
+  The winds are more variable, and the seasons are more sharply defined.
+  In Rio Grande do Sul the range in temperature is from 26 deg. to 80
+  deg., the climate being similar to that of Uruguay. At Pelotas, a
+  sea-level port on Lagoa dos Patos, the mean annual temperature is
+  about 63 deg. and the annual rainfall about 42 in. Extreme variations
+  in temperature are often produced by cold south-west storms from the
+  Argentine pampas, which sweep across southern Brazil as far north as
+  Cape Frio, the fall in temperature sometimes being 22 deg. to 27 deg.
+  These storms usually last from two to three days and cause much
+  discomfort. Winter rains are more frequent in southern Brazil, and
+  violent storms prevail in August and September. At Blumenau, on the
+  Santa Catharina coast, the annual rainfall is 53 in.
+
+  The climatic conditions of the Brazilian plateau are widely different
+  from those of the coast in many respects. There is less uniformity in
+  temperature, and the elevated _chapadas_ are generally hotter during
+  the day and cooler at night than are localities of the same latitude
+  on the coast. The Brazilian Guiana plateau, lying immediately north of
+  the equator, is in great part a hot, stony desert. Geographically it
+  belongs to the Amazon basin, as its western and southern slopes are
+  drained by tributaries of that great river. Climatically, however, it
+  is a region apart. It lies in the north-east trade winds belt, but the
+  mountain chain on its northern frontier robs these winds of their
+  moisture and leaves the greater part of the Brazilian plateau
+  rainless. Its eastern and western extremities, however, receive more
+  rain, the former being well forested, while the latter is covered with
+  grassy _campos_. South of the Amazon valley and filling a great part
+  of the eastern projection of the continent, is another arid,
+  semi-barren plateau, lying within the south-east trade winds belt, and
+  extending from Piauhy southward to southern Bahia. It covers the state
+  of Piauhy and the western or inland parts of the states of Ceara, Rio
+  Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco and Bahia. The year is divided
+  into a dry and wet season, the first from June to December, when rain
+  rarely falls, the streams dry up and the _campos_ are burned bare, and
+  the second from January to May when the rains are sometimes heavy and
+  the _campos_ are covered with luxuriant verdure. The rains are neither
+  regular nor certain, however, and sometimes fail for a succession of
+  years, causing destructive _seccas_ (droughts). The interior districts
+  of Ceara, Pernambuco and Bahia have suffered severely from these
+  _seccas_. The sun temperature is high on these barren tablelands, but
+  the nights are cool and refreshing. The prevailing winds are the
+  south-east trades, which have lost some of their moisture in rising
+  from the coastal plain. In summer, becoming warmed by the heated
+  surface of the plateau, they sweep across it without a cloud or drop
+  of rain. In winter the plateau is less heated, and cold currents of
+  air from the west and south-west cause precipitation over a part if
+  not all of this region. South and south-west of this arid plateau lie
+  the inhabited tablelands of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Minas
+  Geraes, where the climate is greatly modified by a luxuriant
+  vegetation and southerly winds, as well as by the elevation. Minas
+  Geraes is forested along its water courses and along its southern
+  border only; its sun temperature, therefore, is high and the rainfall
+  in its northern districts is comparatively light. Sao Paulo is partly
+  covered by open _campos_, and these also serve to augment the maximum
+  temperature. In both of these states, however, the nights are cool,
+  and the mean annual temperature ranges from 68 deg. to 77 deg., the
+  northern districts of Minas Geraes being much warmer than the
+  southern. In Sao Paulo and southern Minas Geraes there are sometimes
+  frosts. In the Parahyba valley, which extends across the state of Rio
+  de Janeiro, the mean temperature is somewhat higher than it is in Sao
+  Paulo and Minas Geraes, and the nights are warmer, but the higher
+  valleys of the Serra do Mar enjoy a delightfully temperate climate.
+  The rainfall throughout this region is abundant, except in northern
+  Minas Geraes, where the climatic conditions are influenced to some
+  extent by the arid eastern plateau. South of Sao Paulo the tablelands
+  of Parana, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate
+  climate, with an abundant rainfall. There are occasional frosts, but
+  snow is never seen. Of Goyaz and Matto Grosso very little can be said.
+  The lower river valleys of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingu, Tapajos and
+  Paraguay are essentially tropical, their climate being hot and humid
+  like that of the Amazon. The higher valleys of the Parana and its
+  tributaries, and of the rivers which flow northward, are sub-tropical
+  in character, having high sun temperatures and cool nights. Above
+  these, the _chapadas_ lie open to the sun and wind and have a cool,
+  bracing atmosphere even where high sun temperatures prevail. The mean
+  annual temperature at Goyaz (city), according to a limited number of
+  observations, is about 77 deg. There is no absolutely dry season in
+  this part of the great Brazilian plateau, though the year is
+  customarily divided into a dry and wet season, the latter running
+  from September to April in Goyaz, and from November to April in Matto
+  Grosso. The prevailing winds are from the north-west in this region,
+  and westerly winds in the rainy season are usually accompanied by
+  rain.
+
+  _Fauna._--The indigenous fauna of Brazil is noteworthy not only for
+  the variety and number of its genera and species, but also for its
+  deficiency in the larger mammals. Of this, one of the best authorities
+  on the subject (H.W. Bates in _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_)
+  says: "Brazil, moreover, is throughout poor in terrestrial mammals,
+  and the species are of small size." It is noteworthy, also, for the
+  large number of species having arboreal habits, the density and extent
+  of the Amazon forests favouring their development rather than the
+  development of those of terrestrial habits. Of Quadrumana there are
+  about fifty species in Brazil, all arboreal, thirty-eight of which
+  inhabit the Amazon region. They belong mostly to the _Cebidae_ family,
+  and are provided with prehensile tails. The Carnivora are represented
+  by six species of the _Felidae_, the best known of which is the onca,
+  or jaguar (_F. onca, L_.), and the cougar, or puma (_F. concolor_);
+  three species of the _Canidae_, the South American wolf (_C.
+  jubatus_), and two small jackals (_C. brasiliensis_ and _C. vetulus_);
+  and a few species of the Mustelina including two of the otter, two
+  _Galictis_ and one _Mephitis_. Of the plantigrades, Brazil has no
+  bears, but has the related species of raccoon (_Nasua socialis_ and
+  _N. solitaria_), popularly called _coatis_. The opossum (_Didelphis_)
+  is represented by three or four species, two of which are so small
+  that they are generally called wood rats. The rodents are numerous and
+  include several peculiar species. Only one species of hare is found in
+  Brazil, the _Lepus brasiliensis_, and but one also of the squirrel
+  (_Scyurus_). Of the amphibious rodents, the prea (_Cavia aperea_),
+  moco (_C. rupestris_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_), cutia (_Dasyprocta
+  aguti_) and capybara (_Hydrochoerus capybara_) are noteworthy for
+  their size and extensive range. Their flesh is used as an article of
+  food, that of the paca being highly esteemed. Of the Muridae there are
+  several genera and a large number of species, some of them evidently
+  importations from the Old World. Brazil has three groups of animals
+  similar to the common rat--the _Capromydae_, _Loncheridae_ and
+  _Psammoryctidae_--the best known of which is the "tuco-tuco"
+  (_Clenomys brasiliensis_), a small burrowing animal of Rio Grande do
+  Sul which excavates long subterranean galleries and lives on roots and
+  bulbs. One of the characteristic orders of the Brazilian fauna is that
+  of the Edentata, which comprises the sloth, armadillo and ant-eater.
+  These animals are found only in the tropical regions of South America.
+  The range of the sloth is from the Guianas south into Minas Geraes,
+  the armadillo as far south as the Argentine pampas and the ant-eater
+  from the Amazon south to Paraguay, though it is found in the Amazon
+  region principally. The sloth (_Bradypus_) is an arboreal animal which
+  feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of the Cecropias. It includes
+  two recognized genera and half a dozen species, the best known of
+  which is _B. didactylus_. The common name in Brazil is _preguica_,
+  which is equivalent to its English name. Of armadillos, commonly
+  called _tatu_ in Brazil, the largest species is the _Dasypus gigas_,
+  but the best known is the _tatu-ete_ (_D. octocinctus_), which is
+  highly esteemed for its flesh. The ant-eaters (_Myrmecophaga_) are
+  divided into three or four species, one of which (_M. jubata_) is
+  exclusively terrestrial, and the others arboreal. The popular name for
+  the animal is _tamandua_. The _M. jubata_, or _tamandua bandeira_, is
+  sometimes found as far south as Paraguay. Of the ruminants, Brazil has
+  only four or five species of _Cervidae_, which are likewise common to
+  other countries of South America. The largest of these is the marsh
+  deer (_C. paludosus_), which in size resembles its European congeners.
+  The others are the _C. campestris_, _C. nemorivagus_, _C. rufus_ and a
+  small species or variety called _C. nanus_ by the Danish naturalist Dr
+  P.W. Lund. The pachyderms are represented by three species of the
+  peccary (_Dicotyles_) and two of the anta, or tapir (_Tapirus_). The
+  former are found over a wide range of country, extending into Bolivia
+  and Argentina, and are noted for their impetuous pugnacity. The tapir
+  also has an extensive range between the coast and the foothills of the
+  Andes, and from northern Argentina to south-eastern Colombia. It is
+  the largest of the Brazilian mammals, and inhabits densely forested
+  tracts near river courses. The two species are _T. americanus_, which
+  is the larger and best known, and the _anta chure_, found in Minas
+  Geraes, which is said to be identical with the _T. Roulini_ of
+  Colombia. Perhaps the most interesting mammal of Brazil is the
+  _manati_, or sea-cow (_Manatus americanus_), which inhabits the lower
+  Amazon and sometimes reaches a length of 15 to 20 ft. It is taken with
+  the harpoon and its oil is one of the commercial products of the
+  Amazon valley.
+
+  The avifauna of Brazil is rich in genera, species and individuals,
+  especially in species with brilliantly-coloured plumage. It is
+  estimated that more than half the birds of Brazil are insectivorous,
+  and that more than one-eighth are climbers. The range in size is a
+  wide one--from the tiny humming-bird to the ema, rhea, or American
+  ostrich. Although the order which includes song-birds is numerous in
+  species and individuals, it is noticeably poor in really good
+  songsters. On the other hand it is exceptionally rich in species
+  having strident voices and peculiar unmusical calls, like the _paco_
+  (_Coracina scuttata_) and the _araponga_ (_Chasmorhynchus
+  nudicollis_). Two species of vultures, twenty-three of falcons and
+  eight of owls represent the birds of prey. The best known vulture is
+  the common _urubu_ (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig), which is the
+  universal scavenger of the tropics. The climbers comprise a large
+  number of species, some of which, like those of the parrot
+  (_Psittacidae_) and woodpecker (_Picus_), are particularly noticeable
+  in every wooded region of the country. One of the most striking
+  species of the former is the brilliantly-coloured _arara_
+  (_Macrocercus_, L.), which is common throughout northern Brazil.
+  Another interesting species is the toucan (_Ramphastos_), whose
+  enormous beak, awkward flight and raucous voice make it a conspicuous
+  object in the great forests of northern Brazil. In strong contrast to
+  the ungainly toucan is the tiny humming-bird, whose beautiful plumage,
+  swiftness of flight and power of wing are sources of constant wonder
+  and admiration. Of this smallest of birds there are fifty-nine
+  well-known species, divided into two groups, the _Phaethorninae_,
+  which prefer the forest shade and live on insects, and the
+  _Trochilinae_, which frequent open sunny places where flowers are to
+  be found. One of the Brazilian birds whose habits have attracted much
+  interest is the _Joao de Barro_ (Clay John) or oven bird (_Furnarius
+  rufus_), which builds a house of reddish clay for its nest and
+  attaches it to the branch of a tree, usually in a fork. The thrush is
+  represented by a number of species, one of which, the _sabia_
+  (_Mimus_), has become the popular song-bird of Brazil through a poem
+  written by Goncalves Dias. The dove and pigeon have also a number of
+  native species, one of which, the _pomba jurity_ (_Peristera
+  frontalis_), is a highly-appreciated table luxury. The gallinaceous
+  birds are well represented, especially in game birds. The most
+  numerous of these are the _perdiz_ (partridge), the best known of
+  which is the _Tinamus maculosa_ which frequents the _campos_ of the
+  south, the _inhambu_ (_Crypturus_), _capoeira_ (_Odontophorus_), and
+  several species of the penelope family popularly known as the
+  _jacutinga, jacu_ and _jacu-assu_. The common domesticated fowl is not
+  indigenous. Among the wading and running birds, of which the _ema_ is
+  the largest representative, there are many species of both
+  descriptions. In the Amazon lowlands are white herons (_Ardea
+  candidissima_), egrets (_A. egretta_), bitterns (_A. exilis_), blue
+  herons (_A. herodias_) scarlet ibises (_Ibis rubra_), roseate
+  spoonbills (_Platalea ajaja_); on higher ground the beautiful peacock
+  heron (_A. helias_) which is easily domesticated; and on the dry
+  elevated _campos_ the _ceriema_ (_Dicholophus cristatus_) which is
+  prized for its flesh, and the _jacamin_ (_Psophia crepitans_) which is
+  frequently domesticated. Prominent among the storks is the great
+  black-headed white crane, called the _jaburu_ (_Mycteria americana_),
+  which is found along the Amazon and down the coast and grows to a
+  height of 4-1/2 ft. Of the swimmers, the number of species is smaller,
+  but some of them are widely distributed and numerous in individuals.
+  There are but few species of ducks, and they are apparently more
+  numerous in southern Brazil than on the Amazon.
+
+  The reptilian fauna exhibits an exceptionally large number of
+  interesting genera and species. A great part of the river systems of
+  the country with their flooded areas are highly favourable to the
+  development of reptilian life. Most prominent among these is the
+  American alligator, of which there are, according to Netterer, two
+  genera and eight species in Brazil. They are very numerous in the
+  Amazon and its tributaries and in the Paraguay, and are found in all
+  the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Three of the Brazilian species are
+  voracious and dangerous. The largest of the Amazon species are the
+  _jacare-assu_ (_Caiman niger_), _jacare_ (_C. fissipes_) and
+  _jacare-tinga_ (_C. sclerops_). The Amazon is also the home of one of
+  the largest fresh-water turtles known, the _Emys amazonica_, locally
+  called the _jurara-assu_ or _tartaruga grande_. These turtles are so
+  numerous that their flesh and eggs have long been a principal food
+  supply for the Indian population of that region. Another Amazon
+  species, the _E. tracaxa_, is still more highly esteemed for its
+  flesh, but it is smaller and deposits fewer eggs in the sandy river
+  beaches. Lagartos (_Iguanas_) and lizards are common everywhere. The
+  ophidians are also numerous, especially in the wooded lowlands
+  valleys, and the poisonous species, though less numerous than others,
+  include some of the most dangerous known--the rattlesnake _surucucu_
+  (_Lachesis rhombeatus_), and _jararaca_ (_Bothrops_). The Amazon
+  region is frequented by the _giboia_ (boa constrictor), and the
+  central plateau by the _sucuriu_ (_Eunectes murinus_), both
+  distinguished for their enormous size. The batrachians include a very
+  large number of genera and species, especially in the Amazon valley.
+
+  The fauna of the rivers and coast of Brazil is richer in species and
+  individuals than that of the land. All the rivers are richly stocked,
+  and valuable fishing grounds are to be found along the coast,
+  especially that of southern Bahia and Espirito Santo where the
+  _garoupa_ (_Serranus_) is found in large numbers. Some of the small
+  fish along the coast are highly esteemed for their flavour. Whales
+  were once numerous between Capes St Roque and Frio, but are now rarely
+  seen. Of the edible river fish, the best known is the _pirarucu_
+  (_Sudis gigas_), a large fish of the Amazon which is salted and dried
+  for market during the low-water season. Fish is a staple food of the
+  Indian tribes of the Amazon region, and their fishing season is during
+  the period of low water. The visit of Professor Louis Agassiz to the
+  Amazon in 1865 resulted in a list of 1143 species, but it is believed
+  that no less than 1800 to 2000 species are to be found in that great
+  river and its tributaries.
+
+  In strong contrast to the poverty of Brazil in the larger mammals is
+  the astonishing profusion of insect life in every part of the country.
+  The Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are especially numerous, both in
+  species and individuals. A striking illustration of this extraordinary
+  profusion was given by the English naturalist H.W. Bates, who found
+  7000 species of insects in the vicinity of only one of his collecting
+  places on the Amazon (Ega), of which 550 species were of butterflies.
+  Within an hour's walk of Para are to be found, he says, about 700
+  species of butterflies, "whilst the total number found in the British
+  Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports only
+  321." (H.W. Bates, _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_.) One of the
+  rare species of the Amazon _Morphos_ (_M. hecuba_) measures 8 to 9 in.
+  across its expanded wings. Dipterous insects are also very numerous in
+  species, especially in those of sanguinary habits, such as the
+  mosquito, _pium_, _maroim_, _carapana_, _borochudo_, &c. In some
+  places these insects constitute a veritable plague, and the infested
+  regions are practically uninhabitable. The related species of the
+  _Oestridae_ family, which include the widely disseminated _chigoe_ or
+  _bicho do pe_ (_Pulex penetrans_), and the equally troublesome _berne_
+  (_Cutiterebra noxialis_), which is so injurious to animals, are
+  equally numerous. The most numerous of all, however, and perhaps the
+  most harmful to civilized man, are the termites and ants, which are
+  found everywhere in the uninhabited campo and forest regions, as well
+  as in the cultivated districts. Nature has provided several species of
+  animals, birds and reptiles, to feed upon these insects, and various
+  poisonous and suffocating compounds are used to destroy them, but with
+  no great degree of success. It is not uncommon to find once cultivated
+  fields abandoned because of their ravages and to see large _campos_
+  completely covered with enormous ant-hills. The termites, or "white
+  ants," are exceptionally destructive because of their habit of
+  tunnelling through the softer woods of habitations and furniture,
+  while some species of ants, like the _sauba_, are equally destructive
+  to plantations because of the rapidity with which they strip a tree of
+  its foliage. Spiders are represented by a very large number of
+  species, some of which are beautifully coloured. The largest of these
+  is the _Mygale_ with a body 2 in. in length and outstretched legs
+  covering 7 in., a monster strong enough to capture and kill small
+  birds. A large _Mygale_ found on the island of Siriba, of the Abrolhos
+  group, feeds upon lizards, and has been known to attack and kill young
+  chickens. One of the most troublesome pests of the interior is a
+  minute degenerate spider of the genus _Ixodes_, called _carrapato_, or
+  bush-tick, which breeds on the ground and then creeps up the grass
+  blades and bushes where it waits for some passing man or beast. Its
+  habit is to bury its head in its victim's skin and remain there until
+  gorged with blood, when it drops off. Scorpions are common, but are
+  considered less poisonous than some European species.
+
+  _Flora._--Brazil not only is marvellously rich in botanical species,
+  but included at the beginning of the 20th century the largest area of
+  virgin forest on the surface of the earth. The flora falls naturally
+  into three great divisions: that of the Amazon basin where exceptional
+  conditions of heat and moisture prevail; that of the coast where heat,
+  varying rainfall, oceanic influences and changing seasons have greatly
+  modified the general character of the vegetation; and that of the
+  elevated interior, or _sertao_, where dryer conditions, rocky
+  surfaces, higher sun temperatures and large open spaces produce a
+  vegetation widely different from those of the other two regions.
+  Besides these, the flora of the Paraguay basin varies widely from that
+  of the inland plateau, and that of the Brazilian Guiana region is
+  essentially distinct from the Amazon. The latter region is densely
+  forested from the Atlantic to the Andes, but with a varying width of
+  about 200 m. on the coast to about 900 m. between the Bolivian and
+  Venezuelan _llanos_, and thus far civilization has made only a very
+  slight impression upon it. Even where settlements have been located,
+  constant effort is required to keep the vegetation down. Along the
+  coast, much of the virgin forest has been cut away, not only for the
+  creation of cultivated plantations, but to meet the commercial demand
+  for Brazil-wood and furniture woods.
+
+  The chief characteristic of the Amazonian forest, aside from its
+  magnitude, is the great diversity of genera and species. In the
+  northern temperate zone we find forests of a single species, others of
+  three or four species; in this great tropical forest the habit of
+  growth is solitary and an acre of ground will contain hundreds of
+  species--palms, myrtles, acacias, mimosas, cecropias, euphorbias,
+  malvaceas, laurels, cedrellas, bignonias, bombaceas, apocyneas,
+  malpigias, lecythises, swartzias, &c. The vegetation of the lower
+  river-margins, which are periodically flooded, differs in some
+  particulars from that of the higher ground, and the same variation is
+  to be found between the forests of the upper and lower Amazon, and
+  between the Amazon and its principal tributaries. The density of the
+  forest is greatly augmented by the _cipos_, or lianas, which overgrow
+  the largest trees to their tops, and by a profusion of epiphytes which
+  cover the highest branches. As a rule the trees of the Amazon forest
+  are not conspicuously high, a few species rarely reaching a height of
+  200 ft. The average is probably less than one-half that height. This
+  is especially true of the flood plains where the annual inundations
+  prevent the formation of humus and retard forest growth. The largest
+  of the Amazon forest trees are the _massaranduba_ (_Mimusops elata_),
+  called the cow-tree because of its milky sap, the _samauma_
+  (_Eriodendron samauma_) or silk-cotton tree, the _pau d' arco_
+  (_Tecoma speciosa_), _pau d' alho_ (_Catraeva tapia_), _bacori_
+  (_Symphonea coccinea_), _sapucaia_ (_Lecythis ollaria_), and
+  _castanheira_ or brazil-nut tree (_Bertholletia excelsa_). The Amazon
+  region has a comparatively narrow frontage on the Atlantic. In
+  Maranhao, which belongs to the coast region, open spaces or _campos_
+  appear, though the state is well wooded and its forests have the
+  general characteristics of the lower Amazon. South-east of the
+  Parnahyba the coast region becomes dryer and more sandy and the
+  forests disappear. The coast and tide-water rivers are fringed with
+  mangrove, and the sandy plain reaching back to the margin of the
+  inland plateau is generally bare of vegetation, though the carnahuba
+  palm (_Copernicia cerifera_) and some species of low-growing trees are
+  to be found in many places. The higher levels of this plain are
+  covered with shrubs and small trees, principally mimosas. The slopes
+  of the plateau, which receive a better rainfall, are more heavily
+  forested, some districts being covered with deciduous trees, forming
+  _catingas_ in local parlance. This dry, thinly-wooded region extends
+  south to the states of Parahyba, where a more regular rainfall favours
+  forest growth nearer the coast. Between Parahyba and southern Bahia
+  forests and open plains are intermingled; thence southward the narrow
+  coastal plain and bordering mountain slopes are heavily forested. The
+  sea-coast, bays and tide-water rivers are still fringed with mangrove,
+  and on the sandy shores above Cape Frio grow large numbers of the
+  exotic cocoa-nut palm. Many species of indigenous palms abound, and in
+  places the forests are indescribably luxuriant. These are made up, as
+  Prince Max zu Neuwied found in southern Bahia in 1817, "of the genera
+  _Cocos_, _Melastoma_, _Bignonia_, _Rhexia_, _Mimosa_, _Inga_,
+  _Bombax_, _Ilex_, _Laurus_, _Myrthus_, _Eugenia_, _Jacaranda_,
+  _Jatropha_, _Visinia_, _Lecythis_, _Ficus_, and a thousand other, for
+  the most part, unknown species of trees." Further inland the higher
+  country becomes more open and the forests are less luxuriant. Giant
+  cacti and spiny scrub abound. Then come the _catinga_ tracts, and,
+  beyond these, the open _campos_ of the elevated plateau, dotted with
+  clumps of low growing bushes and broken by tracts of _carrasco_, a
+  thick, matted, bushy growth 10 to 12 ft. in height. Formerly this
+  coast region furnished large quantities of Brazil-wood (_Caesalpinia
+  echinata_), and the river valleys have long been the principal source
+  of Brazil's best cabinet-wood--rosewood (_Dalbergia nigra_), jacaranda
+  (_Machaeriumfirmum_, Benth.), vinhatico (_Plathymenia foliosa_,
+  Benth.), peroba (_Aspidosperma peroba_), cedro, &c. The exotic
+  _mangabeira_ (mango) is found everywhere along the coast, together
+  with the bamboo, orange, lemon, banana, cashew, &c.
+
+  Of the great inland region, which includes the arid campos of the
+  north, the partially-wooded plateaus of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and Matto
+  Grosso, the temperate highlands of the south, and the tropical
+  lowlands of the Paraguay basin, no adequate description can be given
+  without taking each section in detail, which can be done to better
+  advantage in describing the individual states. In general, the
+  _carrasco_ growth extends over the whole central plateau, and heavy
+  forests are found only in the deep river valleys. Those opening
+  northward have the characteristic flora of the Amazon basin. The
+  Paraguay basin is covered with extensive marshy tracts and open
+  woodlands, the palms being the conspicuous feature. The vegetation is
+  similar to that of Paraguay and the Chaco, and aquatic plants are
+  specially numerous and luxuriant. On the temperate uplands of the
+  southern states there are imposing forests of South American pine
+  (_Araucaria brasiliensis_), whose bare trunks and umbrella-like tops
+  give to them the appearance of open woodland. These forests extend
+  from Parana into Rio Grande do Sul and smaller tracts are also found
+  in Minas Geraes. Large tracts of _Ilex paraguayensis_, from which
+  _mate_, or Paraguay-tea, is gathered, are found in this same region.
+
+  The economic plants of Brazil, both indigenous and exotic, are
+  noticeably numerous. Coffee naturally occupies first place, and is
+  grown wherever frosts are not severe from the Amazon south to Parana.
+  The states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes are the
+  largest producers, but it is also grown for export in Espirito Santo,
+  Bahia and Ceara. The export in 1905 was 10,820,604 bags of 132 lb.
+  each, with an official valuation of L21,420,330. Sugar cane, another
+  exotic, has an equally wide distribution, and cotton is grown along
+  the coast from Maranhao to Sao Paulo. Other economic plants and fruits
+  having a wide distribution are tobacco, maize, rice, beans, sweet
+  potatoes, bananas, cacao (_Theobroma cacao_), mandioca or cassava
+  (_Manihot utilitissima_), _aipim_ or sweet mandioca (_M. aipi_),
+  guavas (_Psidium guayava_, Raddi), oranges, lemons, limes, grapes,
+  pineapples, _mamao_ (_Carica papaya_), bread-fruit (_Artocarpus
+  incisa_), jack fruit (_A. integrifolia_), and many others less known
+  outside the tropics. Among the palms there are several of great
+  economic value, not only as food producers but also for various
+  domestic uses. The fruit of the _pupunha_ or peach palm (_Guilielma
+  speciosa_) is an important food among the Indians of the Amazon
+  valley, where the tree was cultivated by them long before the
+  discovery of America. Humboldt found it among the native tribes of the
+  Orinoco valley, where it is called _pirijao_. The ita palm,
+  _Mauritia_, _flexuosa_ (a fan-leaf palm) provides an edible fruit,
+  medullary meal, drink, fibre, roofing and timber, but is less used on
+  the Amazon than it is on the lower Orinoco. The _assai_ (_Euterpe
+  oleracea_) is another highly-prized palm because of a beverage made
+  from its fruit along the lower Amazon. A closely-related species or
+  variety (_Euterpe edulis_) is the well-known palmito or cabbage palm
+  found over the greater part of Brazil, whose terminal phylophore is
+  cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Another highly useful palm is the
+  _carnauba_ or _carnahuba_ (_Copernicia cerifera_) which supplies
+  fruit, medullary meal, food for cattle, boards and timber, fibre, wax
+  and medicine. The fibre of the _piassava (Leopoldinia piassava_, or
+  _Attalea funifera_) is widely used for cordage, brushes and brooms.
+  There are many other palms whose fruit, fibre and wood enter largely
+  into the domestic economy of the natives, but the list given shows how
+  important a service these trees rendered to the aboriginal inhabitants
+  of tropical America, and likewise how useful they still are to the
+  people of tropical Brazil. Another vegetable product of the Amazon
+  region is made from the fruit of the _Paullinia sorbilis_, Mart., and
+  is known by the name of _guarana_. It is largely consumed in Bolivia
+  and Matto Grosso, where it is used in the preparation of a beverage
+  which has excellent medicinal properties. The Brazilian flora is also
+  rich in medicinal and aromatic plants, dye-woods, and a wide range of
+  gum and resin-producing shrubs and trees. The best known of these are
+  sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha, cinchona, jaborandi and copaiba; vanilla,
+  tonka beans and cloves; Brazil-wood and anatto (_Bixa orellana_);
+  india-rubber and balata. India-rubber is derived principally from the
+  _Hevea guayanensis_, sometimes called the _Siphonia elastica_, which
+  is found on the Amazon and its tributaries as far inland as the
+  foothills of the Andes. Other rubber-producing trees are the
+  _manicoba_ (_Jatropha Glasiovii_) of Ceara, and the _mangabeira_
+  (_Hancornia speciosa_), of the central upland regions.
+
+_Population._--The first explorers of Brazil reported a numerous Indian
+population, but, as the sea-coast afforded a larger and more easily
+acquired food supply than did the interior, the Indian population was
+probably numerous only in a comparatively small part of this immense
+territory, along the sea-coast. Modern explorations have shown that the
+unsettled inland regions of Brazil are populated by Indians only where
+the conditions are favourable. They are to be found in wooded districts
+near rivers, and are rarely found on the elevated _campos_. The
+immediate result of European colonization was the enslavement and
+extermination of the Indians along the coast and in all those favoured
+inland localities where the whites came into contact with them. The
+southern districts and the Amazon and its tributaries were often raided
+by slave-hunting expeditions, and their Indian populations were either
+decimated, or driven farther into the inaccessible forests. But there is
+no record that the inland districts of western and north-western Brazil
+were treated in this manner, and their present population may be assumed
+to represent approximately what it was when the Europeans first came.
+According to the census of 1890 the Indian population was 1,295,796, but
+so far as the migratory tribes are concerned the figures are only
+guesswork. A considerable number of these Indians have been gathered
+together in _aldeas_ under the charge of government tutors, but the
+larger part still live in their own villages or as nomads.
+
+Down to the beginning of the 19th century the white colonists were
+almost exclusively Portuguese. The immigration from countries other than
+Portugal during the first half of that century was small, but before its
+close it increased rapidly, particularly from Italy. Fully nine-tenths
+of these immigrants, including those from the mother country, were of
+the Latin race. The introduction of African slaves followed closely upon
+the development of agricultural industries, and continued nominally
+until 1850, actually until 1854, and according to some authors until
+1860. About 1826 it was estimated that the negro population numbered
+2,500,000 or three times the white population of that period. The
+unrestricted intermixture of these three races forms the principal basis
+of the Brazilian population at the beginning of the 20th century. Brazil
+has never had a "colour line," and there has never been any popular
+prejudice against race mixtures. According to the census of 1872 the
+total population was 9,930,478, of which 1,510,806 were slaves; the race
+enumeration gave 3,787,289 whites, 1,959,452 Africans, 386,955 Indians,
+and 3,801,782 mixed bloods. The Indian population certainly exceeded the
+total given, and the white population must have included many of mixed
+blood, the habit of so describing themselves being common among the
+better classes of South American mestizos. The census of 1890 increased
+the total population to 14,333,915, which, according to an unofficial
+analysis (_Statesman's Year Book_, 1905), was made up of 6,302,198
+whites, 4,638,495 mixed bloods, 2,097,426 Africans, and 1,295,796
+Indians. This analysis, if correct, indicates that the vegetative
+increase of the whites has been greater than that of the Africans and
+mixed races. This is not the conclusion of many observers, but it may
+be due to the excessive infant mortality among the lower classes, where
+an observance of the simplest sanitary laws is practically unknown. The
+census of the 31st of December 1900 was strikingly defective; it was
+wholly discarded for the city of Rio de Janeiro, and had to be completed
+by office computations in the returns from several states. The
+compilation of the returns was not completed and published until May
+1908, according to which the total population was 17,318,556, of which
+8,825,636 were males and 8,492,920 females. Not including the city of
+Rio de Janeiro, whose population was estimated at 691,565 in conformity
+with a special municipal census of 1906, the total population was
+16,626,991, of which 15,572,671 were Roman Catholics, 177,727
+Protestants, 876,593 of other faiths. The returns also show a total of
+3,038,500 domiciles outside the federal capital, which gives an average
+of 5.472 to the domicile. These returns will serve to correct the
+exaggerated estimate of 22,315,000 for 1900 which was published in
+Brazil and accepted by many foreign publications.
+
+The racial character of the people is not uniform throughout the
+republic, the whites predominating in the southern states, the Indians
+in Amazonas and, probably, Matto Grosso, and the mixed races in the
+central and northern coast states. The excess of whites over the
+coloured races in the southern states is due to their smaller slave
+population and to the large number of immigrants attracted to them.
+Slavery was not abolished until the 13th of May 1888, but a number of
+successful colonies had already been founded in these states. Other
+colonies were founded in Bahia, Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro during
+the same period, but they were unsuccessful, partly because of the
+competition of slave labour. Since the abolition of slavery immigration
+has poured a large number of labourers into the coffee-producing states,
+and with beneficial results. This strengthening of the white population
+of the South with fresh European blood must eventually divide Brazil
+into two distinct sections: the white states of the south, and the mixed
+or coloured states of the north. The introduction of European immigrants
+dates from 1818 when a Swiss colony was located at Nova Friburgo, near
+Rio de Janeiro, and it was continued under the direction and with the
+aid of the imperial government down to the creation of the republic.
+Since then the state governments have assumed charge of immigration, and
+some of them are spending large sums in the acquisition of labourers.
+The old system of locating immigrants in colonies, or colonial nuclei,
+which involved an enormous outlay of money with but slight benefit to
+the country, has been superseded by a system of locating the immigrants
+on the large plantations under formal contracts. In some of the coffee
+districts these contracts have resulted very profitably to the Italian
+labourers. The total number of colonists and immigrants entering Brazil
+between 1804 and 1902, inclusive, according to official returns, was
+2,208,353. The arrivals fluctuate greatly in number from year to year,
+influenced by the prevailing economic conditions in the country. At
+first the Portuguese outnumbered all other nationalities in the
+immigration returns, but since the abolition of slavery the Italians
+have passed all competitors and number more than one-half the total
+arrivals. Of the 700,211 immigrants located in the state of Sao Paulo
+from 1827 to the end of 1896, no less than 493,535 were Italians, and
+their aggregate throughout the republic was estimated in 1906 at more
+than 1,100,000. The German immigration, of which so much has been
+written for political ends, has been greatly over-estimated; trustworthy
+estimates in 1906 made the German contingent in the population vary from
+350,000 to 500,000. They are settled chiefly in colonies in the southern
+states, and form a most desirable body of settlers.
+
+_Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into twenty states and
+one federal district, which are the same as the provinces and "municipio
+neutro" of the empire. Their names also remain unchanged, except that of
+the federalized district in which the national capital is located, which
+is called the "districto federal." The republic has no territories,
+although Amazonas, Matto Grosso, Para and Goyaz cover an immense region
+of uninhabited and only partially explored territory. The states are
+subdivided into _comarcas_, or judicial districts, and into
+_municipios_, or townships, which is the smallest autonomous division.
+The constitution provides for the autonomy of the municipalities in
+order to safeguard the permanence of representative institutions. The
+_parochia_, or parish, an ecclesiastical division, is often used for
+administrative purposes, but it has no political organization. The
+names, areas, and populations of the states, together with the names and
+populations of their capitals, are as follows:--
+
+  +--------------------+---------+-----------------------+-----------------------+--------+
+  |                    |Area,[1] |     Population[2]     |                       |Popula- |
+  |      States.       |   Sq.   +-----------+-----------+    State Capitals.    |tion,[3]|
+  |                    |  miles. |  Census   |  Census   |                       | Census |
+  |                    |         |   1890.   |   1900.   |                       |  1890. |
+  +--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+
+  | Alagoas            |  22,584 |   511,440 |   649,273 | Maceio                | 31,498 |
+  | Amazonas           | 742,123 |   147,915 |   249,756 | Manaos                | 38,720 |
+  | Bahia              | 164,650 | 1,919,802 | 2,117,956 | Sao Salvador[4]       |174,412 |
+  | Ceara              |  40,253 |   805,687 |   849,127 | Fortaleza             | 40,902 |
+  | Espirito Santo     |  17,313 |   135,997 |   209,783 | Victoria              | 16,887 |
+  | Federal District   |     538 |   522,651 |   691,565 | Rio de Janeiro        |522,651 |
+  | Goyaz              | 288,549 |   227,572 |   255,284 | Goyaz[4]              | 17,181 |
+  | Maranhao           | 177,569 |   430,854 |   499,308 | S. Luiz do Maranhao[4]| 29,308 |
+  | Matto Grosso       | 532,370 |    92,827 |   118,025 | Cuyaba                | 17,815 |
+  | Minas Geraes       | 221,961 | 3,184,099 | 3,594,471 | Ouro Preto[5]         | 59,249 |
+  | Para               | 443,922 |   328,455 |   445,356 | Belem[4]              | 50,064 |
+  | Parahyba           |  28,855 |   457,232 |   490,784 | Parahyba              | 18,645 |
+  | Parana             |  85,455 |   249,491 |   327,136 | Curityba              | 24,553 |
+  | Pernambuco         |  49,575 | 1,030,224 | 1,178,150 | Recife[4]             |111,556 |
+  | Piauhy             | 116,529 |   267,609 |   334,328 | Therezina             | 31,523 |
+  | Rio de Janeiro     |  26,635 |   276,884 |   274,317 | Nictheroy             | 34,269 |
+  | Rio Grande do Norte|  22,196 |   268,273 | 1,149,070 | Natal                 | 13,725 |
+  | Rio Grande do Sul  |  91,337 |   897,455 |   926,035 | Porto Alegre          | 52,421 |
+  | Santa Catharina    |  28,633 |   283,769 |   320,289 | Desterro[6]           | 30,637 |
+  | Sao Paulo          | 112,312 | 1,384,753 | 2,282,279 | Sao Paulo             | 64,934 |
+  | Sergipe            |  15,093 |   310,926 |   356,264 | Araraju               | 16,336 |
+  |                    +---------+-----------+-----------+                       |        |
+  |       Brazil       |3,228,452|14,333,915 |17,318,556 |                       |        |
+  +--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+
+
+  _Communications._--Railway construction in Brazil dates from 1852,
+  when work was initiated on the Maua railway running from the head of
+  the bay of Rio de Janeiro to the foot of the Serra where Petropolis is
+  situated. The road is 10 m. long, and its first section was opened to
+  traffic on April 30, 1854, and its second December 16, 1856. The
+  mountain section, 5-1/2 m. long, which uses the Riggenbach system from
+  the terminal to Petropolis, was constructed between 1881 and 1883. The
+  development of railway construction in Brazil has been impeded to a
+  great extent by two unfavourable conditions--by the chain of mountains
+  or plateau escarpments which follow the coast line and obstruct
+  communication with the interior, and by the detached positions of the
+  settlements along the Atlantic, which compel the building of lines
+  from many widely separated points on the coast into a sparsely
+  populated hinterland. A majority of the ports, from which these roads
+  are built, are small and difficult of access, and the coasting trade
+  is restricted to vessels carrying the Brazilian flag. The only ports
+  having a rich and well-populated country behind them are Rio de
+  Janeiro and Santos, and these are the terminals of long lines of
+  railway which are being slowly extended farther into the interior.
+
+  The total mileage under traffic at the beginning of 1905 was 10,600
+  m., divided into 94 separate lines. There were also 745 m. under
+  construction, 1740 m. under survey, and about 1600 m. projected. Of
+  the 94 lines under traffic, 45 were operating by virtue of national
+  and 49 by provincial and state concessions. They were grouped in the
+  official reports of 1905 as follows:--
+
+    Government lines (21):--                  Miles.
+      Administered by the state  (6)            2228
+      Leased to private parties (15)            2174
+                                               -----   4402
+    Private lines (24)--
+      With national interest guarantees (12)    1290
+      Without such guarantees (12)               815
+                                               -----   2105
+    Private and state lines operated by
+      virtue of state concessions, with and
+      without interest guarantees (49)                 4093
+                                                     ------
+                                                     10,600
+                                                     ======
+
+  The policy of the national government has been gradually to lease all
+  its lines except the Estrada de Ferro Central do Brazil, which is
+  retained for sentimental reasons. This great railway runs from the
+  city of Rio de Janeiro westward to the city of Sao Paulo and northward
+  into the interior of Minas Geraes, with a total length at the
+  beginning of 1905 of 1002 m., and an extension of about 104 m. to
+  Pirapora, on the Sao Francisco river. It was formerly known as the "E.
+  de F. Dom Pedro II.," in honour of the sovereign who encouraged its
+  construction. The main line has a gauge of 63 in. (1.60 m.) and
+  affords an outlet for a number of inland metre-gauge lines. The first
+  two sections of this great railway, which carry it across the coast
+  range, were opened to traffic in 1858 and 1864. The series of trunk
+  lines terminating at the port of Santos are owned by private companies
+  and are formed by the Sao Paulo, Paulista and Mogyana lines, the first
+  owned by an English company, and the other two by Brazilian companies.
+  The Mogyana carries the system entirely across the state of Sao Paulo
+  into the western districts of Minas Geraes. The principal trunk lines
+  (the Sao Paulo and Paulista) have a broad gauge, while their
+  extensions and feeders have a narrow gauge. The comparatively short
+  lines extending inland from the ports of Sao Salvador (Bahia),
+  Pernambuco, Maceio, Victoria and Paranagua serve only a narrow zone
+  along the coast. To encourage the investment of private capital in the
+  construction of railways, the general railway law of 1853 authorized
+  the national government to grant guarantees of interest on the capital
+  invested. Under this law companies were organized in England for
+  building the Sao Paulo railway, and the lines running from Bahia and
+  Pernambuco toward the Sao Francisco river. Political considerations
+  also led to the construction of similar lines in the states of Rio
+  Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Espirito Santo, Parana,
+  Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul. The result was that the
+  national treasury became burdened with a heavy annual interest charge,
+  payable abroad in gold, which did not tend to diminish, and had a long
+  period to run before the expiration of the contracts. The government
+  finally determined to take over these guaranteed lines from the
+  foreign companies owning them, and a statement issued in October 1902
+  showed that 1335 m. had been acquired at a cost of L14,605,000 in
+  bonds, the interest on which is L584,200 a year against an aggregate
+  of L831,750 in interest guarantees which the government had been
+  paying. In addition to this economy it was calculated that the lines
+  could be leased for L132,000 a year. The loan finally issued in London
+  to cover the purchase of these railways aggregated L16,619,320. All
+  but three of these lines had been leased in 1905.
+
+  The use of tramways for the transportation of passengers in cities
+  dates from 1868, when the first section of the Botanical Garden line
+  of Rio de Janeiro was opened to traffic. The line was completed with
+  its surplus earnings and continued under the control of the American
+  company which built it until 1882, when it was sold to a Brazilian
+  company. Subsequently the tramways of the city have been mostly
+  concentrated in the hands of a single Canadian company. All the large
+  cities of Brazil are liberally provided with tramways, those of the
+  city of Sao Paulo, where electric traction is used, being noticeably
+  good. The substitution of electricity for animal traction was begun in
+  Sao Salvador in 1906. Mules are universally employed for animal
+  traction, and narrow gauge lines with single-mule trams are generally
+  used where the traffic is light.
+
+  Brazil is lamentably deficient in steamship communication considering
+  its importance in a country where the centres of population are
+  separated by such distances of coasts and river. Previous to the
+  creation of the republic, the coastwise service was performed by two
+  national companies (now united), and partially by foreign lines
+  calling at two or more ports. A considerable number of foreign sailing
+  vessels also carried on an important coasting trade. The coastwise
+  service centres at Rio de Janeiro, from which port the Lloyd
+  Brazileiro sends steamers regularly south to Montevideo, and north to
+  Para and Manaos, calling at the more important intermediate ports.
+  From Montevideo river steamers are sent up the Parana and Paraguay
+  rivers to Corumba and Cuyaba, in the state of Matto Grosso. The
+  company receives a heavy subsidy from the national government. Parts
+  of this coastwise traffic are covered by other companies, two of which
+  receive subsidies. There were also six lines of river steamers
+  receiving subsidies from the national government in 1904, and the
+  aggregate paid to these and the coastwise lines was 2,830,061 milreis.
+  The largest of the river lines is the Amazon Steam Navigation Co. (an
+  English corporation), whose service covers the main river and several
+  of its principal tributaries. Two subsidized companies maintain
+  services on the Sao Francisco river--one below the Paulo Affonso
+  falls, and the other above, the latter covering 854 m. of navigable
+  channel between Joazeiro and Pirapora. Besides these there are other
+  companies engaged in the coasting and river traffic, either with
+  subsidies from the state governments, as feeders for railway lines, or
+  as private unsubsidized undertakings.
+
+  The telegraph lines, which date from 1852, are owned and operated by
+  the national government, with the exception of the lines constructed
+  by private railway companies, and the cable lines of the Amazon and
+  the coast. The government lines extend from Para to the Argentine and
+  Uruguayan frontiers, where they connect with the telegraph systems of
+  those republics, and from Rio de Janeiro westward across country, in
+  great part unsettled, to the capitals of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. At
+  Para connexion is made with the cable laid in the bed of the Amazon to
+  Manaos, which is owned and operated by a subsidized English company.
+  At Vizeu, Para, connexion is made with a French cable to the West
+  Indies and the United States, and at Pernambuco with two cable lines
+  to Europe. A coastwise cable runs from Para to Montevideo with double
+  cables between Pernambuco and Montevideo. There were in 1903 a total
+  of 15,150 m. of land lines, with 29,310 m. of wire and 1102 telegraph
+  offices. The government maintains reciprocal rates with most of the
+  private railway lines.
+
+  The Brazilian postal service is under the general supervision of the
+  minister of communications and public works, and is administered by a
+  director-general. Owing to the size of the country and the
+  sparsely-populated state of a large part of the interior, the
+  transportation of the mails is attended with much difficulty and
+  expense. Although the postal rates are high, the service is not
+  self-sustaining, the receipts for 1904 being 7,018,344 milreis,
+  against a total expenditure of 10,099,545 milreis. There were 2847
+  post offices (_agencias_), of which 2166 were of the 4th or lowest
+  grade. Brazil is a member of the Postal Union, and like Argentina
+  exacts higher nominal rates of postage upon outgoing mail than those
+  agreed upon to cover the depreciation in her own currency. The letter
+  rate was at first 200 reis (nearly 5-1/2 d.), but it has been
+  increased to 300 reis, which is equivalent to 8 d. at par and 4-1/2 d.
+  at 15 d. exchange. An inland parcel post was in operation long before
+  the overthrow of the monarchy, and a similar service with Portugal has
+  been successfully maintained for a number of years, notwithstanding
+  the difficulties interposed by customs regulations. National and
+  international money order systems are also in operation.
+
+  The constitution of Brazil provides that the coastwise trade shall be
+  carried on by national vessels, but this provision did not go into
+  effect until 1896. And even then, because of the insufficient number
+  of Brazilian vessels it was provided in the regulations that foreign
+  vessels could be enrolled in that trade by using the Brazilian flag
+  and employing a certain proportion of Brazilians on the crew. One of
+  the purposes of this restrictive provision was that of creating a
+  national merchant marine, but the disinclination of Brazilians for
+  maritime pursuits has been a serious obstacle to its realization. In
+  1901 the merchant navy included 228 steamers of 91,465 tons net, and
+  343 sailing vessels of 76,992 tons net. These vessels are all engaged
+  in the coasting and river trade of the country. Efforts have been
+  made, however, to engage in foreign trade, and subsidies were offered
+  for a passenger and freight service to the United States. On the 23rd
+  of February 1906 the government completed a new contract with the
+  Lloyd Brazileiro Company for its coastwise and river service, and
+  included clauses providing for a line to the United States. This
+  foreign service (monthly) began in August 1906.
+
+  Although the coast of Brazil shows a large number of bays and
+  tide-water river channels which are apparently suitable for commercial
+  ports, a close examination of them reduces the number of good ports to
+  less than a dozen. The others are either difficult of access, or are
+  rendered practically useless by dangerous reefs, sand bars and shoals.
+  Important improvements have been undertaken in some of these ports.
+  Those at Santos and Manaos, for example, have produced good results.
+  In many cases, as at Rio de Janeiro, Santos and Manaos, the cost and
+  maintenance of the new port-works are met by an additional tax on
+  merchandise, though the immediate expenditures are met by advances
+  from the national treasury, and at Rio de Janeiro by a foreign loan.
+
+  _Commerce._--The imports, exports and domestic trade of Brazil are
+  by reason of their magnitude and peculiar character the most important
+  in South America, though the _per capita_ aggregate is less than that
+  of Argentina. Although an agricultural country, Brazil does not
+  produce all its own bread and meat, and the imports of wheat, wheat
+  flour, rice, fish, jerked beef and preserved meats, lard, butter,
+  beans, potatoes, packed fruits and vegetables, Indian corn and other
+  food-stuffs, are surprisingly large. Since the creation of the
+  republic, extreme protective measures have caused the creation of a
+  large number of cotton factories and other manufactures, but these are
+  able to supply only a part of the consumption, and the importation of
+  cotton and woollen fabrics, silks, ready-made clothing, boots and
+  shoes, &c., is large. Modern industrial development in some of the
+  states has greatly increased the importation of machinery, electric
+  supplies, materials for construction, coal, &c. Kerosene oil also
+  figures among the principal imports, and beef cattle are imported for
+  consumption by some cities. The exports cover a wide range of
+  agricultural, pastoral and natural productions, including coffee,
+  rubber, sugar, cotton, cocoa, Brazil nuts, _mate_ (Paraguay tea),
+  hides, skins, fruits, gold, diamonds, manganese ore, cabinet woods and
+  medicinal leaves, roots and resins. Coffee and rubber, however,
+  represent from 80 to 90% of the official valuation of all exports.
+  High import duties are imposed by the national government and export
+  duties by the states. The exchange of domestic products between the
+  states is greatly restricted through lack of cheap transportation
+  facilities, and by the suicidal imposition of import and export duties
+  by the states, either for revenue or for the protection of home
+  industries.
+
+  According to a summary for the six years 1901 to 1906, derived from
+  official sources and published in the annual _Retrospecto_ of the
+  _Jornal do Commercio_, of Rio de Janeiro, the values of the imports
+  and exports for those years (exclusive of coin), reduced to pounds
+  sterling at the average rate of exchange (or value of one milreis) for
+  each year, were as follows:--
+
+    +------+-----------+------------+-------------+
+    |      |  Average  |            |             |
+    | Year.| Value of  | Imports in | Exports in  |
+    |      |the Milreis|Pounds Ster.| Pounds Ster.|
+    |      | in Pence. |            |             |
+    +------+-----------+------------+-------------+
+    |      |           |     L      |      L      |
+    | 1901 |   11.33   | 21,377,270 |  40,621,993 |
+    | 1902 |   11.93   | 23,279,418 |  36,437,456 |
+    | 1903 |   11.99   | 24,207,811 |  36,883,175 |
+    | 1904 |   12.22   | 25,915,423 |  39,430,136 |
+    | 1905 |   15.94   | 29,830,050 |  44,643,113 |
+    | 1906 |   16.17   | 33,204,041 |  53,059,480 |
+    +------+-----------+------------+-------------+
+
+  Nearly 76-1/2% of the exports of 1906 were of coffee and rubber, the
+  official valuations of these being: coffee 245,474,525 milreis gold
+  (L27,615,884), and rubber (including manicoba and mangabeira),
+  124,941,433 milreis gold (L14,055,911).
+
+  Brazil is essentially an agricultural country. No other country has
+  been able to equal Brazil in the production of coffee, and under
+  better labour conditions the country might compete with the foremost
+  in the production of cane sugar, cotton and tobacco. Besides these it
+  might easily excel in producing many of the tropical fruits for which
+  there is a commercial demand. During the colonial period sugar cane
+  was cultivated from Parahyba S. to the vicinity of Santos, and sugar
+  was the principal export of the colony. Before the middle of the 19th
+  century coffee became one of the leading exports, and its cultivation
+  in the states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes has been
+  so increased since that time that it represents over four-fifths in
+  value of the total export of agricultural produce. The principal
+  sugar-producing states are Alagoas, Sergipe, Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio
+  de Janeiro, and the production is between 200,000 and 300,000 tons,
+  the greater part of which is consumed in the country. Cotton has been
+  widely cultivated since early colonial days, principally in the
+  northern Atlantic states. Tobacco is also widely cultivated, and the
+  product of some states, such as Bahia, Minas Geraes and Goyaz, has a
+  high local reputation for its excellence. Cacau (cocoa) is cultivated
+  extensively in the Amazon Valley and along the coast as far south as
+  southern Bahia, and forms one of the leading exports. In 1906 Sao
+  Paulo offered premiums for its cultivation in the state. Rice has been
+  cultivated in places, but without much success, although the quality
+  produced compared favourably with the imported article. Indian corn
+  grows luxuriantly everywhere, but it does not mature well in the humid
+  regions of the Amazon region and the coast. The product of the
+  elevated inland regions is good, but the costs of transportation and
+  the small profits afforded have prevented its extensive cultivation,
+  and it is imported from the La Plata republics for consumption along
+  the coast. Much has been said in regard to the production of wheat,
+  and efforts have been made in various places to promote its
+  cultivation. It was once cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul with some
+  success, and it has been grown in Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo, but in
+  no case have the returns been sufficient to give it a permanent
+  standing among the productions of the country. The great majority of
+  the people are unused to wheaten bread, using the coarse flour of the
+  mandioca root instead, consequently the demand for wheat and flour is
+  confined to the large cities, which can obtain them from Argentina
+  more cheaply than they can be produced in the country. One of the most
+  common and important productions of Brazil is _mandioca_ (_Manihot_),
+  of which there are two well-known species, _M. utilissima_ and _M.
+  aipi_. The first named, which is poisonous in its native state, is the
+  _cassava_ of Spanish America. From it is made _farinha de mandioca_,
+  which is the bread of the common people of Brazil, and tapioca. The
+  poison is extracted by soaking the bruised or grated roots in water,
+  after which the coarse flour is roasted. Mandioca was cultivated by
+  the natives before the discovery of America, and the wide area over
+  which it has been distributed warrants the conclusion that the
+  discovery of its value as a food and the means of separating its
+  poisonous properties must have occurred at a very remote period. The
+  peanut, or ground-nut (_Arachis hypogaea_), is another
+  widely-cultivated plant, dating from pre-Columbian times. Very little
+  attention has thus far been given to the cultivation of fruit for
+  exportation, the exceptions being bananas for the Argentine and
+  Uruguayan markets, and oranges and pineapples for European markets.
+  The coast region from Ceara to Rio de Janeiro is adapted to the
+  cultivation of a great variety of fruits of a superior quality. Ceara,
+  Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro are celebrated for their oranges, and
+  Pernambuco for its delicious pineapples. Tangerines, lemons, limes,
+  grapes, guavas, figs, cashews or cajus (_Anacardium occidentale_),
+  mangabas (_Hancornia speciosa_), joboticabas (_Eugenia cauliflora_ and
+  _E. jaboticaba_, Mart.), cocoa-nuts, mangos, _fruitas de conde_
+  (_Anona squamosa_), plantains, &c. are produced in abundance and with
+  little labour. In some parts of southern Brazil the fruits and
+  vegetables of the temperate zone do well, but within the tropics they
+  thrive well only at a considerable elevation above sea-level. Apples,
+  peaches, quinces, raspberries, strawberries, &c., are produced under
+  such conditions, but the flavour of their kind grown in colder
+  climates is usually wanting. The vegetable productions are less
+  numerous, but they include sweet potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower,
+  lettuce, beans, peas, onions, garlic, tomatoes, okra, radishes,
+  cucumbers, couve, chuchu (_Sechium edule_), and aipim (_Manihot
+  aipi_). The white potato, known as "batata inglez" (English potato),
+  is grown in elevated localities, but it deteriorates so greatly after
+  the first planting that fresh imported seed is necessary every second
+  or third year.
+
+  The pastoral industries, which date from early colonial times, have
+  suffered many vicissitudes, and their development has failed to keep
+  pace with the country's growth in population. Horses are used to some
+  extent for riding, but very little for carriage and draught purposes,
+  consequently there has been no great incentive for their breeding.
