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diff --git a/33750.txt b/33750.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bde2375 --- /dev/null +++ b/33750.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19133 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4 + "Bradford, William" to "Brequigny, Louis" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 17, 2010 [EBook #33750] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 4 SL 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE BRAIN: "The cough, the eye-closure, the impulse to smile, + all these can be suppressed." 'impulse' amended from 'impluse'. + + ARTICLE BRAIN: "The deep ends of these olfactory neurones having + entered the central nervous organ come into contact with the of + large neurones, called, from their shape, mitral." 'dendrites' + amended from 'dentrites'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME IV, SLICE IV + + Bradford, William to Brequigny, Louis + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + BRADFORD, WILLIAM (governor) BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE + BRADFORD, WILLIAM (printer) BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND + BRADFORD, WILLIAM (painter) BRAS D'OR + BRADFORD (England) BRASDOR, PIERRE + BRADFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) BRASIDAS + BRADFORD CLAY BRASS (Nigeria) + BRADFORD-ON-AVON BRASS (alloy) + BRADLAUGH, CHARLES BRASSES, MONUMENTAL + BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES + BRADLEY, JAMES BRASSEY, THOMAS + BRADSHAW, GEORGE BRASSO + BRADSHAW, HENRY (English poet) BRATHWAIT, RICHARD + BRADSHAW, HENRY (British scholar) BRATIANU, ION C. + BRADSHAW, JOHN BRATLANDSDAL + BRADWARDINE, THOMAS BRATTISHING + BRADY, NICHOLAS BRATTLEBORO + BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN DE BRAUNAU + BRAEMAR BRAUNSBERG + BRAG BRAVO + BRAGA BRAWLING + BRAGANZA BRAY, SIR REGINALD + BRAGG, BRAXTON BRAY, THOMAS + BRAGI BRAY (England) + BRAHAM, JOHN BRAY (Ireland) + BRAHE, PER BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE + BRAHE, TYCHO BRAZIER + BRAHMAN BRAZIL (legendary island) + BRAHMANA BRAZIL (republic) + BRAHMANISM BRAZIL (Indiana, U.S.A.) + BRAHMAPUTRA BRAZIL NUTS + BRAHMA SAMAJ BRAZIL WOOD + BRAHMS, JOHANNES BRAZING AND SOLDERING + BRAHUI BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL SAVORGNAN DE + BRAID BRAZZA + BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS BREACH + BRAILA BREAD + BRAIN BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL + BRAINERD, DAVID BREADALBANE + BRAINERD BREAD-FRUIT + BRAINTREE (Essex, England) BREAKING BULK + BRAINTREE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) BREAKWATER + BRAKE (town of Germany) BREAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED + BRAKE (engineering) BREAM + BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE BREAST + BRAMAH, JOSEPH BREAUTE, FALKES DE + BRAMANTE BRECCIA + BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS BRECHIN + BRAMPTON BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL + BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM BRAMWELL BRECON + BRAN (Welsh hero) BRECONSHIRE + BRAN (husk of cereals) BREDA + BRANCH BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN + BRANCO BREDERODE, HENRY + BRANCOVAN BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL + BRAND, JOHN BREDOW + BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY BREECH + BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS BREEDS AND BREEDING + BRANDENBURG (Prussian electorate) BREEZE + BRANDENBURG (Prussian province) BREGENZ + BRANDENBURG (town of Germany) BREHON LAWS + BRANDER, GUSTAVUS BREISACH + BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN BREISGAU + BRANDING BREISLAK, SCIPIONE + BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST BREITENFELD + BRANDON (Canada) BREMEN (German state) + BRANDON (England) BREMEN (German city) + BRANDY BREMER, FREDRIKA + BRANDYWINE BREMERHAVEN + BRANFORD BRENDAN + BRANGWYN, FRANK BRENHAM + BRANKS BRENNER PASS + BRANT, JOSEPH BRENNUS + BRANT, SEBASTIAN BRENTANO, KLEMENS + BRANTFORD BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH + BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE BRENTFORD + BRANTOME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL + BRANTOME BRENTWOOD + BRANXHOLM BRENZ, JOHANN + BRANXTON BREQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES FEUDRIX DE + + +BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1590-1657), American colonial governor and historian, +was born in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, probably in March 1590. He +became somewhat estranged from his family, which was one of considerable +importance in the locality, when in early youth he joined the Puritan +sect known as Separatists, and united in membership with the +congregation at Scrooby. He prepared in 1607, with other members of the +church, to migrate to Holland, but the plan was discovered and several +of the leaders, among them Bradford, were imprisoned. In the year +following, however, he joined the English colony at Amsterdam, where he +learned the trade of silk weaving. He subsequently sold his Yorkshire +property and embarked in business on his own account at Leiden, where +the English refugees had removed. He became an active advocate of the +proposed emigration to America, was one of the party that sailed in the +"Mayflower" in September 1620, and was one of the signers of the compact +on shipboard in Cape Cod Bay. After the death of Governor John Carver in +April 1621, Bradford was elected governor of Plymouth Colony, and served +as such, with the exception of five years (1633, 1634, 1636, 1638 and +1644) until shortly before his death. After 1624, at Bradford's +suggestion, a board of five and later seven assistants was chosen +annually to share the executive responsibility. Bradford's rule was firm +and judicious, and to his guidance more than to that of any other man +the prosperity of the Plymouth Colony was due. His tact and kindness in +dealing with the Indians helped to relieve the colony from the conflicts +with which almost every other settlement was afflicted. In 1630 the +council for New England granted to "William Bradford, his heires, +associatts, and assignes," a new patent enlarging the original grant of +territory made to the Plymouth settlers. This patent Bradford in the +name of the trustees made over to the body corporate of the colony in +1641. Bradford died in Plymouth on the 9th of May 1657. He was the +author of a very important historical work, the _History of Plimouth +Plantation_ (until 1646), first published in the _Proceedings_ of the +Massachusetts Historical Society for 1856, and later by the state of +Massachusetts (Boston, 1898), and in facsimile, with an introduction by +John A. Doyle, in 1896. The manuscript disappeared from Boston during +the War of Independence, was discovered in the Fulham library, London, +in 1855, and was returned by the bishop of London to the state of +Massachusetts in 1897. This work has been of inestimable value to +writers on the history of the Pilgrims, and was freely used, in +manuscript, by Morton, Hubbard, Mather, Prince and Hutchinson. Bradford +was also undoubtedly part author, with Edward Winslow, of the "Diary of +Occurrences" published in Mourts' _Relation_, edited by Dr H.M. Dexter +(Boston, 1865). He also wrote a series of _Dialogues_, on church +government, published in the Massachusetts Historical Society's +Publications (1870.) + + For Bradford's ancestry and early life see Joseph Hunter, _Collections + concerning the Founders of New Plymouth_, in Massachusetts Historical + Society's _Collections_ (Boston, 1852); also the quaint sketch in + Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_ (London, 1702), and a chapter in Williston + Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901). + + + + +BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1663-1752), American colonial printer, was born in +Leicestershire, England, on the 20th of May 1663. He learned the +printer's trade in London with Andrew Sowle, and in 1682 emigrated with +William Penn to Pennsylvania, where in 1685 he introduced the "art and +mystery" of printing into the Middle Colonies. His first imprint was an +almanac, _Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense or America's Messenger_ (1685). At +the outset he was ordered "not to print anything but what shall have +lycence from ye council," and in 1692, the colony then being torn by +schism, he issued a tract for the minority sect of Friends, whereupon +his press was seized and he was arrested. He was released, however, and +his press was restored on his appeal to Governor Benjamin Fletcher. In +1690, with William Rittenhouse (1644-1708) and others, he established in +Roxboro, Pennsylvania, now a part of Philadelphia, the first paper mill +in America. In the spring of 1693 he removed to New York, where he was +appointed royal printer for the colony, a position which he held for +more than fifty years; and on the 8th of November 1725 he issued the +first number of the _New York Gazette_, the first paper established in +New York and from 1725 to 1733 the only paper in the colony. Bradford +died in New York on the 23rd of May 1752. + +His son, ANDREW SOWLE BRADFORD (1686-1742), removed from New York to +Philadelphia in 1712, and there on the 22nd of December 1719 issued the +first number of the _American Weekly Mercury_, the first newspaper in +the Middle Colonies. Benjamin Franklin, for a time a compositor in the +office, characterized the paper as "a paltry thing, in no way +interesting"; but it was continued for many years and was edited by +Bradford until his death. + +The latter's nephew, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1722-1791), established in +December 1742 the _Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser_, which +was for sixty years under his control or that of his son, and which in +1774-1775 bore the oft-reproduced device of a divided serpent with the +motto "Unite or Die." He served in the War of American Independence, +rising to the rank of colonel. His son, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1755-1795), +also served in the War of Independence, and afterwards was +attorney-general of Pennsylvania (1791), a judge of the supreme court of +the state, and in 1794-1795 attorney-general of the United States. + + + + +BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1827-1892), American marine painter, was born at New +Bedford, Massachusetts. He was a Quaker, and was self-taught, painting +the ships and the marine views he saw along the coast of Massachusetts, +Labrador and Nova Scotia; he went on several Arctic expeditions with Dr +Hayes, and was the first American painter to portray the frozen regions +of the north. His pictures attracted much attention by reason of their +novelty and gorgeous colour effects. His "Steamer 'Panther' in Melville +Bay, under the Light of the Midnight Sun" was exhibited at the Royal +Academy in London in 1875. Bradford was a member of the National Academy +of Design, New York, and died in that city on the 25th of April 1892. +His style was somewhat influenced by Albert van Beest, who worked with +Bradford at Fairhaven for a time; but Bradford is minute and observant +of detail where van Beest's aim is general effect. + + + + +BRADFORD, a city, and municipal, county and parliamentary borough, in +the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 192 m. N.N.W. of London and 8 m. +W. of Leeds. Pop. (1891) 265,728; (1901) 279,767. It is served by the +Midland and the North Eastern railways (Midland station), and by the +Great Northern and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Exchange +station). It lies in a small valley opening southward from that of the +Aire, and extends up the hills on either side. Most of the principal +streets radiate from a centre between the Midland and Exchange stations +and the town hall. This last is a handsome building, opened in 1873, +surmounted by a bell tower. The exterior is ornamented with statues of +English monarchs. The council-chamber contains excellent wood-carving. +The extension of the building was undertaken in 1905. The parish church +of St Peter is Perpendicular, dating from 1485, and occupies the site of +a Norman church. Its most noteworthy feature is the fine original roof +of oak. There was no other church in the town until 1815, but modern +churches and chapels are numerous. Among educational institutions, the +grammar school existed in the 16th century, and in 1663 received a +charter of incorporation from Charles II. It occupies a building erected +in 1873, and is largely endowed, possessing several scholarships founded +by prominent citizens. The technical college, under the corporation +since 1899, was opened in 1882. A mechanics' institute was founded in +1832, and in 1871 the handsome mechanics' hall, close to the town hall, +was opened. Other establishments are the Airedale College of students +for the Independent ministry, and the United Independent College (1888). +The general infirmary is the principal of numerous charitable +institutions. The most noteworthy public buildings beside the town hall +are St George's hall (1853), used for concerts and public meetings, the +exchange (1867), extensive market buildings, and two court-houses. The +Cartwright memorial hall, principally the gift of Lord Masham, opened in +1904 and containing an art gallery and museum, commemorates Dr Edmund +Cartwright (1743-1823) as the inventor of the power-loom and the +combing-machine. The hall stands in Lister Park, and was opened +immediately before, and used in connexion with, the industrial +exhibition held here in 1904. The Temperance hall is of interest +inasmuch as the first hall of this character in England was erected at +Bradford in 1837. Some of the great warehouses are of considerable +architectural merit. Statues commemorate several of those who have been +foremost in the development of the city, such as Sir Titus Salt, Mr S.C. +Lister (Lord Masham), and W.E. Forster. Of several parks the largest are +Lister, Peel, and Bowling parks, each exceeding fifty acres. In the last +is an ancient and picturesque mansion, which formerly belonged to the +Bowling or Bolling family. A large acreage of high-lying moorland near +the city is maintained by the corporation as a public recreation ground. + +As a commercial centre Bradford is advantageously placed with regard to +both railway communication and connexion with the Humber and with +Liverpool by canal, and through the presence in its immediate vicinity +of valuable deposits of coal and iron. The principal textile +manufactures in order of importance are worsted, employing some 36,000 +hands, females considerably outnumbering males; woollens, employing some +8000, silk and cotton. The corporation maintains a conditioning-hall for +testing textile materials. A new hall was opened in 1902. Engineering +and iron works (as at Bowling and Low Moor) are extensive; and the +freestone of the neighbourhood is largely quarried, and in Bradford +itself its use is general for building. It blackens easily under the +influence of smoke, and the town has consequently a somewhat gloomy +appearance. The trade of Bradford, according to an official estimate, +advanced between 1836 and 1884 from a total of five to at least +thirty-five millions sterling, and from not more than six to at least +fifty staple articles. The annual turn-over in the staple trade is +estimated at about one hundred millions sterling. + +Bradford was created a city in 1897. The parliamentary borough returned +two members from 1832 until 1885, when it was divided into three +divisions, each returning one member. The county borough was created in +1888. Its boundaries include the suburbs, formerly separate urban +districts, of Eccleshill, Idle and others. The corporation consists of a +lord mayor (this dignity was conferred in 1907), 21 aldermen, and 63 +councillors. One feature of municipal activity in Bradford deserves +special notice--there is a municipal railway, opened in 1907, extending +from Pateley Bridge to Lofthouse (6 m.) and serving the Nidd valley, +the district from which the main water-supply of the city is obtained. +Area of the city, 22,879 acres. + +Bradford, which is mentioned as having belonged before 1066, with +several other manors in Yorkshire, to one Gamel, appears to have been +almost destroyed during the conquest of the north of England and was +still waste in 1086. By that time it had been granted to Ilbert de Lacy, +in whose family it continued until 1311. The inquisition taken after the +death of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, in that year gives several +interesting facts about the manor; the earl had there a hall or +manor-house, a fulling mill, a market every Sunday, and a fair on the +feast of St Andrew. There were also certain burgesses holding +twenty-eight burgages. Alice, only daughter and heiress of Henry de +Lacy, married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, and on the +attainder of her husband she and Joan, widow of Henry, were obliged to +release their rights in the manor to the king. The earl of Lancaster's +attainder being reversed in 1327, Bradford, with his other property, was +restored to his brother and heir, Henry Plantagenet, but again passed to +the crown on the accession of Henry IV., through the marriage of John of +Gaunt with Blanche, one of the daughters and heirs of Henry Plantagenet. +Bradford was evidently a borough by prescription and was not +incorporated until 1847. Previous to that date the chief officer in the +town had been the chief constable, who was appointed annually at the +court leet of the manor. Before the 19th century Bradford was never +represented in parliament, but in 1832 it was created a parliamentary +borough returning two members. A weekly market on Thursdays was granted +to Edward de Lacy in 1251 and confirmed in 1294 to Henry de Lacy, earl +of Lincoln, with the additional grant of a fair on the eve and day of St +Peter ad Vincula and three days following. In 1481 Edward IV. granted to +certain feoffees in whom he had vested his manor of Bradford a market on +Thursday every week and two yearly fairs, one on the feast of the +Deposition of St William of York and two days preceding, the other on +the feast of St Peter in Cathedra and two days preceding. + +From the mention of a fulling mill in 1311 it is possible that woollen +manufacture had been begun at that time. By the reign of Henry VIII. it +had become an important industry and added much to the status of the +town. Towards the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century the +woollen trade decreased and worsted manufacture began to take its place. +Leland in his _Itinerary_ says that Bradford is "a praty quik Market +Toune. It standith much by clothing." In 1773 a piece hall was erected +and for many years served as a market-place for the manufacturers and +merchants of the district. On the introduction of steam-power and +machinery the worsted trade advanced with great rapidity. The first mill +in Bradford was built in 1798; there were 20 mills in the town in 1820, +34 in 1833, and 70 in 1841; and at the present time there are over 300, +of much greater magnitude than the earlier factories. In 1836 Mr +(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt developed the alpaca manufacture in the +town; mohair was shortly afterwards introduced; and the great works at +Saltaire were opened (see SHIPLEY). Later, Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham) +introduced the silk and velvet manufacture, having invented a process of +manipulating silk waste, whereby what was previously treated as refuse +is made into goods that will compete with those manufactured from the +perfect cocoon. + + See John James, _History of Bradford_ (1844, new and enlarged ed., + 1866); A. Holroyd, _Collectanea Bradfordiana_ (1873); _Victoria County + History--Yorkshire_. + + + + +BRADFORD, a city of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., near the N. +border of the state, about 80 m. E. by S. of Erie. Pop. (1890) 10,514; +(1900) 15,029, of whom 2211 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,544. It +is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, and the Buffalo, Rochester & +Pittsburg railways, and is connected with Olean, New York, by an +electric line. Bradford is situated 1427 ft. above sea-level in the +valley of the Tuna, and is shut in by hills on either side. Since 1876 +it has been one of the most important oil centres of the state, and it +has been connected by pipe lines with cities along the Atlantic coast; +petroleum refining is an important industry. Among the city's +manufactures are boilers, machines, glass, chemicals, terra cotta, +brick, iron pipes and couplings, gas engines, cutlery and silk. The +place was first settled about 1827; in 1838 it was laid out as a town +and named Littleton; in 1858 the present name, in honour of William +Bradford (1755-1795), was substituted; and Bradford was incorporated as +a borough in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1879. Kendall borough +was annexed to Bradford in 1893. + + + + +BRADFORD CLAY, in geology, a thin, rather inconstant bed of clay or marl +situated in England at the base of the Forest Marble, the two together +constituting the Bradfordian group in the Bathonian series of Jurassic +rocks. The term "Bradford Clay" appears to have been first used by J. +de. C. Sowerby in 1823 (_Mineral Conchology_, vol. v.) as an alternative +for W. Smith's "Clay on Upper Oolite." The clay came into notice late in +the 18th century on account of the local abundance of the crinoid +_Apiocrinus Parkinsoni_. It takes its name from Bradford-on-Avon in +Wiltshire, whence it is traceable southward to the Dorset coast and +northward towards Cirencester. It may be regarded as a local phase of +the basement beds of the Forest Marble, from which it cannot be +separated upon either stratigraphical or palaeontological grounds. It is +seldom more than 10 ft. thick, and it contains as a rule a few irregular +layers of limestone and calcareous sandstone. The lowest layer is often +highly fossiliferous; some of the common forms being _Arca minuta, +Ostrea gregaria, Waldheimia digona, Terebratula coarctata, Cidaris +bradfordensis_, &c. + + See H.B. Woodward, "Jurassic Rocks of Britain," _Mem. Geol. Survey_, + vol. iv. (1904). + + + + +BRADFORD-ON-AVON, a market town in the Westbury parliamentary division +of Wiltshire, England, on the rivers Avon and Kennet, and the Kennet & +Avon Canal, 98 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. +of urban district (1901) 4514. Its houses, all built of grey stone, rise +in picturesque disorder up the steep sides of the Avon valley, here +crossed by an ancient bridge of nine arches, with a chapel in the +centre. Among many places of worship may be mentioned the restored +parish church of Holy Trinity, which dates from the 12th century and +contains some interesting monuments and brasses; and the Perpendicular +Hermitage or Tory chapel, with a 15th or 16th century chantry-house. But +most notable is the Saxon church of St Lawrence, the foundation of which +is generally attributed, according to William of Malmesbury (1125), to +St Aldhelm, early in the 8th century. It consists of a chancel, nave and +porch, in such unchanged condition that E.A. Freeman considered it "the +most perfect surviving church of its kind in England, if not in Europe." +It has more lately, however, been held that the present building is not +Aldhelm's, but a restoration, dating from about 975, and attributable to +the influence of Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. Kingston House, long +the seat of the dukes of Kingston, is a beautiful example of early +17th-century domestic architecture. The local industries include the +manufacture of rubber goods, brewing, quarrying and iron-founding. + + Bradford (Bradauford, Bradeford) was the site of a battle in 652 + between Kenwal and his kinsman Cuthred. A monastery existed here in + the 8th century, of which St Aldhelm was abbot at the time of his + being made bishop of Sherborne in A.D. 705. In 1001 AEthelred gave this + monastery and the town of Bradford to the nunnery of Shaftesbury, in + order that the nuns might have a safe refuge against the insults of + the Danes. No mention of the monastery occurs after the Conquest, but + the nunnery of Shaftesbury retained the lordship of the manor until + the dissolution in the reign of Henry VIII. In a synod held here in + 954, Dunstan was elected bishop of Winchester. Bradford appears as a + borough in the Domesday survey, and is there assessed at 42 hides. No + charter of incorporation is recorded, however, and after returning two + members to the parliament of 1295 the town does not appear to have + enjoyed any of the privileges of a borough. The market is of ancient + origin, and was formerly held on Monday; in the survey the tolls are + assessed at 45 shillings. Bradford was at one time the centre of the + clothing industry in the west of England, and was especially famous + for its broadcloths and mixtures, the waters of the Avon being + especially favourable to the production of good colours and superior + dyes. The industry declined in the 18th century, and in 1740 we find + the woollen merchants of Bradford petitioning for an act of parliament + to improve their trade and so re-establish their credit in foreign + markets. + + + + +BRADLAUGH, CHARLES (1833-1891), English free-thinker and politician, was +born at Hoxton, London, on the 26th of September 1833. His father was a +poor solicitor's clerk, who also had a small business as a law +stationer, and his mother had been a nursemaid. At twelve years old he +became office-boy to his father's employer, and at fourteen wharf-clerk +and cashier to a coal merchant in the City Road. He had been baptized +and brought up in the Church of England, but he now came into contact +with a group of free-thinkers who were disciples of Richard Carlile. He +was hastily labelled an "atheist," and was turned out of his situation. +Thus driven into the arms of the secularists, he managed to earn a +living by odd jobs, and became further immersed in the study of +free-thought. At the end of 1850 he enlisted as a soldier, but in 1853 +was bought out with money provided by his mother. He then found +employment as a lawyer's clerk, and gradually became known as a +free-thought lecturer, under the name of "Iconoclast." From 1860 he +conducted the _National Reformer_ for several years, and displayed much +resource in legal defence when the paper was prosecuted by the +government on account of its alleged blasphemy and sedition in +1868-1869. Bradlaugh became notorious as a leading "infidel," and was +supported by the sympathy of those who were enthusiasts at that time for +liberty of speech and thought. He was a constant figure in the law +courts; and his competence to take the oath was continually being called +in question, while his atheism and republican opinions were adduced as +reasons why no jury should give damages for attacks on his character. In +1874 he became acquainted with Mrs Annie Besant (b. 1847), who +afterwards became famous for her gifts as a lecturer on socialism and +theosophy. She began by writing for the _National Reformer_ and soon +became co-editor. In 1876 the Bristol publisher of an American pamphlet +on the population question, called _Fruits of Philosophy_, was