+  They are largely used and raised in Rio Grande do Sul, but in the
+  warmer regions of the north only to a limited extent. The hardier
+  mules are generally employed for draught, carriage, and saddle
+  purposes in every part of the country, and their breeding is a
+  lucrative industry in the southern states. Cattle-raising is the
+  principal industry in Rio Grande do Sul, and receives considerable
+  attention in Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, Santa Catharina, Parana,
+  Piauhy and Rio Grande do Norte. It was estimated that there were
+  30,000,000 head of cattle in the republic in 1904, but the estimate
+  was unquestionably too large. A very large part of the jerked beef
+  consumed in Brazil is imported from Argentina and Uruguay, and some
+  beef cattle also are imported. These importations at Rio de Janeiro in
+  1906 were 12,464,170 kilograms of jerked beef and 12,575 head of
+  cattle. In the Rio Branco region of Amazonas and in Piauhy, where the
+  national government has long been the owner of extensive cattle
+  ranges, the industry is in a state of decadence. This is partly due to
+  such pests as the vampire bat and bush ticks (_carrapatos_), and
+  partly to the unprogressiveness of the cattlemen. Cattle-raising was
+  once a flourishing industry on the island of Marajo, at the mouth of
+  the Amazon, and it is followed to some extent at Alemquer and other
+  points along the Amazon, but the cattle are small, and commonly in bad
+  condition. In southern Bahia the industry has been nearly extinguished
+  through increasing aridity and droughts, but in the state of Rio de
+  Janeiro the planters are increasing their herds. Minas Geraes produces
+  cheese, butter and milk, as well as beef cattle for neighbouring
+  cities. Matto Grosso classifies cattle-raising as a principal
+  industry, but under present conditions the accessible markets are too
+  small for any large development. In Rio Grande do Sul, where it has
+  attained its greatest development, about 400,000 beeves are
+  slaughtered annually for the manufacture of jerked beef (_xarque_),
+  beef extract, &c. Little attention has been given to sheep in Brazil
+  except in the southern states, and even there the flocks are small.
+  They were to be found in Ceara and Piauhy in colonial times, and small
+  flocks are still to be seen in the latter state, but no use is made of
+  their wool, and the market for mutton is extremely limited because of
+  popular prejudices. Woollen manufactures have been established in Rio
+  de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. The exportation of wool
+  amounted to 1,130,160 lb. in 1906. Goats have been found highly
+  profitable in many of the middle Atlantic states, where the long dry
+  seasons render the campos unsuitable for cattle pasturage. The export
+  of goat skins from these states is large. Swine do well in all parts
+  of the country, especially in Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro,
+  Parana and Rio Grande do Sul, and domestic pork and lard are slowly
+  supplanting the heavily-taxed foreign products.
+
+  Although the coast and river fisheries of Brazil are numerous and
+  valuable, cured fish is one of the staple imports, and foreign
+  products are to be found even along the Amazon. In the Amazon valley
+  fish is a principal article of food, and large quantities of
+  _pirarucu_ (_Sudis gigas_) are caught during the season of low water
+  and prepared for storage or market by drying in the sun. This and the
+  collection of turtle eggs for their oil, or butter, are chiefly Indian
+  industries, and contribute largely to the support of the native
+  population of that region. Along the coast the best known fisheries
+  are among the Abrolhos islands and in the shallow waters of Espirito
+  Santo, where the garoupa, pargo and vermelho (species of _Serranus_)
+  abound in great numbers.
+
+  The extractive or forest industries of Brazil were among the first to
+  engage the attention of Europeans, and have always been considered a
+  principal source of colonial and national wealth. The varied uses of
+  india-rubber in modern times, however, have given them a greatly
+  enhanced importance and value. Of the exports of 1905, 36% were of
+  this class, while those of the pastoral and mining industries combined
+  were not quite 6-1/2%. In 1906 the percentages were 31 and 6.67,
+  showing a considerable loss for the former and a slight gain for the
+  latter. The principal products of this class are india-rubber, mate,
+  Brazil nuts, vegetable wax, palm fibre, cabinet woods, and medicinal
+  leaves, roots, resins, &c. Before the discovery of the cheaper aniline
+  colours, dye-woods were among the most valuable products of the
+  country; in fact, Brazil derives her name from that of a dye-wood
+  (Brazil-wood--_Caesalpinia echinata_), known as _bresill, brasilly,
+  bresilji, braxilis_, or _brasile_ long before the discovery of America
+  (see Humboldt's _Geographic du nouveau continent_, tom. ii. p. 214),
+  which for many generations was the most highly prized of her natural
+  productions. Of the total exports of this group (1905) very nearly 90%
+  was of india-rubber, which percentage was reduced to 85 in the
+  following year. The exportation for 1906 was 69,761,123 lb. of Hevea,
+  5,871,968 lb. of manicoba, and 1,440,131 lb. of mangabeira rubber, the
+  whole valued at 124,941,433 milreis gold. The dried leaves and smaller
+  twigs of mate (Paraguayan tea--_Ilex paraguayensis_) are exported to
+  the southern Spanish American republics, where (as in Rio Grande do
+  Sul) the beverage is exceedingly popular. The export in 1906 amounted
+  to 127,417,950 lb., officially valued at 16,502,881 milreis gold. The
+  collection of Brazil nuts along the Amazon and its tributaries is
+  essentially a poor man's industry, requiring no other plant than a
+  boat. The harvest comes in January and February, in the rainy season,
+  and the nut-gatherers often come one or two hundred miles in their
+  boats to the best forests. The nuts are the fruit of the _Bertholletia
+  excelsa_, one of the largest trees of the Amazon forest region, and
+  are enclosed, sixteen to eighteen in number, in a hard, thick
+  pericarp. Another nut-producing tree is the _sapucaia_ (_Lecythis
+  ollaria_), whose nuts are enclosed in a larger pericarp, and are
+  considered to be better flavoured than those first described. The crop
+  is a variable one, the export in 1905 having been 198,226 hectolitres,
+  while that of 1906 was 96,770 hectolitres. It could undoubtedly be
+  largely increased. Vegetable wax, which is an excellent substitute for
+  beeswax, is a product of the _carnahuba_ palm (_Copernicia cerifera_),
+  and is an important export from Ceara. Palm, or piassava fibre,
+  derived from the _piassava_ palm, is used in the manufacture of
+  brooms, brushes, &c. It is found as far south as southern Bahia, and
+  the export could be very largely increased. The export of cabinet
+  woods is not large, considering the forest area of Brazil and the
+  variety and quality of the woods. This is principally due to the cost
+  and difficulties of transporting timbers to the coast. The export is
+  confined principally to rosewood. Of the medicinal plants, the
+  best-known products are ipecacuanha, sarsaparilla, copaiba, jaborandi
+  and cinchona, but this is only a part of the list. Besides these,
+  tonka beans, anatto, vanilla, and castor-oil seeds form a part of the
+  exports.
+
+  The mineral exports are surprisingly small. Gold was discovered by the
+  Portuguese soon after their settlement of the coast in the 16th
+  century, but the washings were poor and attracted little attention.
+  The richer deposits of Minas Geraes were discovered about 1693, and
+  those of Matto Grosso early in the following century. Abandoned placer
+  mines are to be found in every part of the unsettled interior, showing
+  how thoroughly it had been explored by gold-hunters in those early
+  days. Some good mines, like Morro Velho and the abandoned Gongo Soco,
+  have been developed in Minas Geraes, but the great majority are small
+  and not very productive. Diamonds were discovered in Minas Geraes,
+  near the town now called Diamantina, during the first half of the 18th
+  century, the dates given ranging from 1725 to 1746, but the
+  productiveness of the district has greatly decreased. Diamonds have
+  also been found in Bahia, Goyaz and Parana. Other precious stones
+  found in Brazil are the topaz, ruby aquamarine, tourmaline,
+  chrysoberyl, garnet and amethyst. Among the minerals are silver,
+  platinum, copper, iron, lead, manganese, chromium, quicksilver,
+  bismuth, arsenic and antimony, of which only iron and manganese have
+  been regularly mined. The copper deposits of Minas Geraes are said to
+  be promising. Manganese is mined in Minas Geraes for export. Iron ores
+  have been found in most of the states, and are especially abundant in
+  Minas Geraes. The Ypanema mine and ironworks, near Sorocaba, Sao
+  Paulo, which belong to the national government, have been in operation
+  since 1810 and small charcoal forges were in operation in colonial
+  times and supplied the mines with a considerable part of the iron
+  needed by them. Many of the richer deposits have never been developed
+  because of a lack of fuel and limestone. Bituminous coal of an
+  inferior quality is mined to a limited extent in Rio Grande do Sul,
+  and another mine has been opened in Santa Catharina. These coal
+  deposits extend from Rio Grande do Sul north into the state of Sao
+  Paulo. Salt, which does not figure in the list of exports, is produced
+  along the coast between Pernambuco and Cape St Roque. The annual
+  production is about 240,000 tons.
+
+  To illustrate the comparative productiveness and relationship of these
+  sources of national wealth and industry, the following official
+  returns of export for the years 1905 and 1906 are arranged in the four
+  general classes previously discussed, the values being in Brazilian
+  gold milreis, worth 2s. 3d. or 54.6 cents to the milreis:--
+
+      _Agricultural._
+
+                                    1905.              1906.
+                                Milreis, gold.    Milreis, gold.
+
+    Coffee   .   .   .   .   .  190,404,576        245,474,525
+    Cotton   .   .   .   .   .   10,290,790         14,726,492
+    Cacau    .   .   .   .   .    9,240,313         12,323,922
+    Tobacco  .   .   .   .   .    7,335,163          8,283,150
+    Sugar    .   .   .   .   .    3,608,476          5,388,596
+    Bran[7]  .   .   .   .   .    1,490,312          1,128,761
+    Cottonseed   .   .   .   .      964,074          1,084,742
+    Mandioca flour   .   .   .      692,079            789,913
+    Fruits   .   .   .   .   .      606,678            714,332
+    Castor-oil seeds .   .   .      214,016            333,250
+                                -----------        -----------
+                                224,846,477        290,247,683
+
+      _Natural and Forest._
+
+    Rubber:
+      Mangabeira     .   .   .    1,286,672          1,376,014
+      Manicoba   .   .   .   .    7,418,559          7,335,870
+      Hevea (Para)   .   .   .  119,434,947        116,229,549
+    Mate (Paraguay tea)  .   .   11,088,108         16,502,881
+    Brazil nuts  .   .   .   .    2,064,049          1,190,177
+    Palm wax (Carnahuba) .   .    1,847,273          3,733,478
+    Cabinet woods    .   .   .      390,070            318,873
+    Piassaya fibre   .   .   .      336,668            347,323
+    Medicinal leaves, roots,
+        resins, &c.  .   .   .      191,534            263,137
+                                -----------        -----------
+                                143,331,142        147,297,302
+
+      _Pastoral and Animal._
+
+    Salted hides .   .   .   .    7,010,498          9,691,180
+    Dry hides    .   .   .   .    5,330,440          7,675,715
+    Skins.   .   .   .   .   .    4,117,590          4,639,512
+    Horse hair   .   .   .   .      307,505            403,541
+    Horns    .   .   .   .   .      276,172            277,488
+    Wool .   .   .   .   .   .      142,414            354,045
+    Beef extract, &c .   .   .       81,607            110,925
+                                 ----------         ----------
+                                 17,266,226         23,152,406
+
+       _Mineral Products._
+
+    Gold, in bars    .   .   .    3,734,469          4,379,160
+    Manganese ore    .   .   .    2,958,462          1,594,486
+    Monazite sand    .   .   .      889,231            881,289
+    Precious stones  .   .   .      633,916          1,480,260
+                                  ---------          ---------
+                                  8,216,078          8,335,195
+
+      _Miscellaneous._
+
+    Old metals[8].   .   .   .      263,506            382,073
+    Sundry products  .   .   .    2,177,512          2,225,163
+                                  ---------          ---------
+                                  2,441,018          2,607,236
+                                -----------        -----------
+    Total, all products  .   .  396,827,679        471,639,822
+
+  _Manufactures._--Before the establishment of the republic very little
+  attention had been given to manufacturing industries beyond what was
+  necessary to prepare certain crude products for market. Sugar and rum
+  were essentially plantation products down to the last ten years of the
+  empire, when central usines using improved machinery and methods were
+  introduced as a means of saving the sugar plantations from ruin. The
+  crude methods of preparing jerked beef were also modified to some
+  extent by better equipped abattoirs and establishments for preparing
+  beef extract, preserved meats, &c. There were also mills for crushing
+  the dried mate leaves, cigar and cigarette factories, small chocolate
+  factories, hat factories, brick and tile yards, potteries, tanneries,
+  saddleries, and many other small industries common to all large
+  communities. Considerable protection was afforded to many of these
+  industries by the customs tariff of that time, but protection did not
+  become an acknowledged national policy until after 1889. After that
+  time the duties on imports were repeatedly and largely increased, both
+  as a means of raising larger revenues and as an encouragement to
+  manufacturing enterprise. Although the protective tariffs thus imposed
+  have resulted in a large increase in manufacturing industries, some of
+  them have been antagonistic to the productive interests of the
+  country, as in the case of weaving mills which use imported yarns.
+  Other industries are carried on entirely with imported materials, and
+  are national only in name. Among these are flour mills, factories for
+  the cutting of wire nails and making hollow ware from sheet iron, and
+  factories for the manufacture of umbrellas, boots and shoes, &c. The
+  greatest progress has been made in the manufacture of cotton fabrics,
+  principally of the plainer and coarser grades used by the common
+  people. There were 155 of these factories in 1895, but in 1905 only
+  108 were in operation, with 715,000 spindles, and about 37,000
+  operatives. Nearly one-half of these were weaving mills, using
+  imported yarn. The factories are widely distributed, and some are
+  favoured by state legislation in addition to the national tariff. The
+  largest and best equipped of them are located in the federal states of
+  Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, though the greater part of the raw
+  cotton used comes from the northern states and pays high freight
+  rates. The manufacture of woollen blankets, cashmeres, flannels, &c.,
+  had also undergone noteworthy development and is carried on in fifteen
+  factories, located principally in Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro
+  and Sao Paulo. Biscuit-making is represented by a large number of
+  factories, for the most part in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, and
+  there are a number of breweries of the most modern type in the same
+  two states. The manufacture of boots and shoes has also received much
+  attention, but the materials used are for the most part imported.
+  Among other manufactures are butter and cheese, canned fruits and
+  vegetables, glass and earthenware, printing and wrapping paper,
+  furniture, matches, hats, clothing, pharmaceutical products, soaps and
+  perfumery, ice, artificial drinks, cigars and cigarettes, fireworks
+  and candles.
+
+_Government._--The overthrow of the monarchy by a military revolt in Rio
+de Janeiro on 15th November 1889, resulted in the creation of a federal
+republic under the name of United States of Brazil (Estados Unidos do
+Brazil). The constitution under which the republic is governed was
+drafted by a constituent assembly convened on the 15th of November 1890,
+and was adopted on the 24th of February 1891. The supreme powers of the
+nation are vested in three partially independent branches of
+government--executive, legislative, and judicial--represented by the
+president and his cabinet, a national congress of two chambers, and a
+supreme tribunal. The states forming the federation consist of the
+twenty provinces and municipal district of the empire, but the number
+may be increased or diminished by the states concerned with the approval
+of the national congress. The states are self-governed, and have
+exclusive control of the public lands, mines, industries, and all local
+affairs. They have the sole right also to impose duties on exports and
+taxes upon real estate, industries and professions, and transfers of
+property. Among other things they are charged with the supervision and
+support of primary education, with the maintenance of order, and with
+the organization and support of a system of state courts. Both the
+national and state governments exercise the right to impose stamp and
+consumption taxes, and the municipalities likewise are permitted to
+impose licence and consumption taxes. The national government reserves
+for itself the exclusive right to direct the foreign affairs of the
+republic, to maintain an army and navy, to impose duties on imports, to
+regulate foreign commerce, to collect port dues, to issue money and
+create banks of issue, and to maintain a postal and national telegraph
+service. It also supervises secondary and superior education, issues
+patents, and provides federal courts for the trial of cases amenable to
+federal laws. The national government is forbidden to interfere in the
+peculiar affairs of the states except to repel foreign invasion, to
+maintain a republican form of government, to re-establish order at the
+request of a state, or to enforce federal laws and sentences. The states
+are forbidden, likewise, to tax federal property, to tax inter-state
+commerce, to impose duties of their own on foreign imports, or to resist
+the execution of judicial sentences originating in other states. The
+separation of church and state is provided for by the constitution, and
+both the nation and the states are forbidden to establish, subsidize or
+restrict the exercise of any religious worship. Foreigners are eligible
+to Brazilian citizenship, and the right of suffrage is conferred upon
+all male citizens over twenty-one years of age, except beggars,
+illiterates, the rank and file of the armed forces, members of monastic
+orders, &c., bound by private vows, and all unregistered citizens.
+
+The executive power of the nation is vested in a president, elected for
+a term of four years by a direct vote of the electors. He must be a
+native Brazilian over thirty-five years of age, in the full enjoyment of
+his political rights, and is ineligible for the next succeeding term. A
+vice-president is elected at the same time and under the same
+conditions, who is president of the senate _ex officio_, and succeeds to
+the presidency in case the office becomes vacant during the last two
+years of the presidential term. Should the vacancy occur during the
+first two years of the term, a new election must be held. The president
+receives a salary of 120,000 milreis and the vice-president of 36,000
+milreis. The president is advised and assisted by a cabinet of six
+ministers, viz. foreign affairs; finance; agriculture, industry and
+commerce;[9] communications (_Viacao_) and public works;[9] war; and
+marine. The ministers are appointed and removed by the president, take
+no part in the sessions of congress, and are responsible to the
+president alone for their advisory acts. The president sanctions and
+promulgates, or vetoes, or ignores the laws, and resolutions voted by
+congress, and issues decrees and regulations for their execution. His
+veto may be over-ridden by a two-thirds vote in each chamber, and
+permitting ten days to pass without signing an act is considered as
+acquiescence and it is promulgated by congress. The president is charged
+with the duties (among others) of commanding the armed forces of the
+republic, appointing the prefect of the national capital, designating
+members of the supreme tribunal and diplomatic representatives for the
+approval of the senate, to negotiate treaties, &c., _ad referendum_ to
+congress, and maintain relations with foreign powers, to declare war in
+case of invasion and to declare martial law in case of grave internal
+disorder, and to advise congress at the opening of the annual session of
+the progress and state of public affairs. He may be impeached before the
+senate for his official acts and suspended from office, or tried by the
+supreme tribunal for criminal offences.
+
+The legislative power is vested in a national congress of two chambers,
+elected by direct suffrage, and convened on the 3rd of May each year.
+The regular annual sessions are of four months' duration, but they may
+be extended to complete necessary legislation. The senate consists of
+sixty-three members (three from each state and the federal district)
+elected for a period of nine years, one-third of each delegation being
+renewed every three years. The senators must be not less than
+thirty-five years of age, and are exempt from all legal processes not
+previously authorized by the senate during their term of office, except
+in cases of arrest _in flagrante delicto_ for a capital crime. The
+chamber of deputies contains 212 members, the membership being
+distributed among the states on a basis of one for each 70,000 of
+population, but with a minimum representation of four for each state.
+The deputies are elected by direct suffrage for the legislative session
+of three years, and have the same immunities from legal process as the
+senators. The chamber has the right of initiative in the organization of
+the annual budget laws and those relative to the numerical strength of
+the army and navy. The members of both houses receive a _per diem_
+subsidy.
+
+The judicial system of the republic consists of a supreme federal
+tribunal of fifteen judges in the national capital, and a district
+tribunal in the capital of each state, which forms a federal judicial
+district. The judges are appointed for life and can be removed only by
+judicial sentence and impeachment. One member of the supreme tribunal
+holds the position of solicitor-general of the republic. The judges and
+solicitor-general are appointed by the president with the approval of
+the senate, but the tribunal chooses its own presiding officers and
+secretaries and, nominally, is independent of executive control. The
+supreme tribunal has original and appellate jurisdiction, but its power
+to pass on the constitutionality of federal laws and executive acts
+seems to fall short of that of the United States Supreme Court. It has
+authority, however, to review the acts and laws of state governments and
+to decide upon their constitutionality. The district federal court has
+but one judge (_juiz de seccao_) and a solicitor of the republic, and
+has original jurisdiction in federal causes. Each state has its own
+local laws and courts, independent of federal control, but subject to
+the review of the supreme tribunal, and with rights of appeal to that
+tribunal in specified cases. The federal district, which has a municipal
+council instead of a legislature, has a system of municipal and higher
+courts peculiar to itself. Limited judicial powers are exercised by
+chiefs of police, and by certain department commissions, or boards, of
+an executive character. The members of the army and navy are governed by
+special laws, enjoy immunities from civil process, and are subject to
+the jurisdiction of military courts. The civil code of the republic is
+based upon Roman law.
+
+_Army._--The nominal strength of the army in 1906 was 29,489, including
+the officers of the general and subordinate staffs and the officers and
+cadets of the military schools. This total represents the nominal
+strength of the army in times of peace. Its actual strength, however, is
+about 15,000 men, some of the regimental and battalion organizations
+being skeletons. Its organization consists of 40 battalions of infantry
+with one transport and one depot company, 14 regiments of cavalry of 4
+squadrons each, 6 regiments of field artillery with 24 batteries and 6
+battalions of heavy artillery with 24 batteries, and two battalions of
+engineers. Efforts to organize a national guard have been unsuccessful,
+although officers have been appointed and the organization perfected, on
+paper. The police force, however, is organized on a military footing and
+armed, and is available for service in case of necessity. It is credited
+with 20,000 men. According to law military service is obligatory, but
+the government has been unable to enforce it. Impressment is commonly
+employed to fill the ranks, and in cases of emergency the prison
+population is drawn upon for recruits. The president is nominally
+commander-in-chief of the army, but the actual command is vested in a
+general staff in the national capital, and in the general commanding
+each of the seven military districts into which the republic is divided.
+The most important of these districts is that of Rio Grande do Sul,
+where a force of 11,226 men is stationed. The principal war arsenal is
+in Rio de Janeiro. The rifle used by the infantry is a modified Mauser
+of the German 1888 model. Military instruction is given at the Eschola
+Militar of Rio de Janeiro. The military organization is provided with an
+elaborate code and systems of military courts, which culminate in a
+supreme military tribunal composed of 15 judges holding office for life,
+of which 8 are general army officers, 4 general naval officers and 3
+civil judges.
+
+_Navy._--The naval strength of the republic consisted in 1906 of a
+collection of armoured and wooden vessels of various ages and types of
+construction, of which three armoured vessels (including the two
+designed for coast defence), four protected cruisers, five destroyers
+and torpedo-cruisers, and half a dozen torpedo boats represented what
+may be termed the effective fighting force. The loss of the armoured
+turret ship "Aquidaban" by a magazine explosion in the bay of
+Jacarepagua, near Rio de Janeiro, in 1905, had left Brazil with but one
+fighting vessel (the "Reachuelo") of any importance. Many of the wooden
+and iron vessels listed in the Naval Annual, 1906, though obsolete and
+of no value whatever as fighting machines, are used for river and
+harbour service, and in the suppression of trifling insurrections. The
+Annual describes 21 vessels of various types, and mentions 23 small
+gunboats used for river and harbour service. Besides these there are a
+number of practice boats (small school-ships), transports, dispatch
+boats and launches. A considerable part of the armament is old, but the
+more modern vessels are armed with Armstrong rifled guns. The naval
+programme of the republic for 1905 provided for the prompt construction
+of 3 battleships of the largest displacement, 3 armoured cruisers, 6
+destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and 3 submarine boats; and by 1909 the
+reorganization of the navy was far advanced. The principal naval arsenal
+is located at Rio de Janeiro. The government possesses dry docks at Rio
+de Janeiro. The naval school, which has always enjoyed a high reputation
+among Brazilians, is situated on the island of Enxadas in the bay of Rio
+de Janeiro. There are smaller arsenals at Para, Pernambuco, Sao Salvador
+and Ladario (Matto Grosso) and a shipbuilding yard of considerable
+importance at the Rio de Janeiro arsenal.
+
+_Education._--Education is in a backward condition, and it is estimated
+that 80% of the population can neither read nor write. The lowest rate
+of illiteracy is to be found in the southern half of the republic.
+Public instruction, is, by constitutional provision, under secular
+control, but religious denominations are permitted to have their own
+schools. Primary instruction is free but not compulsory, and the schools
+are supported and supervised by the states. An incomplete return in 1891
+gave 8793 schools and 376,399 pupils. Secondary and higher education are
+under both federal and state control, the former being represented by
+lyceums in the state capitals, and by such institutions as the Gymnasio
+Nacional (formerly Collegio Dom Pedro II.) in Rio de Janeiro. Many of
+the states also maintain normal schools of an inferior type, that of Sao
+Paulo being the best and most modern of the number. Higher, or superior,
+instruction is confined almost exclusively to professional schools--the
+medical schools of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, the law schools of Sao
+Paulo and Pernambuco, the polytechnic of Rio de Janeiro, and the school
+of mines of Ouro Preto. There are many private schools in all the large
+cities, from the primary schools maintained by the church and various
+corporations and religious associations to schools of secondary and
+collegiate grades, such as the Protestant mission schools of Petropolis,
+Piracicaba, Juiz de Fora, Sao Paulo and Parana, the Lyceu de Artes e
+Ofiicios (night school) of Rio de Janeiro, and the Mackenzie College of
+Sao Paulo. Perhaps the best educational work in Brazil is done in these
+private schools. In addition to these there are a number of seminaries
+for the education of priests, where special attention is given to the
+classics and belles-lettres.
+
+_Religion._--The revolution of 1889 and the constitution adopted in 1891
+not only effected a radical change in the form of government, but also
+brought about the separation of church and state. Before that time the
+Roman Catholic Church had been recognized and supported by the state.
+Not only are the national and state governments forbidden by the
+constitution to establish or subsidize religious worship, but its
+freedom is guaranteed by a prohibition against placing obstructions upon
+its exercise. The relations of the state with the disestablished church
+since 1889 have been somewhat anomalous, the government having decided
+to continue during their lives the stipends of the church functionaries
+at the time of disestablishment. The census of 1890 divided the
+population into 14,179,615 Roman Catholics, 143,743 Protestants, 3300 of
+all other faiths, 7257 of no religious profession, and 600,000
+unchristianized Indians. The increase of population through immigration
+is overwhelmingly Catholic, and the nation must, therefore, continue
+Roman Catholic whether the church is subsidized by the state or not. The
+moral character of churchmen in Brazil has been severely criticized by
+many observers, and the ease with which disestablishment was effected is
+probably largely due to their failings. The church had exercised a
+preponderating influence in all matters relating to education and the
+social life of the people, and it was felt that no sweeping reforms
+could be secured until its domination had been broken. The immediate
+results of disestablishment were civil marriage, the civil registry of
+births and deaths, and the secularization of cemeteries; but the church
+retains its influence over all loyal churchmen through the confessional,
+the last rites of the church, and their sentiment against the
+profanation of holy ground. Formerly Brazil constituted an
+ecclesiastical province under the metropolitan jurisdiction of an
+archbishop residing at Bahia, with 11 suffragan bishops, 12
+vicars-general and about 2000 curates. In 1892 the diocese of Rio de
+Janeiro was made an archbishopric, and four new dioceses were created.
+Three more have been added since, making twenty dioceses in all. In 1905
+the archbishop of Rio de Janeiro was made a cardinal. The church has
+eleven seminaries for the education of priests, and maintains a large
+number of private schools, especially for girls, which are patronized by
+the better classes. The church likewise exercises a far-reaching
+influence over the people through the beneficent work of its lay orders,
+and through the hospitals and asylums under its control in every part of
+the country. A Misericordia hospital is to be found in almost every town
+of importance, and _recolhimentos_ for orphan girls in all the large
+cities. In no country have these charities received more generous
+support than in Brazil. The Protestant contingent consists of a number
+of small congregations scattered throughout the country, a few
+Portuguese Protestants from the Azores, a part of the German colonists
+settled in the central and southern states, and a large percentage of
+the North Europeans and Americans temporarily resident in Brazil. The
+Positivists are few in number, but their congregations are made up of
+educated and influential people.
+
+_Art, Science and Literature._--The Brazilian people have the natural
+taste for art, music and literature so common among the Latin nations of
+the Old World. The emperor Dom Pedro II. did much to encourage these
+pursuits, and many promising young men received their education in
+Europe at his personal expense. Still earlier in the century (1815) the
+regent Dom John VI. brought out a number of French artists to educate
+his subjects in the fine arts, and the _Escola Real de Sciencias, Artes
+e Officios_ was founded in the following year. From this beginning
+resulted the _Academia de Bellas Artes_ of a later date, to which was
+added a conservatory of music in 1841. The institution is now called the
+_Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes_. Free instruction in the fine arts has
+been given in this school. The higher results of artistic training,
+however, are less marked than a widespread dilettantism. The Brazilian
+composer Carlos Gomes (1839-1896) is the best known of those who have
+adopted music as a profession, his opera _Il Guarani_ having been
+produced at most of the European capitals. The most prominent among
+Brazilian painters is Pedro Americo, and in sculpture Rodolpho
+Bernardelli has done good work. In science Brazil has accomplished very
+little, although many eminent foreign naturalists have spent years of
+study within her borders. Joao Barbosa Rodrigues has done some good work
+in botany, especially in the study of the palms of the Amazon, and Joao
+Baptista de Lacerda has made important biological investigations at the
+national museum of Rio de Janeiro. There are several scientific
+societies and institutions in the country, but they rarely undertake
+original work. The most active are the geographical societies, but very
+little has been done in the direction of scientific exploration. Some
+interesting results have been obtained from the boundary surveys, from
+Dr E. Cruls's exploration of a section of the Goyaz plateau in 1892 in
+search of a site for the future capital of the republic, and from some
+of the river and railway surveys. In 1875 a geological commission was
+organized under the direction of Professor Charles Frederick Hartt, but
+it was disbanded two years later. In 1906 Congress resolved to undertake
+a national geological survey under the direction of Mr Orville A. Derby,
+one of Professor Hartt's assistants. The coal resources of the southern
+states were investigated in 1904, under the auspices of the national
+government, by Dr J.C. White, of the U.S. Geological Survey, who found
+strata of fairly good coal at depths of 100 to 200 ft. extending from
+Rio Grande do Sul north to Sao Paulo. The more important contributions
+to our present knowledge of Brazil, however, have been obtained through
+the labours of foreign naturalists. Beginning with the German
+mineralogist W.L. von Eschwege, who spent nineteen years in Brazil
+(1809-1828), the list includes A. de Saint-Hilaire (1816-1820 and
+1830), J.B. von Spix and C.F. von Martins (1817-1820), Prince Max zu
+Neuwied (1815-1817), P.W. Lund (1827-1830, and 1830 to 1880, the year of
+his death), George Gardner (1836-1841), A.R. Wallace (1848-1852), H.W.
+Bates (1848-1859), Hermann Burmeister (1850-1852), Louis Agassiz
+(1865-1866), Charles Frederick Hartt (1865-1866, 1872 and 1875-1878) and
+Karl von den Steinen (1884-1885 and 1887-1888). These explorations cover
+every branch of natural science and resulted in publications of
+inestimable scientific value. There should also be mentioned the
+monumental work of C.F.P. von Martius on the _Flora Braziliensis_, and
+the explorations of Agassiz and Lund. Among other scientists of a later
+date who have published important works on Brazil are the American
+geologists O.A. Derby and J.C. Branner, the Swiss naturalist E.A.
+Goeldi, the German botanist J. Huber, the German ethnologist H. von
+Ihring, and'the German geographer Fried. Katzer. The _Instituto
+Historico e Geographico Brazileiro_, though devoted chiefly to
+historical research, has rendered noteworthy service in its
+encouragement of geographical exploration and by its publication of
+various scientific memoirs. The Museu Nacional at Rio de Janeiro, which
+has occupied the imperial palace of Sao Christovao since the overthrow
+of the monarchy, contains large collections of much scientific value,
+but defective organization and apathetic direction have rendered them of
+comparatively slight service. The Observatorio Nacional at Rio de
+Janeiro is another prominent public institution. The botanical gardens
+of Brazil are developing into permanent exhibitions of the flora of the
+regions in which they are located. That of Rio de Janeiro is widely
+celebrated for its avenues of royal palms, but it has also rendered an
+important service to the country in the dissemination of exotic plants.
+
+Brazilian literature has been seriously prejudiced by partisan politics
+and dilettantism. The colonial period was one of strict repression, the
+intellectual life of the people being jealously supervised by the church
+to protect itself against heresy, and their progress being restricted by
+the Portuguese crown to protect its monopoly of the natural resources of
+the country. The arrival of Dom John VI. in 1808 broke down some of
+these restrictions, and the first year of his residence in Rio de
+Janeiro saw the establishment of the first printing press in Brazil and
+the publication of an official gazette. There was no freedom of the
+press, however, until 1821, when the abolition of the censorship and the
+constitutional struggle in Portugal gave rise to a political discussion
+that marked the opening of a new era in the development of the nation,
+and aroused an intellectual activity that has been highly productive in
+journalistic and polemical writings. In no country, perhaps, has the
+press exercised a more direct and powerful influence upon government
+than in Brazil, and in no other country can there be found so high a
+percentage of journalists in official life. Some of the political
+writers have played an important part in moulding public opinion on
+certain questions, as in the case of A.C. Tavares Bastos, whose _Cartas
+do Solitario_ were highly instrumental in causing the Amazon to be
+thrown open to the world's commerce and also in preparing the way for
+the abolition of slavery; and in that of Joaquim Saldanha Marinho, whose
+discussions in 1874-1876 of the relations between church and state
+prepared the way for their separation. The personal element is
+conspicuous in the Brazilian journalism, and for a considerable period
+of its history libellous attacks on persons, signed by professional
+sponsors, popularly called _testas de ferro_ (iron heads), were admitted
+at so much a line in the best newspapers.
+
+The singular adaptability of the Portuguese language to poetical
+expression, coupled with the imaginative temperament of the people, has
+led to an unusual production and appreciation of poetry. The percentage
+of educated men who have written little volumes of lyrics is
+surprisingly large, and this may be accounted for by the old Portuguese
+custom of reciting poetry with musical accompaniment. The most popular
+of the Brazilian poets are Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, Antonio Goncalves
+Dias and Bernardo Guimaraes. Among the dramatists and novelists may be
+mentioned Joaquim Manoel de Macedo, Jose Martiniano de Alencar, Bernardo
+Guimaraes, A. de Escrangnolle Taunay and J.M. Machado de Assis. Jose M.
+de Alencar is usually described as the greatest of Brazilian novelists.
+The most popular of his romances are _Iracema_ and _O Guarany_. In
+historical literature Brazil has produced one writer of high
+standing--Francisco Adolpho Varnhagen (Visconde de Porto Seguro), whose
+_Historia Geral do Brazil_ is a standard authority on that subject. The
+two English authorities, Robert Southey's _History of Brazil_, covering
+the colonial period, and John Armitage's _History of Brazil_, covering
+the period between the arrival of the Braganza family (1808) and the
+abdication of Dom Pedro I. (1831), have been translated into Portuguese.
+Another Brazilian historian of recognized merit is Joao Manoel Pereira
+da Silva, whose historical writings cover the first years of the empire,
+from its foundation to 1840. Among the later writers Joao Capistrano de
+Abren has produced some short historical studies of great merit. In the
+field of philosophic speculation, Auguste Comte has had many disciples
+in Brazil.
+
+  _Finance._--The national revenue is derived largely from the duties on
+  imports, the duties on exports having been surrendered to the states
+  when the republic was organized. Other sources of revenue are stamp
+  taxes on business transactions, domestic consumption taxes (usually
+  payable in stamps) on manufactured tobaccos, beverages, boots and
+  shoes, textiles, matches, salt, preserved foods, hats, pharmaceutical
+  preparations, perfumeries, candles, vinegar, walking sticks and
+  playing cards, and taxes on lotteries, passenger tickets, salaries and
+  dividends of joint-stock companies. Formerly import duties were
+  payable in currency, but in 1899 it was decided to collect 10% of them
+  in gold to provide the government with specie for its foreign
+  remittances. The revenues and expenditures have since then been
+  calculated in gold and currency together, to the complete
+  mystification of the average citizen, and the gold percentage of the
+  duties on imports has been increased to 35 and 50% (in 1907), the
+  higher rate to apply to specified articles and rule when exchange on
+  London is above 14 pence per milreis, and the lower when it is below.
+  The service of the national debt absorbs a very large part of the
+  expenditure, about 45% of the estimates for 1907 being assigned to the
+  department of finance. The department of industry, communications and
+  public works takes the next highest proportion, but about half its
+  expenditures are met by special taxes, as in the case of port works
+  and railway inspection, and by the revenues of the state railways,
+  telegraph lines and post office. The depreciation and unstable
+  character of the paper currency render it difficult to give a clear
+  statement of receipts and expenditures for a term of years, the
+  sterling equivalents often showing a decrease, through a fall in the
+  value of the milreis, where there has been an actual increase in
+  currency returns. This was most noticeable between 1889 and 1898, when
+  exchange, which represents the value of the milreis, fell from a
+  maximum of 27-3/4 pence (27d. being the par value of the milreis) to a
+  minimum of 5-5/8 pence. Since 1898 there has been an upward movement
+  of exchange, the average rate for 1905 having been very nearly 16
+  pence. In this period the increase in the sterling equivalents would
+  be proportionately greater than that of the currency values. The gold
+  and currency receipts and expenditures for the six years 1900 to 1905,
+  inclusive, according to official returns, were as follows:--
+
+    +------+---------+---------------------------+--------------------------+
+    |      | Average |         Revenue.          |       Expenditure.       |
+    | Year.| Rate of +-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    |      |Exchange.|    Gold     |  Currency   |    Gold    |  Currency   |
+    |      | Pence.  |   Milreis.  |   Milreis.  |   Milreis. |   Milreis.  |
+    +------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    | 1900 |   9.50  |  49,955,522 | 263,687,253 | 41,892,150 | 372,753,986 |
+    | 1901 |  11.38  |  44,041,302 | 239,284,702 | 40,493,241 | 261,629,212 |
+    | 1902 |  11.97  |  42,904,844 | 266,584,912 | 34,574,643 | 236,458,862 |
+    | 1903 |  12     |  45,121,844 | 327,370,063 | 48,324,642 | 291,198,960 |
+    | 1904 |  12.28  |  50,566,572 | 342,782,191 | 48,476,413 | 352,292,147 |
+    | 1905 |  15.89  |  64,207,004 | 243,355,396 | 51,606,272 | 265,699,281 |
+    +------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+
+  Reducing gold to a currency basis at 15d. per milreis (the official
+  valuation adopted in 1906), the budget for 1907 provided for a revenue
+  of 353,590,593 milreis and an expenditure of 409,482,284 milreis,
+  showing a deficit of 55,891,691 milreis. These deficits were common
+  enough under the monarchy, but they have become still more prominent
+  under the republic. According to the "Retrospecto Commercial" for 1906
+  of the _Jornal do Commercio_ (Rio de Janeiro, March 5, 1907), the
+  aggregate deficits for the eleven years 1891 to 1904 were 692,000,000
+  milreis, or, say, L43,250,000.
+
+  The natural result of such a regime is increasing indebtedness. In
+  1888, a year before the republic was proclaimed, the internal and
+  external national debts amounted to L74,000,000 sterling, with the
+  currency at par. Ten years later, when the currency had fallen to
+  5-5/8 pence per milreis, the government found itself unable to meet
+  the interest obligations on its debt and railway guarantees, and an
+  arrangement was made with its creditors in London for the issue of a
+  5% funding loan to an amount not to exceed L10,000,000, and the
+  suspension of all amortization for thirteen years. On the other hand
+  the government agreed to withdraw currency, which had reached a total
+  of 788,364,614 1/2-milreis, _pari passu_ with the issue of the loan,
+  the milreis being computed at 18 pence. The purpose of this condition
+  was in order to improve the value of the paper milreis in order to
+  increase the specie value of the revenues. The scheme came into
+  operation in June 1898, and not only was a complete suspension of
+  payments avoided but the financial situation was greatly improved. The
+  government even withdrew more of its currency issues than required by
+  the agreement, and the value of the milreis steadily improved. At the
+  same time the government carried out the forced conversion of the
+  national loans into lower interest-bearing issues, which greatly
+  reduced the annual interest charges. These measures would have put the
+  financial affairs of the nation on a solid footing in a very few years
+  had the government been able to keep its expenditure within its
+  income. The naval revolt of 1893-1894, however, had aroused the spirit
+  of militarism in the ruling classes, and the effort to perfect the
+  organization and equipment of the army, strengthen the fortifications
+  of Rio de Janeiro, and increase the navy, have kept expenditures in
+  excess of the revenues. The purchase of guaranteed railways owned by
+  foreign companies likewise added largely to the bonded indebtedness,
+  though the onus was in existence in another form. The result of these
+  measures was a large addition to the public debt, which on 31st
+  December 1906 was approximately as follows (_apolices_ being the name
+  given to bonds inscribed to the holder):--
+
+    External debt:                               L        s.  d.
+      Loans of 1883, 1888 and 1889.          26,478,500
+      Oestede Minas R.R. loan                 3,388,100
+      Loan of 1898                            7,331,600
+      Funding loan of 1898                    8,613,717   9   9
+      Railway rescission loan of 1901        15,467,015  16   1
+      Port works loan of 1903                 8,500,000
+                                            -------------------
+                                            L69,778,933   5  10
+                                            ===================
+
+    Internal debt, funded:                            Milreis
+      5 % apolices, Law of 1827                     483,546,600
+      4-1/2% "         "   1879                      20,548,000
+      6 %    "         "   1897                      37,082,000
+      5 %    "         "   1903                      17,300,000
+                                                    -----------
+                 Total, funded                      558,476,600
+                    (at 15d. L34,904,787)           ===========
+
+    Internal debt, not funded:                          Milreis
+      Paper money                                   664,792,960
+      Savings bank and other deposits:
+        In paper                                    246,812,407
+        In gold, 19,053,861 r (say)                  34,296,950
+    Floating indebtedness (a/cs current, bills, &c.)     ?
+                                                    -----------
+                 Total, not funded, approx.         945,902,317
+                    (at 15d. L59,118,895 stg.)      ===========
+
+    Approximate total indebtedness                 L163,802,675
+
+  In addition to these, the government was still responsible for
+  interest guarantees on fourteen railways, or sections of existing
+  lines, with an aggregate capital of about L4,900,000 held in Europe
+  and 12,055,440 milreis held in Brazil, on which the national treasury
+  paid in interest L191,324 and 1,398,493 milreis.
+
+  The paper currency of Brazil consists of both treasury issues and
+  bank-notes, the latter issued under government supervision. Its
+  fluctuations in value have been not only a serious inconvenience in
+  commercial transactions, but also the cause of heavy loss to the
+  people. Under the provisions of the funding loan of 1898 a scheme for
+  the withdrawal of the paper money was carried into effect, and by the
+  end of December 1906 the amount in circulation had been reduced from
+  788,364,614 1/2-milreis (the outstanding circulation 31st August 1898)
+  to 664,792,960 1/2-milreis. Two funds were created for the redemption
+  and guarantee of paper issues, the latter receiving 5% of the import
+  duties payable in gold. Up to 1906 the Caixa da Amortisacao
+  (redemption bureau), which has charge of the service of the internal
+  funded debt, superintended the redemption of the currency, but in that
+  year (December 6, 1906) a Caixa de Conversao (conversion bureau) was
+  created for this special service. It is modelled after the Argentine
+  Conversion office, and is authorized to issue notes to bearer against
+  deposits of gold at the rate of 15 pence per milreis although exchange
+  was above 17d. when the scheme was proposed. The notes are to be
+  redeemable in gold at sight, the Caixa de Conversao to keep the gold
+  paid in for that express purpose. The coffee producers of Sao Paulo
+  and other states found that the appreciation in value of the milreis
+  was reducing their profits, and they advocated this measure (at first
+  with a valuation of 12d.) to check the upward movement in exchange.
+  Metallic money is limited to nickel and bronze coins, but in 1906 the
+  government was authorized to purchase bar silver for the coinage of
+  pieces of the denomination of two milreis, one milreis and 500 reis
+  (1/2-milreis). Gold is the nominal standard of value, the monetary
+  unit being the gold milreis worth 2s. 2-1/2d. at par. The 10-milreis
+  gold piece weighs 8.9648 grammes, 916 fine, and contains 8.2178
+  grammes of pure gold. There is no gold in circulation, however, and
+  gold duties are paid with gold cheques purchased at certain banks with
+  paper money. The banking facilities of the republic have undergone
+  many changes under the new regime. A fruitful cause of disaster has
+  been the practice of issuing agricultural and industrial loans under
+  government authorization. Commercial business at the principal ports
+  is largely transacted through foreign banks, of which there are a
+  large number.
+
+  In addition to the indebtedness of the national government, the
+  individual states have also incurred funded debts of their own. The
+  aggregate of these debts in 1904 was L20,199,440, and the several
+  loans made during the next two years, including those of the
+  municipalities of Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia and Manaos, add fully
+  two and a half millions more to the total. (A. J. L.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+  The Portuguese in Brazil.
+
+Brazil was discovered in February 1499 (o.s.) by Vicente Yanez Pinzon, a
+companion of Columbus. He descried the land near Cape St Augustine, and
+sailed along the coast as far as the river Amazon, whence he proceeded
+to the mouth of the Orinoco. He made no settlement, but took possession
+of the country in the name of the Spanish government, and carried home,
+as specimens of its natural productions, some drugs, gems and
+Brazil-wood. Next year the Portuguese commander, Pedro Alvares Cabral,
+appointed by his monarch to follow the course of Vasco da Gama in the
+East, was driven by adverse winds so far from his track, that he reached
+the Brazilian coast, April 24, and anchored in Porto Seguro (16 deg. S.
+lat.) on Good Friday. On Easter day an altar was erected, mass
+celebrated in presence of the natives, the country declared an apanage
+of Portugal, and a stone cross erected in commemoration of the event.
+Cabral despatched a small vessel to Lisbon to announce his discovery,
+and, without forming any settlement, proceeded to India on the 3rd of
+May. On the arrival of the news in Portugal, Emanuel invited Amerigo
+Vespucci to enter his service, and despatched him with three vessels to
+explore the country. The navigator's first voyage was unsuccessful; but,
+according to his own account, in a second he discovered a safe port, to
+which he gave the name of All-Saints and where he erected a small fort.
+Vespucci's narrative is, however, suspected of being apocryphal (see
+VESPUCCI, AMERIGO).
+
+The poor and barbarous tribes of Brazil, and their country, the mineral
+riches of which were not immediately discovered, offered but few
+attractions to a government into the coffers of which the wealth of
+India and Africa was flowing. For nearly thirty years the kings of
+Portugal paid no further attention to their newly-acquired territory
+than what consisted, in combating the attempts of the Spaniards to
+occupy it, and dispersing the private adventurers from France who sought
+its shores for the purposes of commerce. The colonization of Brazil was
+prosecuted, however, by subjects of the Portuguese monarchy, who traded
+thither chiefly for Brazil-wood. The government also sought to make
+criminals of some use to the state, by placing them in a situation where
+they could do little harm to society, and might help to uphold the
+dominion of their nation.
+
+
+  First organization in Brazil.
+
+The first attempt on the part of a Portuguese monarch to introduce an
+organized government into his dominions was made by John III. He adopted
+a plan which had been found to succeed well in Madeira and the
+Azores,--dividing the country into hereditary captaincies, and granting
+them to such persons as were willing to undertake their settlement, with
+unlimited powers of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. Each
+captaincy extended along fifty leagues of coast. The boundaries in the
+interior were undefined. The first settlement made under this new system
+was that of Sao Vicente Piratininga, in the present province of Sao
+Paulo. Martim Affonso de Sousa, having obtained a grant, fitted out a
+considerable armament and proceeded to explore the country in person. He
+began to survey the coast about Rio de Janeiro, to which he gave that
+name, because he discovered it on the 1st of January 1531. He proceeded
+south as far as La Plata, naming the places he surveyed on the way from
+the days on which the respective discoveries were made. He fixed upon an
+island in 24-1/2 deg. S. lat., called by the natives Guaibe, for his
+settlement. The Goagnazes, or prevailing tribe of Indians in that
+neighbourhood, as soon as they discovered the intentions of the
+new-comers to fix themselves permanently there, collected for the
+purpose of expelling them. Fortunately, however, a shipwrecked
+Portuguese, who had lived many years under the protection of the
+principal chief, was successful in concluding a treaty of perpetual
+alliance between his countrymen and the natives. Finding the spot chosen
+for the new town inconvenient, the colonists removed to the adjoining
+island of Sao Vicente, from which the captaincy derived its name. Cattle
+and the sugar-cane were at an early period introduced from Madeira, and
+here the other captaincies supplied themselves with both.
+
+Pero Lopes de Sousa received the grant of a captaincy, and set sail from
+Portugal at the same time as his brother, the founder of Sao Vicente. He
+chose to have his fifty leagues in two allotments. That to which he gave
+the name of Santo Amaro adjoined Sao Vicente, the two towns being only
+three leagues asunder. The other division lay much nearer to the line
+between Parahyba and Pernambuco. He experienced considerable difficulty
+in founding this second colony, from the strenuous opposition of a
+neighbouring tribe, the Petiguares; at length he succeeded in clearing
+his lands of them, but not long afterwards he perished by shipwreck.
+
+Rio de Janeiro was not settled till a later period; and for a
+considerable time the nearest captaincy to Santo Amaro, sailing along
+the coast northwards, was that of Espirito Santo. It was founded by
+Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, who having acquired a large fortune in India,
+sank it in this scheme of colonization. He carried with him no less than
+sixty fidalgos. They named their town by anticipation, Our Lady of the
+Victory (Victoria); but it cost them some hard fighting with the
+Goagnazes to justify the title.
+
+Pedro de Campo Tourinho, a nobleman and excellent navigator, received a
+grant of the adjoining captaincy of Porto Seguro. This, it will be
+remembered, is the spot where Cabral first took possession of Brazil.
+The Tupinoquins at first offered some opposition; but having made peace,
+they observed it faithfully, notwithstanding that the oppression of the
+Portuguese obliged them to forsake the country. Sugar-works were
+established, and considerable quantities of the produce exported to the
+mother country.
+
+Jorge de Figueiredo, _Escrivam da Fazenda_, was the first donatory of
+the captaincy Ilheos, 140 m. south of Bahia. His office preventing him
+from taking possession in person, he deputed the task to Francisco
+Romeiro, a Castilian. The Tupinoquins, the most tractable of the
+Brazilian tribes, made peace with the settlers, and the colony was
+founded without a struggle.
+
+The coast from the Rio Sao Francisco to Bahia was granted to Francisco
+Pereira Coutinho; the bay itself, with all its creeks, was afterwards
+added to the grant. When Coutinho formed his establishment, where Villa
+Velha now stands, he found a noble Portuguese living in the
+neighbourhood who, having been shipwrecked, had, by means of his
+fire-arms, raised himself to the rank of chief among the natives. He was
+surrounded by a patriarchal establishment of wives and children; and to
+him most of the distinguished families of Bahia still trace their
+lineage. The regard entertained by the natives for Caramuru (signifying
+_man of fire_) induced them to extend a hospitable welcome to his
+countrymen, and for a time everything went on well. Coutinho had,
+however, learned in India to be an oppressor, and the Tupinambas were
+the fiercest and most powerful of the native tribes. The Portuguese were
+obliged to abandon their settlement; but several of them returned at a
+later period, with Caramuru, and thus a European community was
+established in the district.
+
+Some time before the period at which these captaincies were established,
+a factory had been planted at Pernambuco. A ship from Marseilles took
+it, and left seventy men in it as a garrison; but she was captured on
+her return, and carried into Lisbon, and immediate measures were taken
+for reoccupying the place. The captaincy of Pernambuco was granted to
+Don Duarte Coelho Pereira as the reward of his services in India. It
+extended along the coast from the Rio Sao Francisco, northward to the
+Rio de Juraza. Duarte sailed with his wife and children, and many of his
+kinsmen, to take possession, of his new colony, and landed in the port
+of Pernambuco. To the town which was there founded he gave the name of
+Olinda. The Cabetes, who possessed the soil, were fierce and
+pertinacious; and, assisted by the French, who traded to that coast,
+Coelho had to gain by inches what was granted him by leagues. The
+Portuguese managed, however, to beat off their enemies; and, having
+entered into an alliance with the Tobayanes, followed up their success.
+
+Attempts were made about this time to establish two other captaincies,
+but without success. Pedro de Goes obtained a grant of the captaincy of
+Parahyba between those of Sao Vicente and Espirito Santo; but his means
+were too feeble to enable him to make head against the aborigines, and
+the colony was broken up after a painful struggle of seven years. Joao
+de Barros, the historian, obtained the captaincy of Maranhao. For the
+sake of increasing his capital, he divided his grant with Fernao Alvares
+de Andrade and Aires da Cunha. They projected a scheme of conquest and
+colonization upon a large scale. Nine hundred men, of whom one hundred
+and thirteen were horsemen, embarked in ten ships under the command of
+Aires da Cunha. But the vessels were wrecked upon some shoals about one
+hundred leagues to the south of Maranhao; the few survivors, after
+suffering immense hardships, escaped to the nearest settlements, and the
+undertaking was abandoned.
+
+By these adventures the whole line of Brazilian coast, from the mouth of
+La Plata to the mouth of the Amazon, had become studded at intervals
+with Portuguese settlements, in all of which law and justice were
+administered, however inadequately. It is worthy of observation, that
+Brazil was the first colony founded in America upon an agricultural
+principle, for until then the precious metals were the exclusive
+attraction. Sufficient capital was attracted between the year 1531 (in
+which De Sousa founded the first captaincy) and the year 1548 to render
+these colonies an object of importance to the mother country. Their
+organization, however, in regard to their means of defence against both
+external aggression and internal violence, was extremely defective.
+Their territories were surrounded and partly occupied by large tribes of
+savages. Behind them the Spaniards, who had an establishment at
+Asuncion, had penetrated almost to the sources of the waters of
+Paraguay, and had succeeded in establishing communication with Peru.
+Orellana, on the other hand, setting out from Peru, had crossed the
+mountains and sailed down the Amazon. Nor had the French abandoned their
+hopes of effecting an establishment on the coast.
+
+The obvious remedy for these evils was to concentrate the executive
+power, to render the petty chiefs amenable to one tribunal, and to
+confide the management of the defensive force to one hand. In order to
+this the powers of the several captains were revoked, whilst their
+property in their grants was reserved to them. A governor-general was
+appointed, with full powers, civil and criminal. The judicial and
+financial functions in each province were vested in the _Ouvidor_, whose
+authority in the college of finance was second only to that of the
+governor. Every colonist was enrolled either in the _Milicias_ or
+_Ordenanzas_. The former were obliged to serve beyond the boundaries of
+the province, the latter only at home. The chief cities received
+municipal constitutions, as in Portugal. Thome de Sousa was the first
+person nominated to the important post of governor-general. He was
+instructed to build a strong city in Bahia and to establish there the
+seat of his government. In pursuance of his commission he arrived at
+Bahia in April 1549, with a fleet of six vessels, on board of which were
+three hundred and twenty persons in the king's pay, four hundred
+convicts and about three hundred free colonists. Care had been taken for
+the spiritual wants of the provinces by associating six Jesuits with the
+expedition.
+
+
+  First Jesuit missions.