indicted +for selling a work full of indecent physiological details, and, pleading +guilty, was lightly sentenced; but Bradlaugh and Mrs Besant took the +matter up, in order to vindicate their ideas of liberty, and +aggressively republished and circulated the pamphlet. The prosecution +which resulted created considerable scandal. They were convicted and +sentenced to a heavy fine and imprisonment, but the sentence was stayed +and the indictment ultimately quashed on a technical point. The affair, +however, had several side issues in the courts and led to much prejudice +against the defendants, the distinction being ignored between a protest +against the suppression of opinion and the championship of the +particular opinions in question. Mrs Besant's close alliance with +Bradlaugh eventually terminated in 1886, when she drifted from +secularism, first into socialistic and labour agitation and then into +theosophy as a pupil of Mme Blavatsky. Bradlaugh himself took up +politics with increasing fervour. He had been unsuccessful in standing +for Northampton in 1868, but in 1880 he was returned by that +constituency to parliament as an advanced Radical. A long and +sensational parliamentary struggle now began. He claimed to be allowed +to affirm under the Parliamentary Oaths Act, and the rejection of this +pretension, and the refusal to allow him to take the oath on his +professing his willingness to do so, terminated in Bradlaugh's victory +in 1886. But this result was not obtained without protracted scenes in +the House, in which Lord Randolph Churchill took a leading part. When +the long struggle was over, the public had gradually got used to +Bradlaugh, and his transparent honesty and courageous contempt for mere +popularity gained him increasing respect. Experience of public life in +the House of Commons appeared to give him a more balanced view of +things; and before he died, on the 30th of January 1891, the progress of +events was such that it was beginning to be said of him that he was in a +fair way to end as a Conservative. Hard, arrogant and dogmatic, with a +powerful physique and a real gift for popular oratory, he was a natural +leader in causes which had society against them, but his sincerity was +as unquestionable as his combativeness. + + His _Life_ was written, from a sympathetic point of view, with much + interesting detail as to the history of secularism, by his daughter, + Mrs Bradlaugh Bonner, and J.M. Robertson (1894). + + + + +BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE (1821-1903), English divine and scholar, was +born on the 11th of December 1821, his father, Charles Bradley, being at +that time vicar of Glasbury, Brecon. He was educated at Rugby under +Thomas Arnold, and at University College, Oxford, of which he became a +fellow in 1844. He was an assistant master at Rugby from 1846 to 1858, +when he succeeded G.E.L. Cotton as headmaster at Marlborough. In 1870 he +was elected master of his old college at Oxford, and in August 1881 he +was made dean of Westminster in succession to A.P. Stanley, whose pupil +and intimate friend he had been, and whose biographer he became. Besides +his _Recollections of A.P. Stanley_ (1883) and _Life of Dean Stanley_ +(1892), he published _Aids to writing Latin Prose Composition_ and +_Lectures on Job_ (1884) and _Ecclesiastes_ (1885). He took part in the +coronation of Edward VII., resigned the deanery in 1902, and died on the +13th of March 1903. + +Dean Bradley's family produced various other members distinguished in +literature. His half-brother, ANDREW CECIL BRADLEY (b. 1851), fellow of +Balliol, Oxford, became professor of modern literature and history +(1881) at University College, Liverpool, and in 1889 regius professor of +English language and literature at Glasgow University; and he was +professor of poetry at Oxford (1901-1906). Of Dean Bradley's own +children the most distinguished in literature were his son, ARTHUR +GRANVILLE BRADLEY (b. 1850), author of various historical and +topographical works; and especially his daughter, Mrs MARGARET LOUISA +WOODS (b. 1856), wife of the Rev. Henry George Woods, president of +Trinity, Oxford (1887-1897), and master of the Temple (1904), London. +Mrs Woods became well known for her accomplished verse (_Lyrics and +Ballads_, 1889), largely influenced by Robert Bridges, and for her +novels, of which her _Village Tragedy_ (1887) was the earliest and +strongest. + + + + +BRADLEY, JAMES (1693-1762), English astronomer, was born at Sherborne in +Gloucestershire in March 1693. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, on +the 15th of March 1711, and took degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1714 and +1717 respectively. His early observations were made at the rectory of +Wanstead in Essex, under the tutelage of his uncle, the Rev. James Pound +(1669-1724), himself a skilled astronomer, and he was elected a fellow +of the Royal Society on the 6th of November 1718. He took orders on his +presentation to the vicarage of Bridstow in the following year, and a +small sinecure living in Wales was besides procured for him by his +friend Samuel Molyneux (1689-1728). He, however, resigned his +ecclesiastical preferments in 1721, on his appointment to the Savilian +professorship of astronomy at Oxford, while as reader on experimental +philosophy (1729-1760) he delivered 79 courses of lectures in the +Ashmolean museum. His memorable discovery of the aberration of light +(see ABERRATION) was communicated to the Royal Society in January 1729 +(_Phil. Trans._ xxxv. 637). The observations upon which it was founded +were made at Molyneux's house on Kew Green. He refrained from announcing +the supplementary detection of nutation (q.v.) until the 14th of +February 1748 (_Phil. Trans._ xlv. 1), when he had tested its reality by +minute observations during an entire revolution (18.6 years) of the +moon's nodes. He had meantime (in 1742) been appointed to succeed Edmund +Halley as astronomer royal; his enhanced reputation enabled him to apply +successfully for an instrumental outfit at a cost of L1000; and with an +8-foot quadrant completed for him in 1750 by John Bird (1700-1776), he +accumulated at Greenwich in ten years materials of inestimable value for +the reform of astronomy. A crown pension of L250 a year was conferred +upon him in 1752. He retired in broken health, nine years later, to +Chalford in Gloucestershire, and there died on the 13th of July 1762. +The printing of his observations was delayed by disputes about their +ownership; but they were finally issued from the Clarendon Press, +Oxford, in two folio volumes (1798, 1805). The insight and industry of +F.W. Bessel were, however, needed for the development of their +fundamental importance. + + Rigaud's Memoir prefixed to _Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence of + James Bradley, D.D._ (Oxford, 1832), is practically exhaustive. Other + sources of information are: _New and General Biographical Dictionary_, + xii. 54 (1767); _Biog. Brit._ (Kippis); Fouchy's "Eloge," _Paris + Memoirs_ (1762), p. 231 (Histoire); Delambre's _Hist. de l'astronomie + au 18^me siecle_, p. 413. + + + + +BRADSHAW, GEORGE (1801-1853), English printer and publisher, was born at +Windsor Bridge, Pendleton, Lancashire, on the 29th of July 1801. On +leaving school he was apprenticed to an engraver at Manchester, +eventually setting up on his own account in that city as an engraver and +printer--principally of maps. His name was already known as the +publisher of _Bradshaw's Maps of Inland Navigation_, when in 1839, soon +after the introduction of railways, he published, at sixpence, +_Bradshaw's Railway Time Tables_, the title being changed in 1840 to +_Bradshaw's Railway Companion_, and the price raised to one shilling. A +new volume was issued at occasional intervals, a supplementary monthly +time-sheet serving to keep the book up to date. In December 1841, acting +on a suggestion made by his London agent, Mr W.J. Adams, Bradshaw +reduced the price of his time-tables to the original sixpence, and began +to issue them monthly under the title _Bradshaw's Monthly Railway +Guide._ In June 1847 was issued the first number of _Bradshaw's +Continental Railway Guide_, giving the time-tables of the Continental +railways just as _Bradshaw's Monthly Railway Guide_ gave the time-tables +of the railways of the United Kingdom. Bradshaw, who was a well-known +member of the Society of Friends, and gave considerable time to +philanthropic work, died in 1853. + + + + +BRADSHAW, HENRY (c. 1450-1513), English poet, was born at Chester. In +his boyhood he was received into the Benedictine monastery of St +Werburgh, and after studying with other novices of his order at +Gloucester (afterwards Worcester) College, Oxford, he returned to his +monastery at Chester. He wrote a Latin treatise _De antiquitate et +magnificentia Urbis Cestriae_, which is lost, and a life of the patron +saint of his monastery in English seven-lined stanza. This work was +completed in the year of its author's death, 1513, mentioned in "A +balade to the auctour" printed at the close of the work. A second ballad +describes him as "Harry Braddeshaa, of Chestre abbey monke." Bradshaw +disclaims the merit of originality and quotes the authorities from which +he translates--Bede, William of Malmesbury, Giraldus Cambrensis, Alfred +of Beverley, Henry of Huntingdon, Ranulph Higden, and especially the +"Passionary" or life of the saint preserved in the monastery. The poem, +therefore, which is defined by its editor, Dr Carl Horstmann, as a +"legendary epic," is rather a compilation than a translation. It +contains a good deal of history beside the actual life of the saint. St +Werburgh was the daughter of Wulfere, king of Mercia, and Bradshaw gives +a description of the kingdom of Mercia, with a full account of its royal +house. He relates the history of St Ermenilde and St Sexburge, mother +and grandmother of Werburgh, who were successively abbesses of Ely. He +does not neglect the miraculous elements of the story, but he is more +attracted by historical fact than legend, and the second book narrates +the Danish invasion of 875, and describes the history and antiquities of +Chester, from its foundation by the legendary giant Leon Gaur, from +which he derives the British name of Caerleon, down to the great fire +which devastated the city in 1180, but was suddenly extinguished when +the shrine of St Werburgh was carried in procession through the streets. +_The Holy Lyfe and History of saynt Werburge very frutefull for all +Christen people to rede_ (printed by Richard Pynson, 1521) has been very +variously estimated. Thomas Warton, who deals with Bradshaw at some +length,[1] quotes as the most splendid passage of the poem the +description of the feast preceding Werburgh's entry into the religious +life. He considered Bradshaw's versification "infinitely inferior to +Lydgate's worst manner." Dr Horstmann, on the other hand, finds in the +poem "original genius, of a truly epic tone, with a native simplicity +of feeling which sometimes reminds the reader of Homer." Most readers +will probably adopt a view between these extremes. Bradshaw expresses +the humblest opinion of his own abilities, and he certainly had no +delicate ear for rhythm. His sincerity is abundantly evident, and his +piety is admitted even by John Bale[2], hostile as he was to monkish +writers. W. Herbert[3] thought that a _Lyfe of Saynt Radegunde_, also +printed by Pynson, was certainly by Bradshaw. The only extant copy is in +the Britwell library. + + Pynson's edition of the _Holy Lyfe_ is very rare, only five copies + being known. A reprint copying the original type was edited by Mr. + Edward Hawkins for the Chetham Society in 1848, and by Dr Carl + Hortsmann for the Early English Text Society in 1887. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _History of English Poetry_ (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1871; iii. pp. + 140-149). + + [2] _Scriptorum Illustrium, cant. ix._ No. 17. + + [3] Ames, _Typographical Antiquities_ (ed. W. Herbert, 1785; i. p. + 294). + + + + +BRADSHAW, HENRY (1831-1886), British scholar and librarian, was born in +London on the 2nd of February 1831, and educated at Eton. He became a +fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and after a short scholastic career +in Ireland he accepted an appointment in the Cambridge university +library as an extra assistant. When he found that his official duties +absorbed all his leisure he resigned his post, but continued to give his +time to the examination of the MSS. and early printed books in the +library. There was then no complete catalogue of these sections, and +Bradshaw soon showed a rare faculty for investigations respecting old +books and curious MSS. In addition to his achievements in black-letter +bibliography he threw great light on ancient Celtic language and +literature by the discovery, in 1857, of the _Book of Deer_, a +manuscript copy of the Gospel in the Vulgate version, in which were +inscribed old Gaelic charters. This was published by the Spalding Club +in 1869. Bradshaw also discovered some Celtic glosses on the MS. of a +metrical paraphrase of the Gospels by Juvencus. He made another find in +the Cambridge library of considerable philological and historical +importance. Cromwell's envoy, Sir Samuel Morland (1625-1695), had +brought back from Piedmont MSS. containing the earliest known Waldensian +records, consisting of translations from the Bible, religious treatises +and poems. One of the poems referred the work to the beginning of the +11th century, though the MSS. did not appear to be of earlier date than +the 15th century. On this Morland had based his theory of the antiquity +of the Waldensian doctrine, and, in the absence of the MSS., which were +supposed to be irretrievably lost, the conclusion was accepted. Bradshaw +discovered the MSS. in the university library, and found in the passage +indicated traces of erasure. The original date proved to be 1400. +Incidentally the correct date was of great value in the study of the +history of the language. He had a share in exposing the frauds of +Constantine Simonides, who had asserted that the _Codex Sinaiticus_ +brought by Tischendorf from the Greek monastery of Mount Sinai was a +modern forgery of which he was himself the author. Bradshaw exposed the +absurdity of these claims in a letter to the _Guardian_ (January 26, +1863). In 1866 he made a valuable contribution to the history of +Scottish literature by the discovery of 2200 lines on the siege of Troy +incorporated in a MS. of Lydgate's _Troye Booke_, and of the _Legends of +the Saints_, an important work of some 40,000 lines. These poems he +attributed, erroneously, as has since been proved, to Barbour (q.v.). +Unfortunately Bradshaw allowed his attention to be distracted by a +multiplicity of subjects, so that he has not left any literary work +commensurate with his powers. The strain upon him was increased when he +was elected (1867) university librarian, and as dean of his college +(1857-1865) and praelector (1863-1868) he was involved in further +routine duties. Besides his brilliant isolated discoveries in +bibliography, he did much by his untiring zeal to improve the standard +of library administration. He died very suddenly on the 10th of February +1886. His fugitive papers on antiquarian subjects were collected and +edited by Mr F. Jenkinson in 1889. + + An excellent _Memoir of Henry Bradshaw_, by Mr G.W. Prothero, appeared + in 1888. See also C.F. Newcombe, _Some Aspects of the Work of Henry + Bradshaw_ (1905). + + + + + +BRADSHAW, JOHN (1602-1659), president of the "High Court of Justice" +which tried Charles I., was the second son of Henry Bradshaw, of Marple +and Wibersley in Cheshire. He was baptized on the 10th of December 1602, +was educated at Banbury in Cheshire and at Middleton in Lancashire, +studied subsequently with an attorney at Congleton, was admitted into +Gray's Inn in 1620, and was called to the bar in 1627, becoming a +bencher in 1647. He was mayor of Congleton in 1637, and later high +steward or recorder of the borough. According to Milton he was assiduous +in his legal studies and acquired considerable reputation and practice +at the bar. On the 21st of September 1643 he was appointed judge of the +sheriff's court in London. In October 1644 he was counsel with Prynne in +the prosecution of Lord Maguire and Hugh Macmahon, implicated in the +Irish rebellion, in 1645 for John Lilburne in his appeal to the Lords +against the sentence of the Star Chamber, and in 1647 in the prosecution +of Judge Jenkins. On the 8th of October 1646 he had been nominated by +the Commons a commissioner of the great seal, but his appointment was +not confirmed by the Lords. In 1647 he was made chief justice of Chester +and a judge in Wales, and on the 12th of October 1648 he was presented +to the degree of serjeant-at-law. On the 2nd of January 1649 the Lords +threw out the ordinance for bringing the king to trial, and the small +remnant of the House of Commons which survived Pride's Purge, consisting +of 53 independents, determined to carry out the ordinance on their own +authority. The leading members of the bar, on the parliamentary as well +as on the royalist side, having refused to participate in proceedings +not only illegal and unconstitutional, but opposed to the plainest +principles of equity, Bradshaw was selected to preside, and, after some +protestations of humility and unfitness, accepted the office. The king +refused to plead before the tribunal, but Bradshaw silenced every legal +objection and denied to Charles an opportunity to speak in his defence. +He continued after the king's death to conduct, as lord president, the +trials of the royalists, including the duke of Hamilton, Lord Capel, and +Henry Rich, earl of Holland, all of whom he condemned to death, his +behaviour being especially censured in the case of Eusebius Andrews, a +royalist who had joined a conspiracy against the government. He received +large rewards for his services. He was appointed in 1649 +attorney-general of Cheshire and North Wales, and chancellor of the +duchy of Lancaster, and was given a sum of L1000, together with +confiscated estates worth L2000 a year. He had been nominated a member +of the council of state on the 14th of February 1649, and on the 10th of +March became president. He disapproved strongly of the expulsion of the +Long Parliament, and on Cromwell's coming subsequently to dismiss the +council Bradshaw is said, on the authority of Ludlow, to have confronted +him boldly, and denied his power to dissolve the parliament. An ardent +republican, he showed himself ever afterwards an uncompromising +adversary of Cromwell. He was returned for Stafford in the parliament of +1654, and spoke strongly against vesting power in a single person. He +refused to sign the "engagement" drawn up by Cromwell, and in +consequence withdrew from parliament and was subsequently suspected of +complicity in plots against the government. He failed to obtain a seat +in the parliament of 1656, and in August of the same year Cromwell +attempted to remove him from the chief-justiceship of Cheshire. After +the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Bradshaw again entered parliament, +became a member of the council of state, and on the 3rd of June 1659 was +appointed a commissioner of the great seal. His health, however, was +bad, and his last public effort was a vehement speech, in the council, +when he declared his abhorrence of the arrest of Speaker Lenthall. He +died on the 31st of October 1659, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. +His body was disinterred at the Restoration, and exposed on a gibbet +along with those of Cromwell and Ireton. Bradshaw married Mary, daughter +of Thomas Marbury of Marbury, Cheshire, but left no children. + + + + +BRADWARDINE, THOMAS (c. 1290-1349), English archbishop, called "the +Profound Doctor," was born either at Hartfield in Sussex or at +Chichester. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, where he took +the degree of doctor of divinity, and acquired the reputation of a +profound scholar, a skilful mathematician and an able divine. He was +afterwards raised to the high offices of chancellor of the university +and professor of divinity. From being chancellor of the diocese of +London, he became chaplain and confessor to Edward III., whom he +attended during his wars in France. On his return to England, he was +successively appointed prebendary of Lincoln, archdeacon of Lincoln +(1347), and in 1349 archbishop of Canterbury. He died of the plague at +Lambeth on the 26th of August 1349, forty days after his consecration. +Chaucer in his _Nun's Priest's Tale_ ranks Bradwardine with St +Augustine. His great work is a treatise against the Pelagians, entitled +_De causa Dei contra Pelagium et de virtute causarum_, edited by Sir +Henry Savile (London, 1618). He wrote also _De Geometria speculativa_ +(Paris, 1530); _De Arithmetica practica_ (Paris, 1502); _De +Proportionibus_ (Paris, 1495; Venice, 1505); _De Quadratura Circuli_ +(Paris, 1495); and an _Ars Memorativa_, Sloane MSS. No. 3974 in the +British Museum. + + See Quetif-Echard, _Script. Praedic._ (1719), i. 744; W.F. Hook, + _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_, vol. iv. + + + + +BRADY, NICHOLAS (1659-1726), Anglican divine and poet, was born at +Bandon, Co. Cork, on the 28th of October 1659. He received his education +at Westminster school, and at Christ Church, Oxford; but he graduated at +Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders, and in 1688 was made a +prebendary of Cork. He was a zealous promoter of the Revolution and +suffered in consequence. When the troubles broke out in Ireland in 1690, +Brady, by his influence, thrice prevented the burning of the town of +Bandon, after James II. had given orders for its destruction; and the +same year he was employed by the people of Bandon to lay their +grievances before the English parliament. He soon afterwards settled in +London, where he obtained various preferments. At the time of his death, +on the 20th of May 1726, he held the livings of Clapham and Richmond. +Brady's best-known work is his metrical version of the Psalms, in which +Nahum Tate collaborated with him. It was licensed in 1696, and largely +ousted the old version of T. Sternhold and J. Hopkins. He also +translated Virgil's _Aeneid_, and wrote several smaller poems and +dramas, as well as sermons. + + + + +BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE (1840-1888), Belgian painter, was +born at Antwerp. He was trained by his father, a _genre_ painter, and +his uncle, Baron Henri Leys, and devoted himself to scenes of everyday +Antwerp life. The first pictures he exhibited, "The Laundry" (Van Cutsem +collection, Brussels), and "The Coppersmith's Workshop" (Vleeshovwer +collection, Antwerp), were shown at the Antwerp exhibition in 1861. He +received the gold medal at Brussels in 1872 for "The Geographer" and +"The Lesson" (both in the Brussels gallery); the gold medal at Vienna in +1873 for "The Painter's Studio" and "Grandmother's Birthday"; and the +medal of honour at the Exposition Universelle at Amsterdam for "The +Pilot House." Among his more notable works are "A Shoemaker" (1862), "A +Tailor's Workroom" (1863), "A Gardener" (1864, Antwerp gallery), +"Interior of a Church" (1866), "Interior, Flanders" (1867), "Woman +spinning" (1869), "Man reading" (1871), "The rue du Serment, Antwerp" +(1875), "A Copperplate Printer," "The Sailor's Return," "The Man at the +Window" (Couteaux collection, Brussels), "The Horn-blower" (Couteaux +collection), "Man retouching a Picture" (Couteaux collection), "The +Potters" (Marlier collection, Brussels), "Staircase in the Hydraulic +House at Antwerp" (Marlier collection), and "The Brewer's House at +Antwerp" (Marlier collection). The last, better known as "A Man +sitting," is generally regarded as his masterpiece. As a lithographer +and etcher, his work resembles that of Henri Leys. Towards the end of +his life de Braekeleer did some dot painting (_pointillisme_), in which +he achieved admirable effects of light. + + + + +BRAEMAR, a district in S.W. Aberdeenshire, Scotland, extending from +Ballater in the E. to Glen Dee in the W., a distance of 24 m. with a +breadth varying from 3 to 6 m. It is drained throughout by the river +Dee, both banks of which are bounded by hills varying from 1000 to +nearly 3000 ft. in height. The whole area is distinguished by typical +Highland scenery, and is a resort alike for sportsmen and tourists. The +villages and clachans (Gaelic for hamlet) being situated at an altitude +of from 600 to more than 1000 ft. above the sea, the air is everywhere +pure and bracing. The deer forests comprise the royal forests of +Balmoral and Ballochbuie, Glen Ey Forest, Mar Forest and Invercauld +Forest. At various points on either side of the Dee, granite castles, +mansions and lodges have been built, mostly in the Scottish baronial +style, and all effectively situated with reference to the wooded hills +or the river. The chief of these are Balmoral and Abergeldie Castles +belonging to the crown, Invercauld House, Braemar Castle, Mar Lodge and +Old Mar Lodge. Castleton of Braemar is the foremost of the villages, +being sometimes styled the capital of the Deeside Highlands. Its public +buildings include halls erected by the duke of Fife and Colonel +Farquharson of Invercauld to commemorate the Victorian jubilee of 1887. +Not far from the spot where the brawling Clunie joins the Dee the earl +of Mar raised the standard of revolt in 1715. His seat, Braemar Castle, +reputed to be a hunting-lodge of Malcolm Canmore, was forfeit along with +the estates. The new castle built by the purchasers in 1720 was acquired +at a later date by Farquharson of Invercauld, who gave government the +use of it during the pacification of the Highlands after the battle of +Culloden in 1746. Population of Crathie and Braemar (1901) 1452. + + + + +BRAG, a very old game of cards, probably evolved from the ancient +Spanish _primero_, played by five or six, or more players. It is the +ancestor of poker. A full pack is used, the cards ranking as at whist, +with certain exceptions. There are no trumps. Each player receives three +cards and puts up three stakes. The last round is dealt face upwards: +the holder of the highest card irrespective of suits wins the first +stake from all the players. In the case of equality the elder hand wins, +but the ace of diamonds is always a winning card. For the second stake +the players _brag_ or bet against each other, if they hold either a +pair, or a pair-royal (three cards of the same rank). Pairs and +pairs-royal take precedence according to the value of the cards +composing them, but any pair-royal beats any pair. The knave of clubs +may be counted as any card, e.g. two twos and the knave of clubs rank as +a pair-royal in twos; two aces and the knave as a pair-royal in aces. +Sometimes the knave of diamonds is allowed the same privilege, but is +inferior to the club knave; e.g. two threes and the club would beat the +other two threes and the diamond. Players who accept another's brag must +cover his. bet and offer another. The third stake is won by the player +whose cards make 31 or are nearest to 31 by their pips, aces and court +counting ten; but the ace may by arrangement count as 1 or 11. Players +may draw from the stock, losing if they over-draw. If one player wins +all three stakes, he may receive the value of another stake, or of two +or three stakes, all round, as