+
+Old Caramuru, who still survived, rendered the governor essential
+service by gaining for his countrymen the goodwill of the natives. The
+new city, to which the name of Sao Salvador was given, was established
+on the heights above the Bay of All Saints (Todos os Santos), from which
+its later name of Bahia is taken. Within four months one hundred houses
+were built, and surrounded by a mud wall. Sugar plantations were laid
+out in the vicinity. During the four years of Sousa's government there
+were sent out at different times supplies of all kinds. Female orphans
+of noble families were given in marriage to the officers, and portioned
+from the royal estates, and orphan boys were sent to be educated by the
+Jesuits. The capital rose rapidly in importance, and the captaincies
+learned to regard it as a common head and centre of wealth. Meanwhile
+the Jesuits undertook the moral and religious culture of the natives,
+and of the scarcely less savage colonists. Strong opposition was at
+first experienced from the gross ignorance of the Indians, and the
+depravity of the Portuguese, fostered by the licentious encouragement of
+some abandoned priests who had found their way to Brazil. Over these
+persons the Jesuits had no authority; and it was not until the arrival
+of the first bishop of Brazil in 1552, that anything like an efficient
+check was imposed upon them. Next year Sousa was succeeded by Duarte da
+Costa, who brought with him a reinforcement of Jesuits, at the head of
+whom was Luis de Gran, appointed, with Nobrega the chief of the first
+mission, joint provincial of Brazil.
+
+Nobrega's first act was one which has exercised the most beneficial
+influence over the social system of Brazil, namely, the establishment of
+a college on the then unreclaimed plains of Piratininga. It was named
+Sao Paulo, and has been at once the source whence knowledge and
+civilization have been diffused through Brazil, and the nucleus of a
+colony of its manliest and hardiest citizens, which sent out successive
+swarms of hardy adventurers to people the interior. The good intentions
+of the Jesuits were in part frustrated by the opposition of Costa the
+governor; and it was not until 1558, when Mem de Sa was sent out to
+supersede him, that their projects were allowed free scope.
+
+
+  Settlement of Rio de Janeiro.
+
+Rio de Janeiro was first occupied by French settlers. Nicholas Durand de
+Villegagnon, a bold and skilful seaman, having visited Brazil, saw at
+once the advantages which might accrue his country from a settlement
+there. In order to secure the interest of Coligny, he gave out that his
+projected colony was intended to serve as a place of refuge for the
+persecuted Huguenots. Under the patronage of that admiral, he arrived at
+Rio de Janeiro in 1558 with a train of numerous and respectable
+colonists. As soon, however, as he thought his power secure, he threw
+off the mask, and began to harass and oppress the Huguenots by every
+means he could devise. Many of them were forced by his tyranny to return
+to France; and ten thousand Protestants, ready to embark for the new
+colony, were deterred by their representations. Villegagnon, finding his
+force much diminished in consequence of his treachery, sailed for France
+in quest of recruits; and during his absence the Portuguese governor, by
+order of his court, attacked and dispersed the settlement. For some
+years the French kept up a kind of bush warfare; but in 1567 the
+Portuguese succeeded in establishing a settlement at Rio.
+
+Mem de Sa continued to hold the reins of government in Brazil upon terms
+of the best understanding with the clergy, and to the great advantage of
+the colonies, for fourteen years. On the expiration of his power, which
+was nearly contemporary with that of his life, an attempt was made to
+divide Brazil into two governments; but this having failed, the
+territory was reunited in 1578, the year in which Diego Laurenco da
+Veiga was appointed governor. At this time the colonies, although not
+yet independent of supplies from the mother country, were in a
+flourishing condition; but the usurpation of the crown of Portugal by
+Philip II. changed the aspect of affairs. Brazil, believed to be
+inferior to the Spanish possessions in mines, was consequently abandoned
+in comparative neglect for the period intervening between 1578 and 1640,
+during which it continued an apanage of Spain.
+
+
+  English and French aggressions.
+
+No sooner had Brazil passed under the Spanish crown, than English
+adventurers directed their hostile enterprises against its shores. In
+1586 Witherington plundered Bahia; in 1591 Cavendish made an abortive
+attack on Santos; in 1595 Lancaster attacked Olinda. These exploits,
+however, were transient in their effects. In 1612 the French attempted
+to found a permanent colony in the island of Marajo, where they
+succeeded in maintaining themselves till 1618. This attempt led to the
+erection of Maranhao and Para into a separate _Estado_. But it was on
+the part of the Dutch that the most skilful and pertinacious efforts
+were made for securing a footing in Brazil; and they alone of all the
+rivals of the Portuguese have left traces of their presence in the
+national spirit and institutions of Brazil.
+
+
+  Struggle with the Dutch.
+
+The success of the Dutch East India Company led to the establishment of
+a similar one for the West Indies, to which a monopoly of the trade to
+America and Africa was granted. This body despatched in 1624 a fleet
+against Bahia. The town yielded almost without a struggle. The fleet
+soon after sailed, a squadron being detached against Angola, with the
+intention of taking possession of that colony, in order to secure a
+supply of slaves. The fall of Bahia for once roused the Spaniards and
+Portuguese to joint action, and a great expedition speedily sailed from
+Cadiz and Lisbon for Bahia. Once more, though strongly garrisoned, the
+town was retaken without any serious fighting in May 1625. The honours
+bestowed upon the Indian chiefs for their assistance in this war broke
+down in a great measure the barrier between the two races; and there is
+at this day a greater admixture of their blood among the better classes
+in Bahia than is to be found elsewhere in Brazil.
+
+
+  Dutch settlement in Brazil.
+
+In 1630 the Dutch attempted again to effect a settlement; and Olinda,
+with its port, the Recife-Olinda, was destroyed, but the Recife was
+fortified and held, reinforcements and supplies being sent by sea from
+Holland. The Dutch were unable, however, to extend their power beyond
+the limits of the town, until the arrival of Count John Maurice of
+Nassau-Siegen in 1636. His first step was to introduce a regular
+government among his countrymen; his second, to send to the African
+coast one of his officers, who took possession of a Portuguese
+settlement, and thus secured a supply of slaves. In the course of eight
+years, the limited period of his government, he succeeded in asserting
+the Dutch supremacy along the coast of Brazil from the mouth of Sao
+Francisco to Maranhao. The Recife was rebuilt and adorned with splendid
+residences and gardens and received from its founder the name of
+Mauritstad. He promoted the amalgamation of the different races, and
+sought to conciliate the Portuguese by the confidence he reposed in
+them. His object was to found a great empire; but this was a project at
+variance with the wishes of his employers--an association of merchants,
+who were dissatisfied because the wealth which they expected to see
+flowing into their coffers was expended in promoting the permanent
+interests of a distant country. Count Maurice resigned his post in 1644.
+His successors possessed neither his political nor his military talents,
+and had to contend with more difficult circumstances.
+
+In 1640 the revolution which placed the house of Braganza on the throne
+of Portugal restored Brazil to masters more inclined to promote its
+interests and assert its possession than the Spaniards. It was indeed
+high time that some exertion should be made. The northern provinces had
+fallen into the power of Holland; the southern, peopled in a great
+measure by the hardy descendants of the successive colonists who had
+issued on all sides from the central establishment of Sao Paulo, had
+learned from their habits of unaided and successful enterprise to court
+independence. They had ascended the waters of the Paraguay to their
+sources. They had extended their limits southwards till they reached
+the Spanish settlements of La Plata. They had reduced to slavery
+numerous tribes of the natives. They were rich in cattle, and had
+commenced the discovery of the mines. When, therefore, the inhabitants
+of Sao Paulo saw themselves about to be transferred, as a dependency of
+Portugal, from one master to another, they conceived the idea of
+erecting their country into an independent state. Their attempt,
+however, was frustrated by Amador Bueno, the person whom they had
+selected for their king. When the people shouted "Long live King
+Amador," he cried out "Long live John IV.," and took refuge in a
+convent. The multitude, left without a leader, acquiesced, and this
+important province was secured to the house of Braganza.
+
+
+  Revolt against the Dutch.
+
+  French expedition to Brazil, 1710.
+
+Rio and Santos, although both evinced a desire of independence, followed
+the example of the Paulistas. Bahia, as capital of the Brazilian states,
+felt that its ascendancy depended upon the union with Portugal. The
+government, thus left in quiet possession of the rest of Brazil, had
+time to concentrate its attention upon the Dutch conquests. The crown of
+Portugal was, however, much too weak to adopt energetic measures. But
+the Brazilian colonists, now that the mother country had thrown off the
+Spanish yoke, determined even without assistance from the homeland to
+rise in revolt against foreign domination. The departure of Count
+Maurice, moreover, had seriously weakened the position of the Dutch, for
+his successors had neither his conciliatory manners nor his capacity.
+Joao Fernandes Vieyra, a native of Madeira, organized the insurrection
+which broke out in 1645. This insurrection gave birth to one of those
+wars in which a whole nation, destitute of pecuniary resources, military
+organization and skilful leaders, but familiar with the country, is
+opposed to a handful of soldiers advantageously posted and well
+officered. But home difficulties and financial necessities prevented the
+West India Company from sending adequate reinforcements from Holland. In
+1649 a rival company was started in Portugal known as the Brazil
+Company, which sent out a fleet to help the colonists in Pernambuco.
+Slowly the Dutch lost ground and the outbreak of war with England
+sounded the knell of their dominion in Brazil. In 1654 their capital and
+last stronghold fell into the hands of Vieyra. It was not, however, till
+1662 that Holland signed a treaty with Portugal, by which all
+territorial claims in Brazil were abandoned in exchange for a cash
+indemnity and certain commercial privileges. After this, except some
+inroads on the frontiers, the only foreign invasion which Brazil had to
+suffer was from France. In 1710 a squadron, commanded by Duclerc,
+disembarked 1000 men, and attacked Rio de Janeiro. After having lost
+half of his men in a battle, Duclerc and all his surviving companions
+were made prisoners. The governor treated them cruelly. A new squadron
+with 6000 troops was entrusted to the famous admiral Duguay Trouin to
+revenge this injury. They arrived at Rio on the 12th of September 1711.
+After four days of hard fighting the town was taken. The governor
+retreated to a position out of it, and was only awaiting reinforcements
+from Minas to retake it; but, Duguay Trouin threatening to burn it, he
+was obliged on the 10th of October to sign a capitulation, and pay to
+the French admiral 610,000 crusados, 500 cases of sugar, and provisions
+for the return of the fleet to Europe. Duguay Trouin departed to Bahia
+to obtain fresh spoils; but having lost in a storm two of his best
+ships, with an important part of the money received, he renounced this
+plan and returned directly to France.
+
+After this the Portuguese governed their colony undisturbed. The
+approach of foreign traders was prohibited, while the regalities
+reserved by the crown drained the country of a great proportion of its
+wealth.
+
+The important part which the inhabitants of Sao Paulo have played in the
+history of Brazil has been already adverted to. The establishment of the
+Jesuit college had attracted settlers to its neighbourhood, and frequent
+marriages had taken place between the Indians of the district and the
+colonists. A hardy and enterprising race of men had sprung from this
+mixture, who, first searching whether their new country were rich in
+metals, soon began adventurous raids into the interior, making
+excursions also against the remote Indian tribes with a view to
+obtaining slaves, and from the year 1629 onwards repeatedly attacked the
+Indian reductions of the Jesuits in Paraguay, although both provinces
+were then nominally subject to the crown of Spain. Other bands
+penetrated into Minas and still farther north and westward, discovering
+mines there and in Goyaz and Cuyaba. New colonies were thus formed round
+those districts in which gold had been found, and in the beginning of
+the 18th century five principal settlements in Minas Geraes had been
+elevated by royal charter to the privileges of towns. In 1720 this
+district was separated from Sao Paulo, to which it had previously been
+dependent. As early as 1618 a code of laws for the regulation of the
+mining industry had been drawn up by Philip III., the executive and
+judicial functions in the mining districts being vested in a _provedor_,
+and the fiscal in a treasurer, who received the royal fifths and
+superintended the weighing of all the gold, rendering a yearly account
+of all discoveries and produce. For many years, however, these laws were
+little more than a dead letter. The same infatuated passion for mining
+speculation which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South
+America now began to actuate the Portuguese; labourers and capital were
+drained off to the mining districts, and Brazil, which had hitherto in
+great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank before the competition of
+the English and French. A new source of wealth was now opened up; some
+adventurers from Villa do Principe in Minas, going north to the Seria
+Frio, made the discovery of diamonds about the year 1710, but it was not
+till 1730 that the discovery was for the first time announced to the
+government, which immediately declared them _regalia_. While the
+population of Brazil continued to increase, the moral and intellectual
+culture of its inhabitants was left in great measure to chance; they
+grew up with those robust and healthy sentiments which are engendered by
+the absence of false teachers, but with a repugnance to legal
+ordinances, and encouraged in their ascendancy over the Indians to
+habits of violence and oppression. The Jesuits from the first moment of
+their landing in Brazil had constituted themselves the protectors of the
+natives, and though strenuously opposed by the colonists and ordinary
+clergy, had gathered the Indians together in many _aldeas_, over which
+officials of their order exercised spiritual and temporal authority. A
+more efficacious stop, however, was put to the persecution of the
+Indians by the importation of large numbers of negroes from the
+Portuguese possessions in Africa, these being found more active and
+serviceable than the native tribes.
+
+
+  Reforms of Pombal.
+
+The Portuguese government, under the administration of Carvalho,
+afterwards marquis of Pombal, attempted to extend to Brazil the bold
+spirit of innovation which directed all his efforts. The proud minister
+had been resisted in his plans of reform at home by the Jesuits, and,
+determining to attack the power of the order, first deprived them of all
+temporal power in the state of Maranhao and Para. These ordinances soon
+spread to the whole of Brazil, and a pretext being found in the
+suspicion of Jesuit influence in some partial revolts of the Indian
+troops on the Rio Negro, the order was expelled from Brazil under
+circumstances of great severity in 1760. The Brazilian Company founded
+by Vieyra, which so materially contributed to preserve its South
+American possessions to Portugal, had been abolished in 1721 by John V.;
+but such an instrument being well suited to the bold spirit of Pombal,
+he established a chartered company again in 1755, to trade exclusively
+with Maranhao and Para; and in 1759, in spite of the remonstrance of the
+British Factory at Lisbon, formed another company for Parahyba and
+Pernambuco. Pombal's arrangements extended also to the interior of the
+country, where he extinguished at once the now indefinite and oppressive
+claims of the original donatories of the captaincies, and strengthened
+and enforced the regulations of the mining districts. The policy of many
+of Pombal's measures is more than questionable; but his admission of all
+races to equal rights in the eye of the law, his abolition of feudal
+privileges, and the firmer organization of the powers of the land which
+he introduced, powerfully co-operated towards the development of the
+capabilities of Brazil. Yet on the death of his king and patron in 1777,
+when court intrigue forced him from his high station, he who had done so
+much for his country's institutions was reviled on all hands.
+
+The most important feature in the history of Brazil during the first
+thirty years following the retirement of Pombal was the conspiracy of
+Minas in 1789. The successful issue of the recent revolution of the
+English colonies in North America had filled the minds of some of the
+more educated youth of that province; and in imitation, a project to
+throw off the Portuguese yoke was formed,--a cavalry officer, Silva
+Xavier, nicknamed Tira-dentes (tooth-drawer), being the chief
+conspirator. But the plot being discovered during their inactivity, the
+conspirators were banished to Africa, and Tira-dentes, the leader, was
+hanged. Thenceforward affairs went on prosperously; the mining districts
+continued to be enlarged; the trading companies of the littoral
+provinces were abolished, but the impulse they had given to agriculture
+remained.
+
+
+  Portuguese royal family in Brazil, 1807.
+
+  Reorganization on Portuguese model.
+
+Removed from all communication with the rest of the world except through
+the mother country, Brazil remained unaffected by the first years of the
+great revolutionary war in Europe. Indirectly, however, the fate of this
+isolated country was decided by the consequences of the French
+Revolution. Brazil is the only instance of a colony becoming the seat of
+the government of its own mother country, and this was the work of
+Napoleon. When he resolved upon the invasion and conquest of Portugal,
+the prince regent, afterwards Dom John VI., having no means of
+resistance, decided to take refuge in Brazil. He created a regency in
+Lisbon, and departed for Brazil on the 29th of November 1807,
+accompanied by the queen Donna Maria I., the royal family, all the great
+officers of state, a large part of the nobility and numerous retainers.
+They arrived at Bahia on the 21st of January 1808, and were received
+with enthusiasm. The regent was requested to establish there the seat of
+his government, but a more secure asylum presented itself in Rio de
+Janeiro, where the royal fugitives arrived on the 7th of March. Before
+leaving Bahia, Dom John took the first step to emancipate Brazil,
+opening its ports to foreign commerce, and permitting the export of all
+Brazilian produce under any flag, the royal monopolies of diamonds and
+Brazil-wood excepted. Once established in Rio de Janeiro, the government
+of the regent was directed to the creation of an administrative
+machinery for the dominions that remained to him as it existed in
+Portugal. Besides the ministry which had come with the regent, the
+council of state, and the departments of the four ministries of home,
+finances, war and marine then existing, there were created in the course
+of one year a supreme court of justice, a board of patronage and
+administration of the property of the church and military orders, an
+inferior court of appeal, the court of exchequer and royal treasury, the
+royal mint, bank of Brazil, royal printing-office, powder-mills on a
+large scale, and a supreme military court. The maintenance of the court,
+and the salaries of so large a number of high officials, entailed the
+imposition of new taxes to meet these expenses. Notwithstanding this the
+expenses continued to augment, and the government had recourse to the
+reprehensible measure of altering the money standard, and the whole
+monetary system was soon thrown into the greatest confusion. The bank,
+in addition to its private functions, farmed many of the _regalia_, and
+was in the practice of advancing large sums to the state, transactions
+which gave rise to extensive corruption, and terminated some years later
+in the breaking of the bank.
+
+Thus the government of the prince regent began its career in the new
+world with dangerous errors in the financial system; yet the increased
+activity which a multitude of new customers and the increase of
+circulating medium gave to the trade of Rio, added a new stimulus to the
+industry of the whole nation. Numbers of English artisans and
+shipbuilders, Swedish iron-founders, German engineers and French
+manufacturers sought fortunes in the new country, and diffused industry
+by their example.
+
+In the beginning of 1809, in retaliation for the occupation of Portugal,
+an expedition was sent from Para to the French colony of Guiana, and
+after some fighting this part of Guiana was incorporated with Brazil.
+This conquest was, however, of short duration; for, by the treaty of
+Vienna in 1815, the colony was restored to France. Its occupation
+contributed to the improvement of agriculture in Brazil; it had been the
+policy of Portugal up to this time to separate the productions of its
+colonies, to reserve sugar for Brazil, and spices to the East Indies,
+and to prohibit the cultivation of these in the African possessions.
+Now, however, many plants were imported not only from Guiana but from
+India and Africa, cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, and thence
+distributed. The same principle which dictated the conquest of French
+Guiana originated attempts to seize the Spanish colonies of Montevideo
+and Buenos Aires, Portugal being also at war with Spain. The chiefs of
+these colonies were invited to place them under the protection of the
+Portuguese crown, but these at first affecting loyalty to Spain declined
+the offer, then threw off the mask and declared themselves independent,
+and the Spanish governor, Elio, was afterwards defeated by Artigas, the
+leader of the independents.
+
+
+  Brazil declared an integral portion of the monarchy.
+
+The inroads made on the frontiers of Rio Grande and Sao Paulo decided
+the court of Rio to take possession of Montevideo; a force of 5000
+troops was sent thither from Portugal, together with a Brazilian corps;
+and the irregulars of Artigas, unable to withstand disciplined troops,
+were forced, after a total defeat, to take refuge beyond the River
+Uruguay. The Portuguese took possession of the city of Montevideo in
+January 1817, and the territory of Misiones was afterwards occupied. The
+importance which Brazil was acquiring decided the regent to give it the
+title of kingdom, and by decree of the 16th January 1815, the Portuguese
+sovereignty thenceforward took the title of the United Kingdom of
+Portugal, Brazil and Algarves. Thus the old colonial government
+disappeared even in name. In March 1816 the queen Donna Maria I. died,
+and the prince regent became king under the title of Dom John VI.
+
+
+  Pedro proclaims the independence of Brazil, 1822.
+
+Although Brazil had now become in fact the head of its own mother
+country, the government was not in the hands of Brazilians, but of the
+Portuguese, who had followed the court. The discontent arising among
+Brazilians from this cause was heightened by a decree assigning a heavy
+tax on the chief Brazilian custom houses, to be in operation for forty
+years, for the benefit of the Portuguese noblemen who had suffered
+during the war with France. The amiable character of the king preserved
+his own popularity, but the government was ignorant and profligate,
+justice was ill administered, negligence and disorder reigned in all its
+departments. Nor was the discontent less in Portugal on account of its
+anomalous position. These causes and the fermentation of liberal
+principles produced by the French Revolution originated a conspiracy in
+Lisbon in 1817, which was, however, discovered in time to prevent its
+success. A similar plot and rebellion took place in the province of
+Pernambuco, where the inhabitants of the important commercial city of
+Recife (Pernambuco) were jealous of Rio and the sacrifices they were
+compelled to make for the support of the luxurious court there. Another
+conspiracy to establish a republican government was promptly smothered
+in Bahia, and the outbreak in Pernambuco was put down after a republic
+had been formed there for ninety days. Still the progress of the
+republican spirit in Brazil caused Dom Joao to send to Portugal for
+bodies of picked troops, which were stationed throughout the provincial
+capitals. In Portugal the popular discontent produced the revolution of
+1820, when representative government was proclaimed--the Spanish
+constitution of 1812 being provisionally adopted. In Rio, the Portuguese
+troops with which the king had surrounded himself as the defence against
+the liberal spirit of the Brazilians, took up arms on the 26th of
+February 1821, to force him to accept the system proclaimed in
+Portugal. The prince Dom Pedro, heir to the crown, who now for the first
+time took part in public affairs, actively exerted himself as a
+negotiator between the king and the troops, who were joined by bodies of
+the people. After attempting a compromise the king finally submitted,
+took the oath and named a new ministry. The idea of free government
+filled the people with enthusiasm, and the principles of a
+representative legislature were freely adopted, the first care being for
+the election of deputies to the Cortes of Lisbon to take part in framing
+the new constitution. As the king could not abandon Portugal to itself
+he determined at first to send the prince thither as regent, but Dom
+Pedro had acquired such popularity by his conduct in the revolution, and
+had exhibited such a thirst for glory, that the king feared to trust his
+adventurous spirit in Europe, and decided to go himself. The Brazilian
+deputies on arriving in Lisbon expressed dissatisfaction with the Cortes
+for having begun the framing of the constitution before their arrival,
+for Brazil could not be treated as a secondary part of the monarchy.
+Sharp discussions and angry words passed between the Brazilian and
+Portuguese deputies, the news of which excited great discontent in
+Brazil. An insulting decree was passed in the Cortes, ordering the
+prince Dom Pedro to come to Europe, which filled the Brazilians with
+alarm; they foresaw that without a central authority the country would
+fall back to its former colonial state subject to Portugal. The
+provisional government of Sao Paulo, influenced by the brothers Andrada,
+began a movement for independence by asking the prince to disobey the
+Cortes and remain in Brazil, and the council of Rio de Janeiro followed
+with a similar representation, to which the prince assented. The
+Portuguese troops of the capital at first assumed a coercive attitude,
+but were forced to give way before the ardour and military preparations
+of the Brazilians, and submitted to embark for Portugal. These scenes
+were repeated in Pernambuco, where the Portuguese, after various
+conflicts, were obliged to leave the country; in Bahia, however, as well
+as in Maranhao and Para, the Portuguese prevailed. In the agitation for
+independence continued. The two brothers Andrada were called to the
+ministry; and the municipal council conferred upon the prince regent the
+title of Perpetual Defender of Brazil. With great activity he set off to
+the central provinces of Minas and Sao Paulo to suppress disaffected
+movements and direct the revolution. In Sao Paulo, on the 7th of
+September 1822, he proclaimed the independence of Brazil. On his return
+to Rio de Janeiro on the l2th of October he was proclaimed
+constitutional emperor with great enthusiasm.
+
+The Cortes at Lisbon chose Bahia as a centre for resisting the
+independence, and large forces were sent thither. But the city was
+vigorously besieged by the Brazilians by land, and finally the
+Portuguese were obliged to re-embark on the 2nd of July 1823. A
+Brazilian squadron, under command of Lord Cochrane, attacked the
+Portuguese vessels, embarrassed with troops, and took several of them.
+Taylor, another Englishman in Brazilian service, followed the vessels
+across the Atlantic, and even captured some of the ships in sight of the
+land of Portugal. The troops in Montevideo also embarked for Portugal,
+and the Banda Oriental remained a part of Brazil with the title of the
+_Provincia Cisplatina_. Before the end of 1823 the authority of the new
+emperor and the independence of Brazil were undisputed throughout the
+whole country.
+
+
+  Constitution of 1824.
+
+Republican movements now began to spread, to suppress which the
+authorities made use of the Portuguese remaining in the country; and the
+disposition of the emperor to consider these as his firmest supporters
+much influenced the course of his government and his future destiny. The
+two Andradas, who imagined they could govern the young emperor as a
+sovereign of their own creation, encountered great opposition in the
+constitutional assembly, which had been opened in Rio in May 1823, to
+discuss the project of a new constitution. In July the emperor resolved
+to dismiss them and form a new ministry, but against this the brothers
+raised a violent opposition. In November the emperor put an end to the
+angry debates which ensued in the assembly by dissolving it, exiling
+the Andradas to France, and convoking a new assembly to deliberate on a
+proposed constitution more liberal than the former project. The
+proclamation of a republic in the provinces of Pernambuco and Ceara,
+with the rebellion of the Cisplatina province, favoured by Buenos Aires
+and its ultimate loss to Brazil, were the result of the _coup d'etat_ of
+November 1823. The Brazilians were universally discontented--on one side
+fearing absolutism if they supported the emperor, on the other anarchy
+if he fell. Knowing the danger of an undefined position, the emperor
+caused the councils to dispense with their deliberations, and adopt, as
+the constitution of the empire, the project framed by the council of
+state. Accordingly, on the 25th of March 1824, the emperor swore to the
+constitution with great solemnity and public rejoicings. By this stroke
+of policy he saved himself and Brazil. Negotiations were opened in
+London between the Brazilian and Portuguese plenipotentiaries, treating
+for the recognition of the independence of Brazil; and on the 25th of
+August 1825 a treaty was signed by which the Portuguese king, Dom John
+VI., assumed the title of emperor of Brazil, and immediately abdicated
+in favour of his son, acknowledging Brazil as an independent empire, but
+the treaty obliged Brazil to take upon herself the Portuguese debt,
+amounting to nearly two millions sterling.
+
+The rebellion of the Banda Oriental was followed by a declaration of war
+with Buenos Aires which had supported it, and operations by sea and land
+were conducted against that republic in a feeble way. Meanwhile the
+well-deserved popularity of the emperor began to decline. He had given
+himself up to the influence of the Portuguese; the most popular men who
+had worked for the independence were banished; and a continual change of
+ministry showed a disposition on the part of the sovereign to prosecute
+obstinately measures of which his advisers disapproved. His popularity
+was regained, however, to some extent, when, on the death of his father,
+he was unanimously acknowledged king of Portugal, and especially when he
+abdicated that crown in favour of his daughter, Donna Maria; but his
+line of policy was not altered, and commercial treaties entered into
+with European states conceding them favours, which were popularly
+considered to be injurious to Brazilian trade, met with bitter censure.
+
+During the year 1827 the public debt was consolidated, and a department
+was created for the application of a sinking fund.
+
+
+  Abdication of Pedro I., 1831.
+
+The year 1828 was a calamitous one for Brazil. It began with the defeat
+of the Brazilian army by the Argentine forces, and this entirely through
+the incapacity of the commander-in-chief; and misunderstandings,
+afterwards compensated by humbling money-payments on the part of Brazil,
+arose with the United States, France and England on account of merchant
+vessels captured by the Brazilian squadron blockading Buenos Aires.
+Financial embarrassments increased to an alarming extent; the emperor
+was compelled by the British government to make peace with Buenos Aires
+and to renounce the Banda Oriental; and to fill the sum of disasters Dom
+Miguel had treacherously usurped the crown of Portugal. It was under
+these unlucky auspices that the elections of new deputies took place in
+1829. As was expected the result was the election everywhere of
+ultra-liberals opposed to the emperor, and in the succeeding year people
+everywhere exhibited their disaffection. During the session of 1830 the
+chambers adopted a criminal code in which punishment by death for
+political offences was abolished. It was openly suggested in the
+journals to reform the constitution by turning Brazil into independent
+federal provinces, governed by authorities popularly elected, as in the
+United States. Alarmed at length at the ground gained by this idea in
+the provinces, the emperor set off to Minas to stir up the former
+enthusiasm in his favour from recollections of the independence, but was
+coldly received. On his return to Rio in March 1831 scenes of disorder
+occurred, and great agitation among the Liberal party. Imagining himself
+sure of a brilliant destiny in Europe if he lost his Brazilian crown,
+the emperor attempted to risk a decisive attack against the Liberals,
+and to form a new ministry composed of men favourable to absolutism.
+This step caused excited public meetings in the capital, which were
+joined in by the troops, and deputations went to ask the emperor to
+dismiss the unpopular ministry. He replied by dissolving the ministry
+without naming another, and by abdicating the crown in favour of the
+heir apparent, then only five years of age. Dom Pedro immediately
+embarked in an English ship, leaving the new emperor Dom Pedro II. and
+the princesses Januaria, Francisca and Paula. The subsequent career of
+this unfortunate prince belongs to the history of Portugal.
+
+A provisional and afterwards a permanent regency, composed of three
+members, was now formed in Brazil, but scenes of disorder succeeded, and
+discussions and struggles between the republican party and the
+government, and a reactionary third party in favour of the restoration
+of Dom Pedro, occupied the succeeding years. In 1834 a reform which was
+well received consisted in the alteration of the regency, from that of
+three members elected by the legislative chambers, to one regent chosen
+by the whole of the electors in the same manner as the deputies; and the
+councils of the provinces were replaced by legislative provincial
+assemblies. Virtually, this was a republican government like that of the
+United States, for no difference existed in the mode of election of the
+regent from that of a president. The ex-minister Feijoo was chosen for
+this office. With the exception of Para and Rio Grande the provinces
+were at peace, but these were in open rebellion; the former was reduced
+to obedience, but in the latter, though the imperial troops occupied the
+town, the country was ravaged by its warlike inhabitants. The regent was
+now accused of conniving at this rebellion, and the opposition of the
+chamber of deputies became so violent as to necessitate his resignation.
+Araujo Lima, minister of the home department, who strove to give his
+government the character of a monarchical reaction against the
+principles of democracy, was chosen by a large majority in his stead.
+The experiment of republican government had proved so discreditable, and
+had so wearied the country of cabals, that men hitherto known for their
+sympathy with democratic principles became more monarchical than the
+regent himself; and under this influence a movement to give the regency
+into the hands of the princess Donna Januaria, now in her 18th year, was
+set on foot. It was soon perceived, however, that if the empire could be
+governed by a princess of eighteen it could be managed better by the
+emperor himself, who was then fourteen.
+
+
+  Majority of Pedro II., 1840.
+
+A bill was accordingly presented to the legislature dispensing with the
+age of the emperor and declaring his majority, which after a noisy
+discussion was carried. The majority of the emperor Dom Pedro II. was
+proclaimed on the 23rd of July 1840. Several ministries, in which
+various parties predominated for a time, now governed the country till
+1848, during which period the rebellious province of Rio Grande was
+pacified, more by negotiation than force of arms. In 1848 hostilities
+were roused with the British government through the neglect shown by the
+Brazilians in putting in force a treaty for the abolition of the slave
+trade, which had been concluded as far back as 1826; on the other hand
+the governor of Buenos Aires, General Rosas, was endeavouring to stir up
+revolution again in Rio Grande. The appearance of yellow fever in 1849,
+until then unknown in Brazil, was attributed to the importation of
+slaves. Public opinion declared against the traffic; severe laws were
+passed against it, and were so firmly enforced that in 1853 not a single
+disembarkation took place. The ministry of the Visconde de Olinda in
+1849 entered into alliances with the governors of Montevideo, Paraguay
+and the states of Entre Rios and Corrientes, for the purpose of
+maintaining the integrity of the republics of Uruguay and Paraguay,
+which Rosas intended to reunite to Buenos Aires, and the troops of
+Rosa's which besieged Montevideo were forced to capitulate. Rosas then
+declared war formally against Brazil. An army of Correntine, Uruguayan
+and Brazilian troops, under General Urquiza, assisted by a Brazilian
+naval squadron, advanced on Buenos Aires, completely routed the forces
+of Rosas, and crushed for ever the power of that dictator. From 1844
+Brazil was free from intestine commotions, and had resumed its activity.
+Public works and education were advanced, and the finances rose to a
+degree of prosperity previously unknown.
+
+
+  War with Paraguay.
+
+In 1855 the emperor of Brazil sent a squadron of eleven men-of-war and
+as many transports up the Parana to adjust several questions pending
+between the empire and the republic of Paraguay, the most important of
+which was that of the right of way by the Paraguay river to the interior
+Brazilian province of Matto Grosso. This right had been in dispute for
+several years. The expedition was not permitted to ascend the river
+Paraguay, and returned completely foiled in its main purpose. Though the
+discord resulting between the states on account of this failure was
+subsequently allayed for a time by a treaty granting to Brazil the right
+to navigate the river, every obstacle was thrown in the way by the
+Paraguayan government, and indignities of all kinds were offered not
+only to Brazil but to the representatives of the Argentine and the
+United States. In 1864 the ambitious dictator of Paraguay, Francisco
+Solano Lopez, without previous declaration of war, captured a Brazilian
+vessel in the Paraguay, and rapidly followed up this outrage by an armed
+invasion of the provinces of Matto Grosso and Rio Grande in Brazil, and
+that of Corrientes in the Argentine Republic. A triple alliance of the
+invaded states with Uruguay ensued, and the tide of war was soon turned
+from being an offensive one on the part of Paraguay to a defensive
+struggle within that republic against the superior number of the allies.
+So strong was the natural position of Paraguay, however, and so complete
+the subjection of its inhabitants to the will of the dictator, that it
+was not until the year 1870, after the republic had been completely
+drained of its manhood and resources, that the long war was terminated
+by the capture and death of Lopez with his last handful of men by the
+pursuing Brazilians. From its duration and frequent battles and sieges
+this war involved an immense sacrifice of life to Brazil, the army in
+the field having been constantly maintained at between 20,000 and 30,000
+men, and the expenditure in maintaining it was very great, having been
+calculated at upwards of fifty millions sterling. Large deficits in the
+financial budgets of the state resulted, involving increased taxation
+and the contracting of loans from foreign countries.
+
+Notwithstanding this the sources of public wealth in Brazil were
+unaffected, and commerce continued steadily to increase. A grand social
+reform was effected in the law passed in September 1871, which enacted
+that from that date every child born of slave parents should be free,
+and also declared all the slaves belonging to the state or to the
+imperial household free from that time. The same law provided an
+emancipation fund, to be annually applied to the ransom of a certain
+number of slaves owned by private individuals.
+
+
+  Character of Pedro II.'s reign.
+
+Under the long reign of Dom Pedro II. progress and material prosperity
+made steady advancement in Brazil. Occasional political outbreaks
+occurred, but none of very serious nature except in Rio Grande do Sul,
+where a long guerrilla warfare was carried on against the imperial
+authority. The emperor occupied himself to a far greater extent with the
+economic development of his people and country than with active
+political life. Unostentatious in his habits, Dom Pedro always had at
+heart the true interests of the Brazilians. Himself a highly-educated
+man, he sincerely desired to further the cause of education, and devoted
+a large portion of his time to the study of this question. His extreme
+liberalism prevented his opposing the spread of Socialist doctrines
+preached far and wide by Benjamin Constant. Begun about 1880, this
+propaganda took deep root in the educated classes, creating a desire for
+change and culminating in the military conspiracy of November 1889, by
+which monarchy was replaced by a republican form of government.
+
+At first the revolutionary propaganda produced no personal animosity
+against the emperor, who continued to be treated by his people with
+every mark of respect and affection, but this state of things gradually
+changed. In 1864 the princess Isabella, the eldest daughter of the
+emperor and empress, had married the Comte d'Eu, a member of the Orleans
+family. The marriage was never popular in the country, owing partly to
+the fact that the Comte d'Eu was a reserved man who made few intimate
+friends and never attempted to become a favourite. Princess Isabella was
+charitable in many ways, always ready to take her full share of the
+duties falling upon her as the future empress, and thoroughly realizing
+the responsibilities of her position; but she was greatly influenced by
+the clerical party and the priesthood, and she thereby incurred the
+hostility of the Progressives. When Dom Pedro left Brazil for the
+purpose of making a tour through Europe and the United States he
+appointed Princess Isabella to act as regent, and she showed herself so
+swayed in political questions by Church influence that Liberal feeling
+became more and more anti-dynastic. Another incident which gave strength
+to the opposition was the sudden abolition of slavery without any
+compensation to slave-owners. The planters, the principal possessors of
+wealth, regarded the measure as unnecessary in view of the act which had
+been passed in 1885 providing for the gradual freeing of all slaves. The
+arguments used were, however, of no avail with the regent, and the
+decree was promulgated on the 13th of May 1888. No active opposition was
+offered to this measure, but the feelings of unrest and discontent
+spread rapidly.
+
+
+  Establishment of the Republic, 1889.
+
+Towards the close of 1888 the emperor returned and was received by the
+populace with every demonstration of affection and esteem. Even among
+the advocates of republicanism there was no intention of dethroning Dom
+Pedro, excepting a few extreme members of the party, now gained the
+upper hand. They argued that it would be much more difficult to carry
+out a successful coup _d'etat_ when the good-natured, confiding emperor
+had been succeeded by his more suspicious and energetic daughter.
+Discontented officers in the army and navy rallied to this idea, and a
+conspiracy was organized to depose the emperor and declare a republic.
+On the 14th of November 1889 the palace was quietly surrounded, and on
+the following morning the emperor and his family were placed on board
+ship and sent off to Portugal. A provisional government was then formed
+and a proclamation issued to the effect that the country would
+henceforth be known as the United States of Brazil, and that in due time
+a republican constitution would be framed. The only voice raised in
+protest was that of the minister of war, and he was shot at and severely
+wounded as a consequence. Dom Pedro, completely broken down by the
+ingratitude of the people whom he had loved so much and laboured for so
+strenuously, made no attempt at resistance. The republican government
+offered to compensate him for the property he had held in Brazil as
+emperor, but this proposal was declined. His private possessions were
+respected, and were afterwards still held by Princess Isabella.
+
+The citizen named as president of the provisional government, was
+General Deodoro da Fonseca, who owed his advancement to the personal
+friendship and assistance of Dom Pedro. Second in authority was placed
+General Floriano Peixoto, an officer also under heavy obligations to the
+deposed monarch, as indeed were nearly all of those who took active part
+in the conspiracy.
+
+
+  Brazil under the Republic.
+
+Though the overthrow of the imperial dynasty was totally unexpected
+throughout, the new regime was accepted without any disturbances. Under
+the leadership of General Deodoro da Fonseca a praetorian system of
+government, in which the military element was all-powerful, came into
+existence, and continued till February 1891, when a national congress
+assembled and formulated the constitution for the United States of
+Brazil. The former provinces were converted into states, the only right
+of the federal government to interfere in their administration being for
+the purposes of national defence, the maintenance of public order or the
+enforcement of the federal laws. The constitution of the United States
+of America was taken as a model for drawing up that of Brazil, and the
+general terms were as far as possible adhered to (see above, section
+_Government_).
+
+General da Fonseca and General Floriano Peixoto were elected to fill the
+offices of president and vice-president until the 15th of November 1894.
+This implied the continuance of praetorian methods of administration.
+The older class of more conservative Brazilians, who had formerly taken
+part in the administration under the emperor, withdrew altogether from
+public life. Many left Brazil and went into voluntary exile, while
+others retired to their estates. In the absence of these more
+respectable elements, the government fell into the hands of a gang of
+military adventurers and unscrupulous politicians, whose only object was
+to exploit the national resources for their own benefit. As a
+consequence, deep-rooted discontent rapidly arose. A conspiracy, of
+which Admiral Wandenkolk was the prime instigator, was discovered, and
+those who had taken part in it were banished to the distant state of
+Amazonas. Disturbances then broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, in
+consequence of disputes between the official party and the people living
+in the country districts. Under the leadership of Gumercindo Saraiva the
+country people broke into open revolt in September 1891. This outbreak
+was partially suppressed, but afterwards it again burst into flame with
+great vigour. In view of the discontent, conspiracies and revolutionary
+movements, President da Fonseca declared himself dictator. This act,
+however, met with such strong opposition that he resigned office on the
+23rd of November 1891, and Vice-President Floriano Peixoto assumed the
+presidency.
+
+Floriano Peixoto had been accustomed all his life to use harsh measures.
+For the first year of his term of office he kept seditious attempts in
+check, but discontent grew apace. Nor was this surprising to those who
+knew the corruption in the administration. Concessions and subsidies
+were given broadcast for worthless undertakings in order to benefit the
+friends of the president. Brazilian credit gave way under the strain,
+and evidences were not wanting at the beginning of 1893 that an outburst
+of public opinion was not far distant. Nevertheless President Peixoto
+made no effort to reform the methods of administration. Meanwhile, the
+revolution in Rio Grande do Sul had revived; and in July 1893 the
+federal government was forced to send most of the available regular
+troops to that state to hold the insurgents in check.
+
+
+  Naval revolt and civil war, 1893.
+
+On the 6th of September prevailing discontent took definite shape in the
+form of a naval revolt in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Admiral Custodio de
+Mello took command of the naval forces, and demanded the resignation of
+the president. General Peixoto replied by organizing a defence against
+any attack from the squadron. Admiral Mello, finding that his demands
+were not complied with, began a bombardment of the city, but did not
+effect his purpose of compelling Peixoto to resign. The foreign
+ministers then arranged a compromise between the contending parties,
+according to which President Peixoto was to place no artillery in the
+city, while Admiral Mello was to refrain from bombarding the town, which
+was thus saved from destruction. Shortly afterwards the cruiser
+"Republica" and a transport ran the gauntlet of the government forts at
+the entrance of the bay, and proceeded south to the province of Santa
+Catharina, taking possession of Desterro, its capital. A provisional
+government was proclaimed by the insurgents, with headquarters at
+Desterro, and communication was opened with Gumercindo Saraiva, the
+leader of the insurrection in Rio Grande do Sul. It was proposed that
+the army of some 10,000 men under his command should advance northwards
+towards Rio de Janeiro, while the insurgent squadron threatened the city
+of Rio. In November Admiral Mello left Rio de Janeiro in the armoured
+cruiser "Aquidaban" and went to Desterro, the naval forces in Rio Bay
+being left in charge of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, an ardent monarchist,
+who had thrown in his lot with the insurgent cause. All was, apparently,
+going well with the revolt, Saraiva having invaded the states of Santa
+Catharina and Parana, and defeated the government troops in several
+encounters. Meanwhile, President Peixoto had fortified the approaches
+to the city of Rio de Janeiro, bought vessels of war in Europe and the
+United States and organized the National Guard.
+
+Early in 1894 dissensions occurred between Saraiva and Mello, which
+prevented any advance of the insurgent forces, and allowed Peixoto to
+perfect his plans. Admiral da Gama, unable to leave the Bay of Rio de
+Janeiro on account of lack of transport for the sick and wounded and the
+civilians claiming his protection, could do no more than wait for
+Admiral Mello to return from Desterro. In the meantime the ships bought
+by President Peixoto arrived off Rio de Janeiro and prevented da Gama
+from escaping. On the 15th of March 1894 the rebel forces evacuated
+their positions on the islands of Villegaignon, Cobras and Enxadas,
+abandoned their vessels, and were received on board two Portuguese
+warships then in the harbour, whence they were conveyed to Montevideo.
+The action of the Portuguese commander was prompted by a desire to save
+life, for had the rebels fallen into the hands of Peixoto, they would
+assuredly have been executed.
+
+When the news of the surrender of Saldanha da Gama reached Gumercindo
+Saraiva, then at Curitiba in Parana, he proceeded to retire to Rio
+Grande do Sul. Government troops were despatched to intercept his
+retreat, and in one of the skirmishes which followed Saraiva was killed.
+The rebel army then dispersed. Admiral Mello made an unsuccessful attack
+on the town of Rio Grande, and then sailed to Buenos Aires, there
+surrendering the rebel squadron to the Argentine authorities, by whom it
+was immediately delivered to the Brazilian government. After six months
+of civil war peace was once more established, but there still remained
+some small rebel groups in Rio Grande do Sul. These were joined by
+Admiral da Gama and a number of the naval officers, who had escaped from
+Rio de Janeiro; but in June 1895 the admiral was killed in a fight with
+the government troops. After the cessation of hostilities, the greatest
+barbarities were practised upon those who, although they had taken no
+part in the insurrection, were known to have desired the overthrow of
+President Peixoto. The baron Cerro Azul was shot down without trial;
+Marshal de Gama Eza, an old imperial soldier of eighty years of age, was
+murdered in cold blood, and numerous executions of men of lesser note
+took place, among these being two Frenchmen for whose death the
+Brazilian government was subsequently called upon to pay heavy
+compensation.
+
+General Peixoto was succeeded as president on the 15th of November 1894
+by Dr Prudente de Moraes Barros. It was a moot question whether Peixoto,
+after the revolt was crushed, would not declare himself dictator;
+certainly many of his friends were anxious that he should follow this
+course, but he was broken down by the strain which had been imposed upon
+him and was glad to surrender his duties. He did not recover his health
+and died shortly afterwards.
+
+From the first day that he assumed office, President Moraes showed that
+he intended to suppress praetorian systems and reduce militarism to a
+minimum. This policy received the approval and sympathy of the majority
+of Brazilians, but naturally met with bitter opposition from the
+military element. The president gradually drew to him some members of
+the better conservative class to assist in his administration, and felt
+confident that he had the support of public opinion. Early in 1895
+murmurings and disorderly conduct against the authorities began to take
+place in the military school at Rio de Janeiro, which had always been a
+hotbed of intrigue. Some of the officers and students were promptly
+expelled, and the president closed the school for several months. This
+salutary lesson had due effect, and no more discontent was fomented from
+that quarter. Two great difficulties stood in the way of steering the
+country to prosperity. The first was the chaotic confusion of the
+finances resulting from the maladministration of the national resources
+since the deposition of Dom Pedro II., and the corruption that had crept
+into every branch of the public service. Much was done by President
+Moraes to correct abuses, but the task was of too herculean a nature to
+allow of accomplishment within the four years during which he was at
+the head of affairs. The second difficulty was the war waged by
+religious fanatics under the leadership of Antonio Maciel, known as
+"Conselheiro," against the constituted authorities of Brazil.
+
+The story of Conselheiro is a remarkable one. A native of Pernambuco,
+when a young man he married against the wishes of his mother, who took a
+violent dislike to the bride. Shortly after the marriage the mother
+assured her son that his wife held clandestine meetings with a lover,
+and stated that if he would go to a certain spot not far from the house
+that evening he would himself see that her assertion was true. The
+mother invented some plea to send the wife to the trysting-place, and
+then, dressing herself in male clothing, prepared to come suddenly on
+the scene as the lover, trusting to be able to make her escape before
+she was recognized. The three met almost simultaneously. Conselheiro,
+deeming his worst suspicions confirmed, shot and killed his wife and his
+mother before explanations could be offered. He was tried and allowed to
+go at liberty after some detention in prison. From that time Conselheiro
+was a victim of remorse, and to expiate his sin became a missionary in
+the _sertao_ or interior of Brazil among the wild Jagunco people. He
+built places of worship in many different districts, and at length
+became the recognized chief of the people among whom he had thus
+strangely cast his lot. Eventually he formed a settlement near Canudos,
+situated about 400 m. inland from Bahia. Difficulty arose between the
+governor of Bahia and this fanatical missionary, with the result that
+Conselheiro was ordered to leave the settlement and take away his
+people. This order was met with a sturdy refusal to move. Early in 1897
+a police force was sent to eject the settlers, but encountered strong
+resistance, and suffered heavy loss without being able to effect the
+purpose intended. In March 1897 a body of 1500 troops, with four guns,
+was despatched to bring the Jaguncoes to reason, but was totally
+defeated. An army comprising some 5000 officers and men was then sent to
+crush Conselheiro and his people at all costs. Little progress was made,
+the country being difficult of access and the Jaguncoes laying
+ambuscades at every available place. Finally strong reinforcements were
+sent forward, the minister of war himself proceeding to take command of
+the army, now numbering nearly 13,000 men. Canudos was besieged and
+captured in September 1897, Conselheiro being killed in the final
+assault. The expense of these expeditions was very heavy, and prevented
+President Moraes from carrying out many of the retrenchments he had
+planned.
+
+Soon after the Canudos affair a conspiracy was hatched to assassinate
+the president. He was watching the disembarkation of some troops when a
+shot was fired which narrowly missed him, and killed General Bitencourt,
+the minister of war. The actual perpetrator of the deed, a soldier, was
+tried and executed, but he was apparently ignorant of the persons who
+procured his services. Three other men implicated in the conspiracy were
+subsequently sentenced to imprisonment for a term of thirty years. The
+remainder of the presidency of Dr Moraes was uneventful; and on the 15th
+of November 1898 he was succeeded by Dr Campos Salles, who had
+previously been governor of the state of Sao Paulo. President Salles
+publicly promised political reform, economy in the administration, and
+absolute respect for civil rights, and speedily made efforts to fulfil
+these pledges.
+
+
+  Reform under President Campos Salles.
+
+The difficulties in the reorganization of the finances of the state,
+which Dr Campos Salles had to face on his accession to power, were very
+great. The heavy cost involved in the suppression of internal disorders,
+maladministration, and the hindrances placed in the way of economical
+development by the semi-independence of the federal states had seriously
+depreciated the national credit. The president-elect accordingly
+undertook with the full approval of Dr Moraes, who was still in office,
+the task of visiting Europe with the object of endeavouring to make an
+arrangement with the creditors of the state for a temporary suspension
+of payments. He was successful in his object, and an agreement was made
+by which bonds should be issued instead of interest payments from the
+1st of July 1898, the promise being given that every effort should be
+made for the resumption of cash payments in 1901. President Campos
+Salles entered upon his tenure of office on the 15th of November 1898,
+and at once proceeded to initiate fiscal legislation for the purpose of
+reducing expenditure and increasing the revenue. He had to face
+opposition from sectional interests and from the jealousy of
+interference with their rights on the part of provincial
+administrations, but he was able to achieve a considerable measure of
+success and to lay the foundation of a sounder system under which the
+financial position of the republic has made steady progress. The chief
+feature of the administration of Dr Campos Salles was the statesmanlike
+ability with which various disputes with foreign powers on boundary
+questions were seriously taken in hand and brought to a satisfactory and
+pacific settlement. There had for a long period been difficulties with
+France with regard to the territory which lay between the mouth of the
+Amazon and Cayenne or French Guiana. The language of various treatises
+was doubtful and ambiguous, largely owing to the ignorance of the
+diplomatists who drew up the articles of the exact geography of the
+territory in question. Napoleon had forced the Portuguese government to
+cede to him the northernmost arm of the mouth of the Amazon as the
+southern boundary of French Guiana with a large slice of the unexplored
+interior westwards. A few years later the Portuguese had in their turn
+conquered French Guiana, but had been compelled to restore it at the
+peace of Paris. The old ambiguity attaching to the interpretation of
+earlier treaties, however, remained, and in April 1899 the question by
+an agreement between the two states was referred to the arbitration of
+the president of the Swiss confederation. The decision was given in
+December 1900 and was entirely in favour of the Brazilian contention. A
+still more interesting boundary dispute was that between Great Britain
+and Brazil, as to the southern frontier line of British Guiana. The
+dispute was of very old standing, and the settlement by arbitration in
+1899 of the acute misunderstanding between Great Britain and Venezuela
+regarding the western boundary of British Guiana, and the reference to
+arbitration in that same year of the Franco-Brazilian dispute, led to an
+agreement being made in 1901 between Brazil and Great Britain for the
+submission of their differences to the arbitration of the king of Italy.
+The district in dispute was the site of the fabled Lake of Parima and
+the Golden City of Manoa, the search for which in the early days of
+European settlement attracted so many adventurous expeditions, and which
+fascinated the imagination of Raleigh and drew him to his doom. The
+question was a complicated one involving the historical survey of Dutch
+and Portuguese exploration and control in the far interior of Guiana
+during two centuries; and it was not until 1904 that the king of Italy
+gave his award, which was largely in favour of the British claim, and
+grants to British Guiana access to the northern affluents of the Amazon.
+Before this decision was given Senhor Rodrigues Alves had been elected
+president in 1902. Dr Campos Salles had signalized his administration,
+not only by the settlement of disputes with European powers, but by
+efforts to arrive at a good understanding with the neighbouring South
+American republics. In July 1899 President Roca had visited Rio de
+Janeiro accompanied by an Argentine squadron, this being the first
+official visit that any South American president had ever paid to one of
+the adjoining states. In October 1900 Dr Campos Salles returned the
+visit and met with an excellent reception at Buenos Aires. The result
+was of importance, as it was known that Brazil was on friendly terms
+with Chile, and this interchange of courtesies had some effect in
+bringing about a settlement of the controversy between Chile and
+Argentina over the Andean frontier question without recourse to
+hostilities. This was indeed a time when questions concerning boundaries
+were springing up on every side, for it was only through the moderation
+with which the high-handed action of Bolivia in regard to the Acre
+rubber-producing territory was met by the Brazilian government that war
+was avoided. Negotiations were set on foot, and finally by treating the
+matter in a give-and-take spirit a settlement was reached and a treaty
+for an amicable exchange of territories in the district in question,
+accompanied by a pecuniary indemnity, was signed by President Alves at
+Petropolis on the 17th of November 1903. During the remainder of the
+term of this president internal and financial progress were undisturbed
+save by an outbreak in 1904 in the Cunani district, the very portion of
+disputed territory which had been assigned to Brazil by the arbitration
+with France. This province, being difficult of access, was able for a
+time to assert a practical independence. In 1906 Dr Affonso Penna, three
+times minister under Pedro II., and at that time governor of the state
+of Minas-Geraes, of which he had founded the new capital, Bello
+Horizonte, was elected president, a choice due to a coalition of the
+other states against Sao Paulo, to which all the recent presidents had
+belonged. Penna's presidency was distinguished by his successful efforts
+to place the finances on a sound basis. He died in office on the 14th of
+June 1909.     (K. J.; C. E. A.; G. E.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--History: Capistrano de Abreu, _Descobrimento do Brazil
+  e seu desenvolvimento no seculo xix_. (Rio de Janeiro, 1883); John
+  Armitage, _History of Brazil from 1808 to 1831_ (2 vols., London,
+  1836); Moreira de Azevedo, _Historia do Brazil de 1831 a 1840_ (Rio de
+  Janeiro, 1841); V.L. Basil, _L'Empire du Bresil_ (Paris, 1862); Caspar
+  Barlaeus, _Rerun per octennium in Brasilia ... sub praefectura
+  Mauritii Nassovii... historia_ (Amsterdam, 1647); F.S. Constancio,
+  _Historia do Brazil_ (Pernambuco, 1843); Anfonso Fialho, _Historia
+  d'estabelecimento da republica "Estados Unidos do Brazil"_ (Rio de
+  Janeiro 1890); P. Gaffarel, _Histoire du Bresil francais_ (Paris,
+  1878); E. Grosse, _Dom Pedro I._ (Leipzig, 1836); E. Levasseur,
+  _L'Abolition de I'esclavage en Bresil_ (Paris, 1888); J.M. de Macedo,
+  _Anno biographico brazileiro_ (3 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1876); A.J.
+  Mello Moraes, _Brazil historico_ (4 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1839);
+  _Chorographia historica, chronographica genealogica, nobiliaria e
+  politica do Brazil_ (5 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1858-1863); _A
+  Independencia e o imperio do Brazil_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); B. Mosse,
+  _Dom Pedro II., empereur du Bresil_ (Paris, 1889); P. Netscher, _Les
+  Hollandais au Bresil_ (Hague, 1853); J.M. Pereira da Silva, _Varoes
+  illustres do Brazil_ (2 vols., Paris, 1888); _Historia da fundacao do
+  imperio brazileiro_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); _Segundo Periodo do
+  reinado de D. Pedro I._ (Paris, 1875); _Historia do Brazil de 1831 a
+  1840_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1888); J.P. Oliveira Martins, _O Brazil e as
+  colonias Portuguezas_ (Lisbon, 1888); S. da Rocha Pitta, _Historia da
+  America Portugueza_ (Lisbon, 1730); C. da Silva. _L'Oyapock et
+  I'Amazone_ (2 vols., Paris, 1861); R. Southey, _History of Brazil_ (3
+  vols., London, 1810-1819); J.B. Spix and C.F. von Martius, _Reise in
+  Brasilien_, 1817-1820 (3 parts, Munich, 1823-1831); F.A. de Varnhagen,
+  _Historia geral do Brazil_ (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877); _Historia
+  das luctas com os Hollandeses_ (Vienna, 187:); C.E. Akers, _Hist. of
+  South America, 1854-1904_ (1904); the _Revista trimensal do Instituto
+  Historico e Geographico do Brazil_ (1839-1908), one or two volumes
+  annually, is a storehouse of papers, studies and original documents
+  bearing on the history of Brazil.