arranged. The deal passes as at whist. +Each player should have the same number of deals before the game is +abandoned. + + + + +BRAGA, a city of northern Portugal, formerly included in the province of +Entre Minho e Douro, situated on the right-bank of the small river Deste +near its source, and at the head of a railway from Oporto. Pop. (1900) +24,202. Braga, which ranks after Lisbon and Oporto as the third city of +the kingdom, is the capital of an administrative district, and an +archiepiscopal see. Its cathedral, founded in the 12th century, was +rebuilt during the 16th century in the blend of Moorish and florid +Gothic styles known as Manoellian. It contains several tombs of +considerable historical interest, some fine woodwork carved in the 15th +century, and a collection of ancient vestments, plate and other objects +of art. Among the other churches Santa Cruz is noteworthy for its +handsome facade, which dates from 1642. There are several convents, an +archiepiscopal palace, a library, containing many rare books and +manuscripts, an orphan asylum, and a large hospital; also the ruins of a +theatre, a temple and an aqueduct of Roman workmanship, and a great +variety of minor antiquities of different ages. The principal +manufactures are firearms, jewelry, cutlery, cloth and felt hats. Large +cattle fairs are held in June and September, for cattle-breeding and +dairy-farming are among the foremost local industries. On a hill about +3 m. E. by S. stands the celebrated sanctuary of Bom Jesus, or Bom Jesus +do Monte, visited at Whitsuntide by many thousands of pilgrims, who do +public penance as they ascend to the shrine; and about 1 m. beyond it is +Mount Sameiro (2535 ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the Virgin +Mary, and commanding a magnificent view of the mountainous country which +culminates in the Serra do Gerez, on the north-east. + +Braga is the Roman _Bracara Augusta_, capital of the _Callaici +Bracarii_, or _Bracarenses_, a tribe who occupied what is now Galicia +and northern Portugal. Early in the 5th century it was taken by the +Suevi; but about 485 it passed into the hands of the Visigothic +conquerors of Spain, whose renunciation of the Arian and Priscillianist +heresies, at two synods held here in the 6th century, marks the origin +of its ecclesiastical greatness. The archbishops of Braga retain the +title of primate of Portugal, and long claimed supremacy over the +Spanish church also; but their authority was never accepted throughout +Spain. From the Moors, who captured Braga early in the 8th century, the +city was retaken in 1040 by Ferdinand I., king of Castile and Leon; and +from 1093 to 1147 it was the residence of the Portuguese court. + +The administrative district of Braga coincides with the central part of +the province of Entre Minho e Douro (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 357,159. Area, +1040 sq. m. + + + + +BRAGANZA (_Braganca_), the capital of an administrative district +formerly included in the province of Traz-os-Montes, Portugal; situated +in the north-eastern extremity of the kingdom, on a branch of the river +Sabor, 8 m. S. of the Spanish frontier. Pop. (1900) 5535. Braganza is an +episcopal city. It consists of a walled upper town, containing the +cathedral college and hospital, and of a lower or modern town. Large +tracts of the surrounding country are uncultivated, partly because +railway communication is lacking and the roads are bad. Except farming, +the chief local industry is silkworm-rearing and the manufacture of +silk. The administrative district of Braganza coincides with the eastern +part of Traz-os-Montes (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 185,162; area, 2513 sq. m. + +The city gave its name to the family of Braganza, members of which were +rulers of Portugal from 1640 to 1853, and emperors of Brazil from 1822 +to 1889. This family is descended from Alphonso (d. 1461), a natural son +of John I., king of Portugal (d. 1433), who was a natural son of King +Peter I., and consequently belonged to the Portuguese branch of the +Capetian family. Alphonso was made duke of Braganza in 1442, and in 1483 +his grandson, Duke Ferdinand II., lost his life through heading an +insurrection against King John II. In spite of this Ferdinand's +descendants acquired great wealth, and several of them held high office +under the kings of Portugal. Duke John I. (d. 1583) married into the +royal family, and when King Henry II. died without direct heirs in 1580, +he claimed the crown of Portugal in opposition to Philip II. of Spain. +John, however, was unsuccessful, but, when the Portuguese threw off the +Spanish dominion in 1640, his grandson, John II., duke of Braganza, +became king as John IV. In 1807, when Napoleon declared the throne of +Portugal vacant, King John VI. fled to Brazil; but he regained his +inheritance after the fall of Napoleon in 1814, although he did not +return to Europe until 1821, when he left his elder son Peter to govern +Brazil. In 1822 a revolution established the independence of Brazil with +Peter as emperor. In 1826 Peter became king of Portugal on the death of +his father; but he at once resigned the crown to his young daughter +Maria, and appointed his brother Miguel to act as regent. Miguel soon +declared himself king, but after a stubborn struggle was driven from the +country in 1833, after which Maria became queen. Maria married for her +second husband Ferdinand (d. 1851), son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg; +and when she died in 1853 the main Portuguese branch of the family +became extinct. Maria was succeeded by her son Louis I., father of +Charles I., who ascended the throne of Portugal in 1889. The empire of +Brazil descended on the death of Peter I. to his son Peter II., who was +expelled from the country in 1889. When Peter died in 1891 this branch +of the family also became extinct in the male line. His only child, +Isabella, married Louis Gaston of Orleans, count of Eu. The exiled king, +Miguel, founded a branch of the family of Braganza which settled in +Bavaria, and various noble families in Portugal are descended from +cadets of this house. The title of duke of Braganza is now borne by the +eldest son of the king of Portugal. + + + + +BRAGG, BRAXTON (1817-1876), American soldier, was born in Warren county, +North Carolina, on the 22nd of March 1817. He graduated at the United +States military academy in 1837, and as an artillery officer served in +the Seminole wars of 1837 and 1841, and under General Taylor in Mexico. +For gallant conduct at Fort Brown, Monterey and Buena Vista, he received +the brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel. He resigned from +the regular army on the 3rd of January 1856, and retired to his +plantation in Louisiana. From 1859 to 1861 he was commissioner of the +board of public works of the state. When in 1861 the Civil War began, +Bragg was made a brigadier-general in the Confederate service, and +assigned to command at Pensacola. In February 1862, having meanwhile +become major-general, he took up a command in the Army of the +Mississippi, and he was present at the battle of Shiloh (April). The +vacancy created by the death of Sidney Johnston at that battle was +filled by the promotion of Bragg to full general's rank, and he +succeeded General Beauregard when that officer retired from the Western +command. In the autumn of 1862 he led a bold advance from Eastern +Tennessee across Kentucky to Louisville, but after temporary successes +he was forced to retire before Buell, and after the battle of Perryville +(8th October) retired into Tennessee. Though the material results of his +campaign were considerable, he was bitterly censured, and his removal +from his command was urged. But the personal favour of Jefferson Davis +kept him, as it had placed him, at the head of the central army, and on +the 31st of December 1862 and 2nd of January 1863 he fought the +indecisive battle of Murfreesboro (or Stone river) against Rosecrans, +Buell's successor. In the campaign of 1863 Rosecrans constantly +outmanoeuvred the Confederates, and forced them back to the border of +Georgia. Bragg, however, inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponent at +Chickamauga (September 19-20) and for a time besieged the Union forces +in Chattanooga. But enormous forces under Grant were concentrated upon +the threatened spot, and the great battle of Chattanooga (November +23-25) ended in the rout of the Confederates. Bragg was now deprived of +his command, but President Davis made him his military adviser, and in +that capacity he served during 1864. In the autumn of that year he led +an inferior force from North Carolina to Georgia to oppose Sherman's +march. In February 1865 he joined Johnston, and he was thus included in +the surrender of that officer to Sherman. After the war he became chief +engineer to the state of Alabama, and supervised improvements in Mobile +harbour. He died suddenly at Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of September +1876. General Bragg, in spite of his want of success, was unquestionably +a brave and skilful officer. But he was a severe martinet, and rarely in +full accord with the senior officers under his orders, the consequent +friction often acting unfavourably on the conduct of the operations. + +His brother, THOMAS BRAGG (1810-1872), was governor of North Carolina +1855-1859, U.S. senator 1859-1861, and attorney-general in the +Confederate cabinet from Nov. 1861 to March 1862. + + + + +BRAGI, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of Odin, and god of wisdom, +poetry and eloquence. At the Scandinavian sacrificial feasts a horn +consecrated to Bragi was used as a drinking-cup by the guests, who then +vowed to do some great deed which would be worthy of being immortalized +in verse. + + + + +BRAHAM, JOHN (c. 1774-1856), English vocalist, was born in London about +1774, of Jewish parentage, his real name being Abraham. His father and +mother died when he was quite young. Having received lessons in singing +from an Italian artist named Leoni, he made his first appearance in +public at Covent Garden theatre on the 21st of April 1787, when he sang +"The soldier tired of war's alarms" and "_Ma chere arrive_." On the +breaking of his voice, he had to support himself by teaching the +pianoforte. In a few years, however, he recovered his voice, which +proved to be a tenor of exceptionally pure and rich quality. His second +debut was made in 1794 at the Bath concerts, to the conductor of which, +Rauzzini, he was indebted for careful training extending over a period +of more than two years. In 1796 he reappeared in London at Drury Lane in +Storace's opera of _Mahmoud_. Such was his success that he obtained an +engagement the next year to appear in the Italian opera house in +Gretry's _Azor et Zemire_. He also sang in oratorios and was engaged for +the Three Choir festival at Gloucester. With the view of perfecting +himself in his art he set out for Italy in the autumn of 1797. On the +way he gave some concerts at Paris, which proved so successful that he +was induced to remain there for eight months. His career in Italy was +one of continuous triumph; he appeared in all the principal +opera-houses, singing in Milan, Genoa, Leghorn and Venice. His compass +embraced about nineteen notes, his management of the falsetto being +perfect. In 1801 he returned to his native country, and appeared once +more at Covent Garden in the opera _Chains of the Heart_, by Mazzinghi +and Reeve. So great was his popularity that an engagement he had made +when abroad to return after a year to Vienna was renounced, and he +remained henceforward in England. In 1824 he sang the part of Max in the +English version of Weber's _Der Freischutz_, and he was the original Sir +Huon in that composer's _Oberon_ in 1826. Braham made two unfortunate +speculations on a large scale, one being the purchase of the Colosseum +in the Regent's Park in 1831 for L40,000, and the other the erection of +the St James's theatre at a cost of L26,000 in 1836. In 1838 he sang the +part of William Tell at Drury Lane, and in 1839 the part of Don +Giovanni. His last public appearance was at a concert in March 1852. He +died on the 17th of February 1856. There is, perhaps, no other case upon +record in which a singer of the first rank enjoyed the use of his voice +so long; between Braham's first and last public appearances considerably +more than sixty years intervened, during forty of which he held the +undisputed supremacy alike in opera, oratorio and the concert-room. +Braham was the composer of a number of vocal pieces, which being sung by +himself had great temporary popularity, though they had little intrinsic +merit, and are now deservedly forgotten. A partial exception must be +made in favour of "The Death of Nelson," originally written in 1811 as a +portion of the opera _The American_; this still keeps its place as a +standard popular English song. + + + + +BRAHE, PER, COUNT (1602-1680), Swedish soldier and statesman, was born +on the island of Rydboholm, near Stockholm, on the 18th of February +1602. He was the grandson of Per Brahe (1520-1590), one of Gustavus I.'s +senators, created count of Visingsborg by Eric XIV., known also as the +continuator of Peder Svart's chronicle of Gustavus I., and author of +_Oeconomia_ (1585), a manual for young noblemen. Per Brahe the younger, +after completing his education by several years' travel abroad, became +in 1626 chamberlain to Gustavus Adolphus, whose lasting friendship he +gained. He fought with distinction in Prussia during the last three +years of the Polish War (1626-1629) and also, as colonel of a regiment +of horse, in 1630 in Germany. After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in +1632 his military yielded to his political activity. He had been elected +president (_Landsmarskalk_) of the diet of 1629, and in the following +year was created a senator (_Riksrad_). In 1635 he conducted the +negotiations for an armistice with Poland. In 1637-1640 and again in +1648-1654 he was governor-general in Finland, to which country he +rendered inestimable services by his wise and provident rule. He +reformed the whole administration, introduced a postal system, built ten +new towns, improved and developed commerce and agriculture, and very +greatly promoted education. In 1640 he opened the university of Abo, of +which he was the founder, and first chancellor. After the death of +Charles X. in 1660, Brahe, as _rikskansler_ or chancellor of Sweden, +became one of the regents of Sweden for the second time (he had held a +similar office during the minority of Christina, 1632-1644), and during +the difficult year 1660 he had entire control of both foreign and +domestic affairs. He died on the 2nd of September 1680, at his castle +at Visingsborg, where during his lifetime he had held more than regal +pomp. + +His brother, NILS BRAHE (1604-1632), also served with distinction under +Gustavus Adolphus. He took part in the siege and capture of Riga in +1621, served with distinction in Poland (1626-1627) and assisted in the +defence of Stralsund in 1628. In 1630 he accompanied Gustavus into +Germany, and in 1631 was appointed colonel of "the yellow regiment," the +king's world-renowned life-guards, at the head of which he captured the +castle of Wurzburg on the 8th of October 1631. He took part in the long +duel between Gustavus and Wallenstein round Nuremberg as general of +infantry, and commanded the left wing at Lutzen (November 6, 1632), +where he was the only Swedish general officer present. At the very +beginning of the fight he was mortally wounded. The king regarded Brahe +as the best general in the Swedish army after Lennart Torstensen. + +A direct descendant of Nils, MAGNUS BRAHE (1790-1844), fought in the +campaign of 1813-14, under the crown prince Bernadotte, with whom, after +his accession to the throne as Charles XIV., he was in high favour. He +became marshal of the kingdom, and, especially from 1828 onwards, +exercised a preponderant influence in public affairs. + + See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhetstid_, vol. iv. (Stockholm, + 1881); _Letters to Axel Oxenstjerna_ (Swed.) 1832-1851 (Stockholm, + 1890); Petrus Nordmann, _Per Brahe_ (Helsingfors, 1904). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BRAHE, TYCHO (1546-1601), Danish astronomer, was born on the 14th of +December 1546 at the family seat of Knudstrup in Scania, then a Danish +province. Of noble family, he was early adopted by his uncle, Jorgen +Brahe, who sent him, in April 1559, to study philosophy and rhetoric at +Copenhagen. The punctual occurrence at the predicted time, August 21st, +1560, of a total solar eclipse led him to regard astronomy as "something +divine"; he purchased the _Ephemerides_ of Johann Stadius (3rd ed., +1570), and the works of Ptolemy in Latin, and gained some insight into +the theory of the planets. Entered as a law-student at the university of +Leipzig in 1562, he nevertheless secretly prosecuted celestial studies, +and began continuous observations with a globe, a pair of compasses and +a "cross-staff." He quitted Leipzig on the 17th of May 1565, but his +uncle dying a month later, he repaired to Wittenberg, and thence to +Rostock, where, in 1566, he lost his nose in a duel, and substituted an +artificial one made of a copper alloy. In 1569 he matriculated at +Augsburg, and devoted himself to chemistry for two years (1570-1572). On +his return to Denmark, in 1571, he was permitted by his maternal uncle, +Steno Belle, to instal a laboratory at his castle of Herritzvad, near +Knudstrup; and there, on the 11th of November 1572, he caught sight of +the famous "new star" in Cassiopeia. He diligently measured its +position, and printed an account of his observations in a tract entitled +_De Nova Stella_ (Copenhagen, 1573), a facsimile of which was produced +in 1901, as a tercentenary tribute to the author's memory. + +Tycho's marriage with a peasant-girl in 1573 somewhat strained his +family relations. He delivered lectures in Copenhagen by royal command +in 1574; and in 1575 travelled through Germany to Venice. The execution +of his design to settle at Basel was, however, anticipated by the +munificence of Frederick II., king of Denmark, who bestowed upon him for +life the island of Hveen in the Sound, together with a pension of 500 +thalers, a canonry in the cathedral of Roskilde, and the income of an +estate in Norway. The first stone of the magnificent observatory of +Uraniborg was laid on the 8th of August 1576; it received the finest +procurable instrumental outfit; and was the scene, during twenty-one +years, of Tycho's labours in systematically collecting materials--the +first made available since the Alexandrian epoch--for the correction of +astronomical theories. James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. of +England, visited him at Uraniborg on the 20th of March 1590. But by that +time his fortunes were on the wane; for Frederick II. died in 1588, and +his successor, Christian IV., was less tolerant of Tycho's arrogant and +insubordinate behaviour. His pension and fief having been withdrawn, he +sailed for Rostock in June 1597, and re-commenced observing before the +close of the year, in the castle of Wandsbeck near Hamburg. He spent +the following winter at Wittenberg, and reached Prague in June 1599, +well assured of favour and protection from the emperor Rudolph II. That +monarch, accordingly, assigned him the castle of Benatky for his +residence, with a pension of 3000 florins; his great instruments were +moved thither from Hveen, and Johannes Kepler joined him there in +January 1600. But this phase of renewed prosperity was brief. After +eleven days' illness, Tycho Brahe died on the 24th of October 1601, at +Benatky, and was buried in the Teynkirche, Prague. + +Tycho's principal work, entitled _Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnasmata_ +(2 vols., Prague, 1602-1603) was edited by Kepler. The first volume +treated of the motions of the sun and moon, and gave the places of 777 +fixed stars (this number was increased to 1005 by Kepler in 1627 in the +"Rudolphine Tables"). The second, which had been privately printed at +Uraniborg in 1588 with the heading _De Mundi Aetherei recentioribus +Phaenomenis_, was mainly concerned with the comet of 1577, demonstrated +by Tycho from its insensible parallax to be no terrestrial exhalation, +as commonly supposed, but a body traversing planetary space. It +included, besides, an account of the Tychonic plan of the cosmos, in +which a _via media_ was sought between the Ptolemaic and Copernican +systems. The earth retained its immobility; but the five planets were +made to revolve round the sun, which, with its entire cortege, annually +circuited the earth, the sphere of the fixed stars performing meanwhile, +as of old, its all-inclusive diurnal rotation (see ASTRONOMY: +_History_). Under the heading _Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica_, Tycho +published at Wandsbeck, in 1598, a description of his instruments, +together with an autobiographical account of his career and discoveries, +including the memorable one of the moon's "variation" (see MOON). The +book was reprinted at Nuremberg in 1602 (cf. Hasselberg, +_Vierteljahrsschrift Astr. Ges._ xxxix. iii. 180). His _Epistolae +Astronomicae_, printed at Uraniborg in 1596 with a portrait engraved by +Geyn of Amsterdam in 1586, were embodied in a complete edition of his +works issued at Frankfort in 1648. Tycho vastly improved the art of +astronomical observation. He constructed a table of refractions, allowed +for instrumental inaccuracies, and eliminated by averaging accidental +errors. He, moreover, corrected the received value of nearly every +astronomical quantity; but the theoretical purpose towards which his +practical reform was directed, was foiled by his premature death. + + See J.L.E. Dreyer's _Tycho Brahe_ (Edinburgh, 1890), which gives full + and authentic information regarding his life and work. Also Gassendi's + _Vita_ (Paris, 1654); _Lebensbeschreibung_, collected from various + Danish sources, and translated into German by Philander von der + Weistritz (Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1756); _Tyge Brahe_, by F.R. Friis + (Copenhagen, 1871); _Prager Tychoniana_, collected by Dr F.I. + Studnicka (Prague, 1901), a description of the scanty Tychonian relics + which survived the Thirty Years' War and are still preserved at + Prague. (A. M. C.) + + + + +BRAHMAN, a Sanskrit noun-stem which, differently accented, yields in the +two nominatives _Brahma_ (neut.) and _Brahma_ (masc.), the names of two +deities which occupy prominent places in the orthodox system of Hindu +belief. Brahma (n.) is the designation generally applied to the Supreme +Soul (_paramatman_), or impersonal, all-embracing divine essence, the +original source and ultimate goal of all that exists; Brahma (m.), on +the other hand, is only one of the three hypostases of that divinity +whose creative activity he represents, as distinguished from its +preservative and destructive aspects, ever apparent in life and nature, +and represented by the gods Vishnu and Siva respectively. The history of +the two cognate names reflects in some measure the development of Indian +religious speculation generally. + +The neuter term _brahma_ is used in the _Rigveda_ both in the abstract +sense of "devotion, worship," and in the concrete sense of "devotional +rite, prayer, hymn." The spirit of Vedic worship is pervaded by a devout +belief in the efficacy of invocation and sacrificial offering. The +earnest and well-expressed prayer or hymn of praise cannot fail to draw +the divine power to the worshipper and make it yield to his +supplication; whilst offerings, so far from being mere acts of devotion +calculated to give pleasure to the god, constitute the very food and +drink which render him vigorous and capable of battling with the enemies +of his mortal friend. It is this intrinsic power of fervent invocation +and worship which found an early expression in the term _brahma_; and +its independent existence as an active moral principle in shaping the +destinies of man became recognized in the Vedic pantheon in the +conception of a god _Brihaspati_ or _Brahmanaspati_, "lord of prayer or +devotion," the divine priest and the guardian of the pious worshipper. +By a natural extension of the original meaning, the term _brahma_, in +the sense of sacred utterance, was subsequently likewise applied to the +whole body of sacred writ, the _tri-vidya_ or "triple lore" of the Veda; +whilst it also came to be commonly used as the abstract designation of +the priestly function and the Brahmanical order generally, in the same +way as the term _kshatra_, "sway, rule," came to denote the aggregate of +functions and individuals of the Kshatriyas or Rajanyas, the nobility or +military class. + +The universal belief in the efficacy of invocation as an indispensable +adjunct to sacrifices and religious rites generally, could not fail to +engender and maintain in the minds of the people feelings of profound +esteem and reverence towards those who possessed the divine gift of +inspired utterance, as well as for those who had acquired an intimate +knowledge of the approved forms of ritual worship. A common designation +of the priest is brahman (nom. _brahma_), originally denoting, it would +seem, "one who prays, a worshipper," perhaps also "the composer of a +hymn" (_brahman_, n.); and the same term came subsequently to be used +not only for one of the sacerdotal order generally, but also, and more +commonly, as the designation of a special class of priests who +officiated as superintendents during sacrificial performances, the +complicated nature of which required the co-operation of a whole staff +of priests, and who accordingly were expected to possess a competent +knowledge of the entire course of ritual procedure, including the +correct form and mystic import of the sacred texts to be repeated or +chanted by the several priests. The Brahman priest (_brahma_) being thus +the recognized head of the sacerdotal order (_brahma_), which itself is +the visible embodiment of sacred writ and the devotional spirit +pervading it (_brahma_), the complete realization of theocratic +aspirations required but a single step, which was indeed taken in the +theosophic speculations of the later Vedic poets and the authors of the +Brahmanas (q.v.), viz. the recognition of this abstract notion of the +Brahma as the highest cosmic principle and its identification with the +pantheistic conception of an all-pervading, self-existent spiritual +substance, the primary source of the universe; and subsequently coupled +therewith the personification of its creative energy in the form of +Brahma, the divine representative of the earthly priest, who was made to +take the place of the earlier conception of _Prajapati_, "the lord of +creatures" (see BRAHMANISM). By this means the very name of this god +expressed the essential oneness of his nature with that of the divine +spirit as whose manifestation he was to be considered. In the later +Vedic writings, especially the Brahmanas, however, Prajapati still +maintains throughout his position as the paramount personal deity; and +Brahma, in his divine capacity, is rather identified with Brihaspati, +the priest of the gods. Moreover, the exact relationship between +Prajapati and the Brahma (n.) is hardly as yet defined with sufficient +precision; it is rather one of simple identification: in the beginning +the Brahma was the