+
+  Geography, &c.: Elisee Reclus, _Universal Geography_ (1875-1894), vol.
+  xix. pp. 77-291; J.E. Wappaus, _Geographica physica do Brazil_ (Rio de
+  Janeiro, 1884); A. Moreira Pinto, _Chorographia do Brazil_ (5th ed.,
+  Rip de Janeiro, 1895); Therese Prinzessin von Bayern, _Meine Reise
+  indenbrasilianischen Tropen_ (Berlin, 1897); M. Lamberg, _Brasilien,
+  Land und Leute_ (Leipzig, 1899); L. Hutchinson, _Report_ on Trade in
+  Brazil (Washington, 1906); F. Katzer, _Grundzuge der Geologie des
+  unteren Amazonegebietes_ (Leipzig, 1903); J.C. Branner, _A
+  Bibliography of the Geology, Mineralogy and Paleontology of Brazil_
+  (Rio de Janeiro, 1903); J.W. Evans, "The Rocks of the Cataracts of the
+  River Madeira and the adjoining Portions of the Beni and Mamore,"
+  _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, London, vol. lxii., 1906, pp. 88-124, pl.
+  v.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The areas are reduced from the planimetrical calculations made at
+    Gotha and used by A. Supan in _Die Bevolkerung der Erde_ (1904). They
+    are corrected to cover all boundary changes to 1906.
+
+  [2] The census of 1890 is the last one of which complete returns are
+    published. That of 1900 was notoriously inaccurate in many instances.
+
+  [3] The census returns are for municipalities, and not for cities
+    proper. As a municipality covers a large extent of country, the
+    population given is larger than that of the urban parishes, and is
+    therefore not strictly correct according to European practice.
+
+  [4] The Brazilian official titles are given for the state capitals:
+    Belem for Para; Sao Luiz for Maranhao; Sao Salvador for Bahia; and
+    Recife for Pernambuco.
+
+  [5] The capital of Minas Geraes in 1890 was Ouro Preto; it has since
+    been transferred to Bello Horizonte, or Cidade de Minas, which has an
+    estimated population of 25,000.
+
+  [6] Since the naval revolt of 1893-1894 the name of the capital of
+    Santa Catharina has been changed from Desterro to Florianopolis in
+    honour of President Floriano Peixoto.
+
+  [7] The "bran" exported is from imported wheat and cannot be
+    considered a national product.
+
+  [8] The "old metals" consist of old iron, brass, &c., derived from
+    railway material, machinery, &c., all imported, and should not be
+    considered a Brazilian product.
+
+    The "sundry products" would probably be included in the four general
+    classes were the items given.
+
+  [9] Previous to 1907 these two departments were united in one under
+    the designation of "Industry, Communications and Public Works." The
+    division was decreed December 29, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL, a city and the county-seat of Clay county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
+situated in the west central part of the state, about 16 m. E. of Terre
+Haute and about 57 m. W.S.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 5905; (1900)
+7786 (723 foreign-born); (1910) 9340. It is served by the Central
+Indiana, the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, the Evansville & Indianapolis
+and the Vandalia railways, and is connected with Indianapolis, Terre
+Haute and other cities by an interurban electric line. The principal
+business thoroughfare is part of the old National Road. Brazil's chief
+industrial importance is due to its situation in the heart of the
+"Brazil block" coal (so named because it naturally breaks into almost
+perfect rectangular blocks) and clay and shale region; among its
+manufactures are mining machinery and tools, boilers, paving and
+enamelled building bricks, hollow bricks, tiles, conduits, sewer-pipe
+and pottery. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. The
+first settlement here was in 1844; and Brazil was incorporated as a town
+in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL NUTS, the seeds of _Bertholletia excelsa_, a gigantic tree
+belonging to the natural order Lecythidaceae, which grows in the valleys
+of the Amazons and generally throughout tropical America. The tree
+attains an average height of 130 ft., having a smooth cylindrical trunk,
+with a diameter of 14 ft. 50 ft. from the ground, and branching at a
+height of about 100 ft. The lower portion of the trunk presents a
+buttressed aspect, owing to the upward extension of the roots in the
+form of thin prop-like walls surrounding the stem. The fruit of the tree
+is globular, with a diameter of 5 or 6 in., and consists of a thick hard
+woody shell, within which are closely packed the seeds which constitute
+the so-called nuts of commerce. The seeds are triangular in form, having
+a hard woody testa enclosing the "kernel"; and of these each fruit
+contains from eighteen to twenty-five. The fruits as they ripen fall
+from their lofty position, and they are at the proper season annually
+collected and broken open by the Indians. Brazil nuts are largely eaten;
+they also yield in the proportion of about 9 oz. to each lb. of kernels
+a fine bland fluid oil, highly valued for use in cookery, and used by
+watchmakers and artists.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL WOOD, a dye wood of commercial importance, obtained from the West
+Indies and South America, belonging to the genera _Caesalpinia_ and
+_Peltophorum_ of the natural order Leguminosae. There are several woods
+of the kind, commercially distinguished as Brazil wood, Nicaragua or
+Peach wood, Pernambuco wood and Lima wood, each of which has a different
+commercial value, although the tinctorial principle they yield is
+similar. Commercial Brazil wood is imported for the use of dyers in
+billets of large size, and is a dense compact wood of a reddish brown
+colour, rather bright when freshly cut, but becoming dull on exposure.
+The colouring-matter of Brazil wood, brazilin, C16H14O5, crystallizes
+with 1-1/2 H2O, and is freely soluble in water; it is extracted for use by
+simple infusion or decoction of the coarsely-powdered wood. When freshly
+prepared the extract is of a yellowish tint; but by contact with the
+air, or the addition of an alkaline solution, it develops a brick-red
+colour. This is due to the formation of brazilein, C16H12O5.H2O, which
+is the colouring matter used by the dyer. Brazilin crystallizes in
+hexagonal amber yellow crystals, which are soluble in water and alcohol.
+The solution when free of oxygen is colourless, but on the access of air
+it assumes first a yellow and thereafter a reddish yellow colour. With
+soda-ley it takes a brilliant deep carmine tint, which colour may be
+discharged by heating in a closed vessel with zinc dust, in which
+condition, the solution is excessively sensitive to oxygen, the
+slightest exposure to air immediately giving a deep carmine. With tin
+mordants Brazil wood gives brilliant but fugitive steam reds in
+calico-printing; but on account of the loose nature of its dyes it is
+seldom used except as an adjunct to other colours. It is used to form
+lakes which are employed in tinting papers, staining paper-hangings, and
+for various other decorative purposes.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZING AND SOLDERING, in metal work, termed respectively hard and soft
+soldering, are processes which correspond with soldering done at high
+and at low temperatures. The first embraces jointing effected with
+soldering mixtures into which copper, brass, or silver largely enter,
+the second those in which lead and tin are the only, or the principal,
+constituents. Some metals, as aluminium and cast iron, are less easily
+soldered than others. Aluminium, owing to its high conductivity, removes
+the heat from the solder rapidly. Aluminium enters into the composition
+of most of the solders for these metals, and the "soldering bit" is of
+pure nickel.
+
+The hard solders are the spelter and the silver solders. Soft spelter
+solder is composed of equal parts of copper and zinc, melted and
+granulated and passed through a sieve. As some of the zinc volatilizes
+the ultimate proportions are not quite equal. The proportion of zinc is
+increased if the solder is required to be softer or more fusible. A
+valuable property of the zinc is that its volatilization indicates the
+fusing of the solder. Silver solder is used for jewelry and other fine
+metal work, arid has the advantage of high fusing points. The hardest
+contains from 4 parts of silver to 1 of copper; the softest 2 of silver
+to 1 of brass wire. Borax is the flux used, with silver solder as with
+spelter.
+
+The soft solders are composed mainly of tin and lead. They occur in a
+large range. Common tinner's solder is composed of equal parts of tin
+and lead, and melts at 370 deg. Fah. Plumber's solder has 2 of lead to 1
+of tin. Excess of lead in plumber's solder renders the solder difficult
+to work, excess of tin allows it to melt too easily. Pewterers add
+bismuth to render the solder more fusible, e.g. lead 4, tin 3, bismuth
+2; or lead 1, tin 2, bismuth 1. Unless these are cooled quickly the
+bismuth separates out.
+
+The essentials of a soldered joint are the contact of absolutely clean
+surfaces, free from oxide and dirt. The surfaces are therefore scraped,
+filed and otherwise treated, and then, in order to cleanse and preserve
+them from any trace of oxide which might form during subsequent
+manipulation, a fluxing material is used. The soldering material is
+compelled to follow the areas prepared for it by the flux, and it will
+not adhere anywhere else. There is much similarity between soldering and
+welding in this respect. A weld joint must as a rule be fluxed, or metal
+will not adhere to metal. There is not, however, the absolute need for
+fluxing that there is in soldered joints, and many welds in good fibrous
+iron are made without a flux. But the explanation here is that the metal
+is brought to a temperature of semifusion, and the shapes of joints are
+generally such that particles of scale are squeezed out from between the
+joint in the act of closing the weld. But in brazing and soldering the
+parts to be united are generally nearly cold, and only the soldering
+material is fused, so that the conditions are less favourable to the
+removal of oxide than in welding processes.
+
+Fluxes are either liquid or solid, but the latter are not efficient
+until they fuse and cover the surfaces to be united. Hydrochloric acid
+(spirits of salts) is the one used chiefly for soft soldering. It is
+"killed" by the addition of a little zinc, the resulting chloride of
+zinc rendering its action quiet. Common fluxes are powdered resin, and
+tallow (used chiefly by plumbers for wiped joints). These, with others,
+are employed for soft solder joints, the temperature of which rarely
+exceeds about 600 deg. Fah. The best flux for zinc is chloride of zinc.
+For brazed joints, spelter or powdered brass is employed, and the flux
+is usually borax. The borax will not cover the joint until it has been
+deprived of its water of crystallization, and this is effected by
+raising it to a full red heat, when it swells in bulk, "boils," and
+afterwards sinks quietly and spreads over, or into the joint. There are
+differences in details of working. The borax is generally powdered and
+mixed with the spelter, and both with water. But sometimes they are
+applied separately, the borax first and over this the particles of
+spelter. Another flux used for copper is sal ammoniac, either alone or
+mixed with powdered resin.
+
+As brazed joints often have to be very strong, other precautions are
+frequently taken beyond that of the mere overlapping of the joint edges.
+In pipes subjected to high steam pressures, and articles subjected to
+severe stresses, the joints are "cramped" before the solder is applied.
+That is, the edges are notched in a manner having somewhat the
+appearance of the dovetails of the carpenter; the notched portions
+overlap the opposite edges, and on alternate sides. Such joints when
+brazed are stronger than plain overlapping joints would be. Steam dome
+coverings are jointed thus longitudinally as cylinders, and the crown is
+jointed thereto, also by cramping. Another common method of union is
+that of flanges to copper pipes. In these the pipe passes freely within
+a hole bored right through the flange, and the solder is run between.
+The pipe is suspended vertically, flange downwards, and the spelter run
+in from the back of the flange. The fused borax works its way in by
+capillary action, and the spelter follows.
+
+The "copper bit" is used in soft soldering. Its end is a prismatic
+pyramid of copper, riveted to an iron shank in a wooden handle. It is
+made hot, and the contained heat is sufficient to melt the solder. It
+has to be "tinned," by being heated to a dull red, filed, rubbed with
+sal ammoniac, and then rubbed upon the solder. It is wiped with tow
+before use. For small brazed work the blow-pipe is commonly employed;
+large works are done on the brazier's hearth, or in any clear coke fire.
+If coal is used it must be kept away from the joint.
+
+In "sweating on," a variation in soldering, the surfaces to be united
+are cleaned, and solder melted and spread over them. They are then
+brought together, and the temperature raised sufficiently to melt the
+solder.
+
+A detail of first importance is the essential difference between the
+melting points of the objects to be brazed or soldered, and that of the
+solder used. The latter must always be lower than the former. This
+explains why soldering materials are used in a large range of
+temperatures. A few will melt at the temperature of boiling water. At
+the other extreme 2000 deg. Fah. is required to melt a solder for
+brazing. If this point is neglected, it will often happen that the
+object to be soldered will fuse before the solder melts. This accident
+may occur in the soft Britannia and white metals at the one extreme, and
+in the softer brasses at the other. It would not do, for example, to use
+flanges of common brass, or even ordinary gun-metal, to be brazed to
+copper pipe, for they would begin to fuse before the joint was made.
+Such flanges must be made of nearly pure copper, to withstand the
+temperature, usually 98 of copper to 2 of tin (brazing metal). A most
+valuable feature in solder is that by varying the proportions of the
+metals used a great range in hardness and fusibility is obtainable. The
+useful solders therefore number many scores. This is also a source of
+danger, unless regard be had to the relative fusing points of solders,
+and of the parts they unite.     (J. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL FRANCOIS CAMILLE SAVORGNAN DE, COUNT (1852-1905),
+French explorer and administrator, founder of French Congo, was born on
+board ship in the harbour of Rio de Janeiro on the 26th of January 1852.
+He was of Italian parentage, the family name being de Brazza Savorgnani.
+Through the instrumentality of the astronomer Secchi he was sent to the
+Jesuit college in Paris, and in 1868 obtained authorization to enter as
+a foreigner the marine college at Brest. In the Franco-Prussian War of
+1870-71 he took part in the operations of the French fleet. In 1874 when
+the warship on which he was serving was in the Gabun, Alfred Marche and
+the marquis de Compiegne arrived at Libreville from an expedition in the
+lower Ogowe district. Interested in the reports of these travellers, de
+Brazza conceived the idea of exploring the Ogowe, which he thought might
+prove to be the lower course of the Lualaba, a river then recently
+discovered by David Livingstone. Having meantime been naturalized as a
+Frenchman, de Brazza in 1875 obtained permission to undertake his
+African scheme, and with the naval doctor, Noel Ballay, he explored the
+Ogowe river. Penetrating beyond the basin of that river, he discovered
+the Alima and Likona, but did not descend either stream. Thence turning
+northwards the travellers eventually regained the coast at the end of
+November 1878, having left Paris in August 1875. On arrival in Paris, de
+Brazza learned of the navigation of the Congo by H.M. Stanley, and
+recognized that the rivers he had discovered were affluents of that
+stream.
+
+De Brazza was anxious to obtain for France some part of the Congo. The
+French ministry, however, determined to utilize his energies in another
+quarter of Africa. Their attention had been drawn to the Niger through
+the formation of the United African Company by Sir George Goldie (then
+Mr Goldie Taubman) in July 1879, Goldie's object being to secure Nigeria
+for Great Britain. A new expedition was fitted out, and de Brazza left
+Paris at the end of 1879 with orders to go to the Niger, make treaties,
+and plant French flags. When on the point of sailing; from Lisbon he
+received a telegram cancelling these instructions, and altering his
+destination to the Congo. This was a decision of great moment. Had the
+Nigerian policy of France been maintained the International African
+Association (afterwards the Congo Free State) would have had a clear
+field on the Congo, while the young British Company would have been
+crushed out by French opposition; so that the two great basins of the
+Niger and the Congo would have had a vastly different history.
+
+Acting on his new instructions, de Brazza, who was again accompanied by
+Ballay, reached the Gabun early in 1880. Rapidly ascending the Ogowe he
+founded the station of Franceville on the upper waters of that river and
+pushed on to the Congo at Stanley Pool, where Brazzaville was
+subsequently founded. With Makoko, chief of the Bateke tribe, de Brazza
+concluded treaties in September and October 1880, placing the country
+under French protection. With these treaties in his possession Brazza
+proceeded down the Congo, and at Isangila on the 7th of November met
+Stanley, who was working his way up stream concluding treaties with the
+chiefs on behalf of the International African Association. De Brazza
+spent the next eighteen months exploring the hinterland of the Gabun,
+and returned to France in June 1882. The ratification by the French
+chambers in the following November of the treaties with Makoko
+(described by Stanley as worthless pieces of paper) committed France to
+the action of her agent.
+
+Furnished with funds by the French government, de Brazza returned in
+1883 to the Congo to open up the new colony, of which he was named
+commissioner-general in 1886. This post he held until January 1898, when
+he was recalled. During his period of office the work of exploration was
+systematically carried out by numerous expeditions which he organized.
+The incessant demands on the resources of the infant colony for these
+and other expeditions to the far interior greatly retarded its progress.
+De Brazza's administration was severely criticized; but that its
+comparative failure was largely due to inadequate support from the home
+authorities was recognized in the grant to him in 1902 of a pension by
+the chambers. Both as explorer and administrator his dealings with the
+natives were marked by consideration, kindness and patience, and he
+earned the title of "Father of the Slaves." His efforts to connect the
+upper Congo with the Atlantic by a railway through French territory
+showed that he understood the chief economic needs of the colony. After
+seven years of retirement in France de Brazza accepted, in February
+1905, a mission to investigate charges of cruelty to natives brought
+against officials of the Congo colony. Having concluded his inquiry he
+sailed for France, but died at Dakar, Senegal, on the 4th of September
+1905. His body was taken to Paris for burial, but in 1908 was reinterred
+at Algiers.
+
+  See D. Neuville et Ch. Breard, _Les Voyages de Savorgnan de Brazza,
+  Ogooue et Congo, 1875-1882_ (Paris, 1884), and _Conferences et lettres
+  de P. Savorgnan de Brazza sur ses trois explorations dans l'ouest
+  africain de 1875 a 1886_ (Paris, 1887); A.J. Wauters, "Savorgnan de
+  Brazza et la conquete du Congo francais," in _Le Mouvement
+  geographique_, vol. xxii., No. 39 (Brussels, 1905). Giacomo or Jacques
+  de Brazza (1859-1883), a younger brother of Savorgnan, and one of the
+  men he employed in the work of exploration, published in collaboration
+  with his companion A. Pecile, _Tre Anni e mezzo nella regione del
+  Congo e dell' Ogowe_ (Rome, 1887).     (G. T. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BRAZZA (Serbo-Croatian, _Brac;_ Lat. _Brattia_), an island in the
+Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) 24,408.
+With an area of 170 sq. m. Brazza is the largest of the Dalmatian
+Islands; it is also the most thickly populated, and one of the most
+fertile. Its closely cultivated surface though ragged and mountainous
+yields an abundance of olives, figs, almonds and saffron, while its
+wines are of good quality. The corn-crop, however, barely suffices for
+three months' food. Other local industries are fishing and
+silkworm-rearing. The most important among twenty small villages on the
+island is Milna (pop. 2579), a steamship station, provided with
+shipwrights' wharves. The early history of Brazza is obscure. In the
+first years of the 13th century it was ruled by the piratical counts of
+Almissa; but after a successful revolt and a brief period of liberty it
+came under the dominion of Hungary. From 1413 to 1416 it was subject to
+Ragusa; and in 1420 it passed, with the greater part of Dalmatia, under
+Venetian sovereignty.
+
+
+
+
+BREACH (Mid. Eng. _breche_, derived from the common Teutonic root
+_brec_, which appears in "break," Ger. _brechen_, &c.), in general, a
+breaking, or an opening made by breaking; in law, the infringement of a
+right or the violation of an obligation or duty. The word is used in
+various phrases: _breach of close_, the unlawful entry upon another
+person's land (see TRESPASS); _breach of covenant or contract_, the
+non-fulfilment of an agreement either to do or not to do some act (see
+DAMAGES); _breach of the peace_, a disturbance of the public order (see
+PEACE, BREACH OF); _breach of pound_, the taking by force out of a pound
+things lawfully impounded (see POUND); _breach of promise of marriage_,
+the non-fulfilment of a contract mutually entered into by a man and a
+woman that they will marry each other (see MARRIAGE); _breach of trust_,
+any deviation by a trustee from the duty imposed upon him by the
+instrument creating the trust (_q.v_.).
+
+
+
+
+BREAD, the name given to the staple food-product prepared by the baking
+of flour. The word itself, O. Eng. _bread_, is common in various forms
+to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Brot_, Dutch, _brood_, and Swed.
+and Dan. _brot_; it has been derived from the root of "brew," but more
+probably is connected with the root of "break," for its early uses are
+confined to "broken pieces, or bits" of bread, the Lat. _frustum_, and
+it was not till the 12th century that it took the place, as the generic
+name of bread, of _hlaf_, "loaf," which appears to be the oldest
+Teutonic name, cf. Old High Ger. _hleib_, and modern Ger. _Laib_.
+
+_History._--Bread-baking, or at any rate the preparation of cakes from
+flour or parched grain by means of heat, is one of the most ancient of
+human arts. At Wangen and Robenhausen have been found the calcined
+remains of cakes made from coarsely-ground grain in Swiss lake-dwellings
+that date back to the Stone Age. The cakes were made of different kinds
+of grain, barley and one-grained wheat (_Triticum monococcum_) being
+among the ingredients. This bread was made, not from fine meal, but from
+grain crushed between some hard surfaces, and in these lake-dwellings
+many round-shaped stones have been found, which were evidently used for
+pounding or crushing grain against the surface, more or less concave, of
+another stone (see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE). Perhaps the earliest
+form of bread, if that word may be used, was prepared from acorns and
+beech nuts. To this day a sort of cake prepared from crushed acorns is
+eaten by the Indians of the Pacific slopes. The flour extracted from
+acorns is bitter and unfit to eat till it has been thoroughly soaked in
+boiling water. The saturated flour is squeezed into a kind of cake and
+dried in the sun. Pliny speaks of a similar crude process in connexion
+with wheat; the grain was evidently pounded, and the crushed remnant,
+soaked into a sort of pulp, then made into a cake and dried in the sun.
+Virgil (_Georgics_, i. 267) refers to the husbandman first torrefying
+and then crushing his grain between stones:--"_Nunc torrete igni fruges,
+nunc frangite saxo._"
+
+The question naturally arises, how did the lake-dwellers bake their
+cakes of bruised grain? Probably the dough was laid on a flat or
+convex-shaped stone, which was heated, while the cake was covered with
+hot ashes. Stones have been found among prehistoric remains which were
+apparently used for this purpose. In ancient Egyptian tombs cakes of
+durra have been found, of concave shape, suggesting the use of such
+baking-slabs; here the cake was evidently prepared from coarsely-cracked
+grain. In primitive times milling and baking were twin arts. The
+housewife, and the daughters or handmaids, crushed or ground the grain
+and prepared the bread or cakes. When Abraham entertained the angels
+unawares (Genesis xviii.) he bade his wife Sarah "make ready quickly
+three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth."
+Professor Maspero says that an oven for baking bread was to be found in
+the courtyard of every house in Chaldaea; close by were kept the
+grinding stones. That bread prepared by means of leaven was known in the
+days of the patriarchs may be fairly inferred from the passage in
+Genesis ML, where it is said of Lot that he "made a feast, and did bake
+unleavened bread." Whether the shew-bread of the Jewish tabernacle was
+leavened is an open question, but it is significant that the Passover
+cakes eaten by Jews to-day, known as Matzos, are innocent of leaven.
+Made from flour and water only, they are about 12 in. in diameter, and
+have somewhat the look of water biscuits.
+
+The ancient Egyptians carried the art of baking to high perfection.
+Herodotus remarks of them, "dough they knead with their feet, but clay
+with their hands." The practice of using the feet for dough kneading,
+however repulsive, long persisted in Scotland, if indeed it is yet
+defunct. The Egyptians used for their bread, wheat, spelt, barley and
+durra (sorghum). In the opinion of Dr Wallis Budge, barley was in Egypt
+the grain of most primitive culture. However that may be, it is certain
+that even in ancient Egypt white bread made from wheat was used by the
+rich. The form of the bread is revealed by ancient monuments. A common
+shape was a small, round loaf, something like the muffin of to-day.
+Other loaves were elongated rolls, and curiously enough were sprinkled
+on the top with seeds like modern Vienna bread.
+
+The history of baking in classical Greece and Italy can be clearly
+traced. Athenaeus in his _Deipnosophists_ minutely describes many
+different kinds of bread, which may be assumed to have been currently
+used in Greece. According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist_, xviii. II. S 28) Rome
+had no public bakers till after the war with Perseus (171-168 B.C.).
+That long after public bakehouses came into use the Romans and other
+urban dwellers in Italy continued to make a great deal of bread at home
+is certain. In Pompeii several private houses had their own mill and
+bakehouse. That city must also have possessed bakers by trade, as loaves
+of bread have been found, round in form, and stamped with the maker's
+name, possibly to fix responsibility for weight and purity. In the time
+of the Republic, public bakehouses were under the control of the
+aediles. Grain was delivered to the public granaries by the _Saccarii_,
+while another body called _Catabolenses_ distributed the grain to the
+bakers. The latter were known as _Pistores_ or "pounders," a
+reminiscence no doubt of the primitive time when grain was pounded by a
+pestle in a mortar. Slaves were largely employed in the irksome work of
+grinding, and when Constantine abolished slavery the staff of the
+_pistrinae_ was largely recruited from criminals. The emperor Trajan
+incorporated about A.D. 100 the college of _Pistores_ (millers and
+bakers), but its members were employers, not operatives. The work of a
+bakery is depicted in a set of bas-reliefs on the tomb of a master
+Pistor named Eurysaces, who flourished about a century before the
+foundation of the college. Here the grain is being brought and paid for;
+mills driven by horse and ass (or mule) power are busy; men are sieving
+out the bran from the flour by hand (bolters); bakers are moulding
+loaves on a board; an oven of domelike shape is being charged by means
+of a shovel (peel); and baskets of bread are being weighed on the one
+hand and carried off on men's backs on the other.
+
+_Regulation of Sale._--In the middle ages bakers were subjected to
+special regulations in all European lands. These regulations were
+supposed to be conceived in the interests of bread consumers, and no
+doubt were intended to secure fair dealing on the part of bread vendors.
+The legislators appear, however, to have been unduly biased against the
+baker, who was often beset by harassing restrictions. Bakers were formed
+into gilds, which were under the control, not only of their own
+officials, but of the municipality. In London the bakers formed a
+brotherhood as early as 1155, and were incorporated in 1307. There were
+two distinct corporate bodies concerned with bread-making, the Company
+of White Bakers and the Company of Brown Bakers; these were nominally
+united in 1509, but the union did not become complete till the middle of
+the 17th century. In Austria, bakers who offended against police
+regulations respecting the sale of bread were liable, until
+comparatively recent times, to fine, imprisonment and even corporal
+punishment. In Turkey the lot of the baker was very hard. Baron de Tott,
+writing of Constantinople in the 18th century, says that it was usual,
+when bread went to famine prices, to hang a baker or two. He would have
+us believe that it was the custom of master bakers to keep a second
+hand, who, in consideration of a small increase of his weekly wage, was
+willing to appear before the cadi in case a victim were wanted. A
+barbarous punishment, inflicted in Turkey and in Egypt on bakers who
+sold light or adulterated bread, consisted in nailing the culprit by his
+ear to the door-post of his shop. In France a decree of 1863 relieved
+bakers from many of the restrictions under which they previously
+suffered, but it did not touch the powers of the municipalities to
+regulate the quality and sale of bread. It left them the right conferred
+in 1791, to enforce the _taxe du pain_, the object of which was to
+prevent bakers from increasing the price of bread beyond a point
+justified by the price of the raw materials; but the right was exercised
+on their own responsibility, subject to appeal to higher authorities,
+and by a circular issued in 1863 they were invited to abolish this _taxe
+officielle_. In places where it exists it is fixed every week or
+fortnight, according to the average price of grain in the local markets.
+
+In England an act of parliament was passed in 1266 for regulating the
+price of bread by a public assize, and that system continued in
+operation till 1822 in the case of the city of London, and till 1836 for
+the rest of the country. The price of bread was determined by adding a
+certain sum to the price of every quarter of flour, to cover the baker's
+expenses and profit; and for the sum so arrived at tradesmen were
+required to bake and sell eighty quartern loaves or a like proportion of
+other sizes, which it was reckoned each quarter of flour ought to yield.
+The acts now regulating the manufacture and sale of bread in Great
+Britain are one of 1822 (Sale of Bread in the City of London and within
+10 m. of the Royal Exchange), and the Bread Act of 1836, as to sale of
+bread beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange. The acts require that bread
+shall be sold by weight, and in no other manner, under a penalty not
+exceeding forty shillings. This does not, however, mean that a seller is
+bound to sell at any particular weight; the words quartern and
+half-quartern, though commonly used and taken to indicate a 4-lb. and
+2-lb. loaf respectively, have no legal sanction. That is to say, a baker
+is not bound to sell a loaf weighing either 4 lb. or 2; all he has to
+do, when a customer asks for a loaf, is to put one on the scale, weigh
+it, and declare the weight. When bread is sold over the counter it is
+usual for the vendor to cut off and tender a piece of bread to make up
+any deficiency in the loaf. This is known as the "overweight." There is
+little doubt the somewhat misty wording of the bread acts lends itself
+to a good deal of fraudulent dealing. For instance, when bread is sold
+over the counter, two loaves may be 5 or 6 oz. short, while the piece of
+makeweight may not reach an ounce. The customer sees the bread put on
+the scale, but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred does not trouble to
+verify the weight, and unless he expressly asks for 2 lb. or some
+specific weight of bread, it is very doubtful whether the seller, having
+satisfied the letter of the law by placing the bread on the scales,
+could be convicted of fraud. The provision as to selling by weight does
+not apply to fancy bread and rolls. No exact definition of "fancy bread"
+has ever been laid down, and it must be largely a question of fact in
+each particular case. All bakers or sellers of bread must use
+avoirdupois weight, and must provide, in a conspicuous place in the
+shop, beams, scales and weights, in order that all bread there sold may
+from time to time be weighed in the presence of the purchaser. The
+penalty for using any other weight than avoirdupois is a sum not
+exceeding L5 nor less than forty shillings, and for failing to provide
+beams and scales a sum not exceeding L5. Also every baker and seller of
+bread, delivering by cart or other conveyance, must be provided with
+scales and weights for weighing bread; but since the Weights and
+Measures Act 1889, no penalty is incurred by omission to weigh, unless
+there has been a request on the part of the purchaser. The acts also
+define precisely what ingredients may be employed in the manufacture of
+bread, and impose a penalty not exceeding L10 nor less than L5 for the
+adulteration of bread. (See further under ADULTERATION.)
+
+Although the act of 1836 extends to the whole of the United Kingdom
+(Ireland excepted) out of the city of London and beyond 10 m. of the
+Royal Exchange, yet in many Scottish burghs this act is replaced by
+local acts on the sale of bread. These are in all cases of a much more
+stringent nature, requiring all batch or household bread to be stamped
+with the reputed weight. Any deficiency within a certain time from the
+withdrawal of the bread from the oven is an offence. The London County
+Council desired to introduce a similar system into the area under their
+jurisdiction, and promoted a bill to that effect in 1905, but it fell
+through. The bill was opposed not only by the National Association of
+Master Bakers, the London Master Bakers' Protection Society, and by the
+West End metropolitan bakers in a body, but also by the Home Office,
+which objected to what it termed exceptional legislation.
+
+It may be noted that the acts of 1822 and 1836 define precisely what may
+and may not be sold as bread. It is laid down in section 2 that "it
+shall and may be lawful ... to make and sell ... bread made of flour or
+meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, Indian corn, peas, beans,
+rice or potatoes, or any of them, and with any (common) salt, pure
+water, eggs, milk, barm, leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in
+such proportions as they shall think fit, and with no other ingredients
+or matter whatsoever."
+
+_Sanitation of Bakehouses._--The sanitary arrangements of bakehouses in
+England were first regulated by the Bakehouse Regulation Act 1863, which
+was repealed and replaced by the Factory and Workshop Act 1878; this
+act, with various amending acts, was in turn repealed and replaced by
+the Factory and Workshop Act 1901. By the act of 1901 a bakehouse is
+defined as a place in which are baked bread, biscuits or confectionery,
+from the baking or selling of which a profit is derived. The act of 1863
+placed the sanitary supervision of bakehouses in the hands of local
+authorities; from 1878 to 1883 supervision was in the hands of
+inspectors of factories, but in 1883 the supervision of retail
+bakehouses was placed in the hands of local authorities. Under the act
+of 1901 the supervision of bakehouses which are "workshops" is carried
+out by local authorities, and for the purposes of the act every
+bakehouse is a workshop unless within it, or its close or curtilage or
+precincts, steam, water or other mechanical power is used in aid of the
+manufacturing process carried on there, in which case it is treated as a
+non-textile factory, and is under the supervision of factory inspectors.
+
+  The more important regulations laid down by the act are: (1) No
+  water-closet, &c., must be within or communicate directly with the
+  bakehouse; every cistern for supplying water to the bakehouse must be
+  separate and distinct from any cistern supplying a water-closet; no
+  drain or pipe for carrying off sewage matter shall have an opening
+  within the bakehouse. (2) The interior of all bakehouses must be
+  limewashed, painted or varnished at stated periods. (3) No place on
+  the same level with a bakehouse or forming part of the same building
+  may be used as a sleeping place, unless specially constructed to meet
+  the requirements of the act. (4) No underground bakehouse (one of
+  which the floor is more than 3 ft. below the surface of the footway of
+  the adjoining street) shall be used unless certified by the district
+  council as suitable for the purpose (see Redgrave, _Factory Acts_;
+  Evans Austin, _Factory Acts_).
+
+_Bread Sluffs._--As compared with wheat-flour, all other materials used
+for making bread are of secondary importance. Rye bread is largely
+consumed in some of the northern parts of Europe, and cakes of maize
+meal are eaten in the United States. In southern Europe the meal of
+various species of millet is used, and in India and China durra and
+other cereal grains are baked for food. Of non-cereal flour, the
+principal used for bread-making is buckwheat (_Fagopyrum esculentum_),
+extensively employed in Russia, Holland and the United States. The flour
+of pease, beans and other leguminous seeds is also baked into cakes, and
+in South America the meal of the tapioca plant, _Jatropha Manihot_, is
+employed. But, excepting rye, none of these substances is used for
+making vesiculated or fermented bread.
+
+
+  Quality of flour.
+
+A normal sample of wheat-flour consists roughly of 10 parts of moisture,
+72 of starch, 14 of nitrogenous matter, 2.25 of fatty matters, and 1.75%
+of mineral matter. Starch is thus the predominating component; it is
+not, however, the dough-forming ingredient. By itself, starch, when
+saturated with water, forms a putty-like mass devoid of coherence, and
+it is the gluten of the nitrogenous matter which is the binding
+constituent in dough-making, because when wetted it forms a more or less
+elastic body. The proportion of gluten in wheat-flour varies from 7 to
+15%, but the mere quantity of gluten is by no means the only standard of
+the commercial value of the flour, the quality also counting for much.
+One of the functions of gluten is to produce a high or well-piled loaf,
+and its value for this purpose depends largely on its quality. This is
+turn depends largely on the variety of wheat; certain races of wheat are
+much richer in nitrogenous elements than others, but such wheats
+usually only flourish in certain countries. Soil and climate are
+undoubtedly factors in modifying the character of wheat, and necessarily
+therefore of the flour. The same wheat grown in the same soil will show
+very varying degrees of strength (i.e. of gluten) in different seasons.
+For instance, the north-western districts of America grow a hard spring
+wheat which in a normal season is of almost unequalled strength. In 1904
+an excess of moisture and deficiency in sun in the Red River Valley
+during the critical months of June and July caused a serious attack of
+red and black rust in these wheat fields, the disease being more
+virulent in the American than the Canadian side of the valley. The
+result was that the quality of the gluten of that season's American
+spring wheat was most seriously affected, its famed strength being
+almost gone. Wheat from the Canadian side was also affected, but not
+nearly to so great an extent. Flour milled from hard winter wheat in the
+American winter districts is sometimes nearly as strong as the spring
+wheat of the North-west. Hungarian flour milled from Theis wheat is also
+very strong, and so is the flour milled from some south Russian spring
+wheats. But here again the degree of strength will vary from season to
+season in a remarkable manner. In the main each land has its own clearly
+marked type of wheat. While the United States, Canada, Hungary and
+Russia are each capable of growing strong wheat, Great Britain, France
+and Germany produce wheat more or less weak. It follows that the bread
+baked from flour milled from wheat from British, French or German wheat
+alone would not make a loaf of sufficient volume, judged by present
+British standards. As a matter of fact, except in some country
+districts, British bakers either use strong foreign flour to blend with
+English country flour, or, more frequently, they are supplied with flour
+by British millers milled from a blend in which very often English wheat
+has a small, or no place at all. If the baker's trade calls for the
+making of household bread, especially of the London type, he must use a
+strong flour, with plenty of staple gluten in it, because it is this
+element which supplies the driving or lifting force, without which a
+high, bold loaf cannot be produced. If the demand is for tin or (as it
+is called in many parts of the north of England) pan bread, a weaker
+flour will suffice, as the tin will keep it up. A Vienna loaf should be
+made with at least a certain proportion of Hungarian patent flour, which
+is normally the highest-priced flour in the market, though probably the
+bulk of the Vienna rolls made in London contain no Hungarian flour. A
+cake of flat shape can be very well made with a rather weak flour, but
+any cake that is required to present a domed top cannot be prepared
+without a flour of some strength.
+
+
+  Flavour of flour.
+
+It is a general opinion, though contested by some authorities, that
+soft, weak flours contain more flavour than strong, harsh flours. The
+strong wheats of the American and Canadian North-West make less flavoury
+flour than soft red winter from the American South-West. It would not,
+however, be correct to say that all strong wheats are necessarily less
+full of flavour than weak wheats. Hungarian wheat, for instance, is one
+of the strongest wheats of the world, but has a characteristic and
+pleasant flavour of its own. Indian wheats, on the other hand, are not
+particularly strong, but are liable to give a rather harsh flavour to
+the bread. English, French and German wheats, when harvested in good
+condition, produce flour of more or less agreeable flavour. None of
+these wheats could be classified as strong, though from each of those
+lands wheat of fair strength may be obtained under favourable
+meteorological conditions. The Australasian continent raises white wheat
+of fine quality which has much affinity with British wheat--it is the
+descendant in many cases of seed wheats imported from England--but it is
+occasionally stronger. The resultant flour is noted for its sweetness.
+Both millers and bakers who are concerned with the supply of high-class
+bread and flour make free use of what may be termed flavoury wheats. The
+proportion of English wheat used in London mills is very small, but
+millers who supply West-End bakeries with what is known as top-price
+flour are careful to use a certain amount of English wheat, if it is to
+be had in prime condition. They term this ingredient of their mixture
+"sugar." London bakers again, with customers who appreciate nicely
+flavoured bread, will "pitch" into their trough a certain proportion of
+English country flour, that is, flour milled entirely or chiefly from
+English wheat, which under such conditions is strengthened by a blend of
+strong flour, a patent flour for choice. It has been objected that as
+English wheat contains a large proportion of starch, and as starch is
+admittedly destitute of flavour, there is no reason why flour milled
+from English wheat should possess a sweeter flavour than any other
+starchy wheat flour. Experience, however, has amply proved that
+well-ripened English wheat produces bread with an agreeable flavour,
+though it does not follow that all English wheat is under all conditions
+capable of baking bread of the highest quality. But it would be as
+fallacious to hold that weak flour is necessarily flavoury, as that all
+strong flour is insipid and harsh. Different wheats are undoubtedly
+possessed of different flavours, but not all these flavours are of a
+pleasing character. In some cases the very reverse is true. Californian
+and Australian wheats have occasionally aromatic odours, due to the
+presence of certain seeds, that will impart an objectionable flavour to
+the resultant bread.
+
+While the essential character of particular wheats will account for a
+good deal of the flavour that may be detected in the bread made from
+them, the baking process must also be responsible to some extent for
+flavour. The temperature of the oven and the degree of fermentation must
+be factors in the question. It has been asserted that the same flour
+will bake into bread of very different flavour according as the
+fermentation is carried out slowly or quickly, or as the oven is hot or
+the reverse. A high temperature seems to have the effect of quickly
+drawing out the subtle essences which go to give flavour to the bread,
+but it is a question whether they are not subsequently rapidly
+volatilized and partially or wholly lost. The rapid formation of a solid
+crust is no doubt likely to retain some of these flavouring essences. A
+moist, or "slack," sponge, or dough, appears distinctly favourable to
+the retention of flavour, the theory being that under such conditions
+the yeast, having more room to "breathe," works more easily, and is
+therefore less likely to convert into food those soluble constituents of
+the flour which give flavour.
+
+
+  Colour of flour.
+
+The colour of flour is a valuable, though not an infallible, index to
+its baking qualities. Thus, a flour of good colour, by which bakers mean
+a flour of bright appearance, white, but not a dull dead white, will
+usually bake into a loaf of good appearance. At the same time, a flour
+of pronounced white tint may bake into a dirty grey loaf. This has been
+particularly noted in the case of flours milled in Argentina. The colour
+of flour will vary from a rich, creamy white to a dull grey, according
+to its quality. The different shades are many and various, but the
+prevailing tints are comparatively few. Perhaps Blandy's classification
+of the colours as white, yellow, red, brown and grey is as serviceable
+as any. Each of these tints is directly caused by the presence of
+certain substances. White denotes the presence of a considerable
+proportion of starch, while a pronounced yellow tint proclaims gluten of
+more or less good quality. Red and brown are tints only found in flours
+of low grade, because they are sure proofs of an undue proportion of
+branny or fibrous particles. A greyish flour invariably contains
+impurities, such as crease dirt, from the wheat, the intensity of the
+tint varying in proportion to their amount. With regard to a yellow
+tint, though this always denotes the presence of gluten, it is difficult
+to estimate the baking quality of the flour by the shade of yellow. In
+the best Hungarian patent flour the whole sample will be suffused by an
+amber tint, known to Budapest and Vienna bakers as _gelblicher Stich_.
+Rolls baked from the best Hungarian flour will not infrequently cut
+yellow as if eggs had been used in making them up, though nothing more
+than flour, yeast and water has been employed. Strong flour milled from
+American or Canadian spring wheat is also yellowish in colour, but the
+tint is not so deep as with Hungarian flour. On the other hand, there
+are flours of no great strength, such as those from some Australian
+wheats, which are apt to look yellow. When the colour of flour is not
+maintained in the bread, the reason is generally to be found in the
+baking process employed. Colour is a fairly trustworthy, but not an
+absolute guide to the chemical composition of flour.
+
+
+  Damp and flour.
+
+Unfortunately not all flour of good colour is sound for bread-making
+purposes. Wheat which has been harvested in a damp condition, or has
+been thoroughly soaked, by drenching showers previous to cutting, or has
+got wet in the stook, is liable, unless carefully handled, to produce
+flour that will only bake flat, sodden loaves. Wheat which has received
+too much rain as it is approaching maturity, and has then been exposed
+to strong sunlight, is peculiarly liable to sprout. This seems to happen
+not infrequently to La Plata wheat, and though wheat shippers in that
+country are usually careful to clean off the little green spikes, this
+outward cleansing does not remedy the mischief wrought to the internal
+constitution of the berry. Such wheat makes flour lacking in strength
+and stability. Its gluten is immature and low in percentage, while the
+soluble albuminoids are in high percentage and in a more or less active
+diastasic state. The starch granules are liable to have weakened or
+fissured walls, and the proportion of moisture and of soluble extract
+will be high. With regard to the beneficial action of kiln or other
+drying on damp flour, William Jago was convinced by a series of
+experiments that the gentle artificial drying of flour increases its
+water-absorbing capacity to about three times the amount of water lost
+by evaporation. On the other hand, a damp flour dried too quickly and at
+too great a heat is liable to be made more instead of less susceptible
+to diastasic changes.
+
+  _Alum._--Strictly speaking, when employed with weak and unstable
+  flours alum is a remedial agent. The popular idea that it acts as a
+  kind of bleacher of flour, having the faculty of converting flour that
+  is dark-coloured through containing a sensible proportion of branny
+  particles and woody fibre, into white-coloured loaves, is erroneous.
+  Its action as a producer of white bread is indirect, not direct,
+  though it is none the less effective. It seems to act as a brace to or
+  steadier of unstable gluten. If from the same wheat a certain
+  proportion of gluten be extracted and divided into two parts, of which
+  one is placed in a glass of water containing a strong solution of
+  alum, and the other in a glass of plain water, the gluten in the
+  latter case will become spent days and perhaps weeks before the sample
+  in the alumed water is disintegrated. The place of alum in the process
+  of fermentation is well marked. By holding together unstable gluten,
+  it checks the diastasic action, and the proportion of starch converted
+  into glucose (grape sugar) is reduced, with the result that a whiter
+  and more porous loaf is produced. It is generally admitted that by the
+  use of alum more or less eatable bread may be baked from flour which
+  otherwise could hardly be made into bread at all. Strictly, therefore,
+  this substance is not an adulterant, inasmuch as it is not a
+  substitute in any sense for flour. But it is admittedly unwholesome,
+  and therefore its legal interdiction for alimentary purposes is quite
+  justifiable. Another aspect of the use of alum is that it is employed
+  for the purpose of enabling bakers to use poor flour.
+
+  A fairly satisfactory test for alum in bread (or flour) is afforded by
+  an alkaline solution of logwood and a saturated solution of ammonium
+  carbonate. The presence of alum is shown by a lavender or full blue
+  colour. The depth of the tint is said to be a rough guide to the
+  quantity of alum present. According to Jago this test is so sensitive
+  that it has resulted in the detection of 7 grains of alum in a 4-lb
+  loaf.
+
+  Besides alum, small quantities of copper sulphate have been used for
+  checking diastasis and retarding fermentation. This substance has the
+  same effect as alum, but as all copper salts are active poisons, the
+  employment of copper sulphate is most strongly to be condemned.
+
+  _Lime-water._--The object of using either alum or copper sulphate is
+  to check over-rapid diastasis during fermentation. Baron Liebig
+  pointed out a much less objectionable means of attaining the same end
+  by means of lime-water, about 1-1/2 oz. of fresh quicklime being
+  dissolved in the water used for doughing one sack of flour. Bread made
+  in this way is said to be spongy in texture, of agreeable flavour, and
+  perfectly free from acidity. In the baked loaf the lime is transformed
+  into calcium carbonate (chalk) by the carbon dioxide resulting from
+  the panary fermentation. It is said that an increased yield of bread
+  may be obtained by the use of lime-water; the explanation may be that
+  lime-water, by retarding the degradation of the gluten and the
+  diastasis of the starch, increases the water-retaining power of the
+  flour, so that the same weight of flour yields a greater volume of
+  bread.
+
+_Unvesiculated and Vesiculated Bread._--Wheaten bread may be divided
+into two main divisions, unvesiculated and vesiculated. The term
+vesiculated simply means provided with vesicles, or small membranous
+cavities, such as are found in all bread that has been treated by yeast,
+leaven or any other agent for rendering it spongiform in structure by
+the action of carbonic acid gas. Nearly all bread eaten by civilized
+folk is vesiculated, though there are different methods and processes
+for attaining this result. Into the category of unvesiculated bread
+enter such products as the Australian damper, a flat cake prepared from
+flour, water and salt, and baked in the hot ashes of a wood fire. The
+dough is spread on a flat stone and covered with a tin plate, while the
+hot ashes are heaped around and over it; the heat should not be much in
+excess of 212 deg. Fahr. The scone, the bannock and other similar cakes,
+still much appreciated in Scotland and the north of England, are also
+examples of unvesiculated bread. They are baked on hot plates or
+"griddles," on hearths, and sometimes in ovens. Biscuits differ from
+these cakes in the fact that they are baked by a high instead of a
+moderate heat. But they enter so far into the class of unvesiculated
+bread that they are generally prepared without the aid of any such
+aerating agent as carbon dioxide. (See BISCUIT.)
+
+Vesiculated bread is now the only article of diet made from flour to
+which the term bread is applied, and there are various ways of producing
+the spongiform texture by which it is characterized. The ordinary and
+doubtless the most satisfactory way is by developing the carbon dioxide
+within the dough itself by the use of yeast (q.v.) or leaven, which sets
+up alcoholic fermentation, splitting up the saccharine matters in the
+flour into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The latter is retained by the
+dough and distends it, causing the bread to "rise." Or the carbon
+dioxide may be artificially introduced, as in the so-called "aerated"
+bread (see below), or it may be produced by the agency of certain
+chemicals, as for instance of baking powders.
+
+
+  Baking powders.
+
+Such powders are mixtures which, under the influence of either water or
+heat, evolve carbon dioxide. These powders have been divided by Jago
+into three groups:--(1) _Tartrate_ powders, in which the acid
+constituent is either free or partly combined tartaric acid; (2)
+_Phosphate_ powders, in which the acid is some form of phosphoric acid;
+(3) _Alum_ powders. All these powders have a more or less aperient
+action on the human system. Tartrate powders have the disadvantage that
+both commercial tartaric acid and cream of tartar frequently contain
+lead, a poisonous substance. Phosphate powders are less open to
+objection, as they are more easy to obtain free from lead and other
+metallic impurities. Alum powders contain potassium bisulphate and alum.
+It is somewhat remarkable that while the presence of alum in bread is
+regarded by the law of England as adulteration, its use in baking powder
+was pronounced legal in _James_ v. _Jones_, 1894, 1, Q.B. 304, on the
+ground that baking powder is not food within the meaning of the Sale of
+Food and Drugs Act 1875. In making wholemeal bread, hydrochloric acid
+and sodium bicarbonate are often used in such proportions that they
+neutralize each other. Carbon dioxide is evolved and raises the dough.
+In preparing wholemeal bread the use of this combination has the
+advantage that the acid acting rapidly on the sodium bicarbonate soon
+produces enough carbon dioxide to aerate the dough, and thus hasten its
+entry into the oven. Wholemeal flour contains so large a proportion of
+cerealin that diastasis is apt to proceed rapidly, the result being a
+clammy, sodden loaf. For this reason, perhaps the so-called aerated
+process is even more suitable for making wholemeal than white bread.
+
+
+  Methods of making dough.
+
+Methods of dough-making differ in different countries, and even in
+different parts of the same land. In the _off hand_ method the dough is
+made right off, without any preliminary stages of ferment or sponge.
+This plan is sometimes adopted for making tin bread, and occasionally
+for crusty loaves. For tin bread a strong flour would be used and made
+into a slack dough, and about 1-1/2 lb. to 2 lb. of distillers' yeast
+would be used for the sack (280 lb.) of flour, occasionally with the
+addition of a little brewers' yeast. Salt is used in the proportion of 3
+lb. to 3-1/2 lb. per sack. Formerly also it was the custom to add 10-14
+lb. of boiled potatoes, but the use of potatoes has greatly decreased. A
+tin-bread dough would be made slack, with about 70 quarts of water to
+the sack, and after being mixed, would be fermented at a temperature of
+76-80 deg. Fahr. It should lie for about ten hours. A dough for crusty
+bread such as cottage loaves, would be made much tighter, not more than
+60 quarts of water being allowed to the sack. It would be fermented at a
+higher temperature, and would not lie more than about six hours. A slack
+dough is much less laborious to work (when the dough is hand-made) than
+a tight dough, for which a mechanical kneader is very suitable, but as a
+matter of fact the use of machinery (see below) is still the exception,
+not the rule. When a stiff dough is made by hand, it is usually made
+somewhat slack to begin with, and then "cut back" and "dusted" at
+regular intervals, that is to say, more and more flour is added till a
+dough of the required consistency has been obtained. (In the British
+baker's vocabulary "dust" means flour, and good dust stands for good
+flour.) This system, on the one hand, saves the labour involved for
+"sponging" and other operations, and the bread is produced in less time;
+but on the other hand more yeast is used, and bakers generally hold that
+the system sacrifices the colour and texture of the loaf to convenience
+of working and yield. The high porportion of yeast enables the dough to
+carry a large quantity of water, and about 104 4-lb. loaves to the sack
+is said by Jago to be a not unusual yield in the case of slack doughs.
+But such a result would only be possible with very strong flour. In an
+ordinary way 96 loaves to the sack is a very high yield, unattainable
+except with strong flour, and probably the average yield is not more
+than 90 loaves to the sack. In London the manager of a "tied" shop is
+usually held to account for 92 loaves to the sack.
+
+In the _ferment and dough_ system, the ferment usually consists of 10 to
+14 lb. of potatoes to the sack of flour, boiled or steamed, and mashed
+with water, so as to yield about 3 gallons of liquor. There are several
+substitutes for potatoes, including raw and scalded flour, malt, malt
+extracts, &c.; brewers' or distillers' yeast may also be used. A ferment
+should contain saccharine matters and yeast stimulants in such a form as
+to favour the growth and reproduction of yeast in a vigorous condition.
+Hence it should not be too concentrated. About six hours are required
+for its preparation. It is added, together with 2 to 3 lb. of salt, to
+the dough, which is prepared with about 56 quarts of water to the sack,
+and worked at a temperature of 80-84 deg. Fahr. The dough is allowed to
+lie from two to five hours according to the flour used, the character of
+the ferment, and the working temperature. In this system the proportion
+of strong flour is usually reduced to 40% of the dough, and no doubt in
+some cases only soft or weak flours are used. Naturally the yield of
+bread is not so high as in the case of an off hand dough made entirely
+from strong flour, and it will probably not exceed 90 loaves to the
+sack. This method has many advantages. After the ferment is made the
+labour required is not much greater than with the off hand doughs, and
+less yeast is required, while potatoes, which are somewhat troublesome,
+from the necessary cleaning, can be replaced by the substitutes already
+mentioned. The method produces good-looking and palatable bread, though
+the loaves should be eaten within some twelve hours of leaving the oven.
+
+The _sponge and dough_ system, which is probably in widest use in
+England, is adapted to almost every kind of bread, and has the advantage
+that any kind of flour can be employed. The stronger flours which need
+long fermentation can be and usually are used in the "sponge" stage,
+while soft flours are utilized in the dough. (The sponge is a certain
+proportion, varying from a quarter to one-half, of the flour necessary
+for making the batch.) In London the baker often uses for the sponge a
+bag (140 lb) of American spring wheat flour, and for the dough a sack
+(280 lb) of British milled flour, which, whether it be country flour
+milled largely from English wheat or London milled, is always softer and
+weaker than that used for the sponge. The sponge is made very slack, 26
+to 32 quarts of water being used to say 100 lb. of flour. Yeast, either
+distillers' or brewers', must be added, in proportions varying according
+to its character and strength. Of distillers' yeast 6 to 10 oz. may be
+used for 280 lb. of flour (including sponge and dough). Salt is added to
+the sponge sparingly, at the rate of about 1/2 lb. to the sack of 280 lb.
+The object of making the sponge so slack is to quicken the fermentation.
+When set the sponge is allowed to ferment from six to ten hours,
+according to temperature and other conditions. Sometimes all the water
+it is intended to use is put into the sponge, which is then known as a
+"batter" sponge. The sponge, when ready, is incorporated with the rest
+of the flour to which the necessary amount of water and salt is added.
+The whole mass is then doughed up into the requisite consistency, the
+dough being allowed to lie for about two hours. Bread made by this
+method, always assuming that over-fermentation has been avoided, is of
+good appearance, presenting a bold loaf, with even texture and a nice
+sheen. Owing to the use of soft flours, the flavour should be agreeable,
+and the loaves ought to keep much longer than bread made by ferment and
+dough. The yield may rise as high as 96 loaves per sack, if strong flour
+has been used in the sponge.
+
+A combination of the above two methods, known as the _ferment, sponge
+and dough_ system, is often used with brewers' yeast. In this case the
+yeast is not added to the sponge direct, but goes into the ferment. This
+method is rather in favour with bakers who make their own yeast.