All, and Prajapati is the Brahma. It is only in the +institutes of Manu, where we find the system of castes propounded in its +complete development, that Brahma has his definite place assigned to him +in the cosmogony. According to this work, the universe, before +undiscerned, was made discernible in the beginning by the sole, +self-existent lord Brahma (n.). He, desirous of producing different +beings from his own self, created the waters by his own thought, and +placed in them a seed which developed into a golden egg; therein was +born Brahma (m.), the parent of all the worlds; and thus "that which is +the undiscrete Cause, eternal, which is and is not, from it issued that +male who is called in the world Brahma." Having dwelt in that egg for a +year, that lord spontaneously by his own thought split that egg in two; +and from the two halves he fashioned the heaven and the earth, and in +the middle, the sky, and the eight regions (the points of the compass), +and the perpetual place of the waters. This theory of Brahma being born +from a golden egg is, however, a mere adaptation of the Vedic conception +of _Hiranya-garbha_ ("golden embryo"), who is represented as the supreme +god in a hymn of the tenth (and last) book of the _Rigveda_. Another +still later myth, which occurs in the epic poems, makes Brahma be born +from a lotus which grew out of the navel of the god Vishnu whilst +floating on the primordial waters. In artistic representations, Brahma +usually appears as a bearded man of red colour with four heads crowned +with a pointed, tiara-like head-dress, and four hands holding his +sceptre, or a sacrificial spoon, a bundle of leaves representing the +Veda, a bottle of water of the Ganges, and a string of beads or his bow +Parivita. His vehicle (_vahana_) is a goose or swan (_hamsa_), whence he +is also called _Hamsavhana_; and his consort is Sarasvati, the goddess +of learning. + +One could hardly expect that a colourless deity of this description, so +completely the product of priestly speculation, could ever have found a +place in the hearts of the people generally, And indeed, whilst in +theoretic theology Brahma has retained his traditional place and +function down to our own days, his practical cult has at all times +remained extremely limited, the only temple dedicated to the worship of +this god being found at Pushkar (Pokhar) near Ajmir in Rajputana. On the +other hand, his divine substratum, the impersonal Brahma, the +world-spirit, the one and only reality, remains to this day the ultimate +element of the religious belief of intelligent India of whatever sect. +Being devoid of all attributes, it can be the object only of meditation, +not of practical devotional rites; and philosophy can only attempt to +characterize it in general and vague terms, as in the favourite formula +which makes it to be _sachchidananda_, i.e. being (_sat_), thinking +(_chit_), and bliss (_ananda_). (J. E.) + + + + +BRAHMANA, the Sanskrit term applied to a body of prose writings appended +to the collections (_samhita_) of Vedic texts, the meaning and ritual +application of which they are intended to elucidate, and like them +regarded as divinely revealed. From a linguistic point of view, these +treatises with their appendages, the more mystic and recondite Aranyakas +and the speculative Upanishads, have to be considered as forming the +connecting link between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit. The exact +derivation and meaning of the name is somewhat uncertain. Whilst the +masculine term _brahmana_ (nom. _brahmanas_), the ordinary Sanskrit +designation of a man of the Brahmanical caste, is clearly a derivative +of _brahman_ (nom. _brahma_), a common Vedic term for a priest (see +BRAHMAN), thus meaning the son or descendant of a Brahman, the neuter +word _brahman_ (nom. _brahmanam_) on the other hand, with which we are +here concerned, admits of two derivations: either it is derived from the +same word _brahman_, and would then seem to mean a _dictum_ or +observation ascribed to, or intended for the use of, a Brahman, or +superintendent priest; or it has rather to be referred to the neuter +noun _brahman_ (nom. _brahma_), in the sense of "sacred utterance or +rite," in which case it might mean a comment on a sacred text, or +explanation of a devotional rite, calculated to bring out its spiritual +or mystic significance and its bearing on the Brahma, the world-spirit +embodied in the sacred writ and ritual. This latter definition seems on +the whole the more probable one, and it certainly would fit exactly the +character of the writings to which the term relates. It will thus be +seen that the term _brahmanam_ applies not only to complete treatises of +an exegetic nature, but also to single comments on particular texts or +rites of which such a work would be made up. + +The gradual elaboration of the sacrificial ceremonial, as the +all-sufficient expression of religious devotion, and a constantly +growing tendency towards theosophic and mystic speculation on the +significance of every detail of the ritual, could not fail to create a +demand for explanatory treatises of this kind, which, to enhance their +practical utility, would naturally deal with the special texts and rites +assigned in the ceremonial to the several classes of officiating +priests. At a subsequent period the demand for instruction in the +sacrificial science called into existence a still more practical set of +manuals, the so-called _Kalpa-sutras_, or ceremonial rules, detailing, +in succinct aphorisms, the approved course of sacrificial procedure, +without reference to the supposed origin or import of the several rites. +These manuals are also called _Srauta-sutras_, treating as they do, like +the Brahmanas, of the Srauta rites--i.e. the rites based on the _sruti_ +or revelation--requiring at least three sacrificial fires and a number +of priests, as distinguished from the _grihya_ (domestic) or _smarta_ +(traditional) rites, supposed to be based on the _smriti_ or tradition, +which are performed on the house-fire and dealt with in the +_Grihya-sutras_. + +The ritual recognizes four principal priests (_ritvij_), each of whom is +assisted by three subordinates: viz. the _Brahman_ or superintending +priest; the _Hotri_ or reciter of hymns and verses; the _Udgatri_ or +chanter; and the _Adhvaryu_ or offerer, who looks after the details of +the ceremonial, including the preparation of the offering-ground, the +construction of fire-places and altars, the making of oblations and +muttering of the prescribed formulae. Whilst the two last priests have +assigned to them special liturgical collections of the texts to be used +by them, the _Samaveda-samhita_ and _Yajurveda-samhita_ respectively, +the Hotri has to deal entirely with hymns and verses taken from the +_Rigveda-samhita_, of which they would, however, form only a +comparatively small portion. As regards the Brahman, he would doubtless +be chosen from one of those other three classes, but would be expected +to have made himself thoroughly conversant with the texts and ritual +details appertaining to all the officiating priests. It is, then, to one +or other of those three collections of sacred texts and the respective +class of priests, that the existing Brahmanas attach themselves. At a +later period, when the Atharvan gained admission to the Vedic canon, a +special connexion with the Brahman priest was sometimes claimed, though +with scant success, for this fourth collection of hymns and spells, and +the comparatively late and unimportant Gopatha-brahmana attached to it. + +The Udgatri's duties being mainly confined to the chanting of hymns made +up of detached groups of verses of the _Rigveda_, as collected in the +Samaveda-samhita, the more important Brahmanas of this sacerdotal class +deal chiefly with the various modes of chanting, and the modifications +which the verses have to undergo in their musical setting. Moreover, the +performance of chants being almost entirely confined to the +Soma-sacrifice, it is only a portion, though no doubt the most important +portion, of the sacrificial ceremonial that enters into the subject +matter of the Samaveda Brahmamas. + +As regards the Brahmanas of the _Rigveda_, two of such works have +been handed down, the _Aitareya_ and the _Kaushitaki_ (or +_Sankhayana)-Brahmanas_, which have a large amount of their material in +common. But while the former work (transl. into English by M. Haug) is +mainly taken up with the Soma-sacrifice, the latter has in addition +thereto chapters on the other forms of sacrifice. Being intended for the +Hotri's use, both these works treat exclusively of the hymns and verses +recited by that priest and his assistants, either in the form of +connected litanies or in detached verses invoking the deities to whom +oblations are made, or uttered in response to the solemn hymns chanted +by the Udgatris. + +It is, however, to the Brahmanas and Sutras of the _Yajurveda_, dealing +with the ritual of the real offering-priest, the Adhvaryu, that we have +to turn for a connected view of the sacrificial procedure in all its +material details. Now, in considering the body of writings connected +with this Veda, we are at once confronted by the fact that there are two +different schools, an older and a younger one, in which the traditional +body of ritualistic matter has been treated in a very different way. For +while the younger school, the _Vajasaneyins_, have made a clear +severance between the sacred texts or mantras and the exegetic +discussions thereon--as collected in the _Vajasaneyi-samhita_ and the +_Satapatha-Brahmana_ (trans. by J. Eggeling, in _Sacred Books of the +East_) respectively--arranged systematically in accordance with the +ritual divisions, the older school on the other hand present their +materials in a hopelessly jumbled form; for not only is each type of +sacrifice not dealt with continuously and in orderly fashion, but short +textual sections of mantras are constantly followed immediately by their +dogmatic exegesis; the term _brahmana_ thus applying in their case only +to these detached comments and not to the connected series of them. Thus +the most prominent subdivision of the older school, the _Taittiriyas_, +in their _Samhita_, have treated the main portion of the ceremonial in +this promiscuous fashion, and to add to the confusion they have, by way +of supplement, put forth a so-called _Taittiriya-brahmana_, which, so +far from being a real Brahmana, merely deals with some additional rites +in the same confused mixture of sacrificial formulae and dogmatic +explanations. It is not without reason, therefore, that those two +schools, the older and the younger, are commonly called the Black +(_krishna_) and the White (_sukla_) Yajus respectively. + +Although the ritualistic discussions of the Brahmanas are for the most +part of a dry and uninteresting nature to an even greater degree than is +often the case with exegetic theological treatises, these works are +nevertheless of considerable importance both as regards the history of +Indian institutions and as "the oldest body of Indo-European prose, of a +generally free, vigorous, simple form, affording valuable glimpses +backwards at the primitive condition of unfettered Indo-European talk" +(Whitney). Of especial interest in this respect are the numerous myths +and legends scattered through these works. From the archaic style in +which these mythological tales are usually composed, as well as from the +fact that not a few of them are found in Brahmanas of different schools +and Vedas, though often with considerable variations, it seems pretty +evident that the groundwork of them must go back to times preceding the +composition or final redaction of the existing Brahmanas. In the case of +some of these legends--as those of Sunah-Sepha, and the fetching of Soma +from heaven--we can even see how they have grown out of germs contained +in some of the Vedic hymns. If the literary style in which the exegetic +discussion of the texts and rites is carried on in the Brahmanas is, as +a rule, of a very bald and uninviting nature, it must be borne in mind +that these treatises are of a strictly professional and esoteric +character, and in no way lay claim to being considered as literary +compositions in any sense of the word. And yet, notwithstanding the +general emptiness of their ritualistic discussions and mystic +speculations, "there are passages in the Brahmanas full of genuine +thought and feeling, and most valuable as pictures of life, and as +records of early struggles, which have left no trace in the literature +of other nations" (M. Muller). + +The chief interest, however, attaching to the Brahmanas is doubtless +their detailed description of the sacrificial system as practised in the +later Vedic ages; and the information afforded by them in this respect +should be all the more welcome to us, as the history of religious +institutions knows of no other sacrificial ceremonial with the details +of which we are acquainted to anything like the same extent. An even +more complete and minutely detailed view of the sacrificial system is no +doubt obtained from the ceremonial manuals, the Kalpa-sutras; but it is +just by the speculative discussions of the Brahmanas--the mystic +significance and symbolical colouring with which they invest single +rites--that we gain a real insight into the nature and gradual +development of this truly stupendous system of ritual worship. + +The sacrificial ritual recognizes two kinds of _srauta_ sacrifices, viz. +_haviryajnas_ (meat-offerings), consisting of oblations (_ishti_) of +milk, butter, cereals or flesh, and _somayagas_ or oblations of the +juice of the soma plant. The setting up, by a householder, of a set of +three sacrificial fires of his own constitutes the first ceremony of the +former class, the _Agny-adhana_ (or (?) _Agny-adheya_). The first of the +three fires laid down is the _garhapatya_, or householder's fire, so +called because, though not taken from his ordinary house-fire, but as a +rule specially produced by friction, it serves for cooking the +sacrificial food, and thus, as it were, represents the domestic fire. +From it the other two fires, the _anavaniya_, or offering fire, and the +_dakshinagni_, or southern fire, used for certain special purposes, are +taken. The principal other ceremonies of this class are the new and full +moon offerings, the oblations made at the commencement of the three +seasons, the offering of first-fruits, the animal sacrifice, and the +_Agnihotra_, or daily morning and evening oblation of milk, which, +however, is also included amongst the _grihya_, or domestic rites, as +having to be performed daily on the domestic fire by the householder who +keeps no regular set of sacrificial fires. + +Of a far more complicated nature than these offerings are the +Soma-sacrifices, which, besides the simpler ceremonies of this class, +such as the _Agnishtoma_ or "Praise of Agni," also include great state +functions, such as the _Rajasuya_ or consecration of a king, and the +_Asvamedha_ or horse-sacrifice, which, in addition to the sacrificial +rites, have a considerable amount of extraneous, often highly +interesting, ceremonial connected with them, which makes them seem to +partake largely of the nature of public festivals. Whilst the oblations +of Soma-juice, made thrice on each offering-day, amidst chants and +recitations, constitute the central rites of those services, their +ritual also requires numerous single oblations of the _ishti_ kind, +including at least three animal offerings, and in some cases the +immolation of many hecatombs of victims. Moreover, a necessary +preliminary to every Soma-sacrifice is the construction, in five layers, +of a special fire-altar of large dimensions, consisting of thousands of +bricks, formed and baked on the spot, to each, or each group, of which a +special symbolic meaning is attached. The building of this altar is +spread over a whole year, during which period the sacrificer has to +carry about the sacrificial fire in an earthen pan for at least some +time each day, until it is finally deposited on the completed altar to +serve as the offering-fire for the Soma oblations. The altar itself is +constructed in the form of a bird, because Soma was supposed to have +been brought down from heaven by the metre Gayatri which had assumed the +form of an eagle. Whilst the Soma-sacrifice has been thus developed by +the Brahmanas in an extraordinary degree, its essential identity with +the Avestan Haoma-cult shows that its origin goes back at all events to +the Indo-Iranian period. + +Among the symbolic conceits in which the authors of the Brahmanas so +freely indulge, there is one overshadowing all others--if indeed they do +not all more or less enter into it--which may be considered as the sum +and substance of these speculations, and the esoteric doctrine of the +sacrifice, involved by the Brahmanical ritualists. This is what may +conveniently be called the Prajapati theory, by which the "Lord of +Creatures," the efficient cause of the universe, is identified with both +the sacrifice (_yajna_) and the sacrificer (_yajamana_). The origin of +this theory goes back to the later Vedic hymns. In the so-called +Purusha-sukta (_Rigv._ x. 90) in which the supreme spirit is conceived +of as _the_ person or man (_purusha_), born in the beginning, and +consisting of "whatever hath been and whatever shall be," the creation +of the visible and invisible universe is represented as originating from +an "all-offered" (holocaust) sacrifice in which the Purusha himself +forms the offering-material (_havis_), or, as we might say, the victim. +In this primeval, or rather timeless because ever-proceeding, sacrifice, +time itself, in the shape of its unit the year, is made to take its +part, inasmuch as the three seasons--spring, summer and autumn--of which +it consists, constitute the ghee (clarified butter), the offering-fuel +and the oblation respectively. These speculations may be said to have +formed the foundation on which the theory of the sacrifice, as +propounded in the Brahmanas, has been reared. Prajapati--who (probably +for practical considerations, as better representing the sacrificer, the +earthly ruler, or "lord of the creatures") here takes the place of the +Purusha, the world-man or all-embracing personality--is offered up anew +in every sacrifice; and inasmuch as the very dismemberment of the lord +of creatures, which took place at that archtypal sacrifice, was in +itself the creation of the universe, so every sacrifice is also a +repetition of that first creative act. Thus the periodical sacrifice is +nothing else than a microcosmic representation of the ever-proceeding +destruction and renewal of all cosmic life and matter. The ritualistic +theologians, however, go an important step further by identifying +Prajapati with the performer, or patron, of the sacrifice, the +sacrificer; every sacrifice thus becoming invested--in addition to its +cosmic significance--with the mystic power of regenerating the +sacrificer by cleansing him of all guilt and securing for him a seat in +the eternal abodes. + +Whilst forming the central feature of the ritualistic symbolism, this +triad--Prajapati, sacrifice (oblation, victim), sacrificer--is extended +in various ways. An important collateral identification is that of +Prajapati (and the sacrificer) with Agni, the god of fire, embodied not +only in the offering-fire, but also in the sacred Soma-altar, the +technical name of which is _agni_. For this reason the altar, as +representative of the universe, is built in five layers, representing +earth, air and heaven, and the intermediate regions; and in the centre +of the altar-site, below the first layer, on a circular gold plate (the +sun), a small golden man (_purusha_) is laid down with his face looking +upwards. This is Prajapati, and the sacrificer, who when regenerated +will pass upwards through the three worlds to the realms of light, +naturally perforated bricks being for this purpose placed in the middle +of the three principal altar-layers. One of the fourteen sections of the +Satapatha-brahmana, the tenth, called _Agni-rahasya_ or "the mystery +of Agni (the god and altar)," is entirely devoted to this feature of the +sacrificial symbolism. Similarly the sacrificer, as the human +representatiye of the Lord of Creatures, is identified with Soma (as the +supreme oblation), with Time, and finally with Death: by the sacrificer +thus becoming Death himself, the fell god ceases to have power over him +and he is assured of everlasting life. And now we get the Supreme Lord +in his last aspect; nay, his one true and real aspect, in which the +sacrificer, on shuffling off this mortal coil, will himself come to +share--that of pure intellectuality, pure spirituality--he is Mind: such +is the ultimate source of being, the one Self, the Purusha, the Brahman. +As the sum total of the wisdom propounded in the mystery of Agni, the +searcher after truth is exhorted to meditate on that Self, made up of +intelligence, endowed with a body of spirit, a form of light, and of an +ethereal nature; holding sway over all the regions and pervading this +All, being itself speechless and devoid of mental states; and by so +doing he shall gain the assurance that "even as a grain of rice, or the +smallest granule of millet, so is the golden Purusha in my heart; even +as a smokeless light, it is greater than the sky, greater than the +ether, greater than the earth, greater than all existing things;--that +Self of the Spirit is my Self; on passing away from hence, I shall +obtain that Self. And, verily, whosoever has this trust, for him there +is no uncertainty." (J. E.) + + + + +BRAHMANISM, a term commonly used to denote a system of religious +institutions originated and elaborated by the _Brahmans_, the sacerdotal +and, from an early period, the dominant caste of the Hindu community +(see BRAHMAN). In like manner, as the language of the Aryan Hindus has +undergone continual processes of modification and dialectic division, so +their religious belief has passed through various stages of development +broadly distinguished from one another by certain prominent features. +The earliest phases of religious thought in India of which a clear idea +can now be formed are exhibited in a body of writings, looked upon by +later generations in the light of sacred writ, under the collective name +of _Veda_ ("knowledge") or _Sruti_ ("revelation"). The Hindu scriptures +consist of four separate collections, or _Samhitas_, of sacred texts, or +_mantras_, including hymns, incantations and sacrificial forms of +prayer, viz. the _Rich_ (nom. sing. _rik_) or _Rigveda_, the _Saman_ or +_Samaveda_, the _Yajus_ or _Yajurveda_, and the _Atharvan_ or +_Atharvaveda_. Each of these four text-books has attached to it a body +of prose writings, called _Brahmanas_ (see BRAHMANA), intended to +explain the ceremonial application of the texts and the origin and +import of the sacrificial rites for which these were supposed to have +been composed. Usually attached to these works, and in some cases to the +Samhitas, are two kinds of appendages, the Aranyakas and Upanishads, the +former of which deal generally with the more recondite rites, while the +latter are taken up chiefly with speculations on the problems of the +universe and the religious aims of man--subjects often touched upon in +the earlier writings, but here dealt with in a more mature and +systematic way. Two of the _Samhitas_, the _Saman_ and the _Yajus_, +owing their existence to purely ritual purposes, and being, besides, the +one almost entirely, the other partly, composed of verses taken from the +_Rigveda_, are only of secondary importance for our present inquiry. The +hymns of the _Rigveda_ constitute the earliest lyrical effusions of the +Aryan settlers in India which have been handed down to posterity. They +are certainly not all equally old; on the contrary they evidently +represent the literary activity of many generations of bards, though +their relative age cannot as yet be determined with anything like +certainty. The tenth (and last) book of the collection, however, at any +rate has all the characteristics of a later appendage, and in language +and spirit many of its hymns approach very nearly to the level of the +contents of the _Atharvan_. Of the latter collection about one-sixth is +found also in the _Rigveda_, and especially in the tenth book; the +larger portion peculiar to it, though including no doubt some older +pieces, appears to owe its origin to an age not long anterior to the +composition of the _Brahmanas_. + +The state of religious thought among the ancient bards, as reflected in +the hymns of the _Rigveda_, is that of a worship of the grand and +striking phenomena of nature regarded in the light of personal conscious +beings, endowed with a power beyond the control of man, though not +insensible to his praises and actions. It is a nature worship purer than +that met with in any other polytheistic form of belief we are acquainted +with--a mythology still comparatively little affected by those +systematizing tendencies which, in a less simple and primitive state of +thought, lead to the construction of a well-ordered pantheon and a +regular organization of divine government. To the mind of the early +Vedic worshipper the various departments of the surrounding nature are +not as yet clearly defined, and the functions which he assigns to their +divine representatives continually flow into one another. Nor has he yet +learned to care to determine the relative worth and position of the +objects of his adoration; but the temporary influence of the phenomenon +to which he addresses his praises bears too strongly upon his mind to +allow him for the time to consider the claims of rival powers to which +at other times he is wont to look up with equal feelings of awe and +reverence. It is this immediateness of impulse under which the human +mind in its infancy strives to give utterance to its emotions that +imparts to many of its outpourings the ring of monotheistic fervour. + +The generic name given to these impersonations, viz. _deva_ ("the +shining ones"), points to the conclusion, sufficiently justified by the +nature of the more prominent objects of Vedic adoration as well as by +common natural occurrences, that it was the striking phenomena of light +which first and most powerfully swayed the Aryan mind. In the primitive +worship of the manifold phenomena of nature it is not, of course, so +much their physical aspect that impresses the human heart as the moral +and intellectual forces which are supposed to move and animate them. The +attributes and relations of some of the Vedic deities, in accordance +with the nature of the objects they represent, partake in a high degree +of this spiritual element; but it is not improbable that in an earlier +phase of Aryan worship the religious conceptions were pervaded by it to +a still greater and more general extent, and that the Vedic belief, +though retaining many of the primitive features, has on the whole +assumed a more sensuous and anthropomorphic character. This latter +element is especially predominant in the attributes and imagery applied +by the Vedic poets to _Indra_, the god of the atmospheric region, the +favourite figure in their pantheon. + +While the representatives of the prominent departments of nature appear +to the Vedic bard as co-existing in a state of independence of one +another, their relation to the mortal worshipper being the chief subject +of his anxiety, a simple