+
+The system of bread-making generally used in Scotland is known as the
+_flour barm, sponge and dough_. The barm is a combination of a malt and
+hop yeast, with a slow, scalded flour ferment. To make the so-called
+"virgin" barm a Scottish baker would use a 30-gallon tub; a smaller
+vessel for malt-mashing; 10 lb. malt; 3 oz. hops and a jar for infusing
+them; 40 lb flour; 2 to 3 oz. malt; 8 to 12 oz. sugar, and 18 gallons of
+boiling water. With these materials a powerful ferment is produced,
+which it is considered best to use in the sponge the fourth or fifth day
+after brewing. The sponges used in Scotland are "half" or "quarter."
+About 6 lb. of malt go to the sack, one-sixth going into the sponge. As
+in England, strong flours are used for the sponge, but rather stronger
+flours are used for the dough than is usual in England. Scottish loaves
+are largely of the "brick" type, high and narrow. Such bread has an
+attractive appearance and keeps well. It has a rather sharp flavour,
+approaching acidity but avoiding sourness, while the large quantity of
+malt used adds a characteristic taste. The yield rises in some Glasgow
+bread factories to 100 loaves to the sack.
+
+
+  Leavened bread.
+
+In many parts of Europe bread is still made from leaven, which, properly
+speaking, consists of a portion of dough held over from the previous
+baking. This substance, known to French bakers as _levain_, is called in
+Germany _Sauerteig_ (_anglice_ "sour dough"). The lump of old dough,
+placed aside in a uniform temperature for some eight hours, swells and
+acquires an alcoholic odour, becoming the _levain de chef_ of the French
+bakers. It is then worked up with flour and water to a firm paste double
+its original volume, when it becomes the _levain de premiere_. Six hours
+later, by the addition of more flour and water its amount is again
+doubled, though its consistency is made rather softer, and it becomes
+the _levain de seconde_. Finally, by another addition of flour and
+water, the amount is again doubled, and the _levain de tous points_ is
+obtained. This mass is divided into two parts; one is baked yielding
+rather dark sour bread, while the other is mixed with more flour and
+water. This second portion is in turn halved, part is baked, and part
+again mixed with more flour, this last batch yielding the best and
+whitest bread. In North Germany leaven is generally used for making rye
+bread, and loaves baked from a mixture of wheat and rye flour. In the
+bakery of the Krupp works at Essen, each batch of the so-called
+Paderborn bread is prepared entirely with leaven from 270 kilos of rye
+flour (patent quality), 100 of wheat flour (seconds), 2 of buckwheat
+meal, 6 of salt, 5 of leaven, and one litre of oil. In Vienna leaven is
+never used for making the rolls and small goods for which that city is
+famous. Viennese bakers use either brewers' yeast or a ferment, prepared
+by themselves, of which the basis is an infusion of hops. Brewers' yeast
+is added to the ferment, which takes the form of a very slack dough.
+With 100 kilos (220.46 lb.) of flour about 17 litres or nearly 2 gallons
+of ferment are used.
+
+
+  Aerated bread.
+
+In the original Dauglish process for the manufacture of aerated bread,
+which was brought into operation in Great Britain in 1859, carbonic acid
+gas was evolved in a generating vessel by the action of sulphuric acid
+on chalk, and after purification was forced at high pressure into water,
+which was then used for doughing the flour. In this process the flour
+that had to be made into bread was submitted to the action of the
+super-aerated water by direct transference. It was found, however, in
+practice that much difficulty occurred in making the gas admix readily
+with the flour and water, great pressure being required, and to lessen
+the difficulties a new process, called the "wine whey," was introduced.
+To carry this out, a vat placed on the upper storey of the factory is
+charged with a portion of malt and flour, which is mashed and allowed to
+ferment until a weak and slightly acid thin wine is produced; this after
+passing through the coolers is stored until it is transformed into a
+vinous whey. This whey is then introduced into a strong cylinder partly
+filled with water, and is aerated by letting in the gas (now stored in a
+highly compressed form in bottles), the pressure required being only a
+quarter of that necessary with the original method. The flour having
+been placed in the mixers, which are of globular form containing
+revolving arms, the aerated fluid is admitted, and in a short period the
+flour and fluid are completely incorporated. By means of an ingenious
+appliance termed a dough cock, the exact amount of dough for a single
+loaf of bread is forced out under the pressure of the gas, and by
+reversing the lever the dough, which expands as it falls into a baking
+tin, is cut off. Two sacks of flour can be converted with ease into 400
+2-lb. loaves in forty minutes, whereas the ordinary baker's process
+would require about ten hours. At first a difficulty was encountered in
+the fact that the dough became discoloured by the action of the "wine
+whey" on the iron, but it was overcome by Killingworth Hedges, who
+discovered a non-poisonous vitreous enamel for coating the interior of
+the mixers, &c. It has been claimed for the Dauglish process that it
+saves the baker risks attendant on the production of carbon dioxide by
+the ordinary process of fermentation, in that he is no longer liable to
+have his dough spoilt by variations of temperature and other
+incalculable factors, the results being certain and uniform. A further
+claim is the saving of the proportion of starch consumed by conversion
+into glucose during the process of fermentation. The original objection,
+that, by the absence of fermentation, those subtle changes which help to
+produce flavour are lost, is annulled by the use of the wine whey
+process. The Dauglish process is well suited for producing small goods,
+such as cakes and scones, where flavour can be artificially imparted by
+means of currants, flavouring essences, &c. An undoubted advantage of
+the aerating process of bread-making is adaptability for utilizing flour
+with unstable gluten, which can thus be made into an excellent quality
+of bread. For wholemeal bread, too, there is probably no more suitable
+process than the Dauglish. The strong diastasic action of the cerealin,
+inevitable in fermentation, is entirely avoided. The Aerated Bread
+Company have about a hundred depots in London, which are supplied from a
+central factory.
+
+
+  Apostolov process.
+
+The essence of the bread-making process recently invented by Serge
+Apostolov is the combination of a flour mill and bakery. The wheat,
+after a preliminary cleaning, is ground into flour by a mill composed of
+metal disks dressed, that is furrowed, very much like the surfaces of a
+pair of mill-stones. The disks are not set to grind very close, because
+it is desired, by minimizing friction, to keep the meal cool. From the
+middlings obtained by this milling process about 10% of bran is
+separated, and the remainder of the middlings is treated by a peculiar
+process, akin to mashing, termed "lixiviation." The middlings are
+saturated with tepid water containing a small proportion of yeast, which
+causes a certain amount of fermentation. It is claimed that by this
+process a solution is obtained of the floury constituents of the
+middlings. From the vats the solution is poured on an inclined sieve
+which has a gentle reciprocating motion. The floury particles pass
+through the meshes, while the bran tails over the sieve; the proportion
+of the wheat berry thus rejected is given as about 2-1/2%. On the other
+hand, the milky-looking solution, called "lactus," is caught in a
+special vessel, and delivered by a shoot into a trough, which may be
+either a mechanical kneader of an ordinary trough. This lactus takes
+the place of the ordinary sponge. The flour is added in the proportion
+necessary to make the required batch and the whole mass is doughed,
+either by hand or power. The resultant dough is moulded in the ordinary
+way into loaves, which are baked in due course. The advantages claimed
+for the process are that it permits of the utilization in bread-making
+of about 87-1/2% of the wheat berry, that the resultant bread is fairly
+white in colour and is agreeable in flavour, and that it is extremely
+simple and provides a ready and cheap means of flour-making.
+
+  _Machine Bakeries._--Bread-baking, though one of the most important of
+  human industries, was long carried out in a most primitive manner, and
+  machinery is still practically unknown in the bulk of British
+  bakehouses. The reasons for this apparently anomalous condition of
+  things are not very far to seek. Bread, unlike biscuits, is a food
+  quite unfitted for long storage, and must be consumed within a
+  comparatively short time of being drawn from the oven. Hence the
+  bread-baker's output is necessarily limited to a greater or lesser
+  degree. This will be the more apparent when it is considered that the
+  cost of distributing bread is high relatively to the profits to be
+  realized. A baker's bread trade is therefore usually limited to local
+  requirements, and trading on a small scale he has less inducement to
+  lay out capital on the installation of machinery than other classes of
+  manufacturers. But there are now many machine bakeries (known in
+  Scotland as bread factories), both in London and in other parts of
+  Great Britain, where the manufacture of bread is carried out more or
+  less on a large scale. The evolution of the machine bakery has been
+  slow, and the mechanical operations of the bakehouse were long limited
+  to the mixing of the sponge and the kneading of the dough, but now the
+  work of the bakery engineer extends over almost every operation of
+  bread-making.
+
+  A bread-baking plant should be installed in a building of at least two
+  storeys. The ground floor may be used for the shop, with possibly a
+  bread-cooling and delivery room at the rear. The flour may be hoisted
+  to an attic at the top of the building, or to the top floor; in any
+  case there must be sufficient floor space to accommodate the flour
+  sacks and bags. Underneath the floor of the flour store should be
+  installed a flour sifter, a simple apparatus consisting essentially of
+  a hopper through which the flour enters a cylinder with a spiral
+  brush, by which it is thoroughly agitated previously to passing
+  through one or more sieves placed under the brush. A sack of flour may
+  be passed through this sifter in a couple of minutes, the operation
+  freeing the flour from lumps and pieces of string or other foreign
+  substances which may have found their way into the sack. The sifter
+  may also be combined with a blender or mixer, so that the baker may by
+  its means thoroughly blend different flours in any desired proportion.
+  The operation of blending is usually effected by a revolving blade of
+  suitable design or by a worm conveyor placed underneath the sieve or
+  sleeve. From the sifter and blender the flour descends by a sleeve
+  into the dough kneading machine on the floor below. But in cases where
+  it is desired merely to sift and blend flour ready for future use, it
+  may be received in a worm and elevated again to the storage floor by
+  an ordinary belt and bucket elevator. The water required for doughing
+  purposes is contained in an iron tank, fixed to the wall in convenient
+  proximity to the dough kneader. This tank, known as a water
+  attemperating and measuring tank, is provided with a gauge and
+  thermometer, and from it the exact quantity of water needed for
+  doughing can be rapidly drawn off at the desired temperature. The cold
+  water supply may be let into the tank at the top, and the hot water
+  supply at the bottom, the idea being that each supply shall permeate
+  the whole mass by gravity, the hot water ascending and the cold
+  descending. The chief types of dough kneader will be described
+  subsequently, but here it should be noted that not only have machines
+  been devised for cutting out the exact sizes of dough required for
+  small goods, such as buns and tartlets, but that the operations of
+  weighing and dividing dough for quartern and half-quartern loaves can
+  also be neatly and economically effected by machinery. Further, at
+  least two machines have been built which successfully mould loaves (of
+  simple shape), and the problem of moulding household bread by
+  machinery has certainly been solved, but whether delicate twists and
+  other fancy shapes could be equally well moulded mechanically is less
+  certain.
+
+  The machine bakery, however complete, is not likely ever to be quite
+  automatic and continuous like a modern flour mill, where the plant is
+  connected throughout and virtually forms one machine (see FLOUR AND
+  FLOUR MANUFACTURE), and though the engineer has at least managed to
+  effect every operation of the bakehouse by mechanical means, it is not
+  yet possible to shoot a sack of flour into the hopper of the sifter on
+  the top floor, and to turn it into bread, without any human
+  intervention whatever, though as things are, the moulded dough can be
+  put into the oven without undergoing actual contact with human hands.
+  In practice, some of the machines mentioned above are often dispensed
+  with, even in so-called machine bakeries. The flour sifter and blender
+  is indeed found in many bakeries where mechanical kneaders are
+  unknown, while not in all machine bakeries would be found dough
+  weighers and dividers, still less moulding machines. The economical
+  side of the argument on behalf of machinery is presented in the
+  familiar shape that a properly equipped machine bakery can turn out
+  better work at a lower cost (by dispensing with labour), or at any
+  rate can carry on a bigger trade with the same staff. There is
+  plausibility in this argument, but it must be admitted that
+  innumerable bakeries of capacities varying from 10 to 20 sacks per
+  week are carried on more or less successfully without machinery of any
+  kind, beyond perhaps a sifter or blender. Moreover, some of these
+  bakehouses produce bread which can hardly be improved on.
+
+  One advantage claimed for flour sifters, besides removing the
+  impurities, is that by thoroughly aerating flour they cause it to
+  become more "lively," in which condition it kneads more readily. It is
+  also quite possible that the air which is thus incorporated with the
+  dough has a stimulating effect on the yeast, causing a more energetic
+  fermentation. A strong argument in favour of dough kneaders is their
+  hygienic aspect. It is agreed that the operation of dough stirring by
+  hand, since it involves severe labour conducted in a heated
+  atmosphere, must be liable to cause contamination of the dough through
+  emanations from the bodies of the operatives. In well-managed bakeries
+  the utmost personal cleanliness on the part of the staff is exacted,
+  but the unpleasant contingency alluded to is certainly possible. It is
+  also contended that the use of machinery for dough kneading and batter
+  whisking will ensure better work, in the sense that the mass under
+  treatment will be more thoroughly worked by mechanically driven arms
+  of iron or steel than by human limbs, liable to weariness and fatigue.
+  The better worked the dough, the greater its power of expansion, and
+  consequently the greater its bread-making value.
+
+
+    Dough kneaders.
+
+  The most widely known machine used in connexion with bread-baking,
+  next to the sifter, is the dough kneadcr. The dough kneader is no new
+  invention. As far back as 1760, a kind of dough kneader was
+  constructed in France by one Salignac. It is described as consisting
+  of a trough, inside which the dough was agitated by arms shaped
+  somewhat like harrows. This machine is said to have been tested before
+  a committee of the Academy of Sciences, who reported that in their
+  presence dough had been prepared in fourteen to fifteen minutes. The
+  bread baked from this dough is said to have been most satisfactory,
+  but for some reason the machine never came into general use. For one
+  thing, the power problem would have been almost insuperable to a baker
+  in the France of those days. In general design this kneader
+  approximated to the machines which have since done good work in
+  bakeries all the world over. Salignac was quickly followed by another
+  inventor, Cousin, also a Frenchman, who brought out in 1761, or
+  thereabouts, a dough-kneading machine, which, however, had no better
+  success than its predecessor. The first kneading machine which appears
+  to have been in actual use in a bakery was constructed by a Paris
+  baker of the name of Lembert, after whom it was called the Lembertine.
+  Lembert is said to have been experimenting with this apparatus as
+  early as 1796. Be that as it may, it was not brought out till 1810,
+  when a prize of 1500 francs (L60) was offered by the Societe
+  d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale. This reward was won by
+  Lembert, and his machine thereupon came into a certain amount of use
+  in France. It is remarkable that France long remained the only country
+  in which dough kneaders were employed, but even there their use was
+  limited.
+
+  The Fontaine, another French kneader, called after its inventor, was
+  first made in 1835. It had a certain success, but has long passed out
+  of use. It appears to have been a copy to a great extent of the
+  Lembertine. The objection against both these machines was that their
+  blades, while exercising a mixing action, were deficient in kneading
+  effect. Probably the first machine which achieved the task of
+  efficiently replacing the work of human arms in sponge breaking and
+  dough kneading was the Boland kneader. This was also a French machine,
+  and dates back to about the middle of the 19th century. It is believed
+  to have been first used in the Scipion bakery in Paris. It consists
+  essentially of a trough, inside which revolve a pair of blades so
+  arranged as to work somewhat like alternate screws: it is claimed for
+  these blades that their action has the effect of tossing the dough
+  backwards and forwards when it is slack, and of drawing it out when it
+  happens to be stiff. It is further claimed that the blades are so
+  shaped that their revolution has the effect of moving the dough from
+  right to left and left to right in the trough. The machine is geared
+  to give two speeds, the faster being suitable for sponge setting,
+  while the slow and most powerful speed is intended for the doughing.
+  The Boland machine has been widely adopted in other countries than
+  France, and was certainly one of the first dough kneaders to be used
+  in the United Kingdom. It was installed in the great Boland bakery in
+  Dublin, where it proved a great success. The proprietor of this
+  bakery, with which was also connected a flour mill, is said to have
+  had his attention first drawn to this machine by the fact that its
+  inventor was his namesake, though no relative.
+
+  The Deliry-Desboves dough kneader, also of French origin, and in
+  general use in France, consists essentially of a cast iron trough,
+  shaped somewhat like a basin, and turning on a vertical axis. The
+  kneading arms inside the trough are shaped after the pattern of a
+  lyre, and have the effect of first working up and then dividing the
+  dough right through the kneading process. Two helical blades, which
+  also form part of the mechanism, serve to draw out and aerate the
+  dough, as effectively, it is claimed, as can be done by the most
+  skilled operative. The force of the kneading operations can be
+  regulated without stopping the machine. A thoroughly kneaded dough
+  can, it is said, be made in this machine in twelve to fifteen minutes.
+
+  In Great Britain the type of machine that used to be most in favour
+  was the trough within which the kneading arms worked on horizontal
+  axis. The trough was either open or provided with a lid. The kneading
+  blades were variously shaped, but generally were more or less
+  straight, and were designed to both mix and aerate the dough. In some
+  cases the kneading blades were worked on a single axis, in others two
+  different sets of arms worked on two axes running parallel to one
+  another. Generally the kneader was geared to two speeds, the fast
+  motion being most suitable for sponge setting, and the earlier stages
+  of dough-making, while the slower motion was intended to draw out and
+  thoroughly aerate the dough. To discharge the dough, the trough was
+  tilted by means of a worm and worm wheel, the latter being secured to
+  the trough. Several variations of this type of kneader are still in
+  use. The machine known as the "Universal" kneader consists of a trough
+  set horizontally, within which rotate on horizontal axes a pair of
+  blades lying in the same plane. These blades are curved and are geared
+  together by means of differential spur wheels, with the object of
+  running the two spindles at unequal speeds. The bottom of the trough
+  is divided into two semi-cylindrical cavities, separated by a ridge.
+  Each blade plunges into its own cavity, and the action of these arms
+  tends, while pressing the dough against the sides and base of the
+  trough, to bring it quickly back towards the centre. The differential
+  speed has the advantage of effecting a more thorough mixing of the
+  dough, as it brings together pieces of dough which have not yet been
+  mingled, the blades pushing the dough from one cavity to the other. To
+  hasten the kneading process it is desirable occasionally to reverse
+  the motion by a turn of a hand wheel on the same shaft as the two
+  pulleys. This wheel governs all the motions of the blades. The trough,
+  which is set low, is tilted over, when the dough is ready, by an
+  endless chain operated by a hand winch. The effort required for this
+  operation is very slight, as the trough is balanced by two weights.
+  The action of tilting does not interfere with the blades, which
+  continue rotating until stopped by the hand wheel. The Universal
+  kneader was designed to imitate as closely as possible the action of a
+  pair of skilled human arms and hands, but of course works at a much
+  greater speed.
+
+  Another form of dough mixer which is extensively used consists simply
+  of a drum made of sheet steel supported by two A-shaped standards at a
+  sufficient height from the floor to allow a trough to be run
+  underneath to receive the dough when ready for the moulding board. In
+  this drum are two tight-fitting doors. The interior is fitted with no
+  blades or knives, but presents a free cylindrical space, with the sole
+  exception that, set not very far from the circumference, there are
+  several fixed rods passing from one side of the drum to the other.
+  These act as mixers of the dough. The door is opened and the flour and
+  water poured in, whereupon the door is again fastened and the drum is
+  made to rotate. As the rotation proceeds, the dough begins to form,
+  and being lifted up by the revolving drum falls by its own weight. In
+  this process, which is repeated again and again, the dough is caught
+  by and tumbled over by the rods, which act as mixers and take the
+  place of the revolving arms of the trough kneader. The kneading action
+  of the rotating arms is absent, but the steady tumbling over these
+  rods appears to have a thorough mixing effect, and the dough is
+  discharged from the drum in good condition for moulding. The time
+  occupied for making a dough by this apparatus varies from four to six
+  minutes. The advantages claimed for this machine are that it consumes
+  comparatively little power, and that there is not so much danger of
+  "felling" or over-kneading dough as in some of the machines with
+  revolving blades. The compactness of this rotating drum mixer, often
+  known as the Rotary mixer, recommends it on shipboard and in other
+  places where space is limited.
+
+
+    Dough dividers and moulders.
+
+  In the earlier days of machine bakeries the accurate dividing of
+  dough, and still more the moulding of loaves by mechanical means, was
+  considered an unattainable ideal. The first step in this direction was
+  made by the Lewis-Pointon dough divider and weigher, which was
+  intended for dividing and weighing out dough ready for the moulding
+  table. In an ordinary way a baker who wishes to bake a batch of
+  half-quartern or 2-lb. loaves scales off 2 lb. 2 oz. of dough for each
+  loaf. The 2 oz. are a sort of insurance against light weight. The
+  evaporation of moisture from dough in the oven is bound to reduce to
+  some extent the weight of the baked loaf, but with normally baked
+  bread, 2 lb. 2 oz. in the case of half-quarterns, and 4 lb. 4 oz. in
+  the case of quartern loaves, is sufficient to ensure full weight. As
+  the accurate scaling of dough requires some pains and trouble, it
+  would be surprising if hand scaling were always accurate. The
+  Lewis-Pointon machine can, it is claimed, be set to turn out lumps of
+  dough of the exact weight required either for 1-lb., 2-lb., or 4-lb.
+  loaves. The apparatus does not measure the dough by weight but by
+  volume by an ingenious piston arrangement. The machine when first put
+  on the market was a little complicated, but its mechanism has since
+  been simplified. It has been successfully worked on doughs of all
+  descriptions, ranging from the tightest to those made with 20 gallons
+  of water to the sack. The same firm which brought out this dough
+  divider has also produced a dough-moulding machine, which has a wide
+  range of work. In this apparatus the dough is introduced between a
+  trough and a revolving table at a point on the outer periphery of the
+  latter. The order of things observed in hand moulding is here
+  reversed, as the trough, unlike the hand, is fixed, while the table
+  revolves around a vertical axis. This table is sharply coned, and can
+  be made to work the dough as much or as little as may be required. In
+  working dough for tin or Coburg loaves only one trough is used, but
+  for cottage loaves two parallel troughs are fitted, one taking the
+  lower and the other the upper half of the loaf. In the latter case, a
+  single piece of dough is fed into the machine and passed through an
+  automatic splitter, the two portions being automatically carried into
+  the troughs and simultaneously delivered at the other side of the
+  machine ready to be put together. With doughs which require
+  "handing-up," two machines may be used for moulding, the dough being
+  automatically fed from the divider to the handing-up machine, and
+  after a short proof passed through the finisher. But the moulding
+  machine may also be used as a "hander-up."
+
+  Another ingenious dough moulder, known as the Baker-Callow, works on a
+  rather different principle. Here the pieces of dough coming from the
+  divider are fed into the moulder by a canvas band, and are worked
+  between a large cylindrical roller and a vertically running canvas and
+  leather belt. To prevent pieces from dropping through, and to assist
+  the moulding process, a smaller roller is placed under and between the
+  cylindrical roller and canvas belt. A wooden puncher also assists in
+  working the loaves, which are finished by being rolled between a band
+  and a special shaped wooden moulding. This machine delivers the dough
+  in spherical shaped pieces. If intended for cottage bread they are at
+  once placed on the dough table at the side, and one piece is put on
+  the top of the other ready for the oven. It is claimed the machine
+  will deal equally well with large and small pieces at the same time,
+  so that the tops and bottoms can be made together. Should the machine
+  be intended for tinned bread, a special attachment is used, into which
+  the spherical pieces are delivered from the machine and rolled into
+  cylindrical shapes, ready to be dropped into the pan. A capacity of
+  sixty loaves per minute is claimed for this moulder.
+
+  _Ovens._--The ordinary baker's oven is a vaulted chamber, about 10 ft.
+  in length, by 8 ft. in width and 30 in. in height; it is constructed
+  of brick or stone, and has a small door in front through which the
+  oven is charged (by means of a "peel" or long wooden shovel) and the
+  batch withdrawn. The furnace and fire-grate are often placed at the
+  side of the oven door, but with the oldest ovens, which were heated by
+  wood, there generally was only one door for the fuel and for the
+  bread. Whether the furnace is heated by coal, as is usual in England,
+  or by coke, as is often the case in Scotland, the oven mouth remains
+  in the bakehouse itself; hence the stoking and scuffling must be
+  carried out within the bakehouse. This is in many ways objectionable.
+  For one thing, the fuel must almost of necessity be kept in the
+  bakehouse itself, and it is obvious that the products of combustion
+  are liable to get into the oven. In the old type of oven a flue was
+  frequently placed on the other side of the furnace door, both furnace
+  and flue being on the front of the oven. After firing the furnace, the
+  oven is allowed to "lie down" for a certain time, and secure an even
+  distribution of heat. The furnace and flue are then shut, and the oven
+  charged, the batch being baked by the heat stored within the oven
+  chamber. With ovens of this type, each batch of bread requires a
+  separate firing. This kind of oven has undergone several improvements
+  of detail, but the principle of internal heating, that is, of firing
+  the furnace inside the bakehouse, has remained unchanged.
+
+  A new era in bakers' ovens began about the middle of the 19th century
+  with the introduction of the "Perkins" oven, a system which, with
+  slight modifications, has persisted till to-day. In this oven the
+  baking chamber is heated by steam pipes. The latter consist of tubes
+  of iron or mild steel which are partly filled with water and are
+  hermetically sealed by welded ends. The pipes are arranged in two
+  parallel rows, the one at the crown and the other at the sole of the
+  oven. The pipes project at one end into the furnace, which is set at
+  the back of the oven and is usually outside the bakehouse. This is
+  termed an externally heated oven. As the ends of the pipes get red hot
+  the water is converted into superheated steam, which being under high
+  pressure soon raises the chamber to baking heat, say 450 deg. to 500
+  deg. F. In an oven of this description the heat can be continuously
+  maintained, and batch after batch can be baked without refiring. The
+  only drawback is that a flash heat cannot be raised. In another type
+  of externally fired oven the heat is conveyed by flues placed at the
+  bottom and top of the oven, which discharge into a chimney. Excellent
+  results have been attained with ovens of this kind. The distribution
+  of the heat can be well regulated; for instance, it is quite possible
+  to build ovens to be cooler at the back than front, an arrangement
+  which is useful when the bread is withdrawn by means of a hand peel.
+  As the baker has to withdraw each loaf one at a time, it is clear that
+  the withdrawal of the batch through the oven door must take time,
+  probably not less than half-an-hour. Hence the bread drawn from near
+  the oven's mouth may be underbaked as compared with that at the back
+  of the chamber. The latter, on the other hand, may be overbaked and
+  deficient in weight.
+
+  By means of a draw-plate, however, an oven can be expeditiously
+  charged. This appliance consists of a sliding plate or tray, mounted
+  on wheels running on rails, which is drawn out of the oven loaded with
+  bread, and then returned. The plate itself is often made of iron, but
+  one well-known oven is fitted with a withdrawable iron frame, in which
+  are laid, edge to edge, tiles of a special make, which are cemented in
+  place, and form a continuous baking surface. This seems an excellent
+  arrangement, as the baker has all the advantages of a brick oven, that
+  is to say, his bread is baked both on top and bottom by heat evolved
+  from tiled surfaces, and the undoubted drawbacks incidental to baking
+  bread on an iron surface are avoided. A draw-plate fitted to an oven
+  capable of baking a batch made from a sack (280 lb) of flour can be
+  run out, charged and run in again, in about two minutes. The
+  draw-plate has the incidental advantage, by expediting the loading and
+  discharge of the oven, of ensuring a more uniform baking of the batch,
+  and therefore of minimizing the loss of weight. Some bakers have gone
+  so far as to estimate the saving in this respect from the use of a
+  draw-plate at half an ounce per 2-lb. loaf. With decker ovens a double
+  draw-plate may be used, the feet of the pedestal supporting the upper
+  draw-plate running on a rail outside, but parallel to the rail on
+  which the lower draw-plate runs. This arrangement, however, is more
+  applicable to small than large ovens. Or the lower oven may be fitted
+  with a draw-plate while the upper oven is served with a peel. The
+  draw-plate being at a lower level than the sole of an ordinary oven,
+  the upper deck may be worked with a peel without much difficulty.
+
+  The _decker_ oven is, as its name implies, an oven built over another
+  oven: in fact, sometimes a tier of three ovens is employed, placed one
+  above the other. The object is to secure a double or treble baking
+  surface without a very much larger outlay on fuel than would be
+  necessary for one oven. It is easy to understand that a double or
+  three decker oven might be constructed under conditions where it would
+  be impossible to place two or three ordinary ovens side by side.
+  Practical bakers are somewhat divided as to the actual economy of the
+  decker system; possibly it is a question of management. The upper oven
+  is heated by the gases which have passed under the oven beneath. A
+  double-decker oven on the flue principle could be heated by three
+  flues, one beneath the lower oven, another passing between the crown
+  of the lower and the sole of the top oven, and the third over the
+  crown of the upper oven. If a third oven were built over the second,
+  then a fourth flue would pass over the crown of the third and top
+  oven. In such an arrangement of flues the distribution of heat to the
+  ovens would be fairly equal, but no doubt the lower oven would be the
+  hottest. In addition to the flues, which should be straight and
+  accessible for cleaning, there ought also to be auxiliary flues by
+  which heat may be allowed to pass dampers to the upper portions of the
+  series of ovens. In this way the heat of the upper oven or ovens can
+  be regulated independently to a great extent of the bottom oven. The
+  power of regulating the heat of the ovens is very necessary, because a
+  baker doing what is called a mixed trade, that is to say, producing
+  cakes and pastry in addition to bread, must work his ovens at varying
+  temperatures. Cakes cannot be baked at the heat (about 450 deg. F.)
+  required by a batch of household bread. The richest fancy goods, such
+  as wedding and Christmas cakes, require the coolest ovens. Flue ovens
+  are best worked with coke, as coal is apt to choke the flues; retort
+  coke is recommended in place of oven coke. An oven should be fitted
+  with some kind of thermal register, and both high-temperature
+  thermometers and pyrometers are used for this purpose.     (G. F. Z.)
+
+
+
+
+BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1636-1717), son of Sir John
+Campbell of Glenorchy, Bart., and of the Lady Mary Graham, daughter of
+William, earl of Airth and Menteith, was born about 1636. He took part
+in the abortive royalist rising under Glencairn in 1654, and was one of
+those who urged Monk to declare a free parliament in England to
+facilitate the restoration. He sat in the Scottish parliament as member
+for Argyllshire from 1669 to 1674. As principal creditor he obtained in
+October 1672, from George, 6th earl of Caithness, a conveyance of his
+dignities, lands and heritable jurisdictions; and after the latter's
+death he was created on the 28th of June 1677 earl of Caithness and
+viscount of Breadalbane. In 1678 he married the widowed countess of
+Caithness, an economical step which saved him the alimentary provision
+of 12,000 merks a year he had covenanted to pay. In 1680 he invaded
+Caithness with a band of 700 men and defeated and dispossessed the
+earl's heir male. The latter, however, was subsequently confirmed in his
+lands and titles, and Campbell on the 13th of August 1681 obtained a new
+patent with the precedency of the former one, creating him earl of
+Breadalbane and Holland, viscount of Tay and Paintland, Lord Glenorchy,
+Benederaloch, Ormelie and Weick in the peerage of Scotland, with special
+power to nominate his successor from among the sons of his first wife.
+In 1685 he was a member of the Scottish privy council. Though nominally
+a Presbyterian he had assisted the intolerant and despotic government
+of Lauderdale in 1678 with 1700 men. He is described as having "neither
+honour nor religion but where they are mixed with interest," as of "fair
+complexion, of the gravity of the Spaniard, cunning as a Fox, wise as a
+Serpent and supple as an Eel."[1] He was reputed the best headpiece in
+Scotland.[2] His influence, owing to his position and abilities, was
+greater than that of any man in Scotland after Argyll, and it was of
+high moment to King William to gain him and obtain his services in
+conciliating the Highlanders. Breadalbane at first carried on
+communications with Dundee and was implicated in the royalist intrigue
+called the "Montgomery plot," but after the battle of Killiecrankie in
+July 1689 he made overtures to the government, subsequently took the
+oath of allegiance, and was entrusted with a large sum of money by the
+government to secure the submission of the clans. On the 30th of June
+1691 he met the Jacobite chiefs and concluded with them secret articles
+by which they undertook to refrain from acts of hostility till October,
+gaining their consent by threats and promises rather than by the
+distribution of the money entrusted to him, the greater part of which,
+it was believed, he retained himself. When asked to give an account of
+the expenditure he replied: "The money is spent, the Highlands are
+quiet, and this is the only way of accounting between friends."[3]
+
+On the 27th of August a proclamation was issued offering indemnity to
+all those who should submit and take the oath of allegiance before the
+1st of January 1692, and threatening all those who should refuse with a
+military execution and the penalties of treason. All the chiefs took the
+oath except MacIan, the chief of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, who
+postponed his submission till the 31st of December, and was then
+prevented from taking the oath till the 6th of January 1692 through the
+absence of a magistrate at Fort William, whither he had repaired for the
+purpose. This irregularity gave Breadalbane an immediate opportunity of
+destroying the clan of thieves which had for generations lived by
+plundering his lands and those of his neighbours. Accordingly, together
+with Argyll and Sir John Dalrymple (afterwards Lord Stair), Breadalbane
+organized the atrocious crime known as the "Massacre of Glencoe," when
+the unfortunate MacDonalds, deceived by assurances of friendship, and at
+the moment when they were lavishing their hospitality upon their
+murderers, were butchered in cold blood on the 13th of February 1692.
+Breadalbane's astuteness, however, prevented the disclosure of any
+evidence against him in the inquiry afterwards instituted in 1695,
+beyond the deposition of a person who professed to have been sent on
+Breadalbane's behalf to obtain a declaration of his innocence from
+MacIan's sons, who had escaped. The discovery of his former negotiations
+with the Jacobite chiefs caused his imprisonment in Edinburgh Castle in
+September, but he was released when it was known that he had been acting
+with William's knowledge.
+
+Breadalbane did not vote for the Union in 1707, but was chosen a
+representative peer in the parliament of Great Britain of 1713-1715. His
+co-operation with the English government in securing the temporary
+submission of the Highlands was inspired by no real loyalty or
+allegiance, and he encouraged the attempted French descent in 1708,
+refusing, however, to commit himself to paper. On the occasion of the
+Jacobite rising in 1715 he excused himself on the 19th of September from
+obeying the summons to appear at Edinburgh on the ground of his age and
+infirmities; but nevertheless the next day visited Mar's camp at
+Logierait and afterwards the camp at Perth, his real business being,
+according to the Master of Sinclair, "to trick others, not to be
+trickt," and to obtain a share of the French subsidies. He had taken
+money for the whole 1200 men he had promised and only sent 300. His 300
+men were withdrawn after the battle of Sheriffmuir, and his death, which
+took place on the 19th of March 1717, rendered unnecessary any inquiry
+into his conduct. He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry Rich, 1st earl
+of Holland, by whom he had two sons, Duncan, styled Lord Ormelie, who
+was passed over in the succession, and John, and earl of Breadalbane;
+(2) Mary, daughter of Archibald, marquis of Argyll, and widow of George,
+6th earl of Caithness, by whom he had one son, Colin. By Mrs Mildred
+Littler, who has sometimes but probably in error been named as his third
+wife, he had a daughter, Mary.
+
+JOHN CAMPBELL, 2nd earl of Breadalbane (1662-1752), an eccentric
+nobleman, who was known as "Old Rag," was succeeded by his only son,
+John (c. 1696-1782). This earl was a diplomatist, being British
+ambassador to Denmark and to Russia, and a politician, being for a long
+time a member of the House of Commons and a supporter of Sir Robert
+Walpole, in addition to holding several official positions. All his sons
+having predeceased their father, the title passed on his death, on the
+26th of January 1782, to a cousin, John (1762-1834), who became 4th earl
+and was created a British peer as marquess of Breadalbane in 1831. His
+son John, the 2nd marquess (1796-1862), a prominent leader of the Free
+Church during the ecclesiastical disputes in Scotland, died without sons
+in November 1862. The marquessate now became extinct, but the Scottish
+earldom passed to a cousin John Alexander (1824-1871), whose son and
+successor, Gavin (b. 1851), was created marquess of Breadalbane in 1885.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Memoirs_ of John Macky (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 121.
+
+  [2] _Corr. of Col. N. Hooke_ (Roxburghe, Club, 1870), i. 49.
+
+  [3] Note by Sir W. Scott in Sinclair's _Mem. of Insurrection in
+    Scotland_ (Abbotsford Club, 1858), 185.
+
+
+
+
+BREADALBANE, a large district of Perthshire, Scotland, bordered N. by
+Atholl, E. by Strathtay, S. by Strathearn and W. by the districts of
+Argyll and Lorne, and occupying some 1020 sq. m. Most of the surface is
+mountainous, Ben Lawers (3984 ft.), Ben More (3843), and Ben Lui (3708),
+being the principal hills. Loch Tay is the chief lake, and among the
+rivers are the Orchy, Dochart, Lochay, Lyon, Almond and the Tay (during
+the early part of its course). Population mostly centres in Aberfeldy,
+Fortingal, Kenmore and Killin. The soil is not cultivable excepting in
+some of the glens and straths. Game is plentiful, the lakes and rivers
+afford good sport, and the deer forests and shootings are valuable. The
+district has given the titles of earl and marquess to the Campbells of
+Glenorchy.
+
+
+
+
+BREAD-FRUIT. This most important food staple of the tropical islands in
+the Pacific Ocean is the fruit of _Artocarpus incisa_ (nat. ord.
+Moraceae). The tree attains a moderate height, has very large, acutely
+lobed, glossy leaves, the male flowers in spikes, and the female flowers
+in a dense head, which by consolidation of their fleshy carpels and
+receptacles form the fruit. The fruit is globular in shape, about the
+size of a melon, with a tuberculated or (in some varieties) nearly
+smooth surface. Many varieties of the tree are cultivated, the fruits of
+some ripening numerous seeds, which are eaten as chestnuts; but in the
+best kinds the seeds are aborted, and it is only these that are highly
+prized as vegetables. The tree is a native of the South Sea Islands,
+where its fruit occupies the important position that is held by cereals
+in temperate latitudes. The fruit, which on distinct varieties ripens at
+different periods, affording a nearly constant supply throughout the
+year, is gathered for use just before it ripens, when it is found to be
+gorged with starchy matter, to which its esculent value is due. It may
+be cooked and prepared for use in a great variety of ways, the common
+practice in the South Sea Islands being to bake it entire in hot embers,
+and scoop out the interior, which when properly cooked should have a
+soft smooth consistence, fibrous only towards the heart, with a taste
+which has been compared to that of boiled potatoes and sweet milk. Of
+this fruit A.R. Wallace, in his _Malay Archipelago_, says: "With meat
+and gravy it is a vegetable superior to anything I know either in
+temperate or tropical countries. With sugar, milk, butter or treacle it
+is a delicious pudding, having a very slight and delicate but
+characteristic flavour, which, like that of good bread and potatoes, one
+never gets tired of." In the Pacific Islands the fruit is preserved for
+use by storing in pits, where the fruits ferment and resolve themselves
+into a mass similar in consistency to new cheese, in which state they
+emit an offensive odour; but after baking under hot stones they yield a
+pleasant and nutritious food. Another and more common method of
+preserving the fruit for use consists in cutting it into thin slices,
+which are dried in the sun. From such dried slices a flour is prepared
+which is useful for the preparation of puddings, bread and biscuits, or
+the slices are baked and eaten without grinding. The tree yields other
+products of economic value, such as native cloth from the fibrous inner
+bark of young trees; the wood is used for canoes and articles of
+furniture; and a kind of glue and caulking material are obtained from
+the viscid milky juice which exudes from incisions made in the stem.
+
+[Illustration: _Artocarpus incisa_, the Bread-fruit tree.
+
+  Fig. 1. Branch reduced about a 6th natural size, with cuneate-ovate
+    pinnatifid leaves, male flowers in a club-shaped deciduous catkin,
+    and female flowers in rounded clusters.
+  Fig. 2. Transverse section of the male spike with numerous flowers.
+  Fig. 3. Male flowers.
+  Fig. 4. Single male flower separated, with a perianth in 2 segments
+    and a single stamen.
+  Fig. 5. Female flowers.
+  Fig. 6. Single female flower separated, with ovary, style and bifid
+    stigma.
+  Fig. 7. Ovary.
+  Fig. 8. Ovary laid open to show the ovule.
+  Fig. 9. A variety of the ovary with 2 loculaments.
+  Fig. 10. Transverse section of a bilocular ovary.]
+
+The bread-fruit is found throughout the tropical regions of both
+hemispheres, and its first introduction into the West Indies is
+connected with the famous mutiny of the "Bounty," and the remarkable
+history of a small company of the mutineers at Pitcairn Island.
+Attention was directed to the fruit in 1688 by Captain Dampier, and
+later by Captain Cook, who recommended its transplantation to the West
+Indian colonies. In 1787 the "Bounty" was fitted out under command of
+Lieutenant William Bligh (q.v.) to proceed to Tahiti to carry plants
+thence to the West Indian Islands; and it was after the cargo had been
+secured and the vessel was on her way that the mutiny broke out, and
+Lieutenant Bligh and some of his crew were turned adrift in a small boat
+in the open sea. The mutineers returned with the vessel to Tahiti,
+whence a number of them, with a few native men and women, sailed to the
+desolate and lone islet of Pitcairn. Lieutenant Bligh ultimately reached
+England, and was again commissioned to undertake the work of
+transplanting the plants, which in the year 1792-1793 he successfully
+accomplished.
+
+A somewhat similar but inferior fruit is produced by an allied species,
+the Jack or Jak, _Artocarpus integrifolia_, growing in India, Ceylon and
+the Eastern Archipelago. The large fruit is from 12 to 18 in. long by 6
+to 8 in. in diameter, and is much eaten by the natives in India. This
+tree is chiefly valuable on account of its timber, which has a grain
+very similar to mahogany, and although at first light-coloured it
+gradually assumes much of the appearance of that wood.
+
+
+
+
+BREAKING BULK, a nautical term for the taking out of a portion of the
+cargo of a ship, or the beginning to unload; and used in a legal sense
+for taking anything out of a package or parcel, or in any way destroying
+its entirety. It was thus important in connexion with the subject of
+bailment, involving as it did the curious distinction that where a
+bailee received possession of goods in a box or package, and then sold
+them as a whole, he was guilty only of a breach of trust, but if he
+"broke bulk" or caused a separation of the goods, and sold a part or
+all, he was guilty of felony. This distinction was abolished by the
+Larceny Act 1861, which enacted that whoever, being a bailee of any
+chattel, money or valuable security, should fraudulently take or convert
+the same to his own use, or the use of any person other than the owner,
+although he should not break bulk or otherwise determine the bailment,
+should be guilty of larceny (s. 3).
+
+
+
+
+BREAKWATER. When a harbour (q.v.) is proposed to be established on an
+exposed coast, whether for naval or commercial purposes, to provide a
+protected approach to a port or river, or to serve as a refuge for
+vessels from storms, the necessary shelter, so far as it is not
+naturally furnished by a bay or projecting headlands, has to be secured
+by the construction of one or more "breakwaters." These breakwaters,
+having to prevent the waves that beat upon the coast from reaching the
+site which they are designed to protect, must be made sufficiently
+strong to withstand the shocks of the waves during the worst storms to
+which they are exposed. It is therefore essential, before constructing a
+breakwater, to investigate most carefully the force, periods and
+duration of the winds from the quarters to which the work will be
+exposed, the distance of any sheltering land from the site in the most
+stormy direction, the slope of the beach and the depth of the sea in the
+neighbourhood of the shore, and the protection, if any, afforded by
+outlying shoals or sandbanks. In a tidal sea, the height required for a
+breakwater is affected by the amount of tidal range; and the extent of
+breakwater exposed to breaking waves depends upon the difference in
+level between low and high water. The existence, also, of any drift of
+sand or shingle along the shore must be ascertained, and its extent; for
+the projection of a solid breakwater out from the shore is certain to
+affect this littoral drift, which, if large in amount, may necessitate
+important modifications in the design for the harbour.
+
+
+  Winds.
+
+Observations of the force and prevalence of the winds from the different
+quarters at the various periods of the year, and the instruments by
+which they are recorded, belong to the science of meteorology; but such
+records are very valuable to the maritime engineer in indicating from
+which directions, open to the sea, the worst storms, and, consequently,
+the greatest waves, may be expected, and against which the most
+efficient shelter has to be provided. Moreover, it is necessary, for
+constructing or repairing a breakwater, to know the period of the year
+when the calmest weather may be safely anticipated, and also the stormy
+season during which no work should be attempted, and in preparation for
+which unfinished works have to be guarded by protective measures. In the
+parts of the world subject to periodical winds, such as the monsoons,
+the direction and force of the winds vary with remarkable regularity
+according to the seasons; and even such uncertain occurrences as
+hurricanes and cyclones generally visit the regions in their track at
+definite periods of the year, according to the locality. Even in western
+Europe, where the winds are extremely variable, violent gales are much
+more liable to beat upon the western and northern coasts in the winter
+months than at any other period of the year; whilst the calmest weather
+may be expected between May and August.
+
+
+  Waves.
+
+The size of waves depends upon the force of the wind, and the distance
+along which it blows continuously, in approximately the same direction,
+over a large expanse of ocean. The greatest waves are, accordingly,
+encountered where the maximum distance in a certain direction from the
+nearest land, or, as it is termed, the "fetch," coincides with the line
+travelled by the strongest gales. The dimensions, indeed, of waves in
+the worst storms depend primarily on the extent of the sea in which they
+are raised; though in certain seas they are occasionally greatly
+increased by the exceptional velocities attained by hurricanes and
+typhoons, which, however, are fortunately restricted to fairly well
+defined and limited regions. Waves have been found to attain a maximum
+height of about 10 ft. in the Lake of Geneva, 17 ft. in the
+Mediterranean Sea, 23 ft. in the Bay of Biscay, and 40 ft. in the
+Atlantic Ocean; whilst waves of 50 to 60 ft. in height have been
+observed in the Pacific Ocean off the Cape of Good Hope, where the
+expanse of sea reaches a maximum, and the exposure to gales is complete.
+The length of large waves bears no definite relation to their height,
+and is apparently due, in the long waves often observed in exposed
+situations, to the combination of several shorter waves in their onward
+course, which is naturally dependent on the extent of the exposure. Thus
+waves about 560 ft. in length have been met with during severe gales in
+the Atlantic Ocean; whilst waves from 600 to 1000 ft. long are regarded
+as of common occurrence in the Pacific Ocean during storms.
+
+The rate of transmission of the undulation also varies with the
+exposure; for the ordinary velocity of the apparent travel of waves in
+storms has been found to amount to about 22 m. an hour in the Atlantic
+Ocean, and to attain about 27 m. an hour off Cape Horn. The large waves,
+however, observed in mid-ocean do not reach the coast, because their
+progress is checked, and their height and length reduced, by
+encountering the shelving sea-bottom, which diminishes the depth of
+water on approaching the shore; and the actual waves which have to be
+arrested by breakwaters depend on the exposure of the site, the
+existence of continuous deep water close up to the shore, and the depth
+in which the breakwater is situated. On the other hand, the height, and,
+consequently, the destructive force of waves, is increased on running up
+a funnel-shaped bay, by the increasing concentration of the waves in the
+narrowing width, just as the tidal range of a moderate tidal current is
+much augmented by its passage up the Bay of Fundy, or up the Bristol
+Channel into the Severn estuary, or by filling the shallow enclosed bay
+of St Malo. This effect is intensified when the bay faces the direction
+of the strongest winds. Thus at Wick a mass of masonry weighing 1350
+tons, placed at the head of the breakwater projecting half-way across
+the bay and facing the entrance, was moved by the waves during a violent
+storm; and a portion of Peterhead breakwater, weighing 3300 tons, was
+shifted 2 in. in 1898, indicating a wave-stroke of 2 tons per sq. ft.
+Southwesterly gales, blowing up the Gulf of Genoa, cause large waves to
+roll into the bay, reaching a height of about 21 ft. in the worst
+storms.
+
+Where outlying sandbanks stretch in front of a coast, as for instance
+the Stroombank in front of Ostend and the adjacent shore, and the
+sandbanks opposite Yarmouth sheltering Yarmouth Roads, large waves
+cannot approach the land, for they break on the sandbanks outside.
+Waves, indeed, always break when, on running up a shoaling beach, they
+reach a depth approximately equal to their height; and the largest waves
+which can reach a shore protected by intervening sandbanks, are those
+which are low enough to pass over the banks without breaking.
+
+The force of the wind, as transmitted by degrees to the sea, is
+manifested as a series of progressing undulations without any material
+displacement of the body of water, each undulation transmitting its
+accumulated force to the next in the direction the wind is blowing, till
+at last, on encountering an obstacle to its onward course, each wave, no
+longer finding any water to which to communicate its energy, deals a
+blow against the obstacle proportionate to its size and rate of
+transmission; or on reaching shoal water near the shore, the undulation
+is finally transformed into a breaking wave rushing up the sloping
+beach. till, on its energy being spent, it recoils back to the sea down
+the beach. A breaking wave concentrates its transmitted force on a
+portion of the water forming the undulation, which, consequently,
+strikes a more powerful blow over a limited area against any structure
+than the more distributed shock of a simple undulation beating against a
+vertical wall. Moreover, the recoil of broken waves down a sloping beach
+or rubble mound produces a greater scour than the simple reflection of
+an undulation from a vertical wall, especially where the depth is
+sufficient to provide a cushion of water below the undulation,
+protecting the toe of the wall from the wash of recoil.
+
+_Types of Breakwaters_.--There are three distinct types of
+breakwaters:--(1) A simple rubble or concrete-block mound; (2) a mound
+for the bottom portion, surmounted on the top by a solid superstructure
+of masonry or concrete; and (3) an upright-wall breakwater, built up
+solid from the sea-bottom to the top. The second type forms a sort of
+combination of the first and third types; and each type presents several
+varieties. In a few harbours, two different types have been adopted for
+different situations at the same place; but generally the choice of type
+is determined by the materials available at the site for the
+construction of the breakwater, the nature of the sea-bottom and the
+depth into which the breakwater has to be carried.
+
+
+    Rubble mound.
+
+  1. _Rubble and Concrete-Block Mound Breakwaters._--A rubble mound
+  consists merely of a mass of rubble stone, just as it is obtained from
+  a neighbouring quarry, tipped into the sea along a predetermined line,
+  till the mound emerges out of water. The rubble stone is deposited,
+  either from barges, as adopted for the construction of the detached
+  breakwater sheltering Plymouth Bay, or from wagons, having hinged
+  opening flaps at the bottom for dropping their load, run out from the
+  shore along staging erected in the proposed line, according to the
+  method employed for the outer breakwater enclosing Portland Harbour,
+  and the north-east breakwater at Colombo Harbour. The mound thus
+  deposited is gradually consolidated under the action of the sea; and a
+  tolerably stable form is by degrees attained by continued deposits of
+  stone. This system of construction is very wasteful of materials, and
+  can only be resorted to where extensive quarries close at hand are
+  able to furnish readily and cheaply very large quantities of stone,
+  especially where, as at Portland and Table Bay, convict labour has
+  been advantageously utilized in quarrying. When the site is very
+  exposed, the large waves in storms, dashing over a rubble-mound
+  breakwater, carry the stones on the top, if unprotected, over on to
+  the harbour slope, and in recoiling down the outer slope, draw down
+  the stones on the face, so that the top and sea slope of the mound
+  need replenishing with a fresh deposit of stones after severe storms.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Table Bay Breakwater]
+
+  Under the action of the breaking and recoiling waves, the mound
+  assumes a very flat slope on the sea side, from a few feet above
+  high-water down to several feet below low-wafer level (fig. 1). The
+  flatness of the sea slope depends on the exposure of the site, and the
+  limited size of the stones covering the outer portion of the mound;
+  and its extent increases with the range of tide, as a large tidal rise
+  exposes a greater length of slope to the action of the waves. This
+  flattening of the sea slope greatly increases the amount of stone
+  required for a rubble-mound breakwater, in proportion to the exposure
+  and the range of tide; and the amount is also affected, but in a
+  proportionately minor degree, by the depth in which the breakwater is
+  situated. In order to avoid the injuries to which an ordinary rubble
+  mound is subjected by waves, certain methods have been devised for
+  protecting the top and sea slope of the mound. For instance, the upper
+  portion of Plymouth breakwater has been covered over by granite paving
+  set in cement, to diminish the displacement of the stones by the
+  waves. Frequently, on the continent of Europe, rubble mounds have been
+  formed of materials so sorted that the smallest stones are placed in
+  the centre of the lower part of the mound, and covered over along the
+  slopes and top by layers of larger stones, increasing in size towards
+  the outer part of the mound, so that the largest stones obtainable are
+  deposited on the outside, and especially on the top and sea slope of
+  the mound. This is, no doubt, theoretically the correct method of
+  construction of rubble mounds exposed to the sea; but it involves a
+  considerable amount of trouble and expense.
+
+
+    Concrete blocks with rubble mound.
+
+  Practically the chief point of importance is to cover the outer slope
+  and the top of the mound with the largest stones that can be procured,
+  and where large stones are not readily obtainable concrete blocks
+  furnish a very convenient substitute. These blocks are generally
+  deposited as the outer covering on the top and sea slope of a rubble
+  mound, as for example at the mound breakwaters in deep water
+  sheltering Algiers harbour, and at the French parts of Cette and Bona
+  on the Mediterranean; whilst they furnish the protection of the top
+  and upper part of the sea slope of the rubble-mound extension of
+  Marseilles breakwater down to 20 ft. below sea-level. At Alexandria,
+  concrete blocks compose the outer half of the mound, sheltering the
+  inner half consisting of small rubble (fig. 2); at Biarritz the mound
+  breakwater is formed mainly of concrete blocks, with rubble stone
+  filling the interstices and on the top; whereas at the outer end of
+  the western breakwater at Port Said, protecting the entrance to the
+  Suez Canal, a bottom layer of rubble is surmounted by concrete blocks.
+  These blocks are generally deposited at random; but at Cette (fig. 3),
+  and at the breakwater in deep water at Civita Vecchia, the concrete
+  blocks covering the rubble have been laid in stepped, horizontal
+  courses. This arrangement necessitates more care and better appliances
+  in construction; but, in compensation, the blocks so placed are less
+  exposed to disturbance and injury by the waves.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Alexandria Breakwater.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Cette Breakwater.]
+
+  Concrete blocks possess the great advantages for breakwaters that they
+  can be made wherever sand and shingle can be procured, and of a size
+  only limited by the appliances which are available for handling them.
+  In fact, in places where stone of any kind is difficult to procure at
+  a reasonable cost, as for instance at Port Said, concrete blocks are
+  indispensable for the construction of breakwaters. Large concrete
+  blocks, moreover, by enabling a comparatively steep slope to be formed
+  with them on the sea side of a mound breakwater, reduce considerably
+  the amount of materials required, especially at exposed sites, and
+  also for breakwaters extended into deep water, such as those of
+  Algiers and Marseilles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG.4.--Port Said Western Breakwater.]
+
+
+    Concrete block mound.
+
+  Occasionally, in the absence of suitable rubble stone, a mound
+  breakwater has been formed entirely with concrete blocks; and of this
+  the main portion of the western breakwater at Port Said furnishes a
+  notable example (fig. 4). Sometimes, in exposed situations, the mounds
+  of the composite type of breakwaters have been constructed exclusively
+  with concrete blocks, such, for instance, as in the curved breakwater
+  protecting the outer harbour at Leghorn, and in the central breakwater
+  in deep water sheltering the harbour of St Jean de Luz, and directly
+  facing the Bay of Biscay. These large concrete blocks are deposited by
+  cranes from staging, tipped into the sea from a sloping platform on
+  barges, or floated out between pontoons, or slung out from floating
+  derricks. This last method proved so expeditious for the upper blocks
+  at Alexandria, that, in conjunction with the tipping of the lower
+  blocks from the inclined planes on the decks of barges and the deposit
+  of the rubble from hopper barges, provided also with side flaps for
+  the higher portions, the detached breakwater, nearly 2 m. long,
+  sheltering a very spacious harbour, was constructed in two years
+  (1870-1872). Sometimes, when a mound breakwater has been raised out of
+  water, advantage is taken of a calm period of the year and a low tide
+  to form large blocks of concrete within timber framing on the top of
+  the mound, so as to provide a very efficient protection.
+
+  The large masses composing mound breakwaters give them great stability
+  against the attacks of the sea; and, moreover, the wide base of the
+  mounds enables them to be deposited on a sandy or silty sea-bottom,
+  without any fear of settlement or undermining. A mound breakwater,
+  however, has the disadvantages of requiring a large amount of
+  material, and of occupying a wide space on the bed of the sea, more
+  especially where the mound consists of rubble stone and is in deep
+  water, so that the system, though simple, is costly, and is unsuited
+  for harbours where the available space to be sheltered is limited.
+  Nevertheless, a mound breakwater can be rapidly constructed by the
+  employment of a large number of barges; and by the adoption of large
+  concrete blocks, the quantity of materials and the space occupied by
+  the mound can be considerably reduced. This form of breakwater, with
+  its long outer slope exposed to breaking waves, particularly where the
+  tidal range is considerable, is, indeed, more subject to frequent
+  small injuries than the other types, but they are readily repaired;
+  and a mound is not generally liable to the serious breaches which
+  occasionally are formed in solid superstructures and upright walls in
+  exceptional storms.
+
+  2. _Breakwaters formed of a Mound surmounted by a Superstructure._--The
+  second type of breakwater consists of a mound, composed of rubble or
+  concrete blocks, or generally a combination of the two, carried up from
+  the sea-bottom, on the top of which some form of solid superstructure
+  is erected. This superstructure reduces considerably the amount of
+  materials required (which, on account of the slopes of the mound,
+  increases rapidly with the height) in proportion to the depth at which
+  the superstructure is founded; and the solid capping on the mound
+  serves also to protect the top of the mound from the action of the
+  waves. In the case, however, of a mound breakwater, portions of the
+  highest waves generally pass over the top of the mound, and also to
+  some extent expend their force in passing through the interstices
+  between the blocks; whereas a superstructure presents a solid face to
+  the impact of the waves. A superstructure, accordingly, must be very
+  strongly built in proportion to the exposure, and also to the size of
+  the waves liable to reach it, which depends upon the height and
+  flatness of the slope of the mound just in front of it on the sea side.
+  Special care, moreover, has to be taken to prevent the superstructure
+  from being undermined; for the waves in storms, dashing up against this
+  nearly vertical, solid obstacle, tend in their recoil down the face to
+  scour out the materials of the mound at the outer toe of the
+  superstructure, and thereby undermine it, especially where the
+  superstructure is founded on the mound near low-water level, and there
+  is, therefore, no adequate cushion of water above the mound to diminish
+  the effect of the recoil on the foundation.
+
+  The mound constituting the lower portion of the composite type of
+  breakwater has been formed in the same varied way as simple mound
+  breakwaters, namely, of rubble, sorted rubble, rubble protected by
+  concrete blocks, and wholly of concrete blocks. The only differences
+  introduced in the mound in this case are, that it is not carried up so
+  high, that the top portion covered by the superstructure needs no
+  further protection, and that special protection has to be provided on
+  the slope of the mound adjacent to the outer toe of the
+  superstructure.
+
+
+    Superstructures.
+
+  The forms of the superstructures exhibit considerable variations,
+  ranging from a few concrete blocks laid in courses on the top of the
+  mound, or a paving furnishing a quay protected by a narrow parapet
+  wall on the sea side, up to a large, solid structure, only differing
+  from an upright-wall breakwater in being founded upon a mound, instead
+  of on the sea-bottom. Notwithstanding, however, this great variety in
+  design, these breakwaters may be divided into two distinct classes,
+  namely, breakwaters having their superstructures founded at or near
+  low-water level, and breakwaters with superstructures founded some
+  depth below low water. The object in the first case is to lay the
+  foundations of the superstructure on the mound at the lowest level
+  consistent with building a solid structure with blocks set in mortar,
+  out of water, in the ordinary manner; and, in the second case, to stop
+  the raising of the mound at such a depth under water as to secure it
+  from displacement by the waves. In fact, the solidity and facility of
+  construction of the superstructure were the primary considerations in
+  the older form of breakwater; whereas the stability of the mound and
+  the avoidance of the undermining of the superstructure have been
+  regarded as the most important provisions in the more modern form.
+
+
+    Superstructures at low-water level.
+
+  Well-known examples of breakwaters formed of a rubble mound surmounted
+  by a superstructure founded at or near low water or sea-level, are
+  furnished by Cherbourg and Holyhead breakwaters, the inner breakwater
+  at Portland, and the breakwaters at Marseilles, Genoa, Civita Vecchia,
+  Naples, Trieste and other Mediterranean ports. The very exposed
+  breakwater at Alderney was commenced on this principle about the
+  middle of the 19th century; and the outer breakwaters at Leghorn and
+  St Jean de Luz have superstructures founded at low water on
+  concrete-block mounds.
+
+  The long, detached breakwater sheltering the series of basins formed
+  by wide projecting jetties along the sea coast at Marseilles (see
+  DOCK), is a typical instance of a breakwater where a quay has been
+  formed on the top of a sorted rubble mound, sheltered on the sea side
+  by a high wall, or narrow superstructure, founded at sea-level, and
+  protected on the sea slope of the mound from undermining by large
+  concrete blocks deposited at random (fig. 5). In this case the quay
+  has been rendered accessible for vessels on the harbour side by a quay
+  wall, formed of concrete blocks deposited one above the other,
+  providing a vertical face to a depth of about 22-3/4 ft. below
+  sea-level; and a similar arrangement has been adopted at Trieste, and
+  in a less effective manner at Civita Vecchia and Naples. At
+  Marseilles, however, when the breakwater reached great depths, the
+  quay was abandoned on account of the increased exposure, and the
+  extension made of a simple rubble mound, protected on the sea side,
+  from the top down to 20 ft. below sea-level, by large concrete blocks
+  deposited at random.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Marseilles Breakwater, central portion.]
+
+  The superstructures at Holyhead and Portland, being built on the old
+  weak system of a sea wall and a harbour wall, with rubble filling
+  between, are protected on the sea side by raising the rubble against
+  them from low water up to high water of spring tides; whereas the
+  superstructure of Cherbourg breakwater, being built solid and less
+  exposed, is only protected on the sea side by large rubble and some
+  concrete blocks, forming an apron raised slightly above low water.
+  These three breakwaters are provided with a quay sheltered by a raised
+  wall or promenade on the sea side; but as the mound on the harbour
+  side is raised up to, or a little above low water, the quay is only
+  accessible for vessels near high water. This, however, is of
+  comparatively little importance, since these quays, though very useful
+  for access to the end of the breakwater in fairly calm weather, are
+  inaccessible in exposed situations with a rough sea; and quays for the
+  accommodation of vessels are better provided well within the sheltered
+  harbour.
+
+  The outer portions of the main breakwaters at Genoa and at Naples
+  (fig. 6), extending into depths of about 75 ft. and 110 ft.
+  respectively, have been provided with superstructures, similar in
+  type, but more solid than the superstructure at Marseilles; and the
+  sorted rubble mounds upon which the superstructures rest are protected
+  on the sea slope by stepped courses of concrete blocks from a depth of
+  26 ft. below sea-level, covered over at the top by a masonry apron
+  forming a prolongation of the superstructure. The outer extension of
+  the main breakwater at Civita Vecchia furnishes an interesting example
+  of a composite form of breakwater, in which the rubble mound has been
+  protected, and greatly reduced in volume and extent in deep water, by
+  stepped courses of concrete blocks carried up from near the bottom of
+  the mound (fig. 7).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--San Vincenzo Breakwater, Naples.]
+
+  The breakwaters in front of Havre, constructed in 1896-1907, for
+  sheltering the altered entrance to the port, were formed of a sorted
+  rubble mound, protected on the sea slope by concrete blocks, and
+  raised a little above low water of spring tides, upon which large
+  blocks of masonry, built on land, were deposited with their upper
+  surfaces about 18 in. above low water of neap tides. As soon as
+  settlement of the mound under the action of the sea appeared to have
+  ceased, these masonry blocks were connected together by filling the
+  spaces between them with masonry; and a solid masonry superstructure
+  was built during low tide on this foundation layer, as shown in fig.
+  8.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Civita Vecchia Outer Breakwater.]
+
+  The breakwaters constructed for forming harbours on the sea coast of
+  the United States are almost all rubble-mound breakwaters. The two old
+  detached breakwaters sheltering Delaware Harbour near the
+  south-eastern extremity of Delaware Bay, were formed of simple rubble
+  mounds raised about 13 ft. above low water; but in closing the gap
+  between them towards the close of the 19th century, the rubble mound
+  was stopped at low water, and a sort of superstructure, consisting of
+  stepped courses of large rectangular blocks of stone on the sea and
+  harbour sides, with tightly packed rubble between them and capped
+  across the top for a width of 20 ft. with a course of large blocks,
+  was raised to 14 ft. above low water, resembling, on a small scale,
+  the upper part of the Civita Vecchia mound (fig. 7). A similar
+  construction was adopted for the new breakwater formed in 1897-1901
+  for providing a harbour of refuge at the mouth of Delaware Bay; but in
+  this instance the mound was made considerably wider at the top, and
+  had to be protected along the toe of the superstructure on the sea
+  side by large stones. The same form of superstructure, also, on a
+  narrower base, was resorted to for a breakwater in deeper water at San
+  Pedro in California with satisfactory results. When, however, a
+  breakwater of the Delaware type was in progress for forming a harbour
+  of refuge in Sandy Bay, Massachusetts, in front of Rockport to the
+  north of Boston, the upper 13 ft. of the 600 ft. of completed
+  superstructure were carried away during a severe storm in 1898 leaving
+  only a portion about 5 ft. in height above low water, the average rise
+  of tide there being 8-3/5 ft. The design was, accordingly, modified in
+  1902, by commencing the stepped courses of large stones at 12 ft.
+  below mean low water on each slope, instead of at low water raising
+  this kind of superstructure to 22 ft. above low water in place of 18
+  ft., and capping the stepped courses at the top by large blocks of
+  stone, 20 ft. long and 5 ft. deep, laid across the breakwater, which
+  thus presented a marked resemblance to the upper section of the mound
+  at Civita Vecchia.
+
+
+    Superstructure below low-water level.
+
+  The breakwater at Sandy Bay just referred to, and the one at Civita
+  Vecchia, which it somewhat resembles, approximate to that class of
+  breakwater which has a superstructure founded below low-water level,
+  so far as stepped courses of blocks can be regarded as forming part of
+  a superstructure; but as the protection afforded by these courses
+  differs only in the arrangement of the blocks from that obtained by
+  blocks deposited at random, it appears expedient to restrict this
+  class to the more solid structures, resembling upright-wall
+  breakwaters, founded on a mound at some depth below low water As the
+  main object of this class of breakwater is to keep the mound below the
+  zone of disturbance by waves in severe storms, it is evident that the
+  depth at which the superstructure is founded should vary directly with
+  the exposure of the site, and inversely with the size of the materials
+  forming the mound.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Havre Breakwater.]
+
+  The depth at which waves striking against a superstructure may affect
+  a rubble mound near its toe by the recoil, has been only very
+  gradually realized. Thus, in 1847, the Alderney breakwater, though
+  fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, was begun with a superstructure
+  founded at low water of spring tides upon a rubble mound; but within
+  two years the foundations had to be carried down 12 it. below low
+  water, and this was adhered to till close to the head, though the
+  breakwater, completed in 1864, extended 4700 ft. from the shore into a
+  depth of 130 ft. at low tide, the rise of springs being 17 ft. The
+  great recoil of the waves in storms from the promenade wall on the sea
+  side of the superstructure, raised 33 ft. above low water, disturbed
+  the sea slope of the mound along the outer portion, situated in depths
+  of 80 to 130 ft. at low water, out to a distance of 90 ft. from the
+  superstructure and to a depth of 20 ft.; whilst the outer toe of the
+  superstructure was only preserved from being undermined by frequent
+  deposits of stone along the sea face.
+
+  The south-west breakwater at Colombo Harbour, constructed in
+  1876-1884, facing the seas raised by the south-west monsoon, extends
+  into a depth of 39 ft. at low water, where the rise of tide is only 2
+  ft. at springs, and was built with a superstructure founded upon a
+  rubble mound at a depth of 20 ft. below low water, but raised only 12
+  ft. above this level without any parapet, and protected along its sea
+  face by an apron of concrete in bags. In this case, not only was the
+  depth of the sea much less than at Alderney, but the small elevation
+  of the superstructure above low water enabled a portion of the waves
+  in storms to pass over it without materially impairing the shelter
+  inside. These circumstances reduced the shock and recoil of the waves;
+  and the greater depth of the foundations and the protection of the toe
+  of the superstructure greatly diminished the danger of undermining.
+  Consequently, the Colombo breakwater has been preserved from the
+  injuries to which the outer part of the Alderney breakwater succumbed.
+  Nevertheless, in subsequently constructing the north-west detached
+  breakwater, less exposed to the south-west monsoon, but in somewhat
+  deeper water (see COLOMBO), the experience of the action of the sea on
+  the south-west breakwater led to the laying of the foundations of the
+  superstructure on the rubble mound at 30-3/4 ft. below low water (fig.
+  9).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Colombo North-West Breakwater.]
+
+  The breakwater for sheltering Peterhead Bay, where the rise of springs
+  is 11-1/4 ft., was begun in 1888, and designed to extend into a depth
+  of 9-1/2 fathoms at low water (see HARBOUR). It was built as an
+  upright wall upon the rocky bottom for 1000 ft. from the shore; but
+  owing to the increase in depth it was decided to construct the outer
+  portion with a rubble base, surmounted by a superstructure originally
+  designed to be founded 30 ft. below low water. As, however, during a
+  storm in October 1898, the recoil of the waves from the breakwater,
+  which is provided with a promenade wall rising about 35 ft. above low
+  water, disturbed rubble to a depth of 36-1/2 ft., the superstructure
+  has been founded 43 ft. below low water on the rubble base; and its
+  outer toe is protected from being undermined by two rows of concrete
+  blocks on the rubble mound.
+
+
+    Construction of the superstructure.
+
+  Formerly, in constructing a large superstructure upon a rubble mound,
+  it was a common practice to build a sea wall and a harbour wall
+  several feet apart, and to fill up the intermediate,. space between
+  them with rubble, so as economically to form a wide structure on the
+  top of the mound, and provide an adequate width for a quay along the
+  top. A sheltering wall was also generally erected on the sea side.
+  This, for instance, was the system of construction adopted for the
+  superstructures, founded at low water, of Holyhead breakwater,
+  Portland inner breakwater, and St Catherine's, Jersey, breakwater.
+  Alderney breakwater, the Tyne breakwaters and Colombo south-west
+  breakwater were also commenced with a precisely similar method of
+  construction. The system, however, possesses a Very serious defect for
+  exposed situations, namely, that if once the sea can force a small
+  opening through the sea wall, the scooping out of the rubble filling,
+  and the overthrow of the thinner harbour wall are rapidly accomplished
+  if the storm continues or recurs before repairs can be effected.
+  Experience soon proved at Alderney and Tynemouth the unsuitability of
+  the system for very exposed situations; and the intermediate rubble
+  filling was replaced by solid hearting down to a certain depth. At
+  Colombo, after the first 1326 ft. of the south-west breakwater had
+  been built with two walls and intermediate rubble for the
+  superstructure, as the exposure proved greater than had been
+  anticipated, and a slight displacement of part of the sea wall, 24 ft.
+  wide, had occurred, the rubble filling was discontinued, and the two
+  walls were united into a solid superstructure 34 ft. in width.
+
+
+    sloping block system.
+
+  A difficulty experienced in constructing a solid superstructure on the
+  top of a rubble mound consists in the settlement of the mound which
+  takes place when the weight of the superstructure comes on it, in
+  spite of the consolidation of the rubble under the action of the sea
+  for one or two years before the erection of the superstructure on it
+  is undertaken. When the superstructure is carried out in long
+  stepped-forward courses, irregular settlement is particularly liable
+  to occur, as the weight is progressively imposed in an uneven manner
+  on the yielding rubble, in proportion to the height of the rubble base
+  and its deficiency in compactness. The open joints between the blocks
+  laid below low water enable the air to penetrate, on the recoil of the
+  waves at low tide, into any internal fissures resulting from
+  settlement; and the following wave, on striking the superstructure,
+  compresses the air inside, which, on its expansion when the wave
+  recedes, forces out any unconnected face stones. The hole thus formed
+  is rapidly enlarged by the sea if the storm continues; and a breach is
+  eventually formed. The sloping-block system was, accordingly devised
+  to provide against the dislocation of superstructures by the
+  inevitable irregular settlement, by forming them of a series of
+  sloping sections, composed of concrete blocks laid at an angle, free
+  to settle independently on the mound, as shown in fig. 10. In the
+  first superstructure thus constructed, in 1869-1874, at the entrance
+  to Karachi harbour, founded 15 ft. below low water on a rubble mound
+  and 24 ft. high, the blocks in each section, consisting of two rows of
+  three superposed blocks laid at an inclination of 76 deg. shorewards,
+  were entirely unconnected; and, consequently, though the
+  superstructure offered as little opposition as practicable to the
+  waves by having its top slightly below high water, the waves in a
+  storm forcing their way into the vertical joint between the two rows,
+  threw some of the top 27-ton blocks of the inner row down on the
+  harbour slope of the mound. This cause of damage was obviated in
+  effecting the repairs, by connecting the top blocks with the next ones
+  by stone dowels. The superstructures of the breakwaters forming Madras
+  harbour, commenced in 1876, were similarly constructed in sloping,
+  independent sections, 4-1/2 ft. thick, composed of two distinct rows
+  of four tiers of blocks founded upon a rubble mound 22 ft. below low
+  water (the rise of tide at springs being 3-1/3 ft.), and raised 3-1/2
+  ft. above high water. The blocks in each row were connected by a
+  tenon, projecting at the top of each block, fitting into a mortise in
+  the block above it. The retention of the vertical joint however,
+  between the two rows led to the overthrow of the greater part of the
+  superstructures of the outer arms at Madras, situated in a depth of 45
+  ft. and facing the Indian Ocean, during a cyclone of 1881. In the
+  reconstruction of these superstructures, bond was introduced in the
+  successive tiers of each sloping section; and the blocks of the two
+  upper tiers were cramped together. Alter settlement on the mound had
+  ceased, a thick capping of mass concrete was laid all along the top of
+  the superstructure; and, finally, a mound of concrete blocks was
+  deposited at random on the mound in front of the sea face of the
+  superstructure to break the force of the waves and prevent
+  undermining. A similar wave-breaker, with blocks somewhat specially
+  arranged, was deposited in front of the sloping concrete-block
+  superstructure of the breakwater sheltering the Portuguese harbour of
+  Marmagao on the west coast of India, more particularly with the object
+  of preventing the undermining of the superstructure founded only 18
+  ft. below low water of spring tides, on a layer of rubble spread on
+  the muddy sea-bottom, the settlement in this case being occasioned by
+  the yielding of the soft clay bed. This breakwater having been
+  commenced in 1884, subsequently to the failure at Madras, the
+  superstructure, formed of concrete blocks weighing 28-1/2 to 37-1/2
+  tons was built in accordance with the design adopted for the
+  reconstructed outer arms at Madras, with the exceptions that the
+  separate sections were given a slope of 70 deg. instead of 76 deg.
+  shorewards to ensure greater stability, that the superstructure was
+  made 30 ft in width instead of 24 ft., that the top tier of blocks in
+  each section was secured to the next tier by two dowels, each formed
+  of a bundle of four rails, penetrating 3-1/2 ft. into each tier, so as
+  to enable the top courses to be more correctly aligned than with
+  tenons and mortises, and that the outer side of the continuous
+  concrete-in-mass capping was raised about 22 ft. above low water (fig.
+  11). The rise of spring tides at Marmagao is 6 ft.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Colombo North-West Breakwater with Titan
+  Crane.]
+
+  At Colombo the superstructures of both the south-west and north-west
+  breakwaters were built on the sloping-block system in sections 5-1/2
+  ft. thick, and built at an angle of 68 deg. shorewards (fig. 10); and
+  the blocks, from 16-1/2 to 31 tons in weight, were laid in bonded
+  courses across each section, with four tiers of blocks in the
+  south-west breakwater founded 20 ft. below low water on the rubble
+  mound, and six tiers of blocks in the north-west breakwater, founded
+  30-3/4 ft below low water. Five oblong grooves, moreover, were formed
+  in moulding the blocks, in the adjacent faces of each sloping section,
+  extending from top to bottom of the sections. These, when settlement
+  on the mound had ceased, were filled with concrete in bags which not
+  only connected the tiers of blocks in each section together, but also
+  joined the several sections to one another, and effectually closed
+  the transverse joints between the successive sections, which were
+  further connected together by a continuous capping of concrete-in-mass
+  along the whole length of the breakwater.
+
+  These sloping blocks are laid by powerful overhanging, block-setting
+  cranes, called Titans (see CRANES), which travel along the completed
+  portion of the breakwater, and lay the blocks in advance on the mound
+  levelled by divers, as shown in fig. 10. The earlier Titans, employed
+  for the sloping-block superstructures at Karachi and Madras, were
+  constructed to travel only backwards and forwards on the completed
+  work, with sufficient sideways movement of the little trolley
+  travelling along the overhanging arm, from which the block is
+  suspended at the proper angle, to lay the blocks for each side of the
+  superstructure. In later forms, however, such for instance as the
+  Titan laying the 14-ton blocks at Peterhead breakwater in horizontal
+  courses, the overhanging arm is supported centrally on a ring of
+  rollers, placed on the top of the truck on which the Titan travels, so
+  that it can revolve and deposit blocks at the side of the
+  superstructure for protecting the mound, as well as in advance of the
+  finished work. These Titans possess the important advantage over the
+  timber staging formerly employed for such breakwaters, that, in
+  exposed situations, they can be moved back into shelter on the
+  approach of a storm, or for the winter or stormy months, instead of,
+  as in the case of staging, remaining out exposed to the danger of
+  being carried away during stormy weather, or necessitating loss of
+  time in erection at the beginning of the working season.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Marmagao Breakwater.]
+
+  Though composite breakwaters are still occasionally constructed with a
+  superstructure founded on a rubble mound at, or above, low-water
+  level, these breakwaters are now almost always constructed with the
+  superstructure founded at some depth below low water, even at harbours
+  on the continent of Europe, where formerly broad quays founded at
+  sea-level, protected by a parapet wall and outer concrete blocks, were
+  the regular form of superstructure adopted. The breakwater for the
+  extension of the harbour at Naples provides an interesting example of
+  this change of design. A solid superstructure, formed of large
+  concrete blocks capped with masonry, about 50 ft. wide at the base, is
+  laid on a high rubble mound at a depth of 31 ft. below mean sea-level,
+  and provides a quay on the top, 24-1/2 ft. wide, protected on the sea
+  side by a promenade wall, 10 ft. high and 12-1/2 ft. wide at the top,
+  raised 19-2/3 ft. above sea-level (fig. 12). In view of the increased
+  depth at which superstructures are now founded upon rubble mounds,
+  causing the breakwaters to approximate more and more to the
+  upright-wall type, it might seem at first sight that the rubble base
+  might be dispensed with, and the superstructure founded directly on
+  the bed of the sea. Two circumstances, however, still render the
+  composite form of breakwater indispensable in certain cases: (1) the
+  great depth into which breakwaters have sometimes to extend, reaching
+  about 56 ft. below low water at Peterhead, and 102 ft. below mean
+  sea-level at Naples; and (2) the necessity, where the sea-bottom is
+  soft or liable: to be eroded by scour, of interposing a wide base
+  between the upright superstructure and the bed of the sea.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Naples Harbor Extension Breakwater.]
+
+  The injuries to which composite breakwaters appear to have been
+  specially subject must be attributed to the greater exposure and depth
+  of the sites in which they have been frequently constructed, as
+  compared with rubble mounds or upright walls. The latter types,
+  indeed, are not well suited for erection in deep water, in the first
+  case, on account of the very large quantity of materials required for
+  a high mound with flat slopes, and in the second, owing to the
+  increased pressure of air under which divers have to work in laying
+  blocks for an upright wall in deep water. The ample depth in which
+  superstructures are founded, the due protection afforded to their
+  outer toe, the adoption of the sloping-block system for their
+  construction, and the dispensing in most cases with a high sheltering
+  wall on the sea side of the superstructure, render modern
+  superstructures as stable as upright-wall breakwaters of similar
+  height. Nevertheless, superstructures require to be given a greater
+  thickness than similar upright walls, because the greater depth of
+  water in which such composite breakwaters are built causes them to be
+  exposed to larger waves under similar conditions.
+
+  The superstructures of composite breakwaters erected by the United
+  States for harbours on the shores of Lake Superior were formerly in
+  some cases composed of timber cribs floated into position and sunk by
+  filling them with rubble stone. On account of the cheapness of timber
+  several years ago in those regions, this simple mode of construction
+  was also economical, even though the rapid decay of the timber in the
+  portions of the cribs where it was alternately wet and dry involved
+  its renewal about every fifteen years on the average. Owing, however,
+  to the fact that the price of timber has increased considerably,
+  whilst that of Portland cement has been reduced, durable concrete
+  superstructures are beginning to be substituted for the rapidly
+  decaying cribwork structures.
+
+  With the exception perhaps of the Alderney breakwater, which, owing to
+  its exceptional exposure and the unparalleled depth into which it
+  extended, had its superstructure so often breached by the sea that,
+  owing to the cost of maintenance, the inner portion only has been kept
+  in repair, the composite breakwater of Bilbao harbour has probably
+  proved the most difficult to construct on account of its great
+  exposure. The original design consisted of a wide rubble mound up to
+  about 16-1/2 ft. below low water, a mound of large concrete blocks up
+  to low water of equinoctial spring tides, and a solid masonry
+  superstructure well protected at its outer toe by a projection of
+  masonry, and raised several feet above high water, forming a quay
+  sheltered by a promenade wall. The rise of equinoctial spring tides at
+  the mouth of the river Nervion is 14-3/4 ft. In carrying out the work,
+  however, the superstructure built in the summer months was for the
+  most part destroyed by the following winter storms; and, accordingly,
+  the superstructure was eventually constructed on a widened rubble
+  base, so as to be sheltered to some extent by the outlying
+  concrete-block mound already deposited, a system subsequently adopted
+  in rebuilding the damaged portion of the North Pier at Tynemouth under
+  shelter of the ruins of the previous work. The modified superstructure
+  of the Bilbao breakwater was founded on the extended rubble mound at a
+  depth of 16-1/4 ft. below low water, and formed of iron caissons
+  partially filled with concrete and floated out, sunk in position, and
+  filled up with concrete blocks and concrete. It thus consists of a
+  continuous row of concrete blocks, each of them being 42-2/3 ft. in
+  width across the breakwater, 23 ft. in length along the line of the
+  breakwater, 23 ft. high, and weighing 1400 tons. These caisson blocks,
+  raised 6-3/4 ft. above low water, form the base of the superstructure,
+  upon which the upper part was built of concrete blocks on each face
+  with mass concrete filling between them, forming a continuous quay, 24
+  ft. wide, raised 8 ft. above high tide, and slightly sheltered by a
+  curved parapet block only 5 ft. high. The outer toe of the caisson
+  blocks is protected from being undermined by two tiers of large
+  concrete blocks laid flat on the rubble mound. This superstructure has
+  successfully resisted the attacks of the Atlantic waves rolling into
+  the bay. At this breakwater and at Tynemouth advantage has been taken
+  of the protection unintentionally provided by previous failures, by
+  which the waves are broken before reaching the superstructure and pier
+  respectively; but instead of introducing a wave-breaker of concrete
+  blocks, for a protection to the superstructure, as arranged at
+  Marmagao (fig. 11) and the outer arms at Madras, it would appear
+  preferable to increase the width of the solid superstructure, if
+  necessary, as carried out at Naples (fig. 12). and to dispense with a
+  parapet and keep the superstructure low, as being unsuitable for a
+  quay in exposed situations, according to the plan adopted at Colombo
+  (fig. 9).
+
+  3. _Upright-Wall Breakwaters._--The third type of breakwater consists
+  of a solid structure founded directly on the sea-bottom, in the form
+  of an upright wall, with only a moderate batter on each face. This
+  form of breakwater is strictly limited to sites where the bed of the
+  sea consists of rock, chalk, boulders, or other hard bottom not
+  subject to erosion by scour, and where the depth does not exceed about
+  40 to 50 ft. If a solid breakwater were erected on a soft yielding
+  bottom, it would be exposed to dislocation from irregular settlement;
+  and such a structure, by obstructing or diverting the existing
+  currents, tends to create a scour along its base; whilst the waves in
+  recoiling from its sea face are very liable to produce erosion of the
+  sea-bottom along its outer toe. Moreover, when the foundations for an
+  upright-wall breakwater have to be levelled by divers, and the blocks
+  laid under water by their help, the extension of such a breakwater
+  into a considerable depth is undesirable on account of the increased
+  pressure imposed upon diving operations.
+
+  The Admiralty pier at Dover was begun about the middle of the 19th
+  century, and furnishes an early and notable example of an upright-wall
+  breakwater resting upon a hard chalk bottom; and it was subsequently
+  extended to a depth of about 42 ft. at low tide, in connexion with
+  the works for forming a closed naval harbour at Dover. This
+  breakwater, the Prince of Wales pier of the commercial harbour, and
+  the eastern breakwater and detached south breakwater for the naval
+  harbour, were all founded on a levelled bottom, carried down to the
+  hard chalk underlying the surface layer, by means of men in
+  diving-bells. The extension of the Admiralty pier and the other
+  breakwaters of Dover harbour consist of bonded courses of concrete
+  blocks, from 26 to 40 tons in weight, as shown in figs. 13 and 14, the
+  outer blocks above low water being formed on their exposed side with a
+  facing of granite rubble. The blocks, composed of six parts of sand
+  and stones to one part of Portland cement, moulded in frames, and left
+  to set thoroughly in the block-yard before being used, are all joggled
+  together, and above low-water level are bedded in cement and the
+  joints filled with cement grout. The blocks were laid by Goliath
+  travelling cranes running on temporary staging supported at intervals
+  of 50-1/4 ft. by clusters of iron piles carried down into the chalk
+  bottom. On each line of staging there were four Goliaths, preceded by
+  a stage-erecting machine. The front Goliath was used for working a
+  grab for excavating the surface layer of chalk, which was finally
+  levelled by divers, the second for carrying the diving-bell, the third
+  for laying the blocks below low water, and the fourth for setting the
+  blocks above low water. This succession of Goliaths enabled more rapid
+  progress to be made than with a single Titan at the end of a
+  breakwater; but it involved a considerable increase in the cost of the
+  plant, owing to the temporary staging required. The foundations were
+  carried down from 4 to 6 ft. into the chalk bottom, the deepest being
+  53 ft. below low water of spring tides, and the average 47 ft. With a
+  rise of tide at springs of 18-3/4 ft., the average depth is thus
+  approximately 66 ft. at high tide, necessitating a pressure of 29 lb.
+  on the square inch, which is the limit at which men can work without
+  inconvenience in the diving-bells. The breakwaters are raised about 11
+  ft. above high water of springs. The detached southern breakwater was
+  finished off at this level; but the extended western breakwater, or
+  Admiralty pier, is provided with a promenade parapet on its exposed
+  side, rising 13 ft. above the quay; and the eastern breakwater also
+  has a parapet on its exposed eastern side, raised, however, only 9 ft.
+  above its quay. The breakwaters are protected from scour along their
+  outer toe by an apron of concrete blocks, extending 25 ft. out from
+  their sea face.
+
+  [Illustration: Dover Breakwater.
+
+  FIG. 13. South Breakwater.
+
+  FIG. 14. Admiralty Pier Extension.]
+
+
+    Concrete bag foundations.
+
+  The levelling of the foundations for laying the courses of an
+  upright-wall breakwater is costly and tedious, even in chalk; and the
+  expense and delay are considerably enhanced where the bottom is hard
+  rock. Accordingly, in constructing two breakwaters at the entrance to
+  Aberdeen harbour on a bottom of granite in 1870-1877, concrete bags
+  were laid on the sea-bed; and these bags, by adapting themselves to
+  the rocky irregularities, obviated levelling the bottom. They formed
+  the foundation for the concrete blocks in the south breakwater; and by
+  the deposit of successive layers of 50-ton concrete bags till they
+  rose above low water, they constituted the whole of the submerged
+  portion of the north breakwater. The 50-ton bags were deposited from
+  hopper barges towed out to the site; and the portions of both
+  breakwaters above low water were carried up with mass concrete.
+  Subsequently, the breakwater at Newhaven was constructed on a
+  foundation of chalk, with lop-ton concrete bags up to low water, and
+  mass concrete above. Still later, the two breakwaters sheltering the
+  approach to the river Wear (see HARBOUR) and the Sunderland docks were
+  built with a foundation mound of concrete in bags, 56 to 116 tons in
+  weight, on the uneven sea-bottom, raised slightly above low water of
+  spring tides, on which a solid upright wall was erected, formed of
+  concrete blocks on each side faced with granite, filled in the centre
+  and capped on the top with mass concrete. The most exposed northern
+  Roker breakwater, raised about 11 ft. above high water of springs
+  where the rise is 14 ft. 5 in., is devoid of a parapet; but a subway
+  formed near the top in each breakwater gives access to the light on
+  the pierhead in stormy weather (fig. 15). These concrete bags are made
+  by lining the hopper of the barge with jute canvas, which receives the
+  concrete and is sewn up to form a bag whilst the barge is being towed
+  to the site. The concrete is thus deposited unset, and readily
+  accommodates itself to the irregularities of the bottom or of the
+  mound of bags; and sufficient liquid grout oozes out of the canvas
+  when the bag is compressed, to unite the bags into a solid mass, so
+  that with the mass concrete on the top, the breakwater forms a
+  monolith. This system has been extended to the portion of the
+  superstructure of the eastern, little-exposed breakwater of Bilbao
+  harbour below low water, where the rubble mound is of moderate height;
+  but this application of the system appears less satisfactory, as
+  settlement of the superstructure on the mound would produce cracks in
+  the set concrete in the bags.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Sunderland Southern Breakwater.]
+
+
+    Foundations with large blocks.
+
+  Foundation blocks of 2500 to 3000 tons have been deposited for raising
+  the walls on each side of the wide portion of the Zeebrugge breakwater
+  (fig. 16) from the sea-bottom to above low water, and also 4400-ton
+  blocks along the narrow outer portion (see HARBOUR), by building iron
+  caissons, open at the top, in the dry bed of the Bruges ship-canal,
+  lining them with concrete, and after the canal was filled with water,
+  floating them out one by one in calm weather, sinking them in position
+  by admitting water, and then filling them with concrete under water
+  from closed skips which open at the bottom directly they begin to be
+  raised. The firm sea-bed is levelled by small rubble for receiving the
+  large blocks, whose outer toe is protected from undermining by a layer
+  of big blocks of stone extending out for a width of 50 ft.; and then
+  the breakwater walls are raised above high water by 55-ton concrete
+  blocks, set in cement at low tide; and the upper portions are
+  completed by concrete-in-mass within framing.
+
+
+    Concrete monoliths.
+
+  Sometimes funds are not available for a large plant; and in such cases
+  small upright-wall breakwaters may be constructed in a moderate depth
+  of water on a hard bottom of rock, chalk or boulders, by erecting
+  timber framing in suitable lengths, lining it inside with jute cloth,
+  and then depositing concrete below low water in closed hopper skips
+  lowered to the bottom before releasing the concrete, which must be
+  effected with great care to avoid allowing the concrete to fall
+  through the water. The portion of the breakwater above low water is
+  then raised by tide-work with mass concrete within frames, in which
+  large blocks of stone may be bedded, provided they do not touch one
+  another and are kept away from the face, which should be formed with
+  concrete containing a larger proportion of cement. As long continuous
+  lengths of concrete crack across under variations in temperature, it
+  is advisable to form fine straight divisions across the upper part of
+  a concrete breakwater in construction, as substitutes for irregular
+  cracks.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Zeebrugge Harbour Breakwater with Quay.]
+
+  Upright-wall breakwaters should not be formed with two narrow walls
+  and intermediate filling, as the safety of such a breakwater depends
+  entirely on the sea-wall being maintained intact. A warning of the
+  danger of this system of construction, combined with a high parapet,
+  was furnished by the south breakwater of Newcastle harbour in Dundrum
+  Bay, Ireland, which was breached by a storm in 1868, and eventually
+  almost wholly destroyed; whilst its ruins for many years filled up the
+  harbour which it had been erected to protect. In designing its
+  reconstruction in 1897, it was found possible to provide a solid
+  upright wall of suitable strength with the materials scattered over
+  the harbour, together with an extension needed for providing proper
+  protection at the entrance. This work was completed in 1906.
+
+  Upright-wall breakwaters and superstructures are generally made of the
+  same thickness throughout, irrespective of the differences in depth
+  and exposure which are often met with in different parts of the same
+  breakwater. This may be accounted for by the general custom of
+  regarding the top of an upright wall or superstructure as a quay,
+  which should naturally be given a uniform width; and this view has
+  also led to the very general practice of sheltering the top of these
+  structures with a parapet. Generally the width is proportioned to the
+  most exposed part, so that the only result is an excess of
+  expenditure in the inner portion to secure uniformity. When, however,
+  as at Madras, the width of the structure is reduced to a minimum, the
+  action of the sea demonstrates that the strength of the structure must
+  be proportioned to the depth and exposure. In small fishery piers,
+  where great economy is essential to obtain the maximum shelter at
+  limited expense, it appears expedient to make the width of the
+  breakwater proportionate to the depth. This was done in Babbacombe
+  Bay; and in reconstructing the southern breakwater at Newcastle,
+  Ireland, advantage was taken of a change in direction of the outer
+  half to introduce an addition to the width, so as to make the strength
+  of the breakwater proportionate to the increase in depth and exposure.
+  In large structures, however, uniformity of design may be desirable
+  for each straight length of breakwater; though where two or more
+  breakwaters or outer arms enclose a harbour, the design should
+  obviously be modified to suit the depth and exposure. At Colombo
+  harbour, the superstructure of the less exposed north-west breakwater
+  has been made slightly narrower than that of the south-west
+  breakwater; and a simple rubble mound shelters the harbour from the
+  moderate north-east monsoon. In special cases, where a breakwater has
+  to serve as a quay, like the Admiralty pier at Dover, a high parapet
+  wall is essential; but in most cases, where a parapet merely enables
+  the breakwater to be more readily accessible in moderate weather, it
+  would be advisable to keep it very low, or to dispense with it
+  altogether, as at the southern Dover breakwater, the northern
+  breakwater at Sunderland, and the Colombo western breakwaters. This
+  course is particularly expedient in very exposed sites, as a high
+  parapet intensifies the shock of the waves against a breakwater and
+  their erosive recoil. Moreover, when a light has to be attended to at
+  the end of a breakwater, sheltered access can be provided by a subway,
+  as at Sunderland.
+
+  Structures in the sea almost always require works of maintenance; and
+  when a severe storm has caused any injury, it is most important to
+  carry out the repairs at the earliest available moment, as the waves
+  rapidly enlarge any holes that they may have formed in weak places.
+      (L. F. V.-H.)
+
+
+
+
+BREAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED (1832-   ), French philologist, was born on
+the 26th of March 1832, at Landau in Rhenish Bavaria, of French parents.
+After studying at Weissenburg, Metz and Paris, he entered the Ecole
+Normale in 1852. In 1857 he went to Berlin, where he studied Sanskrit
+under Bopp and Weber. On his return to France he obtained an appointment
+in the department of oriental MSS. at the Bibliotheque Imperiale. In
+1864 he became professor of comparative grammar at the College de
+France, in 1875 member of the Academie des Inscriptions et
+Belles-lettres, in 1879 _inspecteur-general_ of public instruction for
+higher schools until the abolition of the office in 1888. In 1890 he was
+made commander of the Legion of Honour. Among his works, which deal
+mainly with mythological and philological subjects, may be mentioned:
+_L'Etude des origines de la religion Zoroastrienne_ (1862), for which a
+prize was awarded him by the Academie des Inscriptions; _Hercule et
+Cacus_ (1863), in which he disputes the principles of the symbolic
+school in the interpretation of myths; _Le Mythe d'Oedipe_ (1864); _Les
+Tables Eugubines_ (1875); _Melanges de mythologie et de linguistique_
+(2nd. ed., 1882); _Lecons de mots_ (1882,1886), _Dictionnaire
+etymologique latin_ (1885) and _Grammaire latine_ (1890). His _Essai de
+Semantique_ (1897), on the signification of words, has been translated
+into English by Mrs H. Cust with preface by J.P. Postgate. His
+translation of Bopp's _Comparative Grammar_ (1866-1874), with
+introductions, is highly valued. He has also written pamphlets on
+education in France, the teaching of ancient languages, and the reform
+of French orthography. In 1906 he published _Pour mieux connaitre
+Homere_.
+
+
+
+
+BREAM (_Abramis_), a fish of the Cyprinid family, characterized by a
+deep, strongly compressed body, with short dorsal and long anal fins,
+the latter with more than sixteen branched rays, and the small inferior
+mouth. There are two species in the British Isles, the common bream, _A.
+brama_, reaching a length of 2 ft. and a weight of 12 lb., and the white
+bream or bream flat, _A. blicca_, a smaller and, in most places, rarer
+species. Both occur in slow-running rivers, canals, ponds and
+reservoirs. Bream are usually despised for the table in England, but
+fish from large lakes, if well prepared, are by no means deserving of
+ostracism. In the days of medieval abbeys, when the provident Cistercian
+monks attached great importance to pond culture, they gave the first
+place to the tench and bream, the carp still being unknown in the
+greater part of Europe. At the present day, the poorer Jews in large
+English cities make a great consumption of bream--and other Cyprinids,
+most of them being imported alive from Holland and sold in the Jewish
+fish markets. In America the name bream is commonly given to the golden
+shiner minnow (_Abramis chrysoleucus_), to the pumpkin-seed sunfish
+(_Eupomotis gibbosus_), and to some kinds of porgy (_Sparidae_).
+
+
+
+
+BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, of the Ger. _Brust_,
+possibly connected with an O. Sax. _brustian_, to bud), the term
+properly confined to the external projecting parts of the thorax in
+females, which contain the mammary glands (for anatomy, and diseases,
+see MAMMARY GLAND); more generally it is used of the external part of
+the thorax in animals, including man, lying between the neck and the
+abdomen.
+
+
+
+
+BREAUTE, FALKES DE (d. 1226), one of the foreign mercenaries of King
+John of England, from whom he received in marriage the heiress of the
+earldom of Devon. On the outbreak of the Barons' War (1215) the king
+gave him the sheriffdoms of six midland shires and the custody of many
+castles. He fulfilled his military duties with as much skill as cruelty.
+The royalists owed to his daring the decisive victory of Lincoln (1217).
+But after the death of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, Falkes joined
+the feudal opposition in conspiring against Hubert de Burgh. Deprived in
+1223 of most of his honours, he was drawn into a rebellion by the
+imprudence of his brother, who captured a royal justice and threw him
+into prison (1224). Falkes was allowed to go into exile after his
+submission, and endeavoured to obtain a pardon through the mediation of
+Pope Honorius III. But this was refused, and Falkes died at St Cyriac in
+1226.
+
+  See Shirley, _Royal Letters_, vol. i.; the _Patent_ and _Close Rolls_;
+  Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, vol. i. pp. 540-545.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BRECCIA, in petrology, the name given to rocks consisting of angular
+fragments embedded in a matrix. They may be composed of volcanic rocks,
+limestones, siliceous charts, sandstones, in fact of any kind of
+material, and the matrix, which usually corresponds to some extent to
+the fragments it encloses, may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous,
+&c. The distinctive character of the group is the sharp-edged and unworn
+shapes of the fragments; in conglomerates the pebbles are rounded and
+water-worn, having been transported by waves and currents from some
+distance. There are many ways in which breccias may originate. Some are
+formed by ordinary processes of atmospheric erosion; frost, rain and
+gravity break up exposed surfaces of rock and detach pieces of all
+sizes; in this way screes are formed at the bases of cliffs, and barren
+mountain-tops are covered with broken debris. If such accumulations
+gather and are changed into hard rock by pressure and other indurating
+agencies they make typical breccias. Conglomerates often pass into rocks
+of this type, the difference being merely that the fragments are of
+purely local origin, and are unworn because they have not been
+transported. In caves breccias of limestone are produced by the collapse
+of part of the roof, covering the floor with broken masses. Coral reefs
+often contain extensive areas of limestone breccia, formed of detached
+pieces of rock which have been dislodged from the surface and have been
+carried down the steep external slopes of the reef. Volcanic breccias
+are very common near active or extinct craters, as sudden outbursts of
+steam bear fragments from the older rocks and scatter them over the
+ground.
+
+Another group of breccias is due to crushing; these are produced in
+fissures, faults and veins, below the surface, and maybe described as
+"crush-breccias" and "friction-breccias." Very important and well-known
+examples of this class occur as veinstones, which may be metalliferous
+or not. A fissure is formed, probably by slight crustal movements, and
+is subsequently filled with material deposited from solution (quartz,
+calcite, barytes, &c.). Very often displacement of the walls again takes
+place, and the infilling or "veinstone" is torn apart and brecciated. It
+may then be cemented together by a further introduction of mineral
+matter, which may be the same as that first deposited or quite
+different. In important veins this process is often repeated several
+times: detached pieces of the country rock are mingled with the
+shattered veinstone, and generally experience alteration by the
+percolating mineral solutions. Other crush-breccias occurring on a much
+larger scale are due to the folding of strata which have unequal
+plasticities. If, for example, shales and sandstones are bent into a
+series of arches, the sandstones being harder and more resistant will
+tend to crack, while the shales, which are soft and flow under great
+pressures, are injected into the crevices and separate the broken pieces
+from one another. Continued movement will give the brecciated fragments
+of sandstone a rounded form by rubbing them against one another, and, in
+this way, a crush-conglomerate is produced. Great masses of limestone in
+the Alps, Scottish Highlands, and all regions of intense folding are
+thus converted into breccias. Cherts frequently also show this
+structure; igneous rocks less commonly do so; but it is perhaps most
+common where there have been thin bedded alternations of rocks of
+different character, such as limestone and dolerite, limestone and
+quartzite, shale or phyllite and sandstone. Fault-breccias closely
+resemble vein-breccias, except that usually their fragments consist
+principally of the rocks which adjoin the fault and not of mineral
+deposits introduced in solution; but many veins occupy faults, and hence
+no hard and fast line can be drawn between these types of breccia.
+
+A third group of breccias is due to movement in a partly consolidated
+igneous rock, and may be called "fluxion-breccias." Lava streams,
+especially when they consist of rhyolite, dacite and some kinds of
+andesite, may rapidly solidify, and then become exceedingly brittle. If
+any part of the mass is still liquid, it may break up the solid crust by
+pressure from within and the angular fragments are enveloped by the
+fluid lava. When the whole comes to rest and cools, it forms a typical
+"volcanic-fluxion-breccia." The same phenomena are sometimes exemplified
+in intrusive sills and sheets. The fissures which are occupied by
+igneous dikes may be the seat of repeated injections following one
+another at longer or shorter intervals; and the latter may shatter the
+earlier dike rocks, catching up the fragments. Among the older
+formations, especially when decomposition has gone on extensively, these
+fluxion and injection-breccias are often very hard to distinguish from
+the commoner volcanic-breccias and ash-beds, which have been produced by
+weathering, or by the explosive power of superheated steam.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+BRECHIN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 8941. It lies on the left bank of the South Esk, 7-3/4 m.
+west of Montrose, and has a station on the loop line of the Caledonian
+railway from Forfar to Bridge of Dun. Brechin is a prosperous town, of
+great antiquity, having been the site of a Culdee abbey. The Danes are
+said to have burned the town in 1012. David I. erected it into a
+bishopric in 1150, and it is still a see of the Episcopal Church of
+Scotland. In 1452 the earl of Huntly crushed the insurrection led by the
+earl of Crawford at the battle of Brechin Muir, and in 1645 the town and
+castle were harried by the marquis of Montrose. James VI. gave a grant
+for founding a hospital in the burgh, which yet supplies the council
+with funds for charity. No trace remains of the old walls and gates of
+the town, but the river is crossed by a two-arched stone bridge of very
+early date. The cathedral church of the Holy Trinity belongs to the 13th
+century. It is in the Pointed style, but suffered maltreatment in 1806
+at the hands of restorers, whose work, however, disappeared during the
+restoration completed in 1902. The western gable with its flamboyant
+window and Gothic door and the massive square tower are all that is left
+of the original edifice. The modern stained glass in the chancel is
+reckoned amongst the finest in Scotland. Immediately adjoining the
+cathedral to the south-west stands the Round Tower, built about 1000. It
+is 86-3/4 ft. high, has at the base a circumference of 50 ft. and a
+diameter of 16 ft., and is capped with a hexagonal spire of 18 ft.,
+which was added in the 15th century. This type of structure is somewhat
+common in Ireland, but the only Scottish examples are those at Brechin,
+Abernethy in Perthshire, and Egilshay in the Orkneys. Brechin Castle
+played a prominent part in the Scottish War of Independence. In 1303 it
+withstood for twenty days a siege in force by the English under Edward
+I., surrendering only when its governor, Sir Thomas Maule, had been
+slain. From the Maule family it descended to the Dalhousies. Its library
+contains many important MSS., among them Burns's correspondence with
+George Thomson, and several cartularies including those of St Andrews
+and Brechin. In the Vennel (alley or small street) some ruins remain of
+the _maison dieu_, or _hospitium_, founded in 1256 by William of
+Brechin. Besides these historical buildings the principal public
+structures include Smith's school, the municipal buildings, the free
+library, the episcopal library (founded by Bishop Forbes, who, as well
+as Bishop Abernethy-Drummond, presented a large number of volumes). The
+principal industries include manufactures of linen and sailcloth,
+bleaching, rope-making, brewing, distilling, paper-making, in addition
+to nurseries and freestone quarries. Brechin--which is controlled by a
+provost, bailies and council--unites with Arbroath, Forfar, Inverbervie
+and Montrose to return one member to parliament.
+
+Edzell (pronounced Edyell, and, locally, Aigle) lies about 6 m. north of
+Brechin, with which it is connected by rail. It is situated on the North
+Esk and near the West Water, which falls into the Esk 2 m. south-west.
+Edzell is on the threshold of romantic Highland scenery. The picturesque
+ruins of Edzell Castle lie a mile to the west of the town. Once the seat
+of the Lindsays the estate now belongs to the earl of Dalhousie. The
+church of the parish of Farnell, 3-1/2 m. south-east of Brechin, was
+erected in 1806 after the model, so it is stated, of the famous Holy
+House (Casa Santa) of Loreto in Italy. It was here that the old
+sculptured stone giving a version of the Fall was found. Between Farnell
+and Brechin lies Kinnaird Castle, the seat of the earl of Southesk.
+
+
+
+
+BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL (1821-1875), American soldier and political
+leader, was born near Lexington, Kentucky, on the 21st of January 1821.
+He was a member of a family prominent in the public life of Kentucky and
+the nation. His grandfather, John Breckinridge (1760-1806), who revised
+Jefferson's draft of the "Kentucky Resolutions" of 1798, was a United
+States senator from Kentucky in 1801-1805 and attorney-general in
+President Jefferson's cabinet in 1805-1806. His uncles, John
+Breckinridge (1797-1841), professor of pastoral theology in the
+Princeton Theological Seminary in 1836-1838 and for many years after
+secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, and Robert
+Jefferson Breckinridge (1800-1871), for several years superintendent of
+public instruction in Kentucky, an important factor in the organization
+of the public school system of the state, a professor from 1853 to 1871
+in the Danville Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Danville, Kentucky,
+and the temporary chairman of the national Republican convention of
+1864, were both prominent clergymen of the Presbyterian Church. His
+cousin, William Campbell Preston Breckinridge (1837-1904), was a
+Democratic representative in Congress from 1885 to 1893. Another cousin,
+Joseph Cabell Breckinridge (1842- ), served on the Union side in the
+Civil War, was a major-general of volunteers during the Spanish-American
+War (1898), became a major-general in the regular United States army in
+1903, and was inspector-general of the United States army from 1899
+until his retirement from active service in 1904.
+
+John Cabell Breckinridge graduated in 1838 at Centre College, Danville,
+Kentucky, continued his studies at Princeton, and then studied law at
+Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky. He practised law in
+Frankfort, Kentucky, in 1840-1841 and in Burlington, Iowa, from 1841 to
+1843, and then returned to Kentucky and followed his profession at
+Lexington. In 1847 he went to Mexico as major in a volunteer regiment,
+but arrived too late for service in the field. In 1849 he was elected a
+Democratic member of the Kentucky legislature, and in 1851-1855 he
+served in the national House of Representatives. President Pierce
+offered him the position of minister to Spain, but he declined it. In
+1856 he was chosen vice-president of the United States on the Buchanan
+ticket, and although a strong pro-slavery and states rights man, he
+presided over the Senate with conspicuous fairness and impartiality
+during the trying years before the Civil War. In 1860 he was nominated
+for the presidency by the pro-slavery seceders from the Democratic
+national convention, and received a total of 72 electoral votes,
+including those of every Southern state except Virginia, Kentucky,
+Tennessee and Missouri. As vice-president and presiding officer of the
+Senate, it was his duty to make the official announcement of the
+election of his opponent, Lincoln. He succeeded John J. Crittenden as
+United States senator from Kentucky in March 1861, but having
+subsequently entered the Confederate service he was expelled from the
+Senate in December 1861. As brigadier-general he commanded the
+Confederate reserve at Shiloh, and in August 1862 he became
+major-general. On the 5th of this month he was repulsed in his attack on
+Baton Rouge, but he won distinction at Stone River (December 31,
+1862-January 2, 1863), where his division lost nearly a third of its
+number. He took part in the battle of Chickamauga, defeated General
+Franz Sigel at Newmarket, Virginia, on the 15th of May 1864, and then,
+joined Lee and took part in the battles of Cold Harbor on the 1st and on
+the 3rd of June. In the autumn he operated in the Shenandoah Valley, and
+with Early was defeated by Sheridan at Winchester on the 19th of
+September. Being transferred to the department of South-west Virginia,
+he fought a number of minor engagements in eastern Tennessee, and in
+January 1865 became secretary of war for the Confederate States. At the
+close of the war he escaped to Cuba, and from there went to Europe. In
+1868 he returned to the United States and resumed the practice of law at
+Lexington, Kentucky, where he died on the 17th of May 1875.
+
+
+
+
+BRECON, or BRECKNOCK, a market town and municipal borough, the capital
+of Breconshire, Wales, 183 m. from London by rail, picturesquely
+situated nearly in the centre of the county, at the confluence of the
+Honddu with the Usk. Half a mile higher up the Tarell also falls into
+the Usk from the south. The ecclesiastical parish of Brecon consists of
+the two civil parishes of St John the Evangelist and St Mary, both on
+the left bank of the Usk, while St David's in Llanfaes is on the other
+side of the river, and was wholly outside the town walls. Pop. (1901)
+5875. There is only one line of railway, over which several companies,
+however, have running powers, so that the town may be reached by the
+Brecon & Merthyr railway from Merthyr, Cardiff and Newport, by the
+Cambrian from Builth Wells, or by the Midland from Hereford and Swansea
+respectively. The Great Western railway has also a service of road
+motors between Abergavenny and Brecon. A canal running past Abergavenny
+connects Brecon with Merthyr.