method of classification was already resorted +to at an early time, consisting in a triple division of the deities into +gods residing in the sky, in the air, and on earth. It is not, however, +until a later stage,--the first clear indication being conveyed in a +passage of the tenth book of the _Rigveda_--that this attempt at a +polytheistic system is followed up by the promotion of one particular +god to the dignity of chief guardian for each of these three regions. On +the other hand, a tendency is clearly traceable in some of the hymns +towards identifying gods whose functions present a certain degree of +similarity of nature; attempts which would seem to show a certain +advance of religious reflection, the first steps from polytheism towards +a comprehension of the unity of the divine essence. Another feature of +the old Vedic worship tended to a similar result. The great problems of +the origin and existence of man and the universe had early begun to +engage the Hindu mind; and in celebrating the praises of the gods the +poet was frequently led by his religious, and not wholly disinterested, +zeal to attribute to them cosmical functions of the very highest order. +At a later stage of thought, chiefly exhibited in the tenth book of the +_Rigveda_ and in the _Atharvaveda_, inquiring sages could not but +perceive the inconsistency of such concessions of a supremacy among the +divine rulers, and tried to solve the problem by conceptions of an +independent power, endowed with all the attributes of a supreme deity, +the creator of the universe, including the gods of the pantheon. The +names under which this monotheistic idea is put forth are mostly of an +attributive character, and indeed some of them, such as _Prajapati_ +("lord of creatures"), _Visvakarman_ ("all-worker"), occur in the +earlier hymns as mere epithets of particular gods. But to other minds +this theory of a personal creator left many difficulties unsolved. They +saw, as the poets of old had seen, that everything around them, that man +himself, was directed by some inward agent; and it needed but one step +to perceive the essential sameness of these spiritual units, and to +recognize their being but so many individual manifestations of one +universal principle or spiritual essence. Thus a pantheistic conception +was arrived at, put forth under various names, such as _Purusha_ +("soul"), _Kama_ ("desire"), _Brahman_ (neutr.; nom. sing. _brahma_) +("devotion, prayer"). Metaphysical and theosophic speculations were thus +fast undermining the simple belief in the old gods, until, at the time +of the composition of the _Brahmanas_ and _Upanishads_, we find them in +complete possession of the minds of the theologians. Whilst the theories +crudely suggested in the later hymns are now further matured and +elaborated, the tendency towards catholicity of formula favours the +combination of the conflicting monotheistic and pantheistic conceptions; +this compromise, which makes _Prajapati_, the personal creator of the +world, the manifestation of the impersonal _Brahma_, the universal +self-existent soul, leads to the composite pantheistic system which +forms the characteristic dogma of the Brahmanical period (see BRAHMAN). + +In the Vedic hymns two classes of society, the royal (or military) and +the priestly classes, were evidently recognized as being raised above +the level of the _Vis_, or bulk of the Aryan community. These social +grades seem to have been in existence even before the separation of the +two Asiatic branches of the Indo-Germanic race, the Aryans of Iran and +India. It is true that, although the _Athrava, Rathaestao_, and +_Vastrya_ of the _Zend Avesta_ correspond in position and occupation to +the _Brahman, Rajan_ and _Vis_ of the Veda, there is no similarity of +names between them; but this fact only shows that the common vocabulary +had not yet definitely fixed on any specific names for these classes. +Even in the Veda their nomenclature is by no means limited to a single +designation for each of them. Moreover, _Atharvan_ occurs not +infrequently in the hymns as the personification of the priestly +profession, as the proto-priest who is supposed to have obtained fire +from heaven and to have instituted the rite of sacrifice; and although +_ratheshtha_ ("standing on a car") is not actually found in connexion +with the _Rajan_ or _Kshatriya_, its synonym _rathin_ is in later +literature a not unusual epithet of men of the military caste. At the +time of the hymns, and even during the common Indo-Persian period, the +sacrificial ceremonial had already become sufficiently complicated to +call for the creation of a certain number of distinct priestly offices +with special duties attached to them. While this shows clearly that the +position and occupation of the priest were those of a profession, the +fact that the terms _brahmana_ and _brahmaputra_, both denoting "the +son of a brahman," are used in certain hymns as synonyms of _brahman_, +seems to justify the assumption that the profession had already, to a +certain degree, become hereditary at the time when these hymns were +composed. There is, however, with the exception of a solitary passage in +a hymn of the last book, no trace to be found in the _Rigveda_ of that +rigid division into four castes separated from one another by +insurmountable barriers, which in later times constitutes the +distinctive feature of Hindu society. The idea of caste is expressed by +the Sanskrit term _varna_, originally denoting "colour," thereby +implying differences of complexion between the several classes. The word +occurs in the Veda in the latter sense, but it is used there to mark the +distinction, not between the three classes of the Aryan community, but +between them on the one hand and a dark-coloured hostile people on the +other. The latter, called Dasas or Dasyus, consisted, no doubt, of the +indigenous tribes, with whom the Aryans had to carry on a continual +struggle for the possession of the land. The partial subjection of these +comparatively uncivilized tribes as the rule of the superior race was +gradually spreading eastward, and their submission to a state of serfdom +under the name of _Sudras_, added to the Aryan community an element, +totally separated from it by colour, by habits, by language, and by +occupation. Moreover, the religious belief of these tribes being +entirely different from that of the conquering people, the pious Aryas, +and especially the class habitually engaged in acts of worship, could +hardly fail to apprehend considerable danger to the purity of their own +faith from too close and intimate a contact between the two races. What +more natural, therefore, than that measures should have been early +devised to limit the intercourse between them within as narrow bounds as +possible? In course of time the difference of vocation, and the greater +or less exposure to the scorching influence of the tropical sky, added, +no doubt, to a certain admixture of Sudra blood, especially in the case +of the common people, seem to have produced also in the Aryan population +different shades of complexion, which greatly favoured a tendency to +rigid class-restrictions originally awakened and continually fed by the +lot of the servile race. Meanwhile the power of the sacerdotal order +having been gradually enlarged in proportion to the development of the +minutiae of sacrificial ceremonial and the increase of sacred lore, they +began to lay claim to supreme authority in regulating and controlling +the religious and social life of the people. The author of the so-called +_Purusha-sukta_, or hymn of Purusha, above referred to, represents the +four castes--the _Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya_ and _Sudra_--as having +severally sprung respectively from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and +the feet of Purusha, a primary being, here assumed to be the source of +the universe. It is very doubtful, however, whether at the time when +this hymn was composed the relative position of the two upper castes +could already have been settled in so decided a way as this theory might +lead one to suppose. There is, on the contrary, reason to believe that +some time had yet to elapse, marked by fierce and bloody struggles for +supremacy, of which only imperfect ideas can be formed from the +legendary and frequently biased accounts of later generations, before +the Kshatriyas finally submitted to the full measure of priestly +authority. + +The definitive establishment of the Brahmanical hierarchy marks the +beginning of the Brahmanical period properly so called. Though the +origin and gradual rise of some of the leading institutions of this era +can, as has been shown, be traced in the earlier writings, the chain of +their development presents a break at this juncture which no +satisfactory materials as yet enable us to fill up. A considerable +portion of the literature of this time has apparently been lost; and +several important works, the original composition of which has probably +to be assigned to the early days of Brahmanism, such as the institutes +of Manu and the two great epics, the _Mahabharata_ and _Ramayana_, in +the form in which they have been handed down to us, show manifest traces +of a more modern redaction. Yet it is sufficiently clear from internal +evidence that Manu's Code of Laws, though merely a metrical recast of +older materials, reproduces on the whole pretty faithfully the state of +Hindu society depicted in the sources from which it was compiled. The +final overthrow of the Kshatriya power was followed by a period of +jealous legislation on the part of the Brahmans. For a time their chief +aim would doubtless be to improve their newly gained vantage-ground by +surrounding everything relating to their order with a halo of sanctity +calculated to impress the lay community with feelings of awe. In the +Brahmanas and even in the Purusha Hymn, and the Atharvan, divine origin +had already been ascribed to the Vedic _Samhitas_, especially to the +three older collections. The same privilege was now successfully claimed +for the later Vedic literature, so imbued with Brahmanic aspirations and +pretensions; and the authority implied in the designation of _Sruti_ or +revelation removed henceforth the whole body of sacred writings from the +sphere of doubt and criticism. This concession necessarily involved an +acknowledgment of the new social order as a divine institution. Its +stability was, however, rendered still more secure by the elaboration of +a system of conventional precepts, partly forming the basis of Manu's +Code, which clearly defined the relative position and the duties of the +several castes, and determined the penalties to be inflicted on any +transgressions of the limits assigned to each of them. These laws are +conceived with no sentimental scruples on the part of their authors. On +the contrary, the offences committed by Brahmans against other castes +are treated with remarkable clemency, whilst the punishments inflicted +for trespasses on the rights of higher classes are the more severe and +inhuman the lower the offender stands in the social scale. + +The three first castes, however unequal to each other in privilege and +social standing, are yet united by a common bond of sacramental rites +(_samskaras_), traditionally connected from ancient times with certain +incidents and stages in the life of the Aryan Hindu, as conception, +birth, name-giving, the first taking out of the child to see the sun, +the first feeding with boiled rice, the rites of tonsure and +hair-cutting, the youth's investiture with the sacrificial thread, and +his return home on completing his studies, marriage, funeral, &c. The +modes of observing these family rites are laid down in a class of +writings called _Grihya-sutras_, or domestic rules. The most important +of these observances is the _upanayana_, or rite of conducting the boy +to a spiritual teacher. Connected with this act is the investiture with +the sacred cord, ordinarily worn over the left shoulder and under the +right arm, and varying in material according to the class of the wearer. +This ceremony being the preliminary act to the youth's initiation into +the study of the Veda, the management of the consecrated fire and the +knowledge of the rites of purification, including the _savitri_, a +solemn invocation to _Savitri_, the sun (probl. Saturnus),--as a rule +the verse _Rigv_. iii. 62. 10, also called _gayatri_ from the metre in +which it is composed--which has to be repeated every morning and evening +before the rise and after the setting of that luminary, is supposed to +constitute the second or spiritual birth of the Arya. It is from their +participation in this rite that the three upper classes are called the +twice-born. The ceremony is enjoined to take place some time between the +eighth and sixteenth year of age in the case of a Brahman, between the +eleventh and twenty-second year of a Kshatriya, and between the twelfth +and twenty-fourth year of a Vaisya. He who has not been invested with +the mark of his class within this time is for ever excluded from +uttering the sacred _savitri_ and becomes an outcast, unless he is +absolved from his sin by a council of Brahmans, and after due +performance of a purificatory rite resumes the badge of his caste. With +one not duly initiated no righteous man is allowed to associate or to +enter into connexions of affinity. The duty of the Sudra is to serve the +twice-born classes, and above all the Brahmans. He is excluded from all +sacred knowledge, and if he performs sacrificial ceremonies he must do +so without using holy mantras. No Brahman must recite a Vedic text where +a man of the servile caste might overhear him, nor must he even teach +him the laws of expiating sin. The occupations of the Vaisya are those +connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding of +cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and defending the +people, administering justice, and the duties of the military profession +generally. Both share with the Brahman the privilege of reading the +Veda, but only so far as it is taught and explained to them by their +spiritual preceptor. To the Brahman belongs the right of teaching and +expounding the sacred texts, and also that of interpreting and +determining the law and the rules of caste. Only in exceptional cases, +when no teacher of the sacerdotal class is within reach, the twice-born +youth, rather than forego spiritual instruction altogether, may reside +in the house of a non-Brahmanical preceptor; but it is specially +enjoined that a pupil, who seeks the path to heaven, should not fail, as +soon as circumstances permit, to resort to a Brahman well versed in the +Vedas and their appendages. + +Notwithstanding the barriers placed between the four castes, the +practice of intermarrying appears to have been too prevalent in early +times to have admitted of measures of so stringent a nature as wholly to +repress it. To marry a woman of a higher caste, and especially of a +caste not immediately above one's own, is, however, decidedly +prohibited, the offspring resulting from such a union being excluded +from the performance of the _sraddha_ or obsequies to the ancestors, and +thereby rendered incapable of inheriting any portion of the parents' +property. On the other hand, a man is at liberty, according to the rules +of Manu, to marry a girl of any or each of the castes below his own, +provided he has besides a wife belonging to his own class, for only such +a one should perform the duties of personal attendance and religious +observance devolving upon a married woman. As regards the children born +from unequal marriages of this description, they have the rights and +duties of the twice-born, if their mother belong to a twice-born caste, +otherwise they, like the offspring of the former class of +intermarriages, share the lot of the Sudra, and are excluded from the +investiture and the _savitri_. For this last reason the marriage of a +twice-born man with a Sudra woman is altogether discountenanced by some +of the later law books. At the time of the code of Manu the intermixture +of the classes had already produced a considerable number of +intermediate or mixed castes, which were carefully defined, and each of +which had a specific occupation assigned to it as its hereditary +profession. + +The self-exaltation of the first class was not, it would seem, +altogether due to priestly arrogance and ambition; but, like a prominent +feature of the post-Vedic belief, the transmigration of souls, it was, +if not the necessary, yet at least a natural consequence of the +pantheistic doctrine. To the Brahmanical speculator who saw in the +numberless individual existences of animate nature but so many +manifestations of the one eternal spirit, to union with which they were +all bound to tend as their final goal of supreme bliss, the greater or +less imperfection of the material forms in which they were embodied +naturally presented a continuous scale of spiritual units from the +lowest degradation up to the absolute purity and perfection of the +supreme spirit. To prevent one's sinking yet lower, and by degrees to +raise one's self in this universal gradation, or, if possible, to attain +the ultimate goal immediately from any state of corporeal existence, +there was but one way--subjection of the senses, purity of life and +knowledge of the deity. "He" (thus ends the code of Manu) "who in his +own soul perceives the supreme soul in all beings and acquires +equanimity toward them all, attains the highest state of bliss." Was it +not natural then that the men who, if true to their sacred duties, were +habitually engaged in what was most conducive to these spiritual +attainments, that the Brahmanical class early learnt to look upon +themselves, even as a matter of faith, as being foremost among the human +species in this universal race for final beatitude? The life marked out +for them by that stern theory of class duties which they themselves had +worked out, and which, no doubt, must have been practised in early times +at least in some degree, was by no means one of ease and amenity. It +was, on the contrary, singularly calculated to promote that complete +mortification of the instincts of animal nature which they considered as +indispensable to the final deliverance from _samsara_, the revolution +of bodily and personal existence. + +The pious Brahman, longing to attain the _summum bonum_ on the +dissolution of his frail body, was enjoined to pass through a succession +of four orders or stages of life, viz. those of _brahmacharin_, or +religious student; _grihastha_ (or _grihamedhin_), or householder; +_vanavasin_ (or _vanaprastha_), or anchorite; and _sannyasin_ (or +_bhikshu_), or religious mendicant. Theoretically this course of life +was open and even recommended to every twice-born man, his distinctive +class-occupations being in that case restricted to the second station, +or that of married life. Practically, however, those belonging to the +Kshatriya and Vaisya castes were, no doubt, contented, with few +exceptions, to go through a term of studentship in order to obtain a +certain amount of religious instruction before entering into the married +state, and plying their professional duties. In the case of the +sacerdotal class, the practice probably was all but universal in early +times; but gradually a more and more limited proportion even of this +caste seem to have carried their religious zeal to the length of +self-mortification involved in the two final stages. On the youth having +been invested with the badge of his caste, he was to reside for some +time in the house of some religious teacher, well read in the Veda, to +be instructed in the knowledge of the scriptures and the scientific or +theoretic treatises attached to them, in the social duties of his caste, +and in the complicated system of purificatory and sacrificial rites. +According to the number of Vedas he intended to study, the duration of +this period of instruction was to be, probably in the case of +Brahmanical students chiefly, of from twelve to forty-eight years; +during which time the virtues of modesty, duty, temperance and +self-control were to be firmly implanted in the youth's mind by his +unremitting observance of the most minute rules of conduct. During all +this time the student had to subsist entirely on food obtained by +begging from house to house; and his behaviour towards the preceptor and +his family was to be that prompted by respectful attachment and implicit +obedience. In the case of girls no investiture takes place, but for them +the nuptial ceremony is considered as an equivalent to that rite. On +quitting the teacher's abode, the young man returns to his family and +takes a wife. To die without leaving legitimate offspring, and +especially a son, capable of performing the periodical rite of obsequies +(_sraddha_), consisting of offerings of water and balls of rice, to +himself and his two immediate ancestors, is considered a great +misfortune by the orthodox Hindu. There are three sacred "debts" which a +man has to discharge in life, viz. that which is due to the gods, and of +which he acquits himself by daily worship and sacrificial rites; that +due to the _rishis_, or ancient sages and inspired seers of the Vedic +texts, discharged by the daily study of the scripture; and the "final +debt" which he owes to his _manes_, and of which he relieves himself by +leaving a son. To these three some authorities add a fourth, viz. the +debt owing to humankind, which demands his continually practising +kindness and hospitality. Hence the necessity of a man's entering into +the married state. When the bridegroom leads the bride from her father's +house to his own home, and becomes a _griha-pati_, or householder, the +fire which has been used for the marriage ceremony accompanies the +couple to serve them as their _garhapatya_, or domestic fire. It has to +be kept up perpetually, day and night, either by themselves or their +children, or, if the man be a teacher, by his pupils. If it should at +any time become extinguished by neglect or otherwise, the guilt incurred +thereby must be atoned for by an act of expiation. The domestic fire +serves the family for preparing their food, for making the five +necessary daily and other occasional offerings, and for performing the +sacramental rites above alluded to. No food should ever be eaten that +has not been duly consecrated by a portion of it being offered to the +gods, the beings and the _manes_. These three daily offerings are also +called by the collective name of _vaisvadeva_, or sacrifice "to all the +deities." The remaining two are the offering to Brahma, i.e. the daily +lecture of the scriptures, accompanied by certain rites, and that to +men, consisting in the entertainment of guests. The domestic +observances--many of them probably ancient Aryan family customs, +surrounded by the Hindus with a certain amount of adventitious +ceremonial--were generally performed by the householder himself, with +the assistance of his wife. There is, however, another class of +sacrificial ceremonies of a more pretentious and expensive kind, called +_srauta_ rites, or rites based on _sritu_, or revelation, the +performance of which, though not indispensable, were yet considered +obligatory under certain circumstances (see BRAHMANA). They formed a +very powerful weapon in the hands of the priesthood, and were one of the +chief sources of their subsistence. However great the religious merit +accruing from these sacrificial rites, they were obviously a kind of +luxury which only rich people could afford to indulge in. They +constituted, as it were, a tax, voluntary perhaps, yet none the less +compulsory, levied by the priesthood on the wealthy laity. + +When the householder is advanced in years, "when he perceives his skin +become wrinkled and his hair grey, when he sees the son of his son," the +time is said to have come for him to enter the third stage of life. He +should now disengage himself from all family ties--except that his wife +may accompany him, if she chooses--and repair to a lonely wood, taking +with him his sacred fires and the implements required for the daily and +periodical offerings. Clad in a deer's skin, in a single piece of cloth, +or in a bark garment, with his hair and nails uncut, the hermit is to +subsist exclusively on food growing wild in the forest, such as roots, +green herbs, and wild rice and grain. He must not accept gifts from any +one, except of what may be absolutely necessary to maintain him; but +with his own little hoard he should, on the contrary, honour, to the +best of his ability, those who visit his hermitage. His time must be +spent in reading the metaphysical treatises of the Veda, in making +oblations, and in undergoing various kinds of privation and austerities, +with a view to mortifying his passions and producing in his mind an +entire indifference to worldly objects. Having by these means succeeded +in overcoming all sensual affections and desires, and in acquiring +perfect equanimity towards everything around him, the hermit has fitted +himself for the final and most exalted order, that of devotee or +religious mendicant. As such he has no further need of either +mortifications or religious observances; but "with the sacrificial fires +reposited in his mind," he may devote the remainder of his days to +meditating on the divinity. Taking up his abode at the foot of a tree in +total solitude, "with no companion but his own soul," clad in a coarse +garment, he should carefully avoid injuring any creature or giving +offence to any human being that may happen to come near him. Once a day, +in the evening, "when the charcoal fire is extinguished and the smoke no +longer issues from the fire-places, when the pestle is at rest, when the +people have taken their meals and the dishes are removed," he should go +near the habitations of men, in order to beg what little food may +suffice to sustain his feeble frame. Ever pure of mind he should thus +bide his time, "as a servant expects his wages," wishing neither for +death nor for life, until at last his soul is freed from its fetters and +absorbed in the eternal spirit, the impersonal self-existent Brahma. + +The tendency towards a comprehension of the unity of the divine essence +had resulted in some minds, as has been remarked before, in a kind of +monotheistic notion of the origin of the universe. In the literature of +the Brahmana period we meet with this conception as a common element of +speculation; and so far from its being considered incompatible with the +existence of a universal spirit, _Prajapati_, the personal creator of +the world, is generally allowed a prominent place in the pantheistic +theories. Yet the state of theological speculation, reflected in these +writings, is one of transition. The general drift of thought is +essentially pantheistic, but it is far from being reduced to a regular +system, and the ancient form of belief still enters largely into it. The +attributes of Prajapati, in the same way, have in them elements of a +purely polytheistic nature, and some of the attempts at reconciling this +new-fangled deity with the traditional belief are somewhat awkward. An +ancient classification of the gods represented them as being +thirty-three in number, eleven in each of the three worlds or regions +of nature. These regions being associated each with the name of one +principal deity, this division gave rise at a later time to the notion +of a kind of triple divine