+
+The Priory church of St John, a massive cruciform building, originally
+Norman with Early English and Decorated additions, is the finest parish
+church in Wales, and even taking into account the cathedrals it is
+according to E.A. Freeman "indisputably the third church not in a state
+of ruin in the principality," its choir furnishing "one of the choicest
+examples of the Early English style." Previous to the dissolution, a
+rood-screen bearing a gigantic rood, the object of many pilgrimages,
+stood to the west of the tower. The church was restored under Sir
+Gilbert Scott between 1861 and 1875. St Mary's, in the centre of the
+town, and St David's, beyond the Usk, are now mainly modern, though the
+former has some of the Norman arches of the original church. There is
+also a Roman Catholic church (St Michael's) opened in 1851, and chapels
+belonging to the Baptists, Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists, and to
+the Congregationalists. In Llanfaes there was formerly a Dominican
+priory, but in 1542 Henry VIII. granted it with all its possessions to a
+collegiate church, which was transferred thither from Abergwili, and was
+given the name of Christ College. Many of the bishops of St David's
+during the 17th century occasionally resided here, and several are also
+buried here. A small part of the revenues went to the maintenance of a
+grammar-school, but in 1841 the collegiate body was dissolved, and its
+revenues, then amounting to about L8000 a year, were transferred to the
+ecclesiastical commissioners. In 1853 Henry VIII.'s charter was
+repealed, and under a chancery scheme adopted two years later, L1200 a
+year was appropriated for the school. New school buildings were erected
+at a cost of about L10,000 in 1862, and these were enlarged at a cost of
+about L5000 in 1880. The chancel of the old Dominican chapel, dating
+from the 13th century, was restored in 1864, and is now the school
+chapel. There is also a Congregationalist theological college, built in
+1869 at a cost of L12,000, and now affiliated with the university of
+Wales. The other chief buildings of the town are the shire hall built in
+1842 in the Doric style from designs by T.H. Wyatt; the Guildhall; the
+barracks, which are the headquarters of two battalions of the South
+Wales Borderers; the county infirmary founded in 1832; and the prison
+(in Llanfaes) for the counties of Brecon and Radnor. There is a bronze
+statue of the duke of Wellington (erected in 1854) by John Evan Thomas,
+a native of the town. The town commands a magnificent view of the
+Brecknock Beacons, and is noted for its promenades on the banks of the
+Usk, and in the priory groves. Brecon is favourably known as a fishing
+centre, and there is also boating on the Usk and the canal. There are
+several houses of interest, notably the Priory and Dr Awbrey's residence
+(now called Buckingham House), both built about the middle of the 16th
+century, but the finest specimen is Newton (about a mile out, near
+Llanfaes) built in 1582 by Sir John Games (a descendant of Sir David
+Gam), but now a farmhouse. The "Shoulder of Mutton" Inn, now known as
+the "Siddons Wine Vaults," was the birthplace in 1755 of Mrs Siddons.
+
+The name Brecknock is an anglicized form of Brycheiniog, the Welsh name
+of the territory of Brychan (whence the alternative form of Brecon), a
+Goidelic chieftain, who gained possession of the Usk valley in the 5th
+century. The Welsh name of the town, on the other hand, has always been
+Aber-Honddu (the estuary of the Honddu). There is no evidence of any
+settlement on the site of the present town prior to about 1092, when
+Bernard Newmarch, after defeating Bleddin ab Maenarch, built here a
+castle which he made his residence and the chief stronghold of his new
+lordship. For this purpose he utilized what remained of the materials of
+the Roman fort, 3 m. to the west, at Y Gaer, which some identify as
+Bannium. He subsequently founded, near the castle, the Benedictine
+priory of St John, which he endowed and constituted a cell of Battle
+Abbey. In time a town grew up outside the castle, and its inhabitants
+received a series of charters from the de Bohuns, into which family the
+castle and lordship passed, the earliest recorded charter being granted
+by Humphrey, 3rd earl of Hereford. Under the patronage of his
+great-grandson, the last earl of Hereford (who lived in great splendour
+at the castle), the town became one of the chief centres of trade in
+South Wales, and a sixteen days' fair, which he granted, still survives
+as a hiring fair held in November. Further charters were granted by
+Henry IV. (who married Hereford's co-heiress), by Henry V., who gave the
+town two more fairs, and by the Stafford family, to which the castle and
+lordship were allotted on the partition of the Bohun estates in 1421.
+Henry Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham, resided a good deal at the
+castle, and Morton, bishop of Ely, whose custody as a prisoner was
+entrusted to him, plotted with him there for the dethronement of Richard
+III., for which Stafford was executed in 1483. His son, Edward, the 3rd
+duke, who was born in the castle in 1478, had the estates restored to
+him, but, in 1521, suffered a like fate with his father, and the
+lordship and castle then vested in the crown. Both were acquired in the
+next century by the ancestors of Viscount Tredegar, to whom they now
+belong. By a statute of 1535 Brecon was made the county town of the new
+shire of Brecknock, and was granted the right of electing one burgess to
+represent it in parliament, a right which it retained till it was merged
+in the county representation in 1885. A chancery and exchequer for the
+counties of Brecknock and Radnor were also established at Brecon Castle,
+and from 1542 till 1830 the great sessions, and since then the assizes,
+and at all times the quarter sessions for the county, have been held at
+Brecon. The borough had also a separate court of quarter sessions till
+1835. The town was incorporated by a charter granted by Philip and Mary
+in 1556 and confirmed by Elizabeth in the nineteenth year of her reign.
+A charter granted by James II. was never acted upon. The borough was
+placed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and until then the
+town of Llywel, which is 10 m. off, formed a ward of the borough. There
+were formerly five trade gilds in the town, the chief industries being
+cloth and leather manufactures. There are five ancient fairs for stock,
+and formerly each of them was preceded by a leather fair. The fairs held
+in May and November were also for hiring, much of the hiring being now
+done at the Guildhall, and not in the streets as used to be the case.
+
+During the Civil War the greater part of the castle and of the town
+walls (which with their four gates were until then well preserved) were
+demolished by the inhabitants in order to prevent the town being either
+garrisoned or besieged. Charles I., however, stayed a night at the
+priory house shortly after the battle of Naseby. The chief ruins of the
+castle are now enclosed in the grounds of the Castle Hotel, the
+principal object being Ely tower, where Bishop Morton was imprisoned.
+
+Besides those already mentioned the persons of note born in the town
+include Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham; Dr Hugh Price, founder of
+Jesus College, Oxford; Dr Thomas Coke, the first Wesleyan missionary
+bishop in America; and Theophilus Jones, the historian of the county.
+Henry Vaughan, the Silurist, at one time practised here as a doctor of
+medicine.     (D. Ll. T.)
+
+
+
+
+BRECONSHIRE, or BRECKNOCKSHIRE, an inland county in South Wales, and the
+fourth largest in all Wales, bounded N.W. by Cardigan, N. and N.E. by
+Radnor, E. and S.E. by Monmouth, S. by Glamorgan and W. by Carmarthen.
+The general aspect of the county is mountainous, and the scenery is
+marked by beauty and grandeur. The climate is moist but temperate and
+healthy, and the soil of the valleys, often consisting of rich alluvial
+deposits, is very fertile. The loftiest mountains in South Wales,
+extending from Herefordshire and Monmouthshire (where their eastern
+spurs form the Hatteral Hills) in a south-easterly direction into
+Carmarthenshire, completely encircle the county on the east and south
+except for the break formed by the Vale of Usk at Crickhowell. Their
+highest summit north of the Usk, on the eastern side, where they are
+known as the Black Mountains, or sometimes the Black Forest Mountains,
+is Pen y Gader (2624 ft.) between Talgarth and Llanthony, and on the
+south-west the twin peaks of the Mynydd Du ("Black Mountain") or the
+so-called Carmarthenshire Vans or Beacons, only the higher of which, Fan
+Brycheiniog (2632 ft.), is, however, in Breconshire; while the centre of
+the crescent is occupied by the masses of the Brecknockshire Beacons or
+Vans (often called the Beacons simply), the highest point of which, Pen
+y Fan, formerly also known as Cadair Arthur, or Arthur's Chair, attains
+an altitude of 2910 ft. In the north, a range of barren hills, which
+goes by the general designation of Mynydd Eppynt (a name more properly
+limited to its central portion), stretches right across the county in a
+north-easterly direction, beginning with Mynydd Bwlch-y-Groes on the
+boundary to the east of Llandovery, and terminating near Builth. In the
+dreary country still farther north there is a series of rounded hills
+covered with peat and mosses, the chief feature being Drygarn Fawr (2115
+ft.) on the confines of Cardiganshire.
+
+Of the valleys, the most distinguished for beauty is that of the Usk,
+stretching from east to west and dividing the county into two nearly
+equal portions. The Wye is the chief river, and forms the boundary
+between the county and Radnorshire on the north and north-east, from
+Rhayader to Hay, a distance of upwards of 20 m.; its tributary, the
+Elan, till it receives the Claerwen, and then the latter river, continue
+the boundary between the two counties on the north, while the Towy
+separates the county from Cardigan on the north-west. The hilly country
+to the north of the Eppynt is mainly drained by the Irfon, which falls
+into the Wye near Builth. The Usk rises in the Carmarthenshire Van on
+the west, and flowing in a direction nearly due east through the centre
+of the county, collects the water from the range of the Beacons in the
+south, and from the Eppynt range in the north by means of numerous
+smaller streams, of which the Tarell and the Honddu (which join it at
+Brecon) are the most important, and it enters Monmouthshire near
+Abergavenny. The Taff, the Nedd (with its tributaries the Hepste and
+the Mellte) and the Tawe, all rise on the south of the Beacon range and
+passing through Glamorganshire, flow into the Bristol Channel, the upper
+reaches of the Nedd and its tributaries in the Vale of Neath being
+deservedly famous for its scenery. The mountains of the county
+constitute one of the best water-producing areas in Wales. Recognizing
+this, the corporation of Birmingham, under an act of 1892, acquired the
+watershed of the Elan and Claerwen, and constructed on the Elan three
+impounding reservoirs whence the water is conducted through an aqueduct
+to Birmingham (q.v.). Swansea obtains its chief supply from a reservoir
+of one thousand million gallons constructed in 1898-1906 on the Cray, a
+tributary of the Usk. A large industrial area around Neath is supplied
+from Ystradfellte. Merthyr Tydfil draws its supply from the lesser Taff,
+while Cardiff's main supply comes from the Great Taff valley, where,
+under acts of 1884 and 1894, two reservoirs with a capacity of 668
+million gallons have been constructed and a third authorized.
+
+In the east of the county, at the foot of the Black Forest Mountains, is
+Llyn Safaddan, or Brecknock Mere, now more generally known as Llangorse
+Lake (from being partly situated in the parish of that name). It is
+about 3 m. long by 1 m. broad, being the largest lake in South Wales.
+Upon an artificial island in the lake traces of lake-dwellings were
+discovered in 1869, together with the bones of red deer, wild boar and
+_Bos longifrons_.
+
+  _Geology._--The oldest rocks in Brecknockshire are the Llandeilo
+  shales and intrusive diabases of pre-Llandovery age which near Builth
+  extend across the Wye from Radnorshire; another patch with volcanic
+  outflows comes up at Llanwrtyd, and at both places they give rise to
+  mineral springs. Next follow the Bala Beds, which, with the succeeding
+  Lower and Upper Llandovery shales, sandstones and conglomerates, form
+  the sparsely populated sheepwalks and valleys which occupy most of the
+  north-western part of the county. These rocks are much folded and the
+  shales are locally cleaved into slates, while the sandstones and
+  conglomerates form scarps and ridges. To the south-east of this region
+  a narrow outcrop of Upper Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow sandstones
+  and mudstones follows, uncomformably overlying the Llandeilo and Bala
+  rocks, and dipping conformably under the Old Red Sandstone; they
+  extend from Newbridge-on-Wye and Builth through Llangammarch (where
+  there are mineral springs) towards Llandovery, while a tongue of
+  Ludlow rocks brought up by faulting extends from Erwood on the Wye for
+  8 m. south-westwards into the Old Red Sandstone. The remainder and
+  greater part of the county is occupied chiefly by the gently inclined
+  Old Red Sandstone; in the dissected plateau of the Black Mountains
+  north of Crickhowell the lower marls and cornstones are laid open,
+  while south of Brecon the conglomeratic upper beds form the escarpment
+  and plateaus of the Beacons. The southern edge of the county is formed
+  by the scarps and moorlands of the Carboniferous Limestone and
+  Millstone Grit (both of which form also the outlier of Pen-ceryg-calch
+  north of Crickhowell), while the lowest beds of the Coal Measures of
+  the South Wales coalfield are reached in the Tawe and Neath valleys
+  (where the beds are much folded) and near Tredegar and Brynmawr.
+  Glacial deposits spread over the lower grounds and striae occur at
+  great heights on the Black Mountains.
+
+_Industries._--Agriculture is the chief industry, and the Agricultural
+Society of the county, dating from 1755, is the oldest in Wales. About
+one-fourth only of the area of the county is under cultivation, and the
+chief crops grown are wheat and barley, but above all, turnips and oats.
+The acreage devoted to any other crop is practically infinitesimal,
+though in the eastern part more attention is paid to fruit-growing than
+perhaps in any other part of South Wales. The farming is, however,
+chiefly pastoral, nearly one-third of the county is common or waste
+land, and its number of sheep (mainly of the Radnor Forest breed) far
+exceeds that of any other county in Wales. The breeding of cobs and
+ponies comes next in importance, and thirdly that of cattle, now mostly
+Herefords, though Speed mentions a native breed, long since extinct, all
+white with red ears. These, together with pigs, wool, butter, and (in
+small quantities) cheese, form the staple of a considerable trade with
+the Midlands and the industrial districts to the south and southwest.
+The farms are of comparatively small size, the average cultivated area
+of the holdings in 1894 being 63 acres, and the hired labour averages
+about two men for each farm. A large share of the work, especially on
+the highland farms, is done by the occupiers and members of their own
+families, with the aid, where required, of an indoor servant or two.
+Few hands are employed in manufactures, but the mining industry is more
+important, coal being extensively worked--chiefly anthracite in the
+upper reaches of the Swansea and Neath valleys, and bituminous in the
+south-eastern corner of the county. There are also limestone and
+fireclay, firebrick and cement works, chiefly on the northern outcrop of
+the carboniferous limestone, as at Abernant in the Vale of Neath and at
+Penwyllt.
+
+The Central Wales section of the London & North-Western railway from
+Craven Arms to Swansea crosses the north-west corner of the county, and
+is intersected at Builth Road by a branch of the Cambrian, which,
+running for the most part on the Radnorshire side of the Wye, follows
+that river from Rhayader to Three Cocks; the Midland railway from
+Hereford to Swansea runs through the centre of the county, effecting
+junctions at Three Cocks with the Cambrian, at Talyllyn with the Brecon
+& Merthyr railway (which connects the county with the industrial areas
+of East Glamorgan and West Monmouthshire), and at Capel Colbren with the
+Neath and Brecon line. The North-Western and Rhymney joint line skirts
+the south-eastern boundary of the county. Brecon is also connected with
+Newport by means of the Brecknock and Abergavenny Canal, which was
+completed in 1801 and is 35 m. in length. The Swansea Canal and that of
+the Vale of Neath have also their northern terminal within the county,
+at Ystradgynlais and Abernant respectively. The main roads of the county
+are probably the best in South Wales.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+475,224 acres, with a population in 1891 of 57,031 and in 1901 of
+59,907. The area of the administrative county is 469,301 acres. The only
+municipal borough is Brecon, which is the county town, and had in 1901 a
+population of 5741. The other urban districts are Brynmawr, Builth Wells
+and Hay, with populations of 6833, of 1805 and of 1680 respectively in
+1901. Crickhowell and Talgarth are market towns, while Llanwrtyd Wells
+is a rapidly developing health resort. The county forms part of the
+South Wales circuit, and the assizes are held at Brecon. It had one
+court of quarter sessions, and is divided into ten petty sessional
+divisions. The borough of Brecon has a separate commission of the peace,
+but no separate court of quarter sessions. There are 94 civil parishes,
+while the ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within
+the county number 70, of which 67 are in the diocese of St David's and
+the archdeaconry of Brecon, the remaining 3 being in the diocese of
+Llandaff. The county is not divided for parliamentary purposes, and
+returns one member to parliament. It contains a small part of the
+parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil.
+
+In the eastern parts and along the Wye valley, English has become the
+predominant language, but in the rest of the county, especially north of
+the Eppynt range, Welsh occupies that position. In 1901 about 51% of the
+population above three years could speak both English and Welsh, 38%
+could speak English only and 11% Welsh only. The majority of the
+population is Nonconformist in religion, the chief denominations being
+the Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists and Congregationalists. Besides an
+endowed grammar-school (Christ College) at Brecon, there are in the
+county four secondary schools, established under the Welsh Intermediate
+Education Act 1899, viz. separate schools for boys and girls at Brecon,
+and dual schools at Builth and Brynmawr. Most of the county institutions
+are in the town of Brecon, but the joint asylum for the counties of
+Brecon and Radnor is at Talgarth. It was opened in February 1903. At
+Trevecca, near the same town, was a theological college for ministerial
+students attached to the Calvinistic Methodist body, but in October 1906
+the institution was removed to Aberystwyth, and the buildings have since
+been utilized for a preparatory school belonging to the same body.
+
+_History._--There are no traces or record of Breconshire being inhabited
+before the Neolithic period, but to that period may be ascribed a number
+of cairns, menhirs and one cromlech (near Glanusk). In Roman times the
+eastern half of the county formed part of the territory of the Silures,
+a pre-Celtic race, whose governing class at that time probably consisted
+of Brythonic Celts. But an earlier wave of Celtic invasion represented
+by the Goidels had passed westwards along the valleys of the Usk and
+Wye, leaving traces in place-names (_e.g. llwch_, lake), and in the
+Ogham inscribed stones found at Glanusk, Trallwng and Trecastle, and
+probably surviving into historic times around the Beacon range and
+farther south even to Gower and Kidwelly. The conquest of the district
+by the Romans was effected between about A.D. 75 and 80, and they
+established a frontier fort (which some have called Caer Bannau,
+identifying it as Bannium) some 3 m. out of the present town of Brecon,
+with smaller stations on roads leading thereto at Y Gaer near
+Crickhowell, and at Capel Colbren in the direction of Neath. On the
+departure of the Romans, the Goidelic hill-tribes, probably with help
+from Gower and Ireland, seem to have regained possession of the Usk
+valley under the leadership of a chieftain of their own race, Brychan,
+who became the ancestor of one of the three chief tribes of hereditary
+Welsh saints. His territory (named after him Brycheiniog, whence
+Brecknock) lay wholly east of the Eppynt range, for the lordship of
+Buallt, corresponding to the modern hundred of Builth, to the west,
+remained independent, probably till the Norman invasion. Most of the
+older churches of central Brecknockshire and east Carmarthenshire were
+founded by or dedicated to members of Brychan's family.
+
+From the middle of the 8th century to the 10th, Brycheiniog proper often
+bore the brunt of Mercian attacks, and many of the castles on its
+eastern border had their origin in that period. Subsequently, when
+Bernard de Newmarch and his Norman followers obtained possession of the
+country in the last quarter of the 11th century, these were converted
+into regular fortresses. Bernard himself initiated this policy by
+building a castle at Talgarth on the Upper Wye, but in 1091 he moved
+southwards, defeated the regulus of Brycheiniog, Bleddyn ab Maenarch,
+and his brother-in-law Rhys ap Tewdwr, the prince of south-west Wales,
+and with materials obtained from the Roman fort of Caer Bannau, built a
+castle at Brecon, which he made his _caput baroniae_. Brycheiniog was
+then converted into a lordship marcher and passed to the Fitzwalter, de
+Breos, the Bohun and the Stafford families in succession, remaining
+unaffected by the Statute of Rhuddlan (1282), as it formed part of the
+marches, and not of the principality of Wales.
+
+The Irfon valley, near Builth, was, however, the scene of the last
+struggle between the English and Llewelyn, who in 1282 fell in a petty
+skirmish in that district. The old spirit of independence flickered once
+again when Owen Glendower marched to Brecon in 1403. Upon the attainder
+of Edward, duke of Buckingham, in 1521, the lordship of Brecon with its
+dependencies became vested in the crown. In 1536 it was grouped with a
+whole series of petty lordships marcher and the lordship of Builth to
+form the county of Brecknock with Brecon as the county town, and the
+place for holding the county court. The county returns one member to
+parliament, and has done so since 1536; the borough of Brecon, with the
+town of Llywel, had also a separate representative from the same date
+till 1885, when it became merged in the county.
+
+
+
+
+BREDA, a fortified town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, at
+the confluence of the canalized rivers Merk and Aa, 15 m. by rail E.N.E.
+of Roozendaal. Pop. (1900) 26,296. It is connected by steam tramway with
+Antwerp (30 m. S.S.W.), and with Geertruidenberg in the north, and the
+island of Duiveland on the west. The fortress of Breda, which was once
+considered impregnable, has been dismantled, but the town is still
+protected by extensive lines of fortification and lies in the midst of a
+district which can be readily laid under water. It has a fine quay,
+town-hall and park. There are several Roman Catholic and Protestant
+churches. The principal Protestant church is a Gothic building dating
+from the end of the 13th century, with a fine tower, and a choir of
+later date (1410). Among the many interesting monuments is the imposing
+tomb of the stadtholder Count Engelbert II. of Nassau and his wife. This
+is the work of Tomasino Vincenz of Bologna, who, though a pupil of
+Raphael in painting, in sculpture followed Michelangelo, to whom the
+work is sometimes ascribed. Since 1828 Breda has been the seat of a
+royal military academy for all arms of the service. It also possesses a
+Latin school, an arsenal, and a modern prison built on the isolated-cell
+principle. The prison is in the form of a rotunda, 58 yds. in diameter,
+and covered by a high dome. In the middle is the office of the
+administration, and on the top of this a small watch-tower. Round the
+walls of the rotunda are the cells, 208 in number, and arranged in four
+tiers with balconies reached by iron staircases. Each cell measures 35
+cub. yds., is provided with an electric bell communicating with the
+warder in the tower, heated by hot-air pipes, and lighted by day through
+a window on the outer wall of the rotunda, and from sunset till ten
+o'clock by electric light. The industries of Breda comprise the
+manufacture of linen and woollen goods, carpets, hats, beer and musical
+instruments. In the neighbourhood of the town are the villages of
+Ginneken and Prinsenhage, situated in the midst of pretty pine woods.
+They form favourite places of excursion, and in the woods at Ginneken is
+a Kneipp sanatorium.
+
+_History._--Breda was in the 11th century a direct fief of the Holy
+Roman Empire, its earliest known lord being Henry I. (1098-1125), in
+whose family it continued, though, from the latter part of the 13th
+century, in the female line, until Alix, heiress of Philip (d. 1323),
+sold it to Brabant. In 1350 the fief was resold to John (Jan) of Polanen
+(d. 1377), the heiress of whose line, Joanna (d. 1445), married
+Engelbert of Nassau-Dillenburg (d. 1442). Henceforth it remained in the
+house of Nassau, passing ultimately to William I. (1533-1584), the first
+stadtholder of the Netherlands. Breda obtained municipal rights in 1252,
+but was first surrounded with walls in 1534 by Count Henry of Nassau,
+who also restored the old castle, originally built by John of Polanen in
+1350. From this period until late in the 19th century it remained the
+most important of the line of fortresses along the Meuse. Breda was
+captured by surprise by the Spaniards in 1581; but in 1590 it fell again
+into the hands of Maurice of Nassau, 68 picked men contriving to get
+into the town concealed under the turf in a peat-boat. The so-called
+"Spaniard's Hole" still marks the spot where the peat-boat lay. Its
+surrender in 1625, after a ten months' siege, to the Spaniards under
+Spinola is the subject of the famous picture by Velasquez in the Museo
+del Prado in Madrid. In 1637 Breda was recaptured by Frederick Henry of
+Orange after a four months' siege, and in 1648 it was finally ceded to
+Holland by the treaty of Westphalia. During the wars of the French
+Revolution, it was taken by Dumouriez in 1793, evacuated soon after and
+retaken by Pichegru in 1795, after the whole of Holland had already
+succumbed to the French. In 1813, a sally being made by the French
+garrison on an advance-guard of the Russians under Benckendorff, the
+citizens of Breda again made themselves masters of the town.
+
+Breda was the residence, during his exile, of Charles II., who, by the
+declaration of Breda (1660), made known the conditions of his acceptance
+of the crown of England. In 1696 William, prince of Orange and king of
+England, built the new castle, one of the finest buildings of the
+period, which now serves as the military academy. Breda also derives
+some celebrity from the various political congresses of which it has
+been the scene. In 1575 a conference was held here between the
+ambassadors of Spain and those of the United Provinces; in 1667 a peace
+was signed between England, Holland, France and Denmark; and in
+1746-1747 the representatives of the same powers met in the town to
+discuss the terms of another treaty.
+
+
+
+
+BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN (1683-1750), Flemish painter, son of Alexander
+van Bredael (d. 1720), who was also an artist, was born in Antwerp. He
+imitated the style of Wouverman and Breughel with such dexterity that
+even connoisseurs are often unable to distinguish his copies of their
+pictures from the originals. He visited England, where he was so well
+employed that in a few years he was able to retire to his native country
+with a competency. The earl of Derwentwater was one of his chief
+patrons. There were several other van Bredaels, who won honour as
+artists--notably PIETER (1622-1719), Alexander's father, and JOZEF
+(1688-1739). They were formerly known as "Breda," but this apparently is
+incorrect, though it occurs as a signature on a picture by Jan Frans in
+the Amsterdam gallery.
+
+
+
+
+BREDERODE, HENRY, COUNT OF (1531-1568), was born at Brussels in 1531. He
+was the descendant of an ancient race, which had for some centuries been
+settled in Holland, and had taken an active part in the affairs of war
+and peace. Count Henry became a convert to the Reformed faith and placed
+himself at the side of the prince of Orange and Count Egmont in
+resisting the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition and Spanish
+despotism into the Netherlands. In 1566 he was one of the founders of
+the confederacy of nobles who bound themselves to maintain the rights
+and liberties of the country by signing a document known as "the
+Compromise." On the 5th of April of that year Brederode accompanied to
+the palace a body of 250 confederates, of whom he acted as the
+spokesman, to present to the regent, Margaret of Parma, a petition
+setting forth their grievances, called "the Request." It was at a
+banquet at the Hotel Culemburg on the 8th of April, presided over by
+Brederode, that the sobriquet of _les Gueux_, or "the Beggars," was
+first given to the opponents of Spanish rule. Brederode was banished
+from the Netherlands by Alva, and died in exile shortly afterwards at
+the early age of thirty-six.
+
+
+
+
+BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL (1773-1814), German historian, was born at
+Berlin on the 14th of December 1773, and became successively professor
+at the universities of Helmstadt, Frankfort-on-Oder and Breslau. He died
+at Breslau on the 5th of September 1814. Bredow's principal works are
+_Handbuch der alien Geschichte, Geographic und Chronologie_ (Eutin,
+1799; English trans., London, 1827); _Chronik des 19. Jahrhunderts_
+(Altona, 1801); _Entwurf der Weltkunde der Alten_ (Altona, 1816);
+_Weltgeschichte in Tabellen_ (Altona, 1801; English trans, by J. Bell,
+London, 1820); _Grundriss einer Geschichte der merkwurdigsten Welthandel
+von 1796-1810_ (Hamburg, 1810).
+
+  Bredow's posthumous writings were edited by J.G. Kunisch (Breslau,
+  1823), who added a biography of the author.
+
+
+
+
+BREDOW, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, immediately
+north of Stettin, of which it forms a suburb. Here are the Vulcan
+iron-works and shipbuilding yards, where the liners "Deutschland"
+(1900), the "Kaiserin Augusta Victoria" (1906), and the "George
+Washington" (1908), the largest vessel (722 ft. long, 27,000 tons) in
+the German mercantile marine, were built; and also sugar, cement and
+other factories.
+
+
+
+
+BREECH (common in early forms to Teutonic languages), a covering for the
+lower part of the body and legs. The Latin _braca_ or _bracca_ is a
+Celtic word, probably cognate with the Teutonic. The word in its proper
+meaning is used in the plural, and, strictly, is confined to a garment
+reaching to the knees only. The meaning of "the hinder part of the body"
+is later than, and derived from, its first meaning; this sense appears
+in the "breech" or hinder part of a gun. The word is also found in
+"breeches buoy," a sling life-saving apparatus, consisting of a support
+of canvas breeches. The "Breeches Bible," a name for the Geneva Bible of
+1560, is so called because "breeches" is used for the aprons of
+fig-leaves made by Adam and Eve. On the stage the phrase a "breeches"
+part is used when a woman plays in male costume. "Breeching" is a strap
+passed round the breech of a harnessed horse and joined to the shafts to
+allow a vehicle to be backed.
+
+
+
+
+BREEDS AND BREEDING. Breeds may be defined as domestic varieties of
+animals or plants which man has been able to bring into existence and to
+maintain in existence. The process of breeding includes all the
+modifying influences which man may bring to bear on a wild stock for the
+purpose, conscious or unconscious, of establishing and maintaining
+breeds. Charles Darwin's _Variation of Animals and Plants under
+Domestication_ (1868) was the starting-point of exact knowledge on this
+subject; when it appeared, it contained not only the best collection of
+empirical facts, but the only rational theory of the facts. The first
+relations between man and domesticated animals and plants were due to
+unconscious or accidental selection of wild stocks that tolerated the
+vicinity of man and that were useful or attractive to him. The new
+conditions must have produced modifications in these stocks, whether
+these were caused by a survival in each generation of individuals with
+the power of response to the new environment, or were due to a
+conscious selection of individuals capable of such favourable response.
+The essence of the process, however, came to be a conscious selection in
+each generation of the best individuals, that is to say, of those
+individuals that seemed to man to be most adapted to his wants. The
+possibility of establishing a breed depended, therefore, in the first
+place on the natural variability of wild animals and plants, then on the
+variations induced in animals and plants under subjection to the new
+conditions brought about by man's interference, next on the extent to
+which these variations, natural or artificial, persisted through the
+series of generations, and finally on man's intelligence in altering or
+maintaining the conditions of the environment, and in selective mating.
+The theory of breeds and breeding depends, in fact, on knowledge of
+variation, of modification by the environment, and of heredity. Any
+attempt to give an account of what actually has been done by man in
+establishing breeds would be little more than an imperfect summary of
+Darwin's work. The articles HEREDITY, MENDELISM and VARIATION AND
+SELECTION show that what may be called the theoretical and experimental
+knowledge of variation and heredity is far in advance of the practical
+art of breeding. Even horticulturists, who have been much more
+successful than those who deal with animals, are still far from being
+able to predict the result of their selections and crossings. None the
+less it may be stated definitely that such prediction is already so
+nearly within the power of the practical breeder that it would be a
+waste of time to give a summary of the existing rule-of-thumb methods.
+The art of breeding is so immediately destined to become a science of
+breeding that existing knowledge and conceptions must be dismissed as of
+no more than historical interest.     (P. C. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BREEZE, (1) A current of air generally taken as somewhat less than a
+"wind," which in turn is less than a "gale." The term is particularly
+applied to the light wind blowing landwards by day, "sea-breeze," and
+the counter wind, blowing off the land at night, "land-breeze." The word
+appears in Fr. _brise_ (admitted by the Academy in 1762). The Span,
+_brisa_, Port. _briza_, and Ital. _brezza_ are used for a wind blowing
+from the north or north-east. According to Cotgrave, Rabelais uses
+_brize_ in the sense of _bise_, the name of a dry north or north-east
+wind prevalent in Switzerland and the bordering parts of France, Italy
+and Germany. The word is first used in English as applied to the cool
+sea-breeze blowing usually from the east or north-east in the West
+Indies and Atlantic sea-coast of Central America. It was then applied to
+sea-breezes from any quarter, and also to the land-breeze, and so to any
+light wind or current of air. (2) Fine ashes or cinders, the refuse of
+coal, coke and charcoal burning. This is probably from the O. Fr.
+_brese_, modern _braise_, a word connected with _braser_, whence Eng.
+_brazier_, a pan for burning coals, charcoal, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BREGENZ (anc. _Brigantium_), the capital of the Austrian, province of
+Vorarlberg, as well as of the administrative district of Bregenz. In
+1900 its population was 7595, German-speaking and Roman Catholic. It is
+situated at the south-east angle of the Lake of Constance, and, besides
+communications by water with the other towns on the shores of that lake,
+is connected by: rail with Feldkirch on the Arlberg line (24 m.) and
+with Munich. The old town is on a hillock, crowned by the ancient
+castle, while the new town is built on the level ground at the foot of
+the hill. The fine parish church (dedicated to St Gall) stands on
+another mound more to the south. In the local museum are collections of
+various kinds, especially of the Roman antiquities which have been dug
+up on the site of the old town. The position of the town on the lake has
+always made it an important port and commercial centre. Nowadays the
+main trade is in grain, but much is done also in cattle and in the
+products of the cotton-spinning factories of Vorarlberg.
+
+We hear of counts of Bregenz as early as the 10th century, their heirs
+in the early 13th century being the counts of Montfort (a castle north
+of Feldkirch), who gradually acquired most of the surrounding country
+(including Feldkirch and Bludenz). But little by little the Habsburgers,
+counts of Tirol since 1363 bought from them most of their
+domains--first Feldkirch in 1375, next Bludenz and the Montafon valley
+in 1394, finally the county of Bregenz in two parts, acquired in 1451
+and 1523. In 1408 the Appenzellers were defeated before Bregenz, while
+in 1647, during the Thirty Years' War, the town was sacked by the Swedes
+under Wrangel.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BREHON LAWS, the English but incorrect appellation of the ancient laws
+of Ireland, the proper name for which is _Feineachas_, meaning the laws
+of the Feine or Feini (fainyeh), who were the free Gaelic farmers.
+_Dlighthe Feine_ is another name for the laws, with the same meaning.
+Laws of universal application which could be administered only by duly
+qualified judges were called _Cain_ law, while minor laws administered
+by nobles and magistrates were called _Urradhus_ law. Regular courts and
+judges existed in Ireland from prehistoric times. The Anglo-Irish word
+"Brehon" is derived from the Gaelic word _Brethem_ (= judge).
+
+The extant remains of these laws are manuscript transcripts from earlier
+copies made on vellum from the 8th to the 13th century, now preserved
+with other Gaelic manuscripts in Trinity College and the Royal Irish
+Academy, Dublin, the British Museum, Oxford University, some private
+collections and several libraries on the continent of Europe. The
+largest and most important of these documents is the _Senchus Mor_ or
+"Great Old Law Book." No copy of it now existing is complete, and some
+portions are missing from all. What remains of it occupies the first,
+second, and a portion of the third of the volumes produced by the Brehon
+Law Commission, which was appointed in 1852.
+
+In the _Annals of the Four Masters_ it is said: "The age of Christ 438,
+the tenth year of King Laeghaire (Lairy), the _Senchus Mor_ and
+_Feineachas_ of Ireland were purified and written." This entry has ample
+historical corroboration. Of many separate treatises dealing with
+special branches of the law, the _Book of Aicill_, composed of opinions
+or placita of King Cormac Mac Art, otherwise Cormac ua Quim, Ard-Rig of
+Erinn from A.D. 227 until 266, and Cennfaeladh the Learned, who lived in
+the first part of the 7th century, is the most important.
+
+The text and earlier commentaries are in the _Bearla Feini_--the most
+archaic form of the Celtic or Gaelic language. From gradual changes in
+the living tongue through a long expanse of time many words, phrases and
+idioms in the _Bearla Feini_ became obsolete, and are so difficult to
+translate that the official translations are to some extent confessedly
+conjectural. In many cases only opening words of the original text
+remain. Wherever the text is whole, it is curt, elliptical, and yet
+rhythmical to a degree attainable only through long use. The rigorously
+authentic character of these laws, relating to, and dealing with, the
+actual realities of life, and with institutions and a state of society
+nowhere else revealed to the same extent, the extreme antiquity both of
+the provisions and of the language, and the meagreness of continental
+material illustrative of the same things, endow them with exceptional
+archaic, archaeological and philological interest.
+
+In the earliest times all learned men, whether specially learned in law
+or not, appear to have acted as judges. Gradually as literature and
+learning increased, judgments delivered by men without special legal
+training fell into disfavour. In the 1st century of the Christian era,
+when Conchobhar or Conor Mac Nessa was king of Ulster, a crisis was
+reached, the result of which was that no man was allowed to act as
+Brehon until he had studied the full law course, which occupied twenty
+years, and had passed a rigorous public examination. The course of study
+for Brehon and Ollamh, advocate and law-agent respectively, is carefully
+laid down in the law itself. The Brehonship was not an office of state
+like that of the modern judge, but a profession in which success
+depended upon ability and judgment. The Brehon was an arbitrator,
+umpire, and expounder of the law, rather than a judge in the modern
+acceptation. It appears, without being expressly stated, that the facts
+of a case were investigated and ascertained by laymen, probably by the
+_Aireachtas_--a local assembly or jury--before submission to a Breton
+for legal decision. A Brehon whose decision was reversed upon appeal
+was liable to damages, loss of position and of free lands, if any,
+disgrace, and a consequent loss of his profession. No Brehon had any
+fixed territorial jurisdiction. A party initiating proceedings could
+select any Brehon he pleased, if there were more than one in his
+district. Every king or chief of sufficient territory retained an
+official Brehon, who was provided with free land for his maintenance. In
+ordinary cases the Brehon's fee was said to have been one-twelfth of the
+amount at stake.
+
+Assemblies, national, provincial and local, were a marked characteristic
+of ancient Irish life. They all, without exception, discharged some
+legal functions, legislative or administrative, and even in those in
+which amusement predominated, the _Cain_ law was publicly rehearsed.
+Most of the assemblies were annual, some triennial, some lasted only a
+day or two, others a week and occasionally longer. All originated in
+pagan funeral or commemorative rites, and continued to be held, even in
+Christian times, in very ancient cemeteries. They were called by
+different names--_Feis, Aenach, Aireachtas, Dal, &c._
+
+The Feis of Tara, in Meath, was from its origin seven centuries before
+Christ down to A.D. 560, mainly national and political, being convened
+by the Ard-Rig, held at his residence, presided over by him, and
+consisting of the provincial kings, tanists, flaiths, Brehons, warriors,
+historians, poets and other distinguished men from the whole of Ireland.
+It was due to be held every third year for the purpose of "preserving
+the laws and rules," and it might be called specially on any urgent
+occasion. After the statesmen had consulted, the laws were proclaimed,
+with any modifications agreed upon. Then the proceedings became festive,
+queens and great ladies taking part. The Feis of A.D. 560 was the last
+regular one held at Tara because the monarch ceased to reside there. One
+national assembly of an exceptional character was held at Tara in A.D.
+697, by a decree of which women were emancipated from liability to
+military service.
+
+The Aenach held annually at Tailltenn, also in Meath, was a general
+assembly of the people without restriction of rank, clan or country, and
+became the most celebrated for athletic sports, games and contests. Yet
+even here the laws were read aloud, and it is not without significance
+that the last national assembly held at Tailltenn under King Rhoderic
+O'Connor in 1168 was a political one.
+
+The _Dal-Criche_ (= territorial assembly), held at Uisneach in
+Westmeath, was a gathering for political and quasi-legislative purposes.
+At one assembly there about a century before Christ, a uniform law of
+distraint for the whole of Ireland was adopted on the motion of Sen, son
+of Aige. This did not prevent the gatherings at Uisneach from being for
+ages celebrated for gaiety and amusement.
+
+Each provincial kingdom and each tuath had assemblies of its own. Every
+_flaith_ and _flaith-fine_ was a member of a local assembly, the clan
+system conferring the qualification, and there being no other election.
+
+An assembly when convened by the _Bruigh-fer_ for the special purpose of
+electing a tanist or successor to the king was called a _Tocomra_.
+
+Very careful provision is made for the preparation of the sites of great
+assemblies, and the preservation of peace and order at them is
+sanctioned by the severest penalties of the law. The operation of every
+legal process calculated to occasion friction, such as seizure of
+property, was suspended during the time the assemblies lasted.
+
+The term _Rig_ (reeh = _rex_, king) was applied to four classes or
+grades of rulers, the lower grades being grouped, each group being
+subject to one of their number, and all being subject to, and owing
+tribute and allegiance to the Ard-Rig (= supreme king of Erinn). The
+Ard-Rig had an official residence at Tara and the kingdom of Meath for
+his special use. The provincial king, Rig Cuicidh, also had an official
+residence and kingdom of his own, together with allegiance and tribute
+from each Rig-mor-Tuatha in his province, who in his turn received
+tribute and allegiance from each Rig-Tuatha under subjection to him. The
+Rig-Tuatha received tribute and allegiance from the flaiths or nobles
+in his tuath. The tuath was the political unit, and the ruler of it was
+the lowest to whom the term "king" was applied. For each payment of
+tribute a king always made some return. Every king was obliged, on his
+inauguration, to swear that he would govern justly and according to law,
+to which he remained always subject. The Ard-Rig was selected by the
+sub-kings and other leading men who legally constituted the Feis of
+Tara, the sub-kings by those under them in their respective spheres. No
+person not of full age, imperfectly educated, stupid, blind, deaf,
+deformed or otherwise defective in mind or body, or for any reason
+whatsoever unfit to discharge the duties or unworthy to represent the
+manhood of the nation, could be king, even though he were the eldest son
+of the preceding king. "It is a forbidden thing for one with a blemish
+to be king at Tara."
+
+_Tuath, Cinel_ and _Clann_ were synonyms meaning a small tribe or nation
+descended from a common ancestor. A king and clan being able, subject to
+certain limitations, to adopt new members or families, or amalgamate
+with another clan, the theory of common origin was not rigidly adhered
+to. Kinship with the clan was an essential qualification for holding any
+office or property. The rules of kinship largely determined status with
+its correlative rights and obligations, supplied the place of contract
+and of laws affecting the ownership, disposition and devolution of
+property, constituting the clan an organic, self-contained entity, a
+political, social and mutual insurance co-partnership. The solidarity of
+the clan was its most important and all-pervading characteristic. The
+entire territory occupied by a clan was the common and absolute property
+of that clan. Subject to this permanent and fundamental ownership, part
+of the land was set apart for the maintenance of the king as such.
+Warriors, statesmen, Brehons, Ollamhs, physicians, poets, and even
+eminent workers in the more important arts, were, in different degrees,
+rewarded with free lands for their respective public services. On the
+death of any person so rewarded, the land in theory reverted to the
+clan; but if like services continued to be rendered by the son or other
+successor, and accepted by the clan, the land was not withdrawn. The
+successors of statesmen, for whom the largest provision was made, became
+a permanent nobility. Flaith (flah = noble chief) was a term applied to
+a man of this rank. Rank, with the accompanying privileges, jurisdiction
+and responsibility, was based upon a qualification of kinship and of
+property, held by a family for a specified number of generations,
+together with certain concurrent conditions; and it could be lost by
+loss of property, crime, cowardice or other disgraceful conduct. The
+flaiths in every tuath and all ranks of society were organized on the
+same hierarchical pattern as royalty. A portion of land called the
+_Cumhal Senorba_ was devoted to the support of widows, orphans and old
+childless people.
+
+_Fine_ (finna), originally meaning family, came in course of time to be
+applied to a group of kindred families or to a whole clan. From
+differences between incidental accounts written in different ages, it
+appears that the social system underwent some change. For the purpose of
+conveying some idea, one theory may be taken, according to which the
+_fine_ was made up of seventeen clansmen, with their families, viz. the
+_Geilfine_ consisting of the flaith-fine and four others in the same or
+nearest degree of kinship to the centre, and the _Deirbhfine, Tarfine_
+and _Innfine_, each consisting of four heads of families, forming
+widening concentric circles of kinship to which the rights and
+liabilities of the _fine_ extended with certainty, but in diminishing
+degrees.
+
+In course of time a large and increasing proportion of the good land
+became, under the titles so far described, limited private property. The
+area of arable land available for the common use of the clansmen was
+gradually diminished by these encroachments, but was still always
+substantial. A share of this was the birthright of every law-abiding
+member of the Feini who needed it. To satisfy this title and give a
+start in life to some young men who would otherwise have got none, this
+land was subject to _Gabhailcine_ (= clan-resumption), meaning that the
+clan resumed the whole area at intervals of a few years for a fresh
+distribution after some occupants had died, and young men by attaining
+manhood had become entitled. Hence the Anglo-Irish word _gavelkind_.
+Anciently this re-distribution extended throughout the clan at the same
+time. Later it extended only to the land of a _fine_, each _fine_ making
+its own distribution at its own time and in its own way as determined by
+the seventeen men above specified. In this distribution men might or
+might not receive again their former portions. In the latter case
+compensation was made for unexhausted improvements. This land could not
+be sold, nor even let except for a season in case of domestic necessity.
+The Feini who used it had no landlord and no rent to pay for this land,
+and could not be deprived of it except by the clan for a crime. They
+were subject only to public tributes and the ordinary obligations of
+free men. Presumably their homesteads were not on this land and were not
+subject to _Gabhailcine_. Neither were the unfenced and unappropriated
+common lands--waste, bog, forest and mountain--which all clansmen were
+free to use promiscuously at will.
+
+There was hardly any selling and little letting of land in ancient
+times. Flaiths and other persons holding large areas let to clansmen,
+who then became _Ceiles_, not land, but the privilege of feeding upon
+land a number of cattle specified by agreement. Flaiths and Bo-aires
+also let cattle to a _ceile_ who had none or not enough, and this was
+the most prevalent practice. There were two distinct methods of letting
+and hiring--_saer_ (= free) and _daer_ (= base), the conditions being
+fundamentally different. The conditions of _saer_-tenure were largely
+settled by the law, were comparatively easy, did not require any
+security to be given, left the _ceile_ free within the limits of justice
+to end the connexion, left him competent in case of dispute to give
+evidence against that of the flaith, and did not impose any liability on
+the _fine_ of the _ceile_. By continued user of the same land for some
+years and discharge of the public obligations in respect of it in
+addition to the _ciss_ or payment as tenant, a _ceile_ became a
+sub-owner or permanent tenant and could not be evicted. There is no
+provision in these laws for evicting any one. For the hire of cattle a
+usual payment was one beast in seven per annum for seven years; after
+which the cattle that remained became the property of the hirer. A
+_saer-ceile_ on growing wealthy might become a _bo-aire_. _Daer-tenure_,
+whether of cattle or of the right to graze cattle upon land, was subject
+to a _ciss-ninsciss_ (= wearisome tribute), for the payment of which
+security had to be given. A man not in the enjoyment of full civil
+rights, if able to find security, could become a _daer-ceile_. A free
+clansman by becoming a _daer-ceile_ lowered his own status and that of
+his _fine_, became incompetent to give evidence against that of a
+flaith, and could not end the connexion until the end of the term except
+by a large payment. The members of his _fine_ were liable, in the degree
+of their relationship, to make good out of their own property any
+default in the payments. Hence this tenure could not be legally entered
+into by a free clansman without the permission of his fine.
+_Daer-ceiles_ were also exposed to casual burdens, like that of lodging
+and feeding soldiers when in their district. All payments were made in
+kind. When the particular kind was not specified by the law or by
+agreement, the payments were made according to convenience in horses,
+cattle, sheep, pigs, wool, butter, bacon, corn, vegetables, yarn,
+dye-plants, leather, cloth, articles of use or ornament, &c. As the clan
+system relaxed, and the fine lost its legal power of fixing the amounts
+of public tributes, which were similarly payable to the _flaith_, and
+neglected its duty of seeing that those tributes were duly applied, the
+_flaith_ became able to increase these tributes with little check, to
+confuse them with rent, to confuse jurisdiction with ownership, and to
+exalt himself at the expense of his fellow-clansmen. A _flaith_ by
+arranging that his tenants should make their payments at different
+periods of the year, secured a constant and copious supply without an
+inconvenient surplus.
+
+People who did not belong to the clan and were not citizens were in a
+base condition and incompetent to appear in court in suit or defence
+except through a freeman. The _Bothach_ (= cottier) and the
+_Sen-cleithe_ (= old dependent) were people who, though living for
+successive generations attached to the families of flaiths, did not
+belong to the clan and had no rights of citizenship. _Fuidhirs_, or
+manual labourers without property, were the lowest section of the
+population. Some were born in this condition, some clansmen were
+depressed into it by crime, consequences of war or other misfortune; and
+strangers of a low class coming into the territory found their level in
+it. The _fuidhirs_ also were divided into _saer_ and _daer_; the former
+being free by industry and thrift to acquire some property, after which
+five of them could club together to acquire rights corresponding to
+those of one freeman. The _daer-fuidhirs_ were tramps, fugitives,
+captives, &c.
+
+Fosterage, the custom of sending children to be reared and educated in
+the families of fellow-clansmen, was so prevalent, especially among the
+wealthy classes, and the laws governing it are so elaborate and occupied
+such a large space, that some mention of it here is inevitable. Beyond
+mention, there is little to be said, owing to the absence of general
+principles in an infinity of specific details, mostly domestic and
+apparently trivial. A child in fosterage was reared and educated
+suitably for the position it was destined to fill in life. There was
+fosterage for affection, for payment and for a literary education.
+Fosterage began when the child was a year old and ended when the
+marriageable age was reached, unless previously terminated by death or
+crime. Every fostered person was under an obligation to provide, if
+necessary, for the old age of foster-parents. The affection arising from
+this relationship was usually greater, and was regarded as more sacred
+than that of blood relationship.
+
+The solidarity of clan and _fine_ in their respective spheres, the
+provisions of the system, the simple rural life, and the prevalence of
+barter and payments in kind, left comparatively little occasion for
+contracts between individuals. Consequently the rules relating to
+contract are not very numerous. They are, however, sufficiently solemn.
+No contract affecting land was valid unless made with the consent of the
+_fine_ and in the presence of the _Aire-Forgaill_. Contracts relating to
+other kinds of property are more numerous. When important or involving a
+considerable amount, they had to be made in the presence of a _flaith_
+or magistrate. The _Aire-Coisring_ presided over most of the contracts
+of the common people. The parties to a contract should be free citizens,
+of full age, sound mind, free to contract or not, and under no legal
+disability. "The world would be in a state of confusion if express
+contracts were not binding." From the repeated correlative dicta that
+"nothing is due without deserving," and that a thing done "for God's
+sake," i.e. gratis, imposed little obligation, it is clear that the
+importance of valuable consideration was fully recognized. So also was
+the importance of time. "To be asleep avails no one"; "Sloth takes away
+a man's welfare." Contracts made by the following persons were invalid:
+(1) a servant without his master's authority; (2) a monk without
+authority from his abbot or manager of temporalities; (3) a son subject
+to his father without the father's authority; (4) an infant, lunatic, or
+"one who had not the full vigilance of reason"; (5) a wife in relation
+to her husband's property without his authority. She was free to hold
+and deal with property of her own and bind it by contract. If a son
+living with his father entered into a contract with his father's
+knowledge, the father was held to have ratified the contract unless he
+promptly repudiated it. "One is held to adopt what he does not repudiate
+after knowledge, having the power." Contract of sale or barter with
+warranty could be dissolved for fraud, provided action was taken within
+a limited time after the fraud had become known. Treaties and occasional
+very important contracts were made "blood-covenants" and inviolable by
+drawing a drop of blood from the little finger of each of the
+contracting parties, blending this with water, and both drinking the
+mixture out of the same cup. The forms of legal evidence were pledges,
+documents, witnesses and oaths. In cases of special importance the
+pledges were human beings, "hostage sureties." These were treated as in
+their own homes according to the rank to which they belonged, and were
+discharged on the performance of the contract. If the contract was
+broken, they became prisoners and might be fettered or made to work as
+slaves until the obligation was satisfied. Authentic documents were
+considered good evidence. A witness was in all cases important, and in
+some essential to the validity of a contract. His status affected the
+force of the contract as well as the value of his evidence; and the laws
+appear to imply that by becoming a witness, a man incurred liabilities
+as a surety. The pre-Christian oath might be by one or more of the
+elements, powers or phenomena of nature, as the sun, moon, water, night,
+day, sea, land. The Christian oath might be on a copy of the Gospels, a
+saint's crozier, relic or other holy thing.
+
+These laws recognized crime, but in the same calm and deliberate way in
+which they recognized contract and other things seriously affecting the
+people. Although we find in the poems of Dubhthach, written in the 5th
+century and prefixed to the _Senchus Mor_, the sentences, "Let every one
+die who kills a human being," and "Every living person that inflicts
+death shall suffer death," capital punishment did not prevail in Ireland
+before or after. The laws uniformly discountenanced revenge,
+retaliation, the punishment of one crime by another, and permitted
+capital punishment only in the last resort and in ultimate default of
+every other form of redress. They contain elaborate provision for
+dealing with crime, but the standpoint from which it is regarded and
+treated is essentially different from ours. The state, for all its
+elaborate structure, did not assume jurisdiction in relation to any
+crimes except political ones, such as treason or the disturbance of a
+large assembly. For these it inflicted the severest penalties known to
+the law--banishment, confiscation of property, death or putting out of
+eyes. A crime against the person, character or property of an individual
+or family was regarded as a thing for which reparation should be made,
+but the individual or family had to seek the reparation by a personal
+action. This differed from a civil action only in the terms employed and
+the elements used in calculating the amount of the reparation. The
+function of a judge in a criminal as in a civil action was to see that
+the facts, with modifying circumstances, were fully and truly submitted
+to him, and then by applying the law to these facts to ascertain and
+declare the amount of compensation that would make a legal adjustment.
+For this amount the guilty person, and in his default his kindred,
+became legally debtor, and the injured person or family became entitled
+to recover the amount like a civil debt by distraint, if not paid
+voluntarily. There were no police, sheriffs or public prisons. The
+decisions of the law were executed by the persons concerned, supported
+by a highly organized and disciplined public opinion springing from
+honour and interest and inherent in the solidarity of the clan. There is
+good reason to believe that the system was as effectual in the
+prevention and punishment of crime and in the redress of wrongs as any
+other human contrivance has ever been.
+
+In calculating the amount of compensation the most characteristic and
+important element was _Einechlan_ (= honour-price, honour-value), a
+value attaching to every free person, varying in amount from one cow to
+thirty cows according to rank. It was the assessed value of _status_ or
+_caput_. It was frequently of consequence in relation to contracts and
+other clan affairs; but it emerges most clearly in connexion with crime.
+By the commission of crime, breach of contract, or other disgraceful or
+injurious conduct, Einechlan was diminished or destroyed, a _capitis
+diminutio_ occurred, apart from any other punishment. Though existing
+apart from fine, Einechlan was the first element in almost every fine.
+_Dire_ was the commonest word for fine, whether great or small. _Eric_
+(= reparation, redemption) was the fine for "separating body from soul";
+but the term was used in lighter cases also. In capital cases the word
+sometimes meant Einechlan, sometimes _coirp-dire_ (= body-fine), but
+most correctly the sum of these two. It may be taken that, subject to
+modifying circumstances, a person guilty of homicide had to pay (i)
+_coirp-dire_ for the destruction of life, irrespective of rank; (2) the
+honour-value of the victim; (3) his own honour-value if the deed was
+unintentional; and (4) double his own honour-value if committed with
+malice aforethought. The sum of these was in all cases heavy; heaviest
+when the parties were wealthy. The amount was recoverable as a debt from
+the criminal to the extent of his property, and in his default from the
+members of his _fine_ in sums determined by the degree of relationship;
+and it was distributable among the members of the _fine_ of a murdered
+person in the same proportions, like a distribution among the next of
+kin. The _fine_ of a murderer could free themselves from liability by
+giving up the murderer and his goods, or if he escaped, by giving up any
+goods he had left, depriving him of clanship, and lodging a pledge
+against his future misdeeds. In these circumstances the law held the
+criminal's life forfeit, and he might be slain or taken as a prisoner or
+slave. He could escape only by becoming a _daer-fuidhir_ in some distant
+territory. When the effect of a crime did not go beyond an individual,
+if that individual's _fine_ did not make good their claim while the
+criminal lived, it lapsed on his death. "The crime dies with the
+criminal." If an unknown stranger or person without property caught
+red-handed in the commission of a crime refused to submit to arrest, it
+was lawful to maim or slay him according to the magnitude of the
+attempted crime. "A person who came to inflict a wound on the body may
+be safely killed when unknown and without a name, and when there is no
+power to arrest him at the time of committing the trespass." For crimes
+against property the usual penalty, as in breach of contract, was
+generic restitution, the quantity, subject to modifying circumstances,
+being twice the amount taken or destroyed.
+
+Distress of seizure of property being the universal mode of obtaining
+satisfaction, whether for crime, breach of contract, non-payment of
+debt, or any other cause, the law of distress came into operation as the
+solvent of almost every dispute. Hence it is the most extensive and
+important branch, if not more than a branch, of these ancient laws. Of
+several words meaning distress, _athgabail_ was the most frequently
+used. A person having a liquidated claim might either sue a debtor or
+proceed at his peril to seize without this preliminary. In the latter
+case the defendant could stop the progress of the seizure by paying the
+debt, giving a pledge, or demanding a trial; and he then could choose a
+Brehon. Distress was of two kinds--(1) _athgabal ar fut_ (= distress on
+length, i.e. with time, with delays); and (2) _athgabail tulla_ (=
+immediate distress). Which method was pursued depended partly upon the
+facts of the case and partly upon the respective ranks of the parties. A
+person entitled to seize property had to do it himself, accompanied, if
+the amount was large, by a law agent and witnesses. No man was entitled
+to seize unless he owned, or had a surety who owned, sufficient property
+for indemnity or adjustment in case the seizure should be found to have
+been wrongful. The formalities varied in different circumstances and
+also at different times in the long ages in which these laws prevailed.
+Some forms may, in the Irish as in other legal systems, have become
+merely ceremonial and fictitious.
+
+_Tellach_ (= seizure of immovable property) was made in three periods or
+delays of ten days each (= 30 days). The first step was a notice that
+unless the debt was paid immediately seizure would be made. Ten days
+later, the plaintiff crossed the fence in upon the land, with a law
+agent, a witness and a pair of horses yoked or harnessed, and in a loud
+voice stated the amount of the debt and called upon the defendant to pay
+it according to law. On receiving no answer, or an unsatisfactory one,
+he withdrew. After an interval of ten days more, the creditor entered
+with his law agent, two witnesses and four horses, went farther in upon
+the land, repeated his demand, and if refused withdrew. Finally, after a
+further interval of ten days, he entered once more with his law agent,
+three witnesses and eight horses, drove up to the debtor's house,
+repeated his demand, and if not satisfied drove a herd of cattle or a
+flock of sheep in upon the farm and left men to care for them.
+
+_Athgabail_ ordinarily meant the seizure of movable property. The
+following technical terms will indicate the procedure in distress with
+time:--_Aurfocre_ (= demand of payment, stating the amount in presence
+of witnesses); _apad_ (= delay); _athgabail_ (= the actual seizure);
+_anad_ (= delay after seizure, the thing remaining in the debtor's
+possession); _toxal_ (= the taking away of the thing seized); _fasc_ (=
+notice to the debtor of the amount due, the _mainder_ or pound in which
+the thing seized is impounded, and the name of the law agent); _dithim_
+(= delay during which the thing is in pound); _lobad_ (= destruction or
+forfeiture of the debtor's ownership and substitution of the creditor's
+ownership). There was no sale, because sale for money was little known.
+The property in the thing seized, to the amount of the debt and
+expenses, became legally transferred from the debtor to the creditor,
+not all at once but in stages fixed by law. A creditor was not at
+liberty to seize household goods, farming utensils, or any goods the
+loss of which would prevent the debtor recovering from embarrassment, so
+long as there was other property which could be seized. A seizure could
+be made only between sunrise and sunset. "If a man who is sued evades
+justice, knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable
+by him and a fine of five seds." When a large debt was clearly due, and
+there was no property to seize, the debtor himself could be seized and
+compelled to work as a prisoner or slave until the debt was paid.
+
+When a defendant was of rank superior to that of the plaintiff, distress
+had to be preceded by _troscad_ (= fasting). This is a legal process
+unknown elsewhere except in parts of India. The plaintiff having made
+his demand and waited a certain time without result, went and sat
+without food before the door of the defendant. To refuse to submit to
+fasting was considered indelibly disgraceful, and was one of the things
+which legally degraded a man by reducing or destroying his honour-value.
+The law said "he who does not give a pledge to fasting is an evader of
+all; he who disregards all things shall not be paid by God or man." If a
+plaintiff having duly fasted did not receive within a certain time the
+satisfaction of his claim, he was entitled to distrain as in the case of
+an ordinary defendant, and to seize double the amount that would have
+satisfied him in the first instance. If a person fasting in accordance
+with law died during or in consequence of the fast, the person fasted
+upon was held guilty of murder. Fasting could be stopped by paying the
+debt, giving a pledge, or submitting to the decision of a Brehon. A
+creditor fasting after a reasonable offer of settlement had been made to
+him forfeited his claim. "He who fasts notwithstanding the offer of what
+should be accorded to him, forfeits his legal right according to the
+decision of the Feini."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Since Sir Samuel Ferguson wrote his article on "Brehon
+  Laws" in the 9th edition of this _Encyclopaedia_, much research has
+  been done on the subject, and Ferguson's account is no longer accepted
+  by scholars, either as regards the language or the substance of the
+  laws. Pending the work of a second Brehon Law Commission, the Laws are
+  best studied in the six imperfect volumes (_Ancient Laws of Ireland_,
+  1865-1901) produced by the first Commission (ignoring their long and
+  worthless introductions), together with, Dr. Whitley Stokes's
+  _Criticism_ (London, Nutt, 1903) of Atkinson's _Glossary_ (Dublin,
+  1901). The following are important references (kindly supplied by Dr
+  Whitley Stokes) for detailed research:--R. Dareste, _Etudes d'histoire
+  de droit_, pp. 356-381 (Paris, 1889); Arbois de Jubainville and Paul
+  Collinet, _Etudes sur le droit celtique_ (2 vols., Paris, 1895);
+  Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, vol. i. pp. 168-214 (2
+  vols., London, 1903); _Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_, iv. 221,
+  the Copenhagen fragments of the Laws (Halle, 1903); important letters
+  in _The Academy_, Nos. 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 706, 707
+  (substantially covered by Stokes's _Criticism_); _Revue Celtique_,
+  xxv. 344; _Erin_, i. 209-315 (collation by Kuno Meyer of the Law-tract
+  Crith Gablach); Maine's _Early Hist, of Institutions_ (1875) and
+  _Early Law and Custom_, pp. 162, 180 (1883); Hearn's _Aryan Household_
+  (1879), and Maclennan's _Studies in Ancient History_, pp. 453-507
+  (1876), contain interesting general reference, but the writers were
+  not themselves original students of the laws. L. Ginnell's _Brehon
+  Laws_ (1894) may also be consulted. See further the article CELT,
+  sections _Language_ and _Literature_.     (L. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BREISACH, or ALTBREISACH, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
+Baden, on the left bank of the Rhine, standing on a basalt rock 250 ft.
+above the river, 10 m. W. of Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and on the railway
+connecting that city with Colmar. Pop. (1900) 3537. It has a fine
+minster, partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, dating from the 10th to the
+15th centuries; of its two principal towers one is 13th century Gothic,
+the other Romanesque. The interior is remarkable for its rich
+decorations, especially the wood-carving of the high altar, and for many
+interesting tombs and pictures. There is little industry, but a
+considerable trade is done in wines and other agricultural produce. On
+the opposite bank of the Rhine, here crossed by a railway bridge, lies
+the little town of Neubreisach and the fort Mortier.
+
+Breisach (_Brisiacum_), formerly an imperial city and until the middle
+of the 18th century one of the chief fortresses of the Empire, is of
+great antiquity. A stronghold of the _Sequani_ (a Gallic tribe, which
+occupied the country of the Doubs and Burgundy), it was captured in the
+time of Julius Caesar by Ariovistus and became known as the _Mons
+Brisiacus_. Fortified by the emperor Valentian in 369 to defend the
+Rhine against the Germans, it retained its position throughout the
+middle ages as one of the chief bulwarks of Germany and was called the
+"cushion and key (_Kissen und Schlussel_) of the German empire." Its
+importance was such that it gave its name to the district Breisgau, in
+which it is situated. In 939 it was taken by the emperor Otto I., and
+after remaining in the exclusive possession of the emperors for two
+centuries, was strengthened and shared for a while between them and the
+bishops of Basel. In 1254 and 1262 the bishops obtained full control
+over it; but in 1275 it was made an imperial city by King Rudolph I.,
+and at the beginning of the 14th century his son brought it definitively
+into the possession of the Habsburg monarchs, leaving the bishops but
+few privileges. In the Thirty Years' War Breisach successfully resisted
+the Swedes, but after a memorable siege and a defence by General von
+Reisach, one of the most famous in military annals, it was forced to
+capitulate to Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar on the 18th of December 1638.
+The endeavours of the emperor Ferdinand III. to retake it were
+fruitless, and by the peace of Westphalia (1648) Breisach was annexed to
+France. By the peace of Ryswick (1697) it was restored to Austria, when
+Louis XIV. built the town and fortress of Neubreisach on the left bank
+of the Rhine. Again in 1703 it fell into the hands of the French, owing
+to treachery, but was ceded to Austria by the peace of Rastatt
+(1714)--Yet again, in the War of the Austrian Succession, it was
+captured (1744) by the French, who dismantled the fortifications. They
+refortified it in 1796, and after passing, by the peace of Luneville
+(1801), together with the Breisgau to the duke of Modena, Breisach was
+by the peace of Pressburg (1805) finally incorporated with Baden, when
+the fortifications were razed. During the Franco-German War (1870)
+Breisach suffered severely from bombardment directed against it from
+Neubreisach.
+
+
+
+
+BREISGAU, a district of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden. It extends
+along the right bank of the Rhine from Basel to Kehl, and includes the
+principal peaks of the southern Black Forest and the Freiburg valley.
+The Breisgau, originally a _pagus_ or _gau_ of the Frankish empire, was
+ruled during the middle ages by hereditary counts. Of these the earliest
+recorded is Birtilo (962-995), ancestor of the counts and dukes of
+Zahringen. On the death of Berchthold V. of Zahringen in 1218, his
+coheiresses brought parts of the Breisgau to the counts of Urach and
+Kyburg, while part went to the margraves of Baden. At the close of the
+13th century the Kyburg part of the Breisgau passed to the Habsburgs,
+who in 1368 acquired also the town and countship of Freiburg, which had
+been sold by the counts of Urach to the Freiburgers and given in pledge
+by them to the house of Austria in exchange for a loan of the purchase
+price, which they were unable to repay. The male Urach line becoming
+extinct in 1457, an heiress carried what remained of their possessions
+in the Breisgau to the house of Baden. In the struggle between France
+and Austria from the 17th century onwards the Breisgau frequently
+changed masters. In 1801 Austria was forced to cede it to Ercole III.,
+duke of Modena, in compensation for the duchy of which Napoleon had
+deprived him. His successor Ferdinand took the title of duke of
+Modena-Breisgau, but on his death in 1805 the Breisgau was divided
+between Baden and Wurttemberg. The latter ceded its portion to Baden in
+1810.
+
+  See Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire, &c._ (Leiden, 1890-1893).
+
+
+
+
+BREISLAK, SCIPIONE (1748-1826), Italian geologist of German parentage,
+was born at Rome in 1748. He early distinguished himself as professor of
+mathematical and mechanical philosophy in the college of Ragusa; but
+after residing there for several years he returned to his native city,
+where he became a professor in the Collegio Nazareno, and began to form
+the fine mineralogical cabinet in that institution. His leisure was
+dedicated to geological researches in the papal states. His account of
+the aluminous district of Tolfa and adjacent hills, published in 1786,
+gained for him the notice of the king of Naples, who invited him to
+inspect the mines and similar works in that kingdom, and appointed him
+professor of mineralogy to the royal artillery. The vast works for the
+refining of sulphur in the volcanic district of Solfatara were erected
+under his direction. He afterwards made many journeys through the
+ancient Campania to illustrate its geology, and published in 1798 his
+_Topografia fisica della Campania_, which contains the results of much
+accurate observation. Breislak also published an essay on the physical
+condition of the seven hills of Rome, which he regarded as the remains
+of a local volcano,--an opinion shown to be erroneous by the later
+researches of G.B. Brocchi. The political convulsions of Italy in 1799
+brought Breislak to Paris, where he remained until 1802, when, being
+appointed inspector of the saltpetre and powder manufactories near
+Milan, he removed to that city. The mineral Breislakite was named after
+him. He died on the 15th of February 1826. His other publications
+include:--_Introduzione alla geologia_ (1811, French ed. 1819); _Traite
+sur la structure exterieure du globe_, 3 vols. and atlas (Milan, 1818,
+1822); _Descrizione geologica della provincia di Milano_ (1822).
+
+
+
+
+BREITENFELD, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, 5-1/2 m.
+N.N.W. of Leipzig, noted in military history. The first battle of
+Breitenfeld was fought on the 17th of September 1631, between the allied
+Swedish and Saxon armies under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperial forces
+under Count Tilly. The battlefield is a low ridge running east and west
+between the villages of Gobschelwitz and Breitenfeld, the position of
+the Imperialists lying along the crest from Gobschelwitz on the right to
+a point about 1 m. short of Breitenfeld on the left; opposite this
+position, and behind a group of villages on the Loberbach stream, lay
+the Swedish forces, flanked on their left by the Saxon contingent under
+the elector, who was assisted by Arnim. The villages formed the only
+obstacle on the gentle slope lying between the Loberbach and Tilly's
+line; through these villages the Swedes defiled slowly, and formed up on
+the open ground beyond them. Tilly's army was drawn up in a continuous
+line, the infantry ranged in heavy battalions in the centre, the cavalry
+on the wings, and the heavy artillery in a mass in front of the
+infantry. Gustavus arrayed the Swedes in two lines and a reserve,
+infantry in the centre, cavalry on the flanks, and the Saxons were drawn
+up in a similar formation on the left of the Swedish left-wing cavalry.
+So far as can be gauged the respective numbers were at least 32,000
+Imperialists, 22,000 Swedes and 15,000 Saxons. The Swedish infantry was
+drawn up on an entirely novel system; each brigade of infantry, composed
+of several battalions, was formed in many small and handy corps of
+pikemen and musketeers, and parties of musketeers were also detached to
+support the cavalry. The guns were scattered along the front. The Saxons
+were ranged, like Tilly's army, in heavy masses of foot and horse
+preceded by a great battery of guns. At 2 P.M. Pappenheim, commanding
+Tilly's left wing, led forward the whole of his cavalry in a furious
+charge. Feeling the fire of the musketeers who were intercalated amongst
+the Swedish horse, Pappenheim swung round to his left and charged the
+Swedish right wing in flank. The Swedes of both lines promptly wheeled
+up, and after a prolonged conflict the Imperial horse were driven
+completely off the field. The attack of Tilly's right wing under
+Furstenberg directed against the Saxons was more successful. The Saxons
+were at once broken and routed, only a handful under Arnim maintaining
+the ground. Furstenberg pursued the fugitives for many miles, and Tilly
+with the centre of infantry (which, considering the depth of its
+formations, must have possessed great manoeuvring power) rapidly
+followed him and formed up opposite the now exposed left of the Swedes.
+Thereupon the Swedes, in their light and handy formation, changed
+position rapidly and easily to meet him. Tilly's attack was strenuously
+opposed, and at this moment the decisive stroke of the battle was
+delivered by the Swedish right wing, which, having disposed of
+Pappenheim, swung round and occupied the ground originally held by the
+Imperial infantry, seized Tilly's guns, and with them enfiladed the
+enemy's new line. This put an end to the attack of the Imperial foot,
+and before sunset Tilly was in full retreat, hotly pursued and losing
+heavily in prisoners. His losses on the field have been estimated at
+7000 killed and wounded and almost as many prisoners; the Swedes lost
+about 2000 and the Saxons over 4000 men.
+
+The village of Breitenfeld also gives its name to another great battle
+in the Thirty Years' War (November 2, 1642), in which the Swedes under
+Torstensson defeated the Imperialists under the archduke Leopold and
+Prince Piccolomini, who were seeking to relieve Leipzig. The Swedish
+cavalry decided the day on this occasion also.
+
+
+
+
+BREMEN, a free state in the German empire, bearing the title _Freie
+Hansestadt Bremen_. It falls into three distinct parts: (1) the largest
+portion, with the city of Bremen, lying on both banks, but chiefly on
+the right, of the lower course of the Weser, surrounded by the Prussian
+province of Hanover and the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, and consisting in
+the main of lowland country intersected by canals and dykes; (2) the
+town and district of Vegesack, lying separate from, but immediately
+north of the main portion, on the right bank of the river; (3) the port
+of Bremerhaven, 46 m. down the Weser, at its mouth. Of the whole
+territory, which has an area of 99 sq. m., about one-half is meadow and
+grazing land, one-quarter under tillage, and the remainder occupied by a
+little woodland, some unprofitable sandy wastes, the bed of the Weser
+and the towns. Market gardening, the rearing of cattle, for which the
+district is widely famed, and fishing, form the chief occupations of the
+rural population. The climate is mild, but the rainfall (26.9 in.
+annually on the average) is relatively considerable. The population is
+shown as follows:--
+
+  +-----------------+-----------+----------+
+  |                 |   1900    |   1905   |
+  +-----------------+-----------+----------+
+  | Bremen, city    |  186,822  |  214,953 |
+  | Vegesack        |    3,943  |    4,130 |
+  | Bremerhaven     |   20,315  |   24,159 |
+  | Rural districts |   37,327  |   20,431 |
+  +-----------------+-----------+----------+
+  | Total           |  248,407  |  263,673 |
+  +-----------------+-----------+----------+
+
+Of the inhabitants, who belong to the Lower Saxon (_Nieder-Sachsen_)
+race and in daily intercourse mostly speak the Low German
+(_Plattdeutsch_) dialect, about two-thirds are natives of the state and
+one-third immigrants from other parts of Germany, chiefly from Hanover
+and Oldenburg. About 93% are Protestants, 6% Roman Catholics, and only
+1/2% Jews. The form of government is that of a republic, under a
+constitution proclaimed on the 8th of March 1849, revised on the 21st of
+February 1854, the 17th of November 1875, and the 1st of January 1894.
+The sovereignty resides jointly in the senate and the Burgerschaft, or
+Convent of Burgesses. The senate, which is the executive power, is
+composed of sixteen life members, elected by the convent, on
+presentation by the senate. Of these ten at least must be lawyers and
+three merchants. Two of the number are nominated by their colleagues as
+burgomasters, who preside in succession for a year at a time and hold
+office four years, one retiring every two years. The Burgerschaft
+consists of 150 (formerly 300) representatives, chosen by the citizens
+for six years, and forms the legislative body. Fourteen members are
+elected by such citizens of Bremen (city) as have enjoyed a university
+education, forty by the merchants, twenty by the manufacturers and
+artisans, and forty-eight by the other citizens. Of the remaining
+representatives, twelve are furnished by Bremerhaven and Vegesack and
+sixteen by the rural districts. As a member of the German empire, the
+state of Bremen has one voice in the Bundesrat and returns one member to
+the Imperial diet (Reichstag). Formerly Bremen was a free port, but from
+the 1st of October 1888 the whole of the state, with the exception of
+two small free districts in Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively, joined
+the German customs union. The state has two Amtsgerichte (courts of
+first instance) at Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively, and a superior
+court, Landgericht, at Bremen, whence appeals lie to the
+Oberlandesgericht for the Hanseatic towns in Hamburg. The judges of the
+Bremen courts are appointed by a committee of members of the senate, the
+Burgerschaft and the bench of judges. By the convention with Prussia of
+the 27th of June 1867, the free state surrendered its right to furnish
+its own contingent to the army, the recruits being after that time
+drafted into the Hanseatic infantry regiment, forming a portion of the
+Prussian IX. army corps.
+
+
+
+
+BREMEN, a city of Germany, capital of the free state of Bremen, and one
+of the Hanseatic towns. It lies on a sandy plain on both banks of the
+Weser, 46 m. from the North Sea and 71 m. S.W. from Hamburg by rail, on
+the mainline to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 214,953. It has also direct railway
+communication with Berlin via Uelzen, Hanover and Bremerhaven. The city
+consists of four quarters,--the old town (Altstadt) and its suburban
+extensions (Vorstadt) being on the right bank of the river, and the new
+town (Neustadt) with its southern suburb (Sudervorstadt) on the left
+bank. The river is crossed by three bridges, the old, the new
+(1872-1875) Kaiserbrucke, and the railway bridge, with a gangway for
+foot passengers. The ramparts of the old town have long been converted
+into beautiful promenades and gardens, the moats forming a chain of
+lakes.
+
+The romantic old town, with its winding streets and lanes, flanked by
+massive gabled houses, dates from the medieval days of Hanseatic
+prosperity. On the market square stands the fine town hall (Rathaus),
+dating from the 15th century, with a handsome Renaissance _facade_ of a
+somewhat later date, and before it a stone statue of Roland, the emblem
+of civic power. Its celebrated underground wine cellar has been
+immortalized by Wilhelm Hauff in his _Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller_.
+The town hall is internally richly embellished and has a gallery of
+interesting paintings. In an upper hall a model of an old Hanseatic
+frigate, with the device _Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse_,
+hangs from the ceiling. Among other ancient buildings, situated chiefly
+in the old town, are the following:--the cathedral of St Peter (formerly
+the archiepiscopal and now the Lutheran parish church), erected in the
+12th century on the site of Charlemagne's wooden church, and famous for
+its Bleikeller, or lead vault, in which bodies can be preserved for a
+long time without suffering decomposition; the church of St Ansgarius,
+built about 1243, with a spire 400 ft. high; the church of Our Lady,
+dating from the 12th and 13th centuries; the 12th century Romanesque
+church of St Stephen; the Schutting, or merchants' hall, originally
+built in 1619 for the cloth-traders' gild; the Stadthaus (town house),
+formerly the archiepiscopal palace, and converted to its present uses
+only in 1819. The most important and imposing among the more modern
+architectural additions to the city are the handsome Gothic exchange,
+completed in 1867, the municipal theatre, the municipal library, the
+post office (1878), the law courts (1891-1895), the wool exchange, the
+German bank, the municipal museum for natural science, ethnology and
+commerce, and the fine railway station (1888). The principal memorials
+embrace, besides the Roland, the Willehad fountain (1883), the monument
+of the Franco-German War (erected 1875), the centaur fountain (1891), an
+equestrian statue of the emperor William I. (1893), and a statue of the
+poet Theodor Korner. A beautiful park, Burgerpark, has been laid out in
+the Burgerweide, or meadows, lying beyond the railway station to the
+north-east of the city. It is a peculiarity of the domestic
+accommodation of Bremen that the majority of the houses, unlike the
+custom in most other German towns, where flats prevail, are occupied by
+a single family only.
+
+The industries and manufactures of Bremen are of considerable variety
+and extent, but are more particularly developed in such branches as are
+closely allied to navigation, such as shipbuilding, founding,
+engine-building and rope-making. Next in importance come those of
+tobacco, snuff, cigars, the making of cigar boxes, jute-spinning,
+distilling, sugar refining and the shelling of rice. Bremen owes its
+fame almost exclusively to its transmaritime trade, mainly imports. By
+the completion of the engineering works on the Weser in 1887-1899,
+whereby, among other improvements, the river was straightened and
+deepened, to 18 ft., large ocean-going vessels are able to steam right
+up to the city itself. It has excellent railway connexions with the
+chief industrial districts of Germany. Like Hamburg, it does
+predominantly a transit trade; it is especially important as the
+importer of raw products from America. In two articles, tobacco and
+rice, Bremen is the greatest market in the world; in cotton and indigo
+it takes the first place on the continent, and it is a serious rival of
+Hamburg and Antwerp in the import of wool and petroleum. The value of
+the total imports (both sea-borne and by river and rail) increased from
+L22,721,700 in 1883 to about L60,000,000 in 1905; the imports from the
+United States, from L9,755,000 in 1883 to about L25,000,000 in 1905. The
+countries from which imports principally come are the United States,
+England, Germany, Russia, the republics of South America, the Far East
+and Australia. The exports rose from a total of L26,096,500 in 1883 to
+L62,000,000 in 1905. The number of vessels which entered the ports of
+the free state (i.e. Bremen city, Bremerhaven and Vegesack) increased
+from 2869 of 1,258,529 aggregate tonnage in 1883, to 4024 of 2,716,633
+tons in 1900. Bremen is the centre for some of the more important of the
+German shipping companies, especially of the North German Lloyd (founded
+in 1856), which, on the 1st of January 1905, possessed a fleet of 382
+steamers of 693,892 tons, besides lighters and similar craft. Bremen
+also shares with Hamburg the position of being one of the two chief
+emigration ports of Germany. There are three docks, all to the
+north-west of the city--namely, the free harbour (which was opened in
+1888), the winter harbour, and the timber and industrial harbour.
+Internal communication is served by an excellent system of electric
+tramways, and there is also a local steamboat service with neighbouring
+villages on the Weser.
+
+_History._--According to Brandes, quoting Martin Luther in the _Lexicon
+Philologicum_, the name is derived from _Bram, Bram, i.e. hem_ = the
+river-bank, or confine of the land on which it was built. In 787 Bremen
+was chosen by St Willehad, whom Charlemagne had established as bishop in
+the _pagi_ of the lower Weser, as his see. In 848 the destruction of
+Hamburg by the Normans led to the transference of the archiepiscopal see
+of Hamburg to Bremen, which became the seat of the archbishops of
+Hamburg-Bremen. In 965 the emperor Otto I. granted to Archbishop Adaldag
+"in the place called Bremen" (_in loco Bremun nuncupato_) the right to
+establish a market, and the full administrative, fiscal and judicial
+powers of a count, no one but the bishop or his _advocatus_ being
+allowed to exercise authority in the city. This privilege, by which the
+archbishop was lord of the city and his _Vogt_ its judge, was frequently
+confirmed by subsequent emperors, ending under Frederick I. in 1158.
+Though, however, there is no direct evidence of the existence of any
+communal organization during this period, it is clear from the vigorous
+part taken by the burghers in the struggle of the emperor Frederick with
+Henry the Lion of Saxony that some such organization very early existed.
+Yet in the _privilegium_ granted to the townspeople by Frederick I. in
+1186 the emperor had done no more than guarantee them their personal
+liberties. The earliest recognition of any civic organization they may
+have possessed they owed to Archbishop Hartwig II. (1184-1207), who had
+succeeded in uniting against him his chapter, the nobles and the
+citizens; and the first mention of the city council occurs in a charter
+of Archbishop Gerhard II. in 1225, though the _consules_ here named
+doubtless represented a considerably older institution. In the 13th
+century, however, whatever the civic organization of the townsfolk may
+have been, it was still strictly subordinate to the archbishop and his
+_Vogt_; the council could issue regulations only with the consent of the
+former, while in the judicial work of the latter, save in small
+questions of commercial dishonesty, its sole function was advisory. By
+the middle of the 14th century this situation was exactly reversed; the
+elected town council was the supreme legislative power in all criminal
+and civil causes, and in the court of the _advocatus_ two _Ratsmanner_
+sat as assessors. The victory had been won over the archbishop; but a
+fresh peril had developed in the course of the 13th century in the
+growth of a patrician class, which, as in so many other cities,
+threatened to absorb all power into the hands of a close oligarchy. In
+1304 the commonalty rose against the patricians and drove them from the
+city, and in the following year gained a victory over the exiles and
+their allies, the knights, which was long celebrated by an annual
+service of thanksgiving. This was the beginning of troubles that lasted
+intermittently throughout the century. Bremen had been admitted to the
+Hanseatic league in 1283, but was excluded in 1285, and not readmitted
+until 1358. Owing to the continued civic unrest it was again excluded in
+1427, and only readmitted in 1433 when the old aristocratic constitution
+was definitively restored. But though in Bremen the efforts of the
+craftsmen's "arts" to secure a share of power had been held in check and
+the gilds never gained any importance, the city government did not, as
+at Cologne and elsewhere, develop into a close patrician oligarchy.
+Power was in the hands of the wealthy, but the avenues to power were
+open to those who knew how to acquire the necessary qualification. There
+was thus no artificial restraint put upon individual enterprise, and the
+question of the government having been settled, Bremen rapidly developed
+in wealth and influence.
+
+The Reformation was introduced into Bremen in 1522 by Heinrich von
+Zutphen. Archbishop Christopher of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel (1487-1558), a
+brutal libertine, hated for his lusts and avarice, looked on the
+reforming movement as a revolt against himself. He succeeded in getting
+the reformer burned; but found himself involved in a life and death
+struggle with the city. In 1532 Bremen joined the league of
+Schmalkalden, and twice endured a siege by the imperial forces. In 1547
+it was only saved by Mansfeld's victory at Drakenburg. Archbishop
+Christopher was succeeded in 1558 by his brother Georg, bishop of Minden
+(d. 1566), who, though he himself was instrumental in introducing the
+reformed model into his other diocese of Verden, is reckoned as the last
+Roman Catholic archbishop of Bremen. His successor, Henry III.
+(1550-1585), a son of Duke Francis I. of Lauenburg, who had been bishop
+of Osnabruck and Paderborn, was a Lutheran and married. Protestantism
+was not, however, definitively proclaimed as the state religion in
+Bremen until 1618. The last archbishop, Frederick II. (of Denmark), was
+deposed by the Swedes in 1644. In 1646 Bremen received the privileges of
+a free imperial city from the emperor Ferdinand III.; but Sweden, whose
+possession of the archbishopric was recognized two years later, refused
+to consent to this, and in 1666 attempted vainly to assert her claims
+over the city by arms--in the so-called Bremen War. When, however, in
+1720 the elector of Hanover (George I. of Great Britain) acquired the
+archbishopric, he recognized Bremen as a free city. In 1803 this was
+again recognized and the territory of the city was even extended. In
+1806 it was taken by the French, was subsequently annexed by Napoleon to
+his empire, and from 1810 to 1813 was the capital of the department of
+the Mouths of the Weser. Restored to independence by the congress of
+Vienna in 1815, it subsequently became a member of the German
+Confederation, and in 1867 joined the new North German Confederation,
+with which it was merged in the new German empire.
+
+  See Buchenau, _Die freie Hansestadt Bremen_ (3rd ed., Bremen, 1900, 5
+  vols.); _Bremisches Urkundenbuch_, edited by R. Ehmck and W. von
+  Bippen (1863, fol.); W. von Bippen, _Geschichte der Stadt Bremen_
+  (Bremen, 1892-1898); F. Donandt, _Versuch einer Geschichte des
+  bremischen Stadtrechts_ (Bremen, 1830, 2 vols.); _Bremisches Jahrbuch_
+  (historical, 19 vols., 1864-1900); and Karl Hegel, _Stadte und
+  Gilden_, vol. ii. p. 461 (Leipzig, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+BREMER, FREDRIKA (1801-1865), Swedish novelist, was born near Abo, in
+Finland, on the 17th of August 1801. Her father, a descendant of an old
+German family, a wealthy iron master and merchant, left Finland when
+Fredrika was three years old, and after a year's residence in Stockholm,
+purchased an estate at Arsta, about 20 m. from the capital. There, with
+occasional visits to Stockholm and to a neighbouring estate, which
+belonged for a time to her father, Fredrika passed her time till 1820.
+The education to which she and her sisters were subjected was unusually
+strict; Fredrika's health began to give way; and in 1821 the family set
+out for the south of France. They travelled slowly by way of Germany and
+Switzerland, and returned by Paris and the Netherlands. It was shortly
+after this time that Miss Bremer became acquainted with Schiller's
+works, which made a very deep impression on her. She had begun to write
+verses from the age of eight, and in 1828 she succeeded in finding a
+publisher for the first volume of her _Teckningar ur hvardagslifvet_
+(1828), which at once attracted attention. The second volume (1831),
+containing one of her best tales, _Familjen H._, gave decisive evidence
+that a real novelist had been found in Sweden. The Swedish Academy
+awarded her their smaller gold medal, and she increased her reputation
+by _Presidentens dottrar_ (1834), _Grannarne_ (1837) and others. Her
+father had died in 1830, and her life was thereafter regulated in
+accordance with her own wishes and tastes. She lived for some years in
+Norway with a friend, after whose death she travelled in the autumn of
+1849 to America, and after spending nearly two years there returned
+through England. The admirable translations (1846, &c.) of her works by
+Mary Howitt, which had been received with even greater eagerness in
+America and England than in Sweden, secured for her a warm and kindly
+reception. Her impressions of America, _Hemmen i nya verlden_, were
+published in 1853-1854, and at once translated into English. After her
+return Miss Bremer devoted herself to her scheme for the advancement and
+emancipation of women. Her views on these questions were expounded in
+her later novels--_Hertha_ (1856) and _Far och dotter_ (1858). Miss
+Bremer organized a society of ladies in Stockholm for the purpose of
+visiting the prisons, and during the cholera started a society, the
+object of which was the care of children left orphans by the epidemic.
+She devoted herself to other philanthropic and social schemes, and
+gradually abandoned her earlier simple and charming type of story for
+novels directed to the furtherance of her views. In these she was less
+successful. In 1856 she again travelled, and spent five years on the
+continent and in Palestine. Her reminiscences of these countries have
+all been translated into English. On her return she settled at Arsta,
+where, with the exception of a visit to Germany, she spent the remaining
+years of her life. She died on the 31st of December 1865.
+
+  See _Life, Letters and Posthumous Works of F. Bremer_, by her sister,
+  Charlotte Bremer, translated by F. Milow, London, 1868. A selection of
+  her works in 6 vols. appeared at Orebro, 1868-1872.
+
+
+
+
+BREMERHAVEN, a seaport town of Germany, in the free state of Bremen, on
+the right bank and estuary of the Weser, at the confluence of the
+Geeste, 38 m. N. of the city of Bremen by rail. Pop. (1895) 18,366;
+(1905) 24,159. It is built on a tract of territory ceded to Bremen by
+Hanover in 1826, and further increased by treaty with Prussia in 1869.
+It forms practically a single town with Geestemunde (Prussia), which
+lies across the Geeste and with which it is connected by a drawbridge.
+The port was opened in 1830, and besides an excellent harbour, there are
+three large wet docks, including the Kaiserhafen, enlarged in 1897-1899
+at a cost of L900,000. This, together with the north portion of the
+Neuerhafen, constitutes the free harbour. Here are the workshops and dry
+docks of the North German Lloyd steamship company. The whole internal
+harbour system is furnished with powerful hydraulic cranes and lines of
+railway running alongside the quays. The entrance to the port is free
+from ice nearly all the year round, is excellently buoyed, and lighted
+by two lightships and eight lighthouses, among the latter the remarkable
+Rothesand Leuchtturm, erected 1884-1885. The Hanoverian fort and
+batteries, which formerly protected the town, have been removed, and
+their place is supplied by four modern forts, with revolving turtleback
+turrets, lower down. The town possesses two Protestant and a Roman
+Catholic church, a technical institute, a natural history museum, a
+library, a theatre, a monument to the emperor William I. and one to
+Johann Smidt (1773-1859), the burgomaster of Bremen to whose enterprise
+the harbour of Bremerhaven is due. Shipbuilding and kindred industries
+are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+BRENDAN, BRANDON, or BRANDAN (c. 484-578), Irish saint and hero of a
+legendary voyage in the Atlantic, is said to have been born at Tralee
+in Kerry in A.D. 484. The Irish form of his name is _Brennain_, the
+Latin _Brendanus_. Medieval historians usually call him Brendan of
+Clonfert, or Brendan son of Finnloga, to distinguish him from his
+contemporary, St Brendan of Birr (573). Little is known of the
+historical Brendan, who died in 578 as abbot of a Benedictine monastery
+which he had founded twenty years previously at Clonfert in eastern
+Galway. The story of his voyage across the Atlantic to the "Promised
+Land of the Saints," afterwards designated "St Brendan's Island,"[1]
+ranks among the most celebrated of the medieval sagas of western Europe.
+Its traditional date is 565-573. The legend is found, in prose or verse
+and with many variations, in Latin, French, English, Saxon, Flemish,
+Irish, Welsh, Breton and Scottish Gaelic. Although it does not occur in
+the writings of any Arabian geographer, several of its incidents--such
+as the landing on a whale in mistake for an island--belong also to
+Arabic folk-literature. Many of Brendan's fabulous adventures seem to be
+borrowed from the half-pagan Irish saga of Maelduin or Maeldune, and
+others belong also to Scandinavian mythology. The oldest extant version
+of the legend is the 11th century _Navigatio Brendani_.
+
+St Brendan's island was long accepted as a reality by geographers. In a
+Venetian map dated 1367, in the anonymous Weimar map of 1424, and in B.
+Beccario's map of 1435, it is identified with Madeira. Columbus, in his
+journal for the 9th of August 1492, states that the inhabitants of
+Hierro, Gomera and Madeira had seen the island in the west; and Martin
+Behaim, in the globe he made at Nuremberg in the same year, places it
+west of the Canaries and near the equator. During the 16th century the
+progress of exploration in these latitudes compelled many cartographers
+to locate the island elsewhere; and it was marked about 100 m. west of
+Ireland, or afterwards among the West Indies. But in Spain and Portugal
+the older belief as to its situation was maintained. In 1526 an
+expedition under Fernando Alvarez left Grand Canary in search of St
+Brendan's island, which had again been reported as seen by many
+trustworthy witnesses. In 1570 an official inquiry was held, and a
+second expedition undertaken, by Fernando de Villalobos, governor of
+Palma. Similar voyages of discovery were made by the Canarians in 1604
+and 1721; and only in 1759 was the apparition of St Brendan's island
+explained as an effect of mirage.
+
+  Among the numerous books which deal with the legend, the following are
+  important: _Die altfranzosische Prosaubersetzung von Brendans
+  Meerfahrt_, by C. Wahlund (Upsala, 1900); _La "Navigatio Sancti
+  Brendani" in antico Veneziano_, by F. Novati (Bergamo, 1892); _Zur
+  Brendanus-Legende_, &c., by G. Schirmer (Leipzig, 1888); _Les Voyages
+  merveilleux de St. Brendan_, &c., by F. Michel (Paris, 1878); and
+  _Acta Sancti Brendani.... Original Latin Documents connected with the
+  Life of St Brendan_, by P.F. Moran (Dublin, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+BRENHAM, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+situated in the S.E. part of the state, about 68 m. N.W. of Houston.
+Pop. (1890) 5209; (1900) 5968, including 2701 negroes and 531
+foreign-born; (1910) 4718. Brenham is served by the Gulf, Colorado &
+Santa Fe (controlled by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) and the Houston
+& Texas Central railways. It is the seat of Blinn Memorial College
+(German Methodist Episcopal), opened as "Mission Institute" in 1883, and
+renamed in 1889 in honour of the Rev. Christian Blinn, of New York, a
+liberal benefactor; of Brenham Evangelical Lutheran College, and of a
+German-American institute (1898). The municipality owns and operates the
+waterworks. The city is situated in an agricultural and cotton-raising
+region, and has cotton compresses and gins, cotton mills, cotton-seed
+oil refineries, foundries and machine shops, and furniture and wagon
+factories. Brenham was settled about 1844, was incorporated in 1866, and
+was chartered as a city in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+BRENNER PASS, the lowest (4495 ft.) and one of the most frequented
+passes across the Alps in all ages, though the name itself rarely occurs
+in the middle ages, the route over it being said to lie through "the
+valley of Trent." It may be described as the great gate of Italy, and by
+it most of the Teutonic tribes made their way to Italy. One reason of
+its importance is that many side passes in the end join this great
+thoroughfare. It was crossed no fewer than 66 times by various emperors,
+between 793 and 1402. A carriage road was constructed over it as far
+back as 1772, while the railway over it was built in 1864-1867. From
+Innsbruck to the summit of the pass is a distance by rail of 25 m. The
+line then descends through the Eisack valley past Brixen (34 m.) to
+Botzen (24 m.). Thence it follows the valley of the Adige to Trent (35
+m.) and on to Verona (56-1/2 m.)--in all 174-1/2 m. by rail from
+Innsbruck to Verona.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BRENNUS, the name, or perhaps the official title, of two chiefs of the
+Celtic Gauls.
+
+(1) The first Brennus crossed the Apennines in 391 B.C., ravaged
+Etruria, and annihilated a Roman army of about 40,000 men on the Allia
+some 12 m. from Clusium (July 16, 390). Rome thus lay at his mercy, but
+he wasted time, and the Romans were able to occupy and provision the
+Capitol (though they had not sufficient forces to defend their walls)
+and to send their women and children to Veii. When on the third day the
+Gauls took possession, they found the city occupied only by those aged
+patricians who had held high office in the state. For a while the Gauls
+withheld their hands out of awe and reverence, but the ruder passions
+soon prevailed. The city was sacked and burnt; but the Capitol itself
+withstood a siege of more than six months, saved from surprise on one
+occasion only by the wakefulness of the sacred geese and the courage of
+Marcus Manlius. At last the Gauls consented to accept a ransom of a
+thousand pounds of gold. As it was being weighed out, the Roman tribune
+complained of some unfairness. Brennus at once threw his heavy sword
+into the scale; and when asked the meaning of the act, replied that it
+meant _Vae victis_ ("woe to the conquered"). The Gauls returned home
+with their plunder, leaving Rome in a condition from which she took long
+to recover. A later legend, probably an invention, represents M. Furius
+Camillus as suddenly appearing with an avenging army at the moment when
+the gold was being weighed, and defeating Brennus and all his host.
+
+  See null v. 33-49; Plutarch, _Camillus_, 17, 22, 28; Polybius i. 6,
+  ii. 18; Dion. Halic. xiii. 7.
+
+(2) The second Brennus is said to have been one of the leaders of an
+inroad made by the Gauls from the east of the Adriatic into Thrace and
+Macedonia (280), when they defeated and slew Ptolemy Ceraunus, then king
+of Macedonia. Whether Brennus took part in this first invasion or not is
+uncertain; but its success led him to urge his countrymen to a second
+expedition, when he marched with a large army through Macedonia and
+Thessaly until he reached Thermopylae. To this point the united forces
+of the northern Greeks--Athenians, Phocians, Boeotians and
+Aetolians--had fallen back; and here the Greeks a second time held their
+foreign invaders in check for many days, and a second time had their
+rear turned, owing to the treachery of some of the natives, by the same
+path which had been discovered to the Persians two hundred years before.
+Brennus and his Gauls marched on to Delphi, of whose sacred treasures
+they had heard much. But the little force which the Delphians and their
+neighbours had collected--about 4000 men--favoured by the strength of
+their position, made a successful defence. They rolled down rocks upon
+their enemies as they crowded into the defile, and showered missiles on
+them from above. A thunderstorm, with hail and intense cold, increased
+their confusion, and on Brennus himself being wounded they took to
+flight, pursued by the Greeks all the way back to Thermopylae. Brennus
+killed himself, "unable to endure the pain of his wounds," says Justin;
+more probably determined not to return home defeated.
+
+  See Justin xxiv. 6; Diod. Sic. xxii. 11; Pausanias x. 19-23; L.
+  Contzen, _Die Wanderungen der Kelten_ (Leipzig, 1861).
+
+
+
+
+BRENTANO, KLEMENS (1778-1842), German poet and novelist, was born at
+Ehrenbreitstein on the 8th of September 1778. His sister was the
+well-known Bettina von Arnim (q.v.), Goethe's correspondent. He studied
+at Jena, and afterwards resided at Heidelberg, Vienna and Berlin. In
+1818, weary of his somewhat restless and unsettled life, he joined the
+Roman Catholic Church and withdrew to the monastery of Dulmen where he
+lived for some years in strict seclusion. The latter part of his life he
+spent in Regensburg, Frankfort and Munich, actively engaged in Catholic
+propaganda. He died at Aschaffenburg on the 28th of July 1842. Brentano,
+whose early writings were published under the pseudonym Maria, belonged
+to the Heidelberg group of German romantic writers, and his works are
+marked by excess of fantastic imagery and by abrupt, bizarre modes of
+expression. His first published writings were _Satiren und poetische
+Spiele_ (1800), and a romance _Godwi_ (1801-1802); of his dramas the
+best are _Ponce de Leon_ (1804), _Victoria_ (1817) and _Die Grundung
+Prags_ (1815). On the whole his finest work is the collection of
+_Romanzen vom Rosenkranz_ (published posthumously in 1852); his short
+stories, and more especially the charming _Geschichte vom braven Kasperl
+und dem schonen Annerl_ (1838), which has been translated into English,
+are still popular. Brentano also assisted Ludwig Achim von Arnim, his
+brother-in-law, in the collection of folk-songs forming _Des Knaben
+Wunderhorn_ (1806-1808).
+
+  Brentano's collected works, edited by his brother Christian, appeared
+  at Frankfort in 9 vols. (1851-1855). Selections have been edited by
+  J.B. Diel (1873), M. Koch (1892), and J. Dohmke (1893). See J.B. Diel
+  and W. Kreiten, _Klemens Brentano_ (2 vols., 1877-1878), the
+  introduction to Koch's edition, and R. Steig, _A. von Arnim und K.
+  Brentano_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH [called LUJO] (1844- ), German economist, a
+member of the same family as the preceding, was born at Aschaffenburg on
+the 18th of December 1844. He received some of his academical education
+in Dublin. In 1868 he made a thorough study of trade-unionism in
+England, which resulted in his principal work, _Die Arbeitergilden der
+Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1871-1872; Eng. trans, by L.T. Smith). The book was
+assailed by Bamberger and other economists, but is important not only as
+an authority on modern associations of workmen, but for having given an
+impetus to the study of the gilds of the middle ages, and the
+examination of the great stores of neglected information bearing upon
+the condition of the people in olden days. Brentano's other works are of
+a more theoretical character, and chiefly relate to political economy,
+of which he was professor at Breslau from 1872 to 1882, at Strassburg
+from 1882 to 1888, at Vienna 1888-1889, at Leipzig 1889-1891, and at
+Munich since 1891. We may mention _Das Arbeitsverhaltnis gemass dem
+heutigen Recht_ (1877); _Die christlich-soziale Bewegung in England_
+(1883); _Uber das Verhaltnis von Arbeitslohn und Arbeitszeit zur
+Arbeitsleistung_ (1893); _Agrarpolitik_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+BRENTFORD, a market town in the Brentford parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, 10-1/2 m. W. of Waterloo terminus, London, by the
+London & South-Western railway, at the junction of the river Brent with
+the Thames. Pop. of urban district (1901) 15,171. The Grand Junction
+Canal joins the Brent, affording ample water-communications to the town,
+which has considerable industries in brewing, soap-making, saw-milling,
+market-gardening, &c. The Grand Junction waterworks are situated here.
+Brentford has been the county-town for elections since 1701.
+
+In 1016 Brentford, or, as it was often called Braynford, was the scene
+of a great defeat inflicted on the Danes by Edmund Ironside. In 1280 a
+toll was granted by Edward I., who granted the town a market, for the
+construction of a bridge across the river, and in the reign of Henry VI.
+a hospital of the Nine Orders of Angels was founded near its western
+side. In 1642 a battle was fought here in which the royalists defeated
+the parliamentary forces. For his services on this occasion the Scotsman
+Ruthven, earl of Forth, was made earl of Brentford, a title afterwards
+conferred by William III. on Marshal Schomberg. Brentford was during the
+16th and 17th centuries a favourite resort of London citizens; and its
+inn of the Three Pigeons, which was kept for a time by John Lowin, one
+of the first actors of Shakespeare's plays, is frequently alluded to by
+the dramatists of the period. Falstaff is disguised as the "Fat Woman of
+Brentford" in Shakespeare's _Merry Wives of Windsor_, and numerous other
+references to the town in literature point, in most cases, to its
+reputation for excessive dirt. The "two kings of Brentford" mentioned in
+Cowper's _Task_, and elsewhere, seem to owe their mythical existence to
+the play, _The Rehearsal_, by George Villiers, second duke of
+Buckingham, produced in 1671.
+
+South of Brentford, towards Isleworth, is Sion House, a mansion founded
+by Lord Protector Somerset in 1547, and rebuilt and enlarged by the 10th
+earl of Northumberland and Sir Hugh Smithson, afterwards duke of
+Northumberland, the architects being Inigo Jones and Robert Adam. The
+gardens are very beautiful. The site of Sion or Syon House was
+previously occupied by a convent of Bridgetine nuns established at
+Twickenham by Henry V. in 1415 and removed here in 1431.
+
+
+
+
+BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL (1770-1844), British admiral, was born in Rhode
+Island, U.S.A., on the 22nd of August 1770. He was the son of
+Rear-Admiral Jahleel Brenton (1729-1802), who belonged to a loyalist
+family which suffered the loss of most of its property in the
+insurrection of the American colonies. He was a lieutenant in the
+British navy when the war began, and emigrated with his family to the
+mother country. Three of the sons entered the navy--Jahleel (the
+eldest), Captain Edward Pelham Brenton (1774-1839), and James Wallace
+Brenton, who was killed young in 1799 when attacking a Spanish privateer
+near Barcelona in the boats of the "Petrel," of which he was lieutenant.
+Jahleel went to sea first with his father in 1781, and on the return of
+peace was sent to the "maritime school" at Chelsea. He served in the
+peace before the beginning of the war in 1793, and passed his
+examination as lieutenant, but seeing no chance of employment went with
+other English naval officers to serve in the Swedish navy against the
+Russians. In 1790 he received his commission and returned home. Till
+1799 he served as lieutenant, or acting commander, mostly under Earl St
+Vincent, and was present in the battle from which the admiral received
+his title. As commander of the "Speedy" brig he won much distinction in
+actions with Spanish gunboats in the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1800 he
+reached the rank of post-captain, and had the good fortune to serve as
+flag-captain to Sir James (afterwards Lord) Saumarez in the action at
+Algeciras, and in the Straits in 1801. During the peace of Amiens he
+married Miss Stewart, a lady belonging to a loyalist family of Nova
+Scotia. After the renewal of the war he commanded a succession of
+frigates. In 1803 he had the misfortune to be wrecked on the coast of
+France, and remained for a time in prison, where his wife joined him.
+Having been exchanged he was named to another ship. His most brilliant
+action was fought with a flotilla of Franco-Neapolitan vessels outside
+of Naples in May 1801. He was severely wounded, and Murat, then king of
+Naples, praised him effusively. He was made a baronet in 1812 and K.C.B.
+in 1815. After his recovery from his wound he was unable to bear sea
+service, but was made commissioner of the dockyard at Port Mahon, and
+then at the Cape, and was afterwards lieutenant-governor of Greenwich
+hospital till 1840. He reached flag rank in 1830. In his later years he
+took an active part in philanthropic work, in association with his
+brother, Captain E.P. Brenton, who had seen much service but is best
+remembered by his writings on naval and military history,--_Naval
+History of Great Britain from the Year 1783 to 1822_ (1823), and _The
+Life and Correspondence of John, Earl of St Vincent_ (1838).
+
+  A _Memoir of the Life and Services of Vice-Admiral Sir Jahleel
+  Brenton_, based on his own papers, was published in 1846 by the Rev.
+  Henry Raikes, and reissued by the admiral's son, Sir L.C.L. Brenton,
+  in 1855.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BRENTWOOD, a market town in the mid or Chelmsford parliamentary division
+of Essex, England; 18 m. E.N.E. of London by the Great Eastern railway
+(Brentwood and Worley station). Pop. of urban district (1901) 4932. The
+neighbouring country is pleasantly undulating and well wooded. The
+church of St Thomas the Martyr, with several chapels, is modern. The old
+assize house, an Elizabethan structure, remains. A free grammar school
+was founded in 1557. The county asylum is in the vicinity. There are
+breweries and brick works. To the south lies the fine upland of Worley
+Common, with large barracks. Adjoining Brentwood to the north-east is
+Shenfield, with the church of St Mary the Virgin, Early English and
+later. Brentwood was formerly an important posting station on the main
+road to the eastern counties, which follows the line of the railway to
+Colchester. The name (_Burntwood_) is supposed to record an original
+settlement made in a clearing of the forest. The district is largely
+residential.
+
+
+
+
+BRENZ, JOHANN (1499-1570), Lutheran divine, eldest son of Martin Brenz,
+was born at Weil, Wurttemberg, on the 24th of June 1499. In 1514 he
+entered the university of Heidelberg, where Oecolampadius was one of his
+teachers, and where in 1518 he heard Luther discuss. Ordained priest in
+1520, and appointed preacher (1522) at Hall in Swabia, he gave himself
+to biblical exposition. He ceased to celebrate mass in 1523, and
+reorganized his church in 1524. Successful in resisting the peasant
+insurrection (1525), his fortunes were affected by the Schmalkaldic War.
+From Hall, when taken by the imperial forces, he fled on his birthday in
+1548. Protected by Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg, he was appointed (January
+1553) provost of the collegiate church of Stuttgart. As organizer of the
+reformation in Wurttemberg he did much fruitful work. A strong advocate
+of Lutheran doctrine, and author of the _Syngramma Suevicum_ (October
+21, 1525), which set forth Luther's doctrine of the Eucharist, he was
+free from the persecuting tendencies of the age. He is praised and
+quoted (as Joannes Witlingius) for his judgment against applying the
+death penalty to anabaptists or other heretics in the _De Haereticis, an
+sint persequendi_ (1554), issued by Sebastian Castellio under the
+pseudonym of Martinus Bellius. An incomplete edition of his works
+(largely expository) appeared at Tubingen, 1576-1590. Several of his
+sermons were reproduced in contemporary English versions. A volume of
+_Anecdota Brentiana_ was edited by Pressel in 1868. He died on the 11th
+of September 1570, and was buried in his church at Stuttgart; his grave
+was subsequently violated. He was twice married, and his eldest son,
+Johann Brenz, was appointed (1562) professor of theology in Tubingen at
+the early age of twenty-two.
+
+  See Hartmann and Jager, _Johann Brenz_ (1840-1842); Bossert, in
+  Hauck's _Realencyklop_. (1897).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+BREQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD FEUDRIX DE (1714-1795), French scholar,
+was born at Gainneville near Havre, on the 22nd of February 1714, and
+died at Paris on the 3rd of July 1795. His first publications were
+anonymous: an _Histoire des revolutions de Genes jusqu'a la paix de
+1748_ (1750), and a series of _Vies des orateurs grecs_ (1752). Elected
+a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres in 1759, he
+contributed an _Histoire de Posthume empereur des Gaules_ (vol. xxx.,
+1760) to the collected works of that illustrious society, and also a
+_Memoire sur l'etablissement de la religion et de l'empire de Mahomet_
+(vol. xxxii., 1761-1763). After the close of the Seven Years' War he was
+sent to search in the archives of England for documents bearing upon the
+history of France, more particularly upon that of the French provinces
+which once belonged to England. This mission (1764-1766) was very
+fruitful in results; Brequigny brought back from it copies of about 7000
+documents, which are now in the Bibliotheque Nationale. A useful
+selection of these documents was published (unfortunately without
+adequate critical treatment) by Jean Jacques Champollion-Figeac, under
+the title _Lettres de rois, reines et autres personnages des cours de
+France et d'Angleterre, depuis Louis VII. jusqu'a Henri IV., tirees des
+archives de Londres par Brequigny_ (collection of _Documents inedits
+relatifs a l'histoire de France_, 2 vols., 1839, 1847). Brequigny
+himself drew the material for many important studies from the rich mine
+which he had thus exploited. These were included in the collection of
+the Academie des Inscriptions: _Memoire sur les differends entre la
+France et l'Angleterre sous le regne de Charles le Bel_ (vol. xli.);
+_Memoire sur la vie de Marie, reine de France, soeur de Henri VIII., roi
+d'Angleterre_ (vol. xlii.); four _Memoires pour senir a l'histoire de
+Calais_ (vols. xliii. and l.); and _Memoire sur les negotiations
+touchant les projets de mariage d'Elizabeth, reine d'Angleterre, d'abord
+avec le duc d'Anjou, ensuite avec le due d'Alencon, tons deux freres de
+Charles IX._ (vol. l.). This last was read to the Academy on the 22nd of
+January 1793, the morrow of Louis XVI.'s execution. Meanwhile, Brequigny
+had taken part in three great and erudite works. For the _Recueil des
+ordonnances des rois de France_ he had prepared volumes x.-xiv., the
+preface to vol. xi. containing important researches into the French
+communes. To the _Table chronologique des diplomes, chartes, lettres, et
+actes imprimes concernant l'histoire de France_ he contributed three
+volumes in collaboration with Mouchet (1769-1783). Charged with the
+supervision of a large collection of documents bearing on French
+history, analogous to Rymer's _Foedera_, he published the first volume
+(_Diplomatat. Chartae_, &c., 1791). The Revolution interrupted him in
+his collection of _Memoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les
+lettres, et les arts des Chinois_, begun in 1776 at the instance of the
+minister Bertin, when fifteen volumes had appeared.
+
+  See the note on Brequigny at the end of vol. i. of the _Memoires de
+  l'Academie des Inscriptions_ (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv. of
+  the _Table chronologique des diplomes_ (1836); Champollion-Figeac's
+  preface to the _Lettres des rois et reines_; the _Comite des travaux
+  historiques_, by X. Charmes, vol. i. _passim_; N. Oursel, _Nouvelle
+  biographie normande_ (1886); and the _Catalogue des manuscrits des
+  collections Duchesne et Brequigny_ (in the Bibliotheque Nationale), by
+  Rene Poupardin (1905).     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various
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