government, consisting of _Agni_ (fire), +_Indra_ sky) or _Vayu_ (wind), and _Surya_ (sun), as presiding +respectively over the gods on earth, in the atmosphere, and in the sky. +Of this Vedic triad mention is frequently made in the Brahmana writings. +On the other hand the term _prajapati_ (lord of creatures), which in the +_Rigveda_ occurs as an epithet of the sun, is also once in the +_Atharvaveda_ applied jointly to Indra and Agni. In the Brahmanas +Prajapati is several times mentioned as the thirty-fourth god; whilst in +one passage he is called the fourth god, and made to rule over the three +worlds. More frequently, however, the writings of this period represent +him as the maker of the world and the father or creator of the gods. It +is clear from this discordance of opinion on so important a point of +doctrine, that at this time no authoritative system of belief had been +agreed upon by the theologians. Yet there are unmistakable signs of a +strong tendency towards constructing one, and it is possible that in +yielding to it the Brahmans may have been partly prompted by political +considerations. The definite settlement of the caste system and the +Brahmanical supremacy must probably be assigned to somewhere about the +close of the Brahmana period. Division in their own ranks was hardly +favourable to the aspirations of the priests at such a time; and the +want of a distinct formula of belief adapted to the general drift of +theological speculation, to which they could all rally, was probably +felt the more acutely, the more determined a resistance the military +class was likely to oppose to their claims. Side by side with the +conception of the Brahma, the universal spiritual principle, with which +speculative thought had already become deeply imbued, the notion of a +supreme personal being, the author of the material creation, had come to +be considered by many as a necessary complement of the pantheistic +doctrine. But, owing perhaps to his polytheistic associations and the +attributive nature of his name, the person of Prajapati seems to have +been thought but insufficiently adapted to represent this abstract idea. +The expedient resorted to for solving the difficulty was as ingenious as +it was characteristic of the Brahmanical aspirations. In the same way as +the abstract denomination of sacerdotalism, the neuter _brahma_, had +come to express the divine essence, so the old designation of the +individual priest, the masculine term _brahma_, was raised to denote the +supreme personal deity which was to take the place and attributes of the +Prajapati of the Brahmanas and Upanishads (see BRAHMAN). + +However the new dogma may have answered the purposes of speculative +minds, it was not one in which the people generally were likely to have +been much concerned; an abstract, colourless deity like Brahma could +awake no sympathies in the hearts of those accustomed to worship gods of +flesh and blood. Indeed, ever since the primitive symbolical worship of +nature had undergone a process of disintegration under the influence of +metaphysical speculation, the real belief of the great body of the +people had probably become more and more distinct from that of the +priesthood. In different localities the principal share of their +affection may have been bestowed on one or another of the old gods who +was thereby raised to the dignity of chief deity; or new forms and +objects of belief may have sprung up with the intellectual growth of the +people. In some cases even the worship of the indigenous population +could hardly have remained without exercising some influence in +modifying the belief of the Aryan race. In this way a number of local +deities would grow up, more or less distinct in name and characteristics +from the gods of the Vedic pantheon. There is, indeed, sufficient +evidence to show that, at a time when, after centuries of theological +speculations, some little insight into the life and thought of the +people is afforded by the literature handed down to us, such a diversity +of worship did exist. Under these circumstances the policy which seems +to have suggested itself to the priesthood, anxious to retain a firm +hold on the minds of the people, was to recognize and incorporate into +their system some of the most prominent objects of popular devotion, and +thereby to establish a kind of catholic creed for the whole community +subject to the Brahmanical law. At the time of the original composition +of the great epics two such deities, _Siva_ or _Mahadeva_ ("the great +god") and _Vishnu_, seem to have been already admitted into the +Brahmanical system, where they have ever since retained their place; and +from the manner in which they are represented in those works, it would, +indeed, appear that both, and especially the former, enjoyed an +extensive worship. As several synonyms are attributed to each of them, +it is not improbable that in some of these we have to recognize special +names under which the people in different localities worshipped these +gods, or deities of a similar nature which, by the agency of popular +poetry, or in some other way, came to be combined with them. The places +assigned to them in the pantheistic system were coordinate with that of +Brahma; the three deities, _Brahma, Vishnu_ and _Siva_, were to +represent a triple impersonation of the divinity, as manifesting itself +respectively in the creation, preservation and destruction of the +universe. Siva does not occur in the Vedic hymns as the name of a god, +but only as an adjective in the sense of "kind, auspicious." One of his +synonyms, however, is the name of a Vedic deity, the attributes and +nature of which show a good deal of similarity to the post-Vedic god. +This is _Rudra_, the god of the roaring storm, usually portrayed, in +accordance with the element he represents, as a fierce, destructive +deity, "terrible as a wild beast," whose fearful arrows cause death and +disease to men and cattle. He is also called _kapardin_ ("wearing his +hair spirally braided like a shell"), a word which in later times became +one of the synonyms of Siva. The _Atharvaveda_ mentions several other +names of the same god, some of which appear even placed together, as in +one passage _Bhava, Sarva, Rudra_ and _Pasupati_. Possibly some of them +were the names under which one and the same deity was already worshipped +in different parts of northern India. This was certainly the case in +later times, since it is expressly stated in one of the later works of +the Brahmana period, that Sarva was used by the Eastern people and Bhava +by a Western tribe. It is also worthy of note that in the same work (the +_Satapatha-brahmana_), composed at a time when the Vedic triad of Agni, +Indra-Vayu and Surya was still recognized, attempts are made to identify +this god of many names with Agni; and that in one passage in the +_Mahabharata_ it is stated that the Brahmans said that Agni was Siva. +Although such attempts at an identification of the two gods remained +isolated, they would at least seem to point to the fact that, in +adapting their speculations to the actual state of popular worship, the +Brahmans kept the older triad distinctly in view, and by means of it +endeavoured to bring their new structure into harmony with the ancient +Vedic belief. It is in his character as destroyer that Siva holds his +place in the triad, and that he must, no doubt, be identified with the +Vedic Rudra. Another very important function appears, however, to have +been early assigned to him, on which much more stress is laid in his +modern worship--that of destroyer being more especially exhibited in his +consort--viz. the character of a generative power, symbolized in the +phallic emblem (_linga_) and in the sacred bull (_Nandi_), the favourite +attendant of the god. This feature being entirely alien from the nature +of the Vedic god, it has been conjectured with some plausibility, that +the _linga_-worship was originally prevalent among the non-Aryan +population, and was thence introduced into the worship of Siva. On the +other hand, there can, we think, be little doubt that Siva, in his +generative faculty, is the representative of another Vedic god whose +nature and attributes go far to account for this particular feature of +the modern deity, viz. _Pushan_. This god, originally, no doubt, a solar +deity, is frequently invoked, as the lord of nourishment, to bestow +food, wealth and other blessings. He is once, jointly with Soma, called +the progenitor of heaven and earth, and is connected with the marriage +ceremony, where he is asked to lead the bride to the bridegroom and make +her prosperous (_Sivatama_). Moreover, he has the epithet _kapardin_ +(spirally braided), as have Rudra and the later Siva, and is called +_Pasupa_, or guardian of cattle, whence the latter derives his name +_Pasupati_. But he is also a strong, powerful, and even fierce and +destructive god, who, with his goad or golden spear, smites the foes of +his worshipper, and thus in this respect offers at least some points of +similarity to Rudra, which may have favoured the fusion of the two gods. +As regards _Vishnu_, this god occupies already a place in the Vedic +mythology, though by no means one of such prominence as would entitle +him to that degree of exaltation implied in his character as one of the +three hypostases of the divinity. Moreover, although in his general +nature, as a benevolent, genial being, the Vedic god corresponds on the +whole to the later Vishnu, the preserver of the world, the latter +exhibits many important features for which we look in vain in his +prototype, and which most likely resulted from sectarian worship or from +an amalgamation with local deities. In one or two of them, such as his +names Vasudeva and Vaikuntha, an attempt may again be traced to identify +Vishnu with Indra, who, as we have seen, was one of the Vedic triad of +gods. The characteristic feature of the elder Vishnu is his measuring +the world with his three strides, which are explained as denoting either +the three stations of the sun at the time of rising, culminating and +setting, or the triple manifestation of the luminous element, as the +fire on earth, the lightning in the atmosphere and the sun in the +heavens. + +The male nature of the triad was supposed to require to be supplemented +by each of the three gods being associated with a female energy +(_Sakti_). Thus _Vach_ or _Sarasvati_, the goddess of speech and +learning, came to be regarded as the _sakti_, or consort of Brahma; +_Sri_ or _Lakshmi_, "beauty, fortune," as that of Vishnu; and _Uma_ or +_Parvati_, the daughter of _Himavat_, the god of the Himalaya mountain, +as that of Siva. On the other hand, it is not improbable that +_Parvati_--who has a variety of other names, such as _Kali_ ("the black +one"), _Durga_ ("the inaccessible, terrible one"), _Maha-devi_ ("the +great goddess")--enjoyed already a somewhat extensive worship of her +own, and that there may thus have been good reason for assigning to her +a prominent place in the Brahmanical system. + +A compromise was thus effected between the esoteric doctrine of the +metaphysician and some of the most prevalent forms of popular worship, +resulting in what was henceforth to constitute the orthodox system of +belief of the Brahmanical community. Yet the Vedic pantheon could not be +altogether discarded, forming part and parcel, as it did, of that sacred +revelation (_sruti_), which was looked upon as the divine source of all +religious and social law (_smriti_, "tradition"), and being, moreover, +the foundation of the sacrificial ceremonial on which the priestly +authority so largely depended. The existence of the old gods is, +therefore, likewise recognized, but recognized in a very different way +from that of the triple divinity. For while the triad represents the +immediate manifestation of the eternal, infinite soul--while it +constitutes, in fact, the Brahma itself in its active relation to +mundane and seemingly material occurrences, the old traditional gods are +of this world, are individual spirits or portions of the Brahma like men +and other creatures, only higher in degree. To them an intermediate +sphere, the heaven of Indra (the _svarloka_ or _svarga_), is assigned to +which man may raise himself by fulfilling the holy ordinances; but they +are subject to the same laws of being; they, like men, are liable to be +born again in some lower state, and, therefore, like them, yearn for +emancipation from the necessity of future individual existence. It is a +sacred duty of man to worship these superior beings by invocations and +sacrificial observances, as it is to honour the _pitris_ ("the +fathers"), the spirits of the departed ancestors. The spirits of the +dead, on being judged by _Yama_, the Pluto of Hindu mythology, are +supposed to be either passing through a term of enjoyment in a region +midway between the earth and the heaven of the gods, or undergoing their +measure of punishment in the nether world, situated somewhere in the +southern region, before they return to the earth to animate new bodies. +In Vedic mythology Yama was considered to have been the first mortal who +died, and "espied the way to" the celestial abodes, and in virtue of +precedence to have become the ruler of the departed; in some passages, +however, he is already regarded as the god of death. Although the +pantheistic system allowed only a subordinate rank to the old gods, and +the actual religious belief of the people was probably but little +affected by their existence, they continued to occupy an important place +in the affections of the poet, and were still represented as exercising +considerable influence on the destinies of man. The most prominent of +them were regarded as the appointed _Lokapalas_, or guardians of the +world; and as such they were made to preside over the four cardinal and +(according to some authorities) the intermediate points of the compass. +Thus _Indra_, the chief of the gods, was regarded as the regent of the +east; _Agni_, the fire (_ignis_), was in the same way associated with +the south-east; _Yama_ with the south; _Surya_, the sun ([Greek: +Haelios]), with the south-west; _Varuna_, originally the representative +of the all-embracing heaven ([Greek: Ouranos]) or atmosphere, now the +god of the ocean, with the west; _Vayu_ (or _Pavana_), the wind, with +the north-west; _Kubera_, the god of wealth, with the north; and _Soma_ +(or _Chandra_) with the north-east. In the institutes of Manu the +_Lokapalas_ are represented as standing in close relation to the ruling +king, who is said to be composed of particles of these his tutelary +deities. The retinue of Indra consists chiefly of the _Gandharvas_ +(probably etym. connected with [Greek: kentauros]), a class of genii, +considered in the epics as the celestial musicians; and their wives, the +_Apsaras_, lovely nymphs, who are frequently employed by the gods to +make the pious devotee desist from carrying his austere practices to an +extent that might render him dangerous to their power. _Narada_, an +ancient sage (probably a personification of the cloud, the +"water-giver"), is considered as the messenger between the gods and men, +and as having sprung from the forehead of Brahma. The interesting office +of the god of love is held by _Kamadeva_, also called _Ananga_, the +bodyless, because, as the myth relates, having once tried by the power +of his mischievous arrow to make Siva fall in love with Parvati, whilst +he was engaged in devotional practices, the urchin was reduced to ashes +by a glance of the angry god. Two other mythological figures of some +importance are considered as sons of Siva and Parvati, viz. _Karttikeya_ +or _Skanda_, the leader of the heavenly armies, who was supposed to have +been fostered by the six _Krittikas_ or Pleiades; and _Ganesa_ ("lord of +troops"), the elephant-headed god of wisdom, and at the same time the +leader of the _dii minorum gentium_. + +Orthodox Brahmanical scholasticism makes the attainment of final +emancipation (_mukti_, _moksha_) dependent on perfect knowledge of the +divine essence. This knowledge can only be obtained by complete +abstraction of the mind from external objects and intense meditation on +the divinity, which again presupposes the total extinction of all +sensual instincts by means of austere practices (_tapas_). The chosen +few who succeed in gaining complete mastery over their senses and a full +knowledge of the divine nature become absorbed into the universal soul +immediately on the dissolution of the body. Those devotees, on the other +hand, who have still a residuum, however slight, of ignorance and +worldliness left in them at the time of their death, pass to the world +of Brahma, where their souls, invested with subtile corporeal frames, +await their reunion with the Eternal Being. + +The pantheistic doctrine which thus forms the foundation of the +Brahmanical system of belief found its most complete exposition in one +of the six orthodox _darsanas_, or philosophical systems, the _Vedanta_ +philosophy. These systems are considered as orthodox inasmuch as they +recognize the Veda as the revealed source of religious belief, and never +fail to claim the authority of the ancient seers for their own +teachings, even though--as in the case of Kapila, the founder of the +materialistic Sankhya system--they involve the denial of so essential a +dogmatic point as the existence of a personal creator of the world. So +much, indeed, had freedom of speculative thought become a matter of +established habit and intellectual necessity, that no attempt seems ever +to have been made by the leading theological party to put down such +heretical doctrines, so long as the sacred character of the privileges +of their caste was not openly called in question. Yet internal +dissensions on such cardinal points of belief could not but weaken the +authority of the hierarchical body; and as they spread beyond the +narrow bounds of the Brahmanical schools, it wanted but a man of moral +and intellectual powers, and untrammelled by class prejudices, to render +them fatal to priestly pretensions. Such a man arose in the person of a +Sakya prince of Kapilavastu, Gotama, the founder of Buddhism (about the +6th century B.C.). Had it only been for the philosophical tenets of +Buddha, they need scarcely have caused, and probably did not cause, any +great uneasiness to the orthodox theologians. He did, indeed, go one +step beyond Kapila, by altogether denying the existence of the soul as a +substance, and admitting only certain intellectual faculties as +attributes of the body, perishable with it. Yet the conception which +Buddha substituted for the transmigratory soul, viz. that of _karma_ +("work"), as the sum total of the individual's good and bad actions, +being the determinative element of the form of his future existence, +might have been treated like any other speculative theory, but for the +practical conclusions he drew from it. Buddha recognized the institution +of caste, and accounted for the social inequalities attendant thereon as +being the effects of _karma_ in former existences. But, on the other +hand, he altogether denied the revealed character of the Veda and the +efficacy of the Brahmanical ceremonies deduced from it, and rejected the +claims of the sacerdotal class to be the repositaries and divinely +appointed teachers of sacred knowledge. That Buddha never questioned the +truth of the Brahmanical theory of transmigration shows that this early +product of speculative thought had become firmly rooted in the Hindu +mind as a tenet of belief amounting to moral conviction. To the Hindu +philosopher this doctrine seemed alone to account satisfactorily for the +apparent essential similarity of the vital element in all animate +beings, no less than for what elsewhere has led honest and logical +thinkers to the stern dogma of predestination. The belief in eternal +bliss or punishment, as the just recompense of man's actions during this +brief term of human life, which their less reflective forefathers had at +one time held, appeared to them to involve a moral impossibility. The +equality of all men, which Buddha preached with regard to the final +goal, the _nirvana_, or extinction of _karma_ and thereby of all future +existence and pain, and that goal to be reached, not by the performance +of penance and sacrificial worship, but by practising virtue, could not +fail to be acceptable to many people. It would be out of place here to +dwell on the rapid progress and internal development of the new +doctrine. Suffice it to say that, owing no doubt greatly to the +sympathizing patronage of ruling princes, Buddhism appears to have been +the state religion in most parts of India during the early centuries of +our era. To what extent it became the actual creed of the body of the +people it will probably be impossible ever to ascertain. One of the +chief effects it produced on the worship of the old gods was the rapid +decline of the authority of the orthodox Brahmanical dogma, and a +considerable development of sectarianism. (See HINDUISM.) + + See H.H. Wilson, _Essays on the Religion of the Hindus_; J. Muir, + _Original Sanskrit Texts_; M. Muller, _History of Ancient Sanskrit + Literature_; C. Lassen, _Indische Alterthumskunde_; Elphinstone, + _History of India_, ed. by E.B. Cowell. (J. E.) + + + + +BRAHMAPUTRA, a great river of India, with a total length of 1800 m. Its +main source is in a great glacier-mass of the northernmost chain of the +Himalayas, called Kubigangri, about 82 deg. N., and receives various +tributaries including one formerly regarded as the true source from the +pass of Mariam La (15,500 ft.), which separates its basin from the +eastern affluents of the Mansarowar lakes, at least 100 m. south-east of +those of the Indus. It flows in a south-easterly direction for 170 m., +and then adheres closely to a nearly easterly course for 500 m. more, +being at the end of that distance in 29 deg. 10' N. lat. It then bends +north-east for 150 m. before finally shaping itself southwards towards +the plains of Assam. Roughly speaking, the river may be said so far to +run parallel to the main chain of the Himalaya at a distance of 100 m. +therefrom. Its early beginnings take their rise amidst a mighty mass of +glaciers which cover the northern slopes of the watershed, separating +them from the sources of the Gogra on the south; and there is evidence +that two of its great southern tributaries, the Shorta Tsanpo (which +joins about 150 m. from its source), and the Nyang Chu (the river of +Shigatse and Gyantse), are both also of glacial origin. From the north +it receives five great tributaries, namely, the Chu Nago, the Chachu +Tsanpo and the Charta Tsanpo (all within the first 200 m. of its +course), and the Raka Tsanpo and Kyi-chu (or river of Lhasa) below. The +Chachu and the Charta are large clear streams, evidently draining from +the great central lake district. Both of them measure more than 100 yds. +in width at the point of junction, and they are clearly non-glacial. The +Raka Tsanpo is a lateral affluent, flowing for 200 m. parallel to the +main river course and some 20 to 30 m. north of it, draining the +southern slopes of a high snowy range. It is an important feature as +affording foothold for the Janglam (the great high road of southern +Tibet connecting Ladakh with China), which is denied by the actual +valley of the Brahmaputra. The great river itself is known in Tibet by +many names, being generally called the Nari Chu, Maghang Tsanpo or Yaro +Tsanpo, above Lhasa; the word "tsanpo" (tsang-po) meaning (according to +Waddell) the "pure one," and applying to all great rivers. Fifty miles +from its source the river and the Janglam route touch each other, and +from that point past Tadum (the first important place on its banks) for +another 130 m., the road follows more or less closely the left bank of +the river. Then it diverges northwards into the lateral valley of the +Raka, until the Raka joins the Brahmaputra below Janglache. The upper +reaches are nowhere fordable between Tadum and Lhasa, but there is a +ferry at Likche (opposite Tadum on the southern bank), where wooden +boats covered with hide effect the necessary connexion between the two +banks and ensure the passage of the Nepal trade. From Janglache (13,800 +ft.) to Shigatse the river is navigable, the channel being open and wide +and the course straight. This is probably the most elevated system of +navigation in the world. From Shigatse, which stands near the mouth of +the Nyang Chu, to the Kyi-chu, or Lhasa river, there is no direct route, +the river being unnavigable below Shigatse. The Janglam takes a +circuitous course southwards to Gyantse and the Yamdok Cho before +dropping again over the Khambala pass to the ferry at Khamba barje near +Chushul. Thence the valley of the Kyi-chu (itself navigable for small +boats for about 30 m.) leads to Lhasa northwards. At Chushul there is an +iron chain-and-rope suspension bridge over the deepest part of the +river, but it does not completely span the river, and it is too insecure +for use. The remains of a similar bridge exist at Janglache; but there +are no wooden or twig suspension bridges over the Tsanpo. At Tadum the +river is about one half as wide again as the Ganges at Hardwar in +December, i.e. about 250 to 300 yds. At Shigatse it flows in a wide +extended bed with many channels, but contracts again at Chushul, where +it is no wider than it is at Janglache, i.e. from 600 to 700 yds. At +Chushul (below the Kyi-chu) the discharge of the river is computed to be +about 35,000 cub. ft. per second, or seven times that of the Ganges at +Hardwar. + +For about 250 m. below Kyi-chu to a point about 20 m. below the great +southerly bend (in 94 deg. E. long.) the course of the Brahmaputra has +been traced by native surveyors. Then it is lost amidst the +jungle-covered hills of the wild Mishmi and Abor tribes to the east of +Bhutan for another 100 m., until it is again found as the Dihong +emerging into the plains of Assam. About the intervening reaches of the +river very little is known except that it drops through 7000 ft. of +altitude, and that in one place, at least, there exist some very +remarkable falls. These are placed in 29 deg. 40' N. lat., between +Kongbu and Pema-Koi. Here the river runs in a narrow precipitous defile +along which no path is practicable. The falls can only be approached +from below, where a monastery has been erected, the resort of countless +pilgrims. Their height is estimated at 70 ft., and by Tibetan report the +hills around are enveloped in perpetual mist, and the Sangdong (the +"lion's face"), over which the waters rush, is demon-haunted and full of +mystic import. Up to comparatively recent years it was matter for +controversy whether the Tsanpo formed the upper reaches of the Dihong or +of the Irrawaddy. From the north-eastern extremity of Assam where, near +Sadya, the Lohit, the Dibong and the Dihong unite to form the wide +placid Brahmaputra of the plains--one of the grandest rivers of the +world--its south-westerly course to the Bay of Bengal is sufficiently +well known. It still retains the proud distinction of being unbridged, +and still the River Flotilla Company appoints its steamers at regular +intervals to visit all the chief ports on its banks as far as Dibrugarh. +Here, however, a new feature has been introduced in the local railway, +which extends for some 80 m. to Sadya, with a branch to the Buri Dihing +river at the foot of the Patkoi range. The Patkoi border the plains of +Upper Assam to the south-east, and across these hills lies the most +reasonable probability of railway extension to Burma. + +The following are the "lowest level" discharges of the principal +affluents of the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam, estimated in cubic feet per +second:-- + + Lohit river, 9 m. above Sadya 38,800 + Dibong, 1 m. above junction with Dihong 27,200 + Dihong " " Dibong 55,400 + Subansiri 16,900 + +The basins of the Dibong and Subansiri are as yet very imperfectly +known. That of the Lohit has been fairly well explored. Near Goalpara +the discharge of the river in January 1828 was computed to be 140,000 +cub. ft., or nearly double that of the Ganges. The length of the river +is 700 m. to the Dihong junction, and about 1000 in Tibet and eastern +Bhutan, above the Dihong. The Brahmaputra, therefore, exceeds the Ganges +in length by about 400 m. The bed of the great river maintains a fairly +constant position between its extreme banks, but the channels within +that bed are so constantly shifting as to require close supervision on +the part of the navigation authorities; so much detritus is carried down +as to form a perpetually changing series of obstructions to steamer +traffic. + +An enormous development of agricultural resources has taken place within +the Brahmaputra basin of late years, chiefly in the direction of tea +cultivation, as well as in the production of jute and silk. Gold is +found in the sands of all its upper tributaries, and coal and petroleum +are amongst the chief mineral products which have been brought into +economic prominence. During the rains the Brahmaputra floods hundreds of +square miles of country, reaching a height of 30 to 40 ft. above its +usual level. This supersedes artificial irrigation, and the plains so +watered yield abundantly in rice, jute and mustard. + + See _Reports_ of the native explorers of the Indian Survey, edited by + Montgomery and Harman; _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (1908); Sir T.H. + Holdich, _India_ ("Regions of the World" series, 1903); Ryder, + _Geographical Journal_, 1905; Rawlings, _The Great Plateau_ (1906). + (T. H. H.*) + + + + +BRAHMA SAMAJ, a religious association in India which owes its origin to +(Raja) Ram Mohan Roy, who began teaching and writing in Calcutta soon +after 1800. The name means literally the "Church of the One God," and +the word _Samaj_, like the word Church, bears both a local and a +universal, or an individual and a collective meaning. Impressed with the +perversions and corruptions of popular Hinduism, Ram Mohan Roy +investigated the Hindu Shastras, the Koran and the Bible, repudiated the +polytheistic worship of the Shastras as false, and inculcated the +reformed principles of monotheism as found in the ancient Upanishads of +the Vedas. In 1816 he established a society, consisting only of Hindus, +in which texts from the Vedas were recited and theistic hymns chanted. +This, however, soon died out through the opposition it received from the +Hindu community. In 1830 he organized the society known as the Brahma +Samaj. + +The following extract from the trust-deed of the building dedicated to +it will show the religious belief and the purposes of its founder. The +building was intended to be "a place of public meeting for all sorts and +descriptions of people, without distinction, who shall behave and +conduct themselves in an orderly, sober, religious and devout manner, +for the worship and adoration of the eternal, unsearchable and immutable +Being, who is the author and preserver of the universe, but not under +and by any other name, designation or title, peculiarly used for and +applied to any particular being or beings by any man or set of men +whatsoever; and that no graven image, statue or sculpture, carving, +painting, picture, portrait or the likeness of anything shall be +admitted within the said messuage, building, land, tenements, +hereditament and premises; and that no sacrifice, offering or oblation +of any kind or thing shall ever be permitted therein; and that no animal +or living creature shall within or on the said messuage, &c., be +deprived of life either for religious purposes or food, and that no +eating or drinking (except such as shall be necessary by any accident +for the preservation of life), feasting or rioting be permitted therein +or thereon; and that in conducting the said worship or adoration, no +object, animate or inanimate, that has been or is or shall hereafter +become or be recognized as an object of worship by any man or set of +men, shall be reviled or slightingly or contemptuously spoken of or +alluded to, either in preaching or in the hymns or other mode of worship +that may be delivered or used in the said messuage or building; and that +no sermon, preaching, discourse, prayer or hymns be delivered, made or +used in such worship, but such as have a tendency to the contemplation +of the Author and Preserver of the universe or to the promotion of +charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and the strengthening of +the bonds of union between men of all religious persuasions and creeds." + +The new faith at this period held to the Vedas as its basis. Ram Mohan +Roy soon after left India for England, and took up his residence in +Bristol, where he died in 1835. The Brahma Samaj maintained a bare +existence till 1841, when Babu Debendra Nath Tagore, a member of a +famous and wealthy Calcutta family, devoted himself to it. He gave a +printing-press to the Samaj, and established a monthly journal called +the _Tattwabodhini Patrika_, to which the Bengali language now owes much +for its strength and elegance. About 1850 some of the followers of the +new religion discovered that the greater part of the Vedas is +polytheistic, and a schism took place,--the advanced party holding that +nature and intuition form the basis of faith. Between 1847 and 1858 +branch societies were formed in different parts of India, especially in +Bengal, and the new society made rapid progress, for which it was +largely indebted to the spread of English education and the work of +Christian missionaries. In fact the whole Samaj movement is as distinct +a product of the contest of Hinduism with Christianity in the 19th +century, as the _Panth_ movement was of its contest with Islam 300 years +earlier. + +The Brahma creed was definitively formulated as follows:--(1) The book +of nature and intuition supplies the basis of religious faith. (2) +Although the Brahmas do not consider any book written by man the basis +of their religion, yet they do accept with respect and pleasure any +religious _truth_ contained in any book. (3) The Brahmas believe that +the religious condition of man is progressive, like the other +departments of his condition in this world. (4) They believe that the +fundamental doctrines of their religion are also the basis of every true +religion. (5) They believe in the existence of one Supreme God--a God +endowed with a distinct personality, moral attributes worthy of His +nature and an intelligence befitting the Governor of the universe, and +they worship Him alone. They do not believe in any of His incarnations. +(6) They believe in the immortality and progressive state of the soul, +and declare that there is a state of conscious existence succeeding life +in this world and supplementary to it as respects the action of the +universal moral government. (7) They believe that repentance is the only +way to salvation. They do not recognize any other mode of reconcilement +to the offended but loving Father. (8) They pray for _spiritual_ welfare +and believe in the _efficacy_ of such prayers. (9) They believe in the +providential care of the divine Father. (10) They avow that love towards +Him and the performances of the works which He loves, constitute His +worship. (11) They recognize the necessity of public worship, but do not +believe that communion with the Father depends upon meeting in any fixed +place at any fixed time. They maintain that they can adore Him at any +time and at any place, provided that the time and the place are +calculated to compose and direct the mind towards Him. (12) They do not +believe in pilgrimages and declare that holiness can only be attained by +elevating and purifying the mind. (13) They put no faith in rites or +ceremonies, nor do they believe in penances as instrumental in obtaining +the grace of God. They declare that moral righteousness, the gaining of +wisdom, divine contemplation, charity and the cultivation of devotional +feelings are their rites and ceremonies. They further say, govern and +regulate your feelings, discharge your duties to God and to man, and you +will gain everlasting blessedness; purify your heart, cultivate +devotional feelings and you will see Him who is unseen. (14) +Theoretically there is no distinction of caste among the Brahmas. They +declare that we are all the children of God, and therefore must consider +ourselves as brothers and sisters. + +For long the Brahmas did not attempt any social reforms. But about 1865 +the younger section, headed by Babu Keshub Chunder Sen, who joined the +Samaj in 1857, tried to carry their religious theories into practice by +demanding the abandonment of the external signs of caste distinction. +This, however, the older members opposed, declaring such innovations to +be premature. A schism resulted, Keshub Chunder Sen and his followers +founding the Progressive Samaj, while the conservative stock remained as +the Adi (i.e. original) Samaj, their aim being to "fulfil" rather than +to abrogate the old religion. The vitality of the movement, however, had +left it, and its inconsistencies, combined with the lack of strong +leadership, landed it in a position scarcely distinguishable from +orthodox Hinduism. Debendra Nath Tagore sought refuge from the +difficulty by becoming an ascetic. The "Brahma Samaj of India," as +Chunder Sen's party styled itself, made considerable progress +extensively and intensively until 1878, when a number of the most +prominent adherents, led by Anand Mohan Bose, took umbrage at Chunder +Sen's despotic rule and at his disregard of the society's regulations +concerning child marriage. This led to the formation of the Sadharana +(Universal) Brahma Samaj, now the most popular and progressive of the +three sections of the movement and conspicuous for its work in the cause +of literary culture, social reform and female education in India. But +even when we add all sections of the Brahma Samaj together, the total +number of adherents is only about 4000, mostly found in Calcutta and its +neighbourhood. A small community (about 130) in Bombay, known as the +Prarthna (Prayer) Samaj, was founded in 1867 through Keshub Chunder's +influence; they have a similar creed to that of the Brahma Samaj, but +have broken less decisively with orthodox and ceremonial Hinduism. + + See the articles on ARYA, SAMAJ, KESHUB CHUNDER SEN, RAM MOHAN ROY. + Also John Robson, _Hinduism and Christianity_; and the _Theistic + Quarterly Review_ (the organ of the Society since 1880). + + + + +BRAHMS, JOHANNES (1833-1897), German composer, was born in Hamburg on +the 7th of May 1833. He was the son of a double-bass player in the +Hamburg city theatre and received his first musical instruction from his +father. After some lessons from O. Cossel, he went to Cossel's master, +Eduard Marxsen of Altona, whose experience and artistic taste directed +the young man's genius into the highest paths. A couple of public +appearances as a pianist were hardly an interruption to the course of +his musical studies, and these were continued nearly up to the time when +Brahms accepted an engagement as accompanist to the Hungarian violinist, +Remenyi, for a concert tour in 1853. At Gottingen there occurred a +famous _contretemps_ which had a most important though indirect +influence on the whole after-life of the young player. A piano on which +he was to play the "Kreutzer" sonata of Beethoven with Remenyi turned +out to be a semitone below the required pitch; and Brahms played the +part by heart, transposing it from A to B flat, in such a way that the +great violinist, Joachim, who was present and discerned what the feat +implied, introduced himself to Brahms, and laid the foundation of a +life-long friendship. Joachim gave him introductions to Liszt at Weimar +and to Schumann at Dusseldorf; the former hailed him for a time as a +member of the advanced party in music, on the strength of his E flat +minor scherzo, but the misapprehension was not of long continuance. The +introduction to Schumann impelled that master, now drawing near the +tragic close of his career, to write the famous article "Neue Bahnen," +in which the young Brahms was proclaimed to be the great composer of the +future, "he who was to come." The critical insight in Schumann's article +is all the more surprising when it is remembered how small was the list +of Brahms's works at the time. A string quartet, the first pianoforte +sonata, the scherzo already mentioned, and the earliest group of songs, +containing the dramatic "Liebestreu," are the works which drew forth the +warm commendations of Schumann. In December 1853 Brahms gave a concert +at Leipzig, as a result of which the firms of Breitkopf & Haertel and of +Senff undertook to publish his compositions. In 1854 he was given the +post of choir-director and music-master to the prince of Lippe-Detmold, +but he resigned it after a few years, going first to Hamburg, and then +to Zurich, where he enjoyed the friendship and artistic counsel of +Theodor Kirchner. The unfavourable verdict of the Leipzig Gewandhaus +audience upon his pianoforte concerto in D minor op. 15, and several +remarkably successful appearances in Vienna, where he was appointed +director of Ihe Singakademie in 1863, were the most important external +events of Brahms's life, but again he gave up the conductorship after a +few months of valuable work, and for about three years had no fixed +place of abode. Concert tours with Joachim or Stockhausen were +undertaken, and it was not until 1867 that he returned to Vienna, or +till 1872 that he chose it definitely as his home, his longest absence +from the Austrian capital being between 1874 and 1878, when he lived +near Heidelberg. From 1871 to 1874 he conducted the concerts of the +"Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde," but after the later date he occupied no +official position of any kind. With the exception of journeys to Italy +in the spring, or to Switzerland in the summer, he rarely left Vienna. +He refused to come to England to take the honorary degree of Mus.D. +offered by the university of Cambridge; the university of Breslau made +him Ph.D. in 1881; in 1886 he was created a knight of the Prussian order +_Pour le merite_, and in 1889 was presented with the freedom of his +native city. He died in Vienna on the 3rd of April 1897. + +The works of Brahms may be summarized as follows:--Various _sacred +compositions for chorus_, op. 12, 13, 22, 27, 29, 30, 37, leading up to +op. 45, the "German Requiem" first performed at Bremen in 1868, and +subsequently completed by a soprano solo with chorus; the "Triumphlied" +in commemoration of the German victories of 1870-71; and some choral +songs and motets, op. 74, 109 and 110. _Secular choral works_, op. 17, +41, 42, 44, 50 ("Rinaldo" for tenor solo and male choir), 53 +("Rhapsodie," alto solo and male choir), 54 ("Schicksalslied"), 62, 82 +(Schiller's Nanie), 89 ("Gesang der Parzen"), 93, 104, 113. _Concerted +vocal-works_, op. 20, 28, 31, 52 ("Liebeslieder-Walzer"), 61, 64, 65 +("Neue Liebeslieder"), 75, 92, 103, 112. _Solo songs_, nearly 300. +_Orchestral works_: four symphonies, op. 68, 73, 90 and 98; two +serenades, op. 11 and 16; two pianoforte concertos, op. 15 and 83, one +violin concerto, op. 77; concerto for violin and violoncello, op. 102; +variations on a theme by Haydn, op. 56; two overtures, "Academische +Festouverture," op. 80, and "Tragic Overture," op. 81. _Chamber music_: +two sextets, op. 18 and 36; quintet, piano and strings, op. 34, strings, +op. 88 and 111, clarinet and strings, op. 115; three string quartets, +op. 51 and 67, three quartets for piano and strings, op. 25, 26 and 60. +Three trios for piano and strings, op. 8, 87 and 101; trio for piano, +violin and horn, op. 40; piano, clarinet and violoncello, op. 114. Duet +sonatas, three for piano and violin, op. 78, 100 and 108; two for piano +and violoncello, op. 38 and 99; two for piano and clarinet, op. 120. +_Pianoforte solos_: three sonatas, op. 1, 2 and 5; scherzo, op. 4; +variations, op. 9, 21, 23, 24, 35; 4 ballads, op. 10; waltzes, op. 39; +two rhapsodies, op. 79; caprices and intermezzi, op. 76, 116, 117, 118 +and 119. 5 _studies_ and 51 _Uebungen_ without opus-number, and a +_chorale-prelude and fugue_ for organ, besides four books of _Hungarian +Dances_ arranged for pianoforte duet. + +Brahms has often been called the last of the great classical masters, in +a sense wider than that of his place in the long line of the great +composers of Germany. Though only the most superficial observers could +deny him the possession of qualities which distinguish the masters of +the romantic school, it is as a classicist that he must be ranked among +modern musicians. From the beginning of his career until its close, his +ideas were clothed by preference in the forms which had sufficed for +Beethoven, and the instances in which he departed from structural +precedent are so rare that they might be disregarded, were they not of +such high value that they must be considered as the signs of a logical +development of musical form, and not as indicating a spirit of rebellion +against existing modes of structure. His practice, more frequent in +later than in earlier life, of welding together the "working-out" and +the "recapitulation" sections of his movements in a closer union than +any of his predecessors had attempted, is an innovation which cannot +fail to have important results in the future; and if the skill of +younger writers is not adequate to such a display of ingenuity as occurs +in the finale of the fourth symphony, where the "passacaglia" form has +been used with an effect that is almost bewildering to the ordinary +listener, that at least stands as a monument of inventiveness finely +subordinated to the emotional and intellectual purport of the thoughts +expressed. His themes are always noble, and even from the point of view +of emotional appeal their deep intensity of expression is of a kind +which grows upon all who have once been awakened to their beauty, or +have been at the pains to grasp the composer's characteristics of +utterance. His vocal music, whether for one voice or many, is remarkable +for its fidelity to natural inflection and accentuation of the words, +and for its perfect reflection of the poet's mood. His songs, vocal +quartets and choral works abound in passages that prove him a master of +effects of sound; and throughout his chamber music, in his treatment of +the piano, of the strings, or of the solo wind instruments he employs, +there are numberless examples which sufficiently show the irrelevance of +a charge sometimes brought against his music, that it is deficient in a +sense of what is called "tone-colour." It is perfectly true that the +mere acoustic effect of a passage was of far less importance to him than +its inherent beauty, poetic import, or logical fitness in a definite +scheme of development; and that often in his orchestral music the casual +hearer receives an impression of complexity rather than of clearness, +and is apt to imagine that the "thickness" of instrumentation is the +result of clumsiness or carelessness. Such instances as the introduction +to the finale of the first symphony, the close of the first movement of +the second, what may be called the epilogue of the third, or the whole +of the variations on a theme of Haydn, are not only marvels of delicate +workmanship in regard to structure, but are instinct with the sense of +the peculiar beauty and characteristics of each instrument. The +"Academic Festival" overture proves Brahms a master of musical humour, +in his treatment of the student songs which serve as its themes; and the +companion piece, the "Tragic" overture, reaches a height of sublimity +which is in no way lessened because no particular tragedy has ever been +named in conjunction with the work. + +As with all creative artists of supreme rank, the work of Brahms took a +considerable time before it was very generally appreciated. The change +in public opinion is strikingly illustrated in regard to the songs, +which, once voted ineffective and unvocal, have now taken a place in +every eminent singer's repertory. The outline in his greater works must +be grasped with some definiteness before the separate ideas can be +properly understood in their true relation to each other; and while it +is his wonderful power of handling the recognized classical forms, so as +to make them seem absolutely new, which stamps him as the greatest +musical architect since Beethoven, the necessity for realizing in some +degree what musical form signifies has undoubtedly been a bar to the +rapid acceptance of his greater works by the uneducated lovers of music. +These are of course far more easily moved by effects of colour than by +the subtler beauties of organic structure, and Brahms's attitude towards +tone-colour was scarcely such as would endear him to the large number of +musicians in whose view tone-colour is pre-eminent. His mastery of form, +again, has been attacked as formalism by superficial critics, blind to +the real inspiration and distinction of his ideas, and to their +perfection in regard to style and the appropriateness of every theme to +the exact emotional state to be expressed. In his larger vocal works +there are some which treat of emotional conditions far removed from the +usual stock of subjects taken by the average composer; to compare the +ideas in the "German Requiem" with those of the "Schicksalslied" or +"Nanie" is to learn a lesson in artistic style which can never be +forgotten. In the songs, too, it is scarcely too much to say that the +whole range of human emotion finds expression in noble lyrics that yield +to none in actual musical beauty. The four "Ernste Gesange," Brahms's +last composition, must be considered as his supreme achievement in +dignified utterance of noble thoughts in a style that perfectly fits +them. The choice of words for these as well as for the "Requiem" and +others of his serious works reveals a strong sense of the vanity and +emptiness of human life, but at least as strong a confidence in the +divine consolations. + +It has been the misfortune of the musical world in Germany that every +prominent musician is ranged by critics and amateurs in one of two +hostile camps, and it was probably due in the main to the +misrepresentations of the followers of Wagner that the idea was so +generally held that Brahms was a man of narrow sympathies and hard, not +to say brutal manners. The latter impression was fostered, no doubt, by +the master's natural detestation of the methods by which the average +lionizer seeks to gain his object, and both alike are disproved in the +_Recollections_ of J.V. Widmann, an intimate friend for many years, +which throw a new light on the master, revealing him as a man of the +widest artistic sympathies, neither intolerant of excellence in a line +opposed to his own, nor weakly enthusiastic over mediocre productions by +composers whose views were in complete sympathy with him. His admiration +for Verdi and Wagner is enough to show that the absence of any operatic +work from his list of compositions was simply due to the difficulty of +finding a libretto which appealed to him, not to any antagonism to the +lyric stage in its modern developments. How far he stood from the +prejudices of the typical pedant may be seen in the passionate love he +showed throughout his life for national music, especially that of +Hungary. Not only were his arrangements of Hungarian dances the first +work by which his name was known outside his native land, but his first +pianoforte quartet, op. 25 in G minor, incurred the wrath of the critics +of the time by its introduction of some characteristics of Hungarian +music into the finale. His arrangement of a number of children's +traditional songs was published without his name, and dedicated to the +children of Robert and Clara Schumann in the earliest years of his +creative life; and among the last of his publications was a collection +of forty-nine German Volkslieder, arranged with the utmost skill, taste +and simplicity. He had a great admiration for the waltzes of Strauss, +and in many passages of his own works the _entrain_ that is +characteristic of the Viennese dance-writers is present in a striking +degree. + + See also W.H. Hadow, _Studies in Modern Music_ (2nd series, 1908); and + the articles MUSIC, SONG. (J. A. F. M.) + + + + +BRAHUI, a people of Baluchistan, inhabiting the Brahui mountains, which +extend continuously from near the Bolan Pass to Cape Monze on the +Arabian Sea. The khan of Kalat, the native ruler of Baluchistan, is +himself a Brahui, and a lineal descendant of Kumbar, former chief of the +Kumbarini, a Brahui tribe. The origin of the Brahuis is an ethnological +mystery. Bishop Robert Caldwell and other authorities declare them +Dravidians, and regard them as the western borderers of Dravidian India. +Others believe them to be Scythians,[1] and others again connect them +with Tatar mountaineers who early settled in southern parts of Asia. +The origin of the word itself is in doubt. It is variously derived as a +corruption of the Persian _Ba Rohi_ (literally "of the hills"); as an +eponym from Braho, otherwise Brahin or Ibrahim, a legendary hero of +alleged Arab descent who led his people "out of the west," while Dr +Gustav Oppert believes that the name is in some way related to, if not +identical with, that of the Baluchis. He recognizes in the name of the +Paratas and Paradas, who dwelt in north-eastern Baluchistan, the origin +of the modern Brahui. He gives reasons for regarding the _Bra_ as a +contraction of Bara and obtains "thus in Barahui a name whose +resemblance to that of the ancient Barrhai (the modern Bhars), as well +as to that of the Paratas and Paravar and their kindred the Maratha +Paravari and Dravidian Parheyas of Palaman, is striking." The Brahuis +declare themselves to be the aborigines of the country they now occupy, +their ancestors coming from Aleppo. For this there seems little +foundation, and their language, which has no affinities with Persian, +Pushtu or Baluchi, must be, according to the most eminent scholars, +classed among the Dravidian tongues of southern India. Probably the +Brahuis are of Dravidian stock, a branch long isolated from their +kindred and much Arabized, and thus exhibiting a marked hybridism. + +Whatever their origin, the Brahuis are found in a position of +considerable power in Baluchistan from earliest times. Their authentic +history begins with Mir Ahmad, who was their chief in the 17th century. +The title of "khan" was assumed by Nasir the Great in the middle of the +18th century. The Brahuis are a confederacy of tribes possessing common +lands and uniting from time to time for purposes of offence or defence. +At their head is the khan, who formerly seems to have been regarded as +semi-divine, it being customary for the tribesmen on visiting Kalat to +make offerings at the Ahmadzai gate before entering. The Brahuis are a +nomadic race, who dwell in tents made of goats' hair, black or striped, +and live chiefly on the products of their herds. They are Sunnite +Mahommedans, but are not fanatical. In physique they are very easily +distinguished from their neighbours, the Baluchis and Pathans, being a +smaller, sturdier people with rounder faces characterized by the flat, +blunt and coarse features of the Dravidian races. They are of a dark +brown colour, their hair and beards being often brown not black. They +are an active, hardy race, and though as avaricious as the Pathans, are +more trustworthy and less turbulent. Their ordinary dress is a tunic or +shirt, trousers gathered in at the ankles and a cloak usually of brown +felt. A few wear turbans, but generally their headgear is a round +skullcap with tassel or button. Their women are not strictly veiled. +Sandals of deer or goat skin are worn by all classes. Their weapons are +rifles, swords and shields. They do not use the Afghan knife or any +spears. Some few Brahuis are enlisted in the Bombay Native Infantry. + + See Dr Bellew, _Indus to Euphrates_ (London, 1874); Gustav Oppert, + _The Original Inhabitants of India_ (1893); Dr Theodore Duka, _Essay + on the Brahui Grammar_ (after the German of Dr Trumpp of Munich + University). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Compare Mountstuart Elphinstone's (_History of India_, 9th ed., + 1905, p. 249) description of Scythians with physique of Brahuis. A + relationship between the Jats (q.v.) and the Brahuis has been + suggested, and it is generally held that the former were of Scythic + stock. The Mengals, Bizanjos and Zehris, the three largest Brahui + tribes, are called Jadgal or Jagdal, i.e. Jats, by some of their + neighbours. The Zaghar Mengal, a superior division of the Mengal + tribe, believe they themselves came from a district called Zughd, + somewhere near Samarkand in central Asia. _Gal_ appears to be a + collective suffix in Baluchi, and _Men_ or _Min_ occurs on the lists + of the Behistun inscriptions as the name of one of the Scythian + tribes deported by Darius, the Achaemenian, for their turbulence (see + _Kalat, A Memoir on the County and Family of the Ahmadzai Khans of + Kalat_, by G.P. Tate). Sajdi, another Brahui tribal name, is + Scythian, the principal clan of which tribe is the Saga, both names + being identifiable with the Sagetae and Saki of ancient writers. Thus + there seems some reason for believing that the former occupants of at + least some portions of the Brahui domain were of Scythian blood. + + + + +BRAID (from the O. Eng. _bregdan_, to move quickly to and fro, hence to +weave), a plait, especially a plait of hair, also a plaited tape woven +of wool, silk, gold thread, &c., used for trimming or binding. A +particular use is for the narrow bands, bordered with open work, used in +making point lace. + + + + +BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS (1715-1806), British teacher of the deaf and dumb, was +born in Scotland in 1715, and educated at Edinburgh University. He +became a school teacher, and in 1760 opened in Edinburgh, with one +pupil, the first school in Great Britain for the deaf and dumb, +following the system of Dr John Wallis, described in _Philosophical +Transactions_ nearly a hundred years before. This school was the model +for all of the early English institutions of the kind. Dr Johnson +visited it in 1773, and describes it as "a subject of philosophical +curiosity ... which no other city has to show," and Braidwood's dozen +pupils as able "to hear with the eye." In 1783 Braidwood moved to +Hackney, where he died on the 24th of October 1806. + + + + +BRAILA (in Rumanian _Braila_, formerly IBRAILA), the capital of the +department of Braila, Rumania; situated amid flat and dreary country on +the left bank of the river Danube, about 100 m. from its mouth at +Sulina. Pop. (1900) 58,392, including 10,811 Jews. Southward, the Danube +encircles a vast fen, tenanted only by waterfowl and herds of half-wild +swine, while the plain which extends to the north-east and east only +grows fertile at some distance inland. Braila itself is plainly built on +a bank rising about 50 ft. above sea-level; but partly on a narrow strip +of ground which separates this bank from the water's edge. Along the +crest of the bank a public park is laid out, commanding a view of the +desolate Dobrudja hills, across the river. + +On the landward side, Braila has the shape of a crescent, the curve of +its outer streets following the line of the old fortifications, +dismantled in 1829. Few houses, among the older quarters, exceed two +storeys in height, but the main streets are paved, and there is a +regular supply of filtered water. A wide avenue, the _Strada +Bulivardului_, divides the town proper from the suburbs. The principal +church, among many, is the cathedral of St Michael, a large, ungainly +building of grey sandstone. Electric tramways intersect the town, and +are continued for 3 m. to Lacul Sarat (Salt Lake), where there are +mineral springs and mud-baths, owned by the state. The waters, which +contain over 45% of salt, iodine and sulphur, are among the strongest of +their kind in Europe; and are of high repute, being annually visited by +more than a thousand patients. Braila is the seat of a chamber of +commerce. It is the chief port of entry for Walachia, and the +headquarters of the grain trade; for, besides its advantageous position +on the river, it is connected with the central Walachian railways by a +line to Buzeu, and with the Russian and Moldavian systems by a line to +Galatz. Quays, where ships drawing 15 ft. of water can discharge, line +the river front; and there are large docks, grain elevators and +warehouses, besides paper mills, roperies, and soap and candle works. +Over 20 steamers, maintained by the state, ply between Braila and +Rotterdam. Among the vessels of all nations, the British are first in +numbers and tonnage, the Greek second. Grain and timber form the chief +articles of export; textiles, machinery, iron goods and coal being most +largely imported. + +Many events connected with the history of Walachia took place in the +neighbourhood of Braila. In 1475 Stephen the Great, having dethroned the +voivode Radu, burned the town. In 1573 another Moldavian prince took the +city by storm, and massacred the Turkish garrison. In 1659 it was again +burned by the Walachian prince Mircea, and for the time the Turks were +expelled, but afterwards returned. In the latter part of the 18th +century Braila was several times captured by the Russians, and in 1770 +it was burned. By the peace of Bucharest (1812) the Turks retained the +right of garrisoning Braila. In 1828 it was gallantly defended by +Soliman Pasha, who, after holding out from the middle of May until the +end of June, was allowed to march out with the honours of war. At the +peace of Adrianople (1829) the place was definitely assigned to +Walachia; but before giving it up, the grand-duke Michael of Russia +razed the citadel, and in this ruinous condition it was handed over to +the Walachians. Braila was the spot chosen by the Russian general +Gorchakov for crossing the Danube with his division in 1854. On the +banks of the Danube, a little above the city, are some remains of the +piles of a bridge said by a very doubtful tradition to have been built +by Darius (c. 500 B.C.). + + + + +BRAIN (A.S. _braegen_), that part of the central nervous system which in +vertebrate animals is contained within the cranium or skull; it is +divided into the great brain or cerebrum, the hind brain or cerebellum, +and the medulla oblongata, which is the transitional part between the +spinal cord and the other two parts already named. Except where stated, +we deal here primarily with the brain in man. + + +1. ANATOMY + + _Membranes of the Human Brain._ + + [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Dura Mater and Cranial Sinuses. + + 1. Falx cerebri. + 2. Tentorium. + 3,3. Superior longitudinal sinus. + 4. Lateral sinus. + 5. Internal jugular vein. + 6. Occipital sinus. + 6'. Torcular Herophili. + 7. Inferior longitudinal sinus. + 8. Veins of Galen. + 9 and 10. Superior and inferior petrosal sinus. + 11. Cavernous sinus. + 12. Circular sinus which connects the two cavernous sinuses together. + 13. Ophthalmic vein, from 15, the eyeball. + 14. Crista galli of ethmoid bone.] + + Three membranes named the _dura mater, arachnoid_ and _pia mater_ + cover the brain and lie between it and the cranial cavity. The most + external of the three is the _dura mater_, which consists of a cranial + and a spinal portion. The cranial part is in contact with the inner + table of the skull, and is adherent along the lines of the sutures and + to the margins of the foramina, which transmit the nerves, more + especially to the foramen magnum. It forms, therefore, for these bones + an internal periosteum, and the meningeal arteries which ramify in it + are the nutrient arteries of the inner table. As the growth of bone is + more active in infancy and youth than in the adult, the adhesion + between the dura mater and the cranial bones is greater in early life + than at maturity. From the inner surface of the dura mater strong + bands pass into the cranial cavity, and form partitions between + certain of the subdivisions of the brain. A vertical longitudinal + mesial band, named, from its sickle shape, _falx cerebri_, dips + between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. A smaller sickle-shaped + vertical mesial band, the _falx cerebelli_, attached to the internal + occipital crest, passes between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum. + A large band arches forward in the horizontal plane of the cavity, + from the transverse groove in the occipital bone to the clinoid + processes of the sphenoid, and is attached laterally to the upper + border of the petrous part of each temporal bone. It separates the + cerebrum from the cerebellum, and, as it forms a tent-like covering + for the latter, is named _tentorium cerebelli_. Along certain lines + the cranial dura mater splits into two layers to form tubular passages + for the transmission of venous blood. These passages are named the + _venous blood sinuses_ of the dura mater, and they are lodged in the + grooves on the inner surface of the skull referred to in the + description of the cranial bones. Opening into these sinuses are + numerous veins which convey from the brain the blood that has been + circulating through it; and two of these sinuses, called _cavernous_, + which lie at the sides of the body of the sphenoid bone, receive the + ophthalmic veins from the eyeballs situated in the orbital cavities. + These blood sinuses pass usually from before backwards: a _superior + longitudinal_ along the upper border of the falx cerebri as far as the + internal occipital protuberance; an _inferior longitudinal_ along its + lower border as far as the tentorium, where it joins the _straight + sinus_, which passes back as far as the same protuberance. One or two + small _occipital sinuses_, which lie in the falx cerebelli, also pass + to join the straight and longitudinal sinuses opposite this + protuberance; several currents of blood meet, therefore, at this spot, + and as Herophilus supposed that a sort of whirlpool was formed in the + blood, the name _torcular Herophili_ has been used to express the + meeting of these sinuses. From the torcular the blood is drained away + by two large sinuses, named _lateral_, which curve forward and + downward to the jugular foramina to terminate in the internal jugular + veins. In its course each lateral sinus receives two _petrosal_ + sinuses, which pass from the cavernous sinus backwards along the upper + and lower borders of the petrous part of the temporal bone. The dura + mater consists of a tough, fibrous membrane, somewhat flocculent + externally, but smooth, glistening, and free on its inner surface. The + inner surface has the appearance of a serous membrane, and when + examined microscopically is seen to consist of a layer of squamous + endothelial cells. Hence the dura mater is sometimes called a + fibro-serous membrane. The dura mater is well provided with lymph + vessels, which in all probability open by stomata on the free inner + surface. Between the dura mater and the subjacent arachnoid membrane + is a fine space containing a minute quantity of limpid serum, which + moistens the smooth inner surface of the dura and the corresponding + smooth outer surface of the arachnoid. It is regarded as equivalent to + the cavity of a serous membrane, and is named the _sub-dural space_. + + _Arachnoid Mater._--The arachnoid is a membrane of great delicacy and + transparency, which loosely envelops both the brain and spinal cord. + It is separated from these organs by the pia mater; but between it and + the latter membrane is a distinct space, called _sub-arachnoid_. The + sub-arachnoid space is more distinctly marked beneath the spinal than + beneath the cerebral parts of the membrane, which forms a looser + investment for the cord than for the brain. At the base of the brain, + and opposite the fissures between the convolutions of the cerebrum, + the interval between the arachnoid and the pia mater can, however, + always be seen, for the arachnoid does not, like the pia mater, clothe + the sides of the fissures, but passes directly across between the + summits of adjacent convolutions. The sub-arachnoid space is + subdivided into numerous freely-communicating loculi by bundles of + delicate areolar tissue, which bundles are invested, as Key and + Retzius have shown, by a layer of squamous endothelium. The space + contains a limpid cerebro-spinal fluid, which varies in quantity from + 2 drachms to 2 oz., and is most plentiful in the dilatations at the + base of the brain known as _cisternae_. It should be clearly + understood that there is no communication between the subdural and + sub-arachnoid spaces, but that the latter communicates with the + ventricles through openings in the roof of the fourth, and in the + descending cornua of the lateral ventricles. + + When the skull cap is removed, clusters of granular bodies are usually + to be seen imbedded in the dura mater on each side of the superior + longitudinal sinus; these are named the _Pacchionian bodies_. When + traced through the dura mater they are found to spring from the + arachnoid. The observations of Luschka and Cleland have proved that + villous processes invariably grow from the free surface of that + membrane, and that when these villi greatly increase in size they form + the bodies in question. Sometimes the Pacchionian bodies greatly + hypertrophy, occasioning absorption of the bones of the cranial vault + and depressions on the upper surface of the brain. + + [Illustration: After D.J. Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_. + + FIG. 2.--Front View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of a + full-time Human Foetus.] + + _Pia Mater._--This membrane closely invests the whole outer surface of + the brain. It dips into the fissures between the convolutions, and a + wide prolongation, named _velum interpositum_, lies in the interior of + the cerebrum. With a little care it can be stripped off the brain + without causing injury to its substance. At the base of the brain the + pia mater is prolonged on to the roots of the cranial nerves. This + membrane consists of a delicate connective tissue, in which the + arteries of the brain and spinal cord ramify and subdivide into small + branches before they penetrate the nervous substance, and in which the + veins conveying the blood from the nerve centres lie before they open + into the blood sinuses of the cranial dura mater and the extradural + venus plexus of the spinal canal. + + + _Medulla Oblongata._ + + The _Medulla Oblongata_ rests upon the basi-occipital. It is somewhat + pyramidal in form, about 1-1/4 in. long, and 1 in. broad in its widest + part. It is a bilateral organ, and is divided into a right and a left + half by shallow anterior and posterior median fissures, continuous + with the corresponding fissures in the spinal cord; the posterior + fissure ends above in the fourth ventricle. Each half is subdivided + into elongated tracts of nervous matter. Next to, and parallel with + the anterior fissure is the _anterior pyramid_ (see fig. 2). This + pyramid is continuous below with the cord, and the place of continuity + is marked by the passage across the fissure of three or four bundles + of nerve fibres, from each half of the cord to the opposite anterior + pyramid; this crossing is called the _decussation of the pyramids_. To + the side of the pyramid, and separated from it by a faint fissure, is + the _olivary fasciculus_, which at its upper end is elevated into the + projecting oval-shaped _olivary body_. Behind the olivary body in the + lower half of the medulla are three tracts named from before backward + the _funiculus of Rolando_, the _funiculus cuneatus_ and the + _funiculus gracilis_ (see fig. 3). The two _funiculi graciles_ of + opposite sides are in contact in the mid dorsal line and have between + them the _postero median_ fissure. When the fourth ventricle is + reached they diverge to form the lower limit of that diamond-shaped + space and are slightly swollen to form the _clavae_. All these three + bundles appear to be continued up into the cerebellum as the restiform + bodies or inferior cerebellar peduncles, but really the continuity is + very slight, as the restiform bodies are formed from the direct + cerebellar tracts of the spinal cord joining with the superficial + arcuate fibres which curve back just below the olivary bodies. The + upper part of the fourth ventricle is bounded by the superior + cerebellar peduncles which meet just before the inferior quadrigeminal + bodies are reached. Stretching across between them is the superior + medullary velum or valve of Vieussens, forming the upper part of the + roof, while the inferior velum forms the lower part, and has an + opening called the _foramen_ of Majendie, through which the + sub-arachnoid space communicates with the ventricle. The floor (see + fig. 3) has two triangular depressions on each side of a median + furrow; these are the superior and inferior _fovea_, the significance + of which will be noticed in the development of the rhombencephalon. + Running horizontally across the middle of the floor are the _striae + acusticae_ which are continued into the auditory nerve. The floor of + the fourth ventricle is of special interest because a little way from + the surface are the deep origins of all the cranial nerves from the + fifth to the twelfth. (See NERVE, _cranial_). If a section is made + transversely through the medulla about the apex of the fourth + ventricle three important bundles of fibres are cut close to the mid + line on each side (see fig. 4). The most anterior is the pyramid or + motor tract, the decussation of which has been seen. Behind this is + the mesial fillet or sensory tract, which has also decussated a little + below the point of section, while farther back still is the posterior + longitudinal bundle which is coming up from the anterior basis bundle + of the cord. External to and behind the pyramid is the crenated + section of the olivary nucleus, the surface bulging of which forms the + olivary body. + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._ + + FIG. 3.--Back View of the Medulla, Pons and Mesencephalon of a + full-time Human Foetus.] + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._ + + FIG. 4.--Transverse Section through the Human Medulla in the Lower + Olivary Region.] + + The grey matter of the medulla oblongata, which contains numerous + multipolar nerve cells, is in part continuous with the grey matter of + the spinal cord, and in part consists of independent masses. As the + grey matter of the cord enters the medulla it loses its crescentic + arrangement. The posterior cornua are thrown outwards towards the + surface, lose their pointed form, and dilate into rounded masses named + the grey tubercles of Rolando. The grey matter of the anterior cornua + is cut off from the rest by the decussating pyramids and finally + disappears. The _formatio reticularis_ which is feebly developed in + the cord becomes well developed in the medulla. In the lower part of + the medulla a central canal continuous with that of the cord exists, + but when the clavae on the opposite sides of the medulla diverge from + each other, the central canal loses its posterior boundary, and + dilates into the cavity of the fourth ventricle. The grey matter in + the interior of the medulla appears, therefore, on the floor of the + ventricle and is continuous with the grey matter near the central + canal of the cord. This grey matter forms collections of nerve cells, + which are the centres of origin of several cranial nerves. Crossing + the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata, immediately below the + pons, in the majority of mammals is a transverse arrangement of fibres + forming the _trapezium_, which contains a grey nucleus, named by van + der Kolk the _superior olive_. In the human brain the trapezium is + concealed by the lower transverse fibres of the pons, but when + sections are made through it, as L. Clarke pointed out, the grey + matter of the superior olive can be seen. These fibres of the + _trapezium_ come from the cochlear nucleus of the auditory nerve, and + run up as the lateral fillet. + + The _Pons Varolii_ or BRIDGE is cuboidal in form (see fig. 2): its + anterior surface rests upon the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid, and is + marked by a median longitudinal groove; its inferior surface receives + the pyramidal and olivary tracts of the medulla oblongata; at its + superior surface are the two crura cerebri; each lateral surface is in + relation to a hemisphere of the cerebellum, and a peduncle passes from + the pons into the interior of each hemisphere; the posterior surface + forms in part the upper portion of the floor of the fourth ventricle, + and in part is in contact with the corpora quadrigemina. + + The pons consists of white and grey matter: the nerve fibres of the + white matter pass through the substance of the pons, in either a + transverse or a longitudinal direction. The transverse fibres go from + one hemisphere of the cerebellum to that of the opposite side; some + are situated on the anterior surface of the pons, and form its + superficial transverse fibres, whilst others pass through its + substance and form the deep transverse fibres. The longitudinal fibres + ascend from the medulla oblongata and leave the pons by emerging from + its upper surface as fibres of the two crura cerebri. The pons + possesses a median raphe continuous with that of the medulla + oblongata, and formed like it by a decussation of fibres in the mesial + plane. In a horizontal section through the pons and upper part of the + fourth ventricle the superficial transverse fibres are seen most + anteriorly; then come the anterior pyramidal fibres, then the deep + transverse pontine fibres, then the fillet, while most posteriorly and + close to the floor of the fourth ventricle the posterior longitudinal + bundle is seen (see fig. 5). + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_. + + FIG. 5.--Section through the Lower Part of the Human Pons Varolli + immediately above the Medulla.] + + The grey matter of the pons is scattered irregularly through its + substance, and appears on its posterior surface; but not on the + anterior surface, composed exclusively of the superficial transverse + fibres. + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy._ + + FIG. 6.--Mesial section through the Corpus Callosum, the + Mesencephalon, the Pons, Medulla and Cerebellum. Showing the third and + fourth ventricles joined by the aqueduct of Sylvius.] + + + _The Cerebellum._ + + The _Cerebellum_, LITTLE BRAIN, or AFTER BRAIN occupies the inferior + pair of occipital fossae, and lies below the plane of the tentorium + cerebelli. It consists of two hemispheres or lateral lobes, and of a + median or central lobe, which in human anatomy is called the vermis. + It is connected below with the medulla oblongata by the two restiform + bodies which form its _inferior peduncles_, and above with the corpora + quadrigemina of the cerebrum by two bands, which form its _superior + peduncles_; whilst the two hemispheres are connected together by the + transverse fibres of the pons, which form the _middle peduncles_ of + the cerebellum. On the superior or tentorial surface of the cerebellum + the median or vermiform lobe is a mere elevation, but on its inferior + or occipital surface this lobe forms a well-defined process, which + lies at the bottom of a deep fossa or _vallecula_; this fossa is + prolonged to the posterior border of the cerebellum, and forms there a + deep notch which separates the two hemispheres from each other; in + this notch the falx cerebelli is lodged. Extending horizontally + backwards from the middle cerebellar peduncle, along the outer border + of each hemisphere is the _great horizontal fissure_, which divides + the hemisphere into its tentorial and occipital surfaces. Each of + these surfaces is again subdivided by fissures into smaller lobes, of + which the most important are the _amygdala_ or _tonsil_, which forms + the lateral boundary of the anterior part of the vallecula, and the + _flocculus_, which is situated immediately behind the middle peduncle + of the cerebellum. The inferior vermiform process is subdivided into a + posterior part or _pyramid_; an elevation or _uvula_, situated between + the two tonsils; and an anterior pointed process or _nodule_. + Stretching between the two flocculi, and attached midway to the sides + of the nodule, is a thin, white, semilunar-shaped plate of nervous + matter, called the inferior _medullary velum_. + + The whole outer surface of the cerebellum possesses a characteristic + foliated or laminated appearance, due to its subdivision into + multitudes of thin plates or lamellae by numerous fissures. The + cerebellum consists of both grey and white matter. The grey matter + forms the exterior or cortex of the lamellae, and passes from one to + the other across the bottoms of the several fissures. The white matter + lies in the interior of the organ, and extends into the core of each + lamella. When a vertical section is made through the organ, the + prolongations of white matter branching off into the interior of the + several lamellae give to the section an arborescent appearance, known + by the fanciful name of _arbor vitae_ (see fig. 6). Independent masses + of grey matter are, however, found in the interior of the cerebellum. + If the hemisphere be cut through a little to the outer side of the + median lobe, a zigzag arrangement of grey matter, similar in + appearance and structure to the nucleus of the olivary body in the + medulla oblongata, and known as the _corpus dentatum_ of the + cerebellum, is seen; it lies in the midst of the white core of the + hemisphere, and encloses white fibres, which leave the interior of the + corpus at its inner and lower side. On the mesial side of this _corpus + dentatum_ lie three smaller nuclei. The white matter is more abundant + in the hemispheres than in the median lobe, and is for the most part + directly continuous with the fibres of the peduncles of the + cerebellum. Thus the restiform or inferior peduncles pass from below + upward through the white core, to end in the grey matter of the + tentorial surface of the cerebellum, more especially in that of the + central lobe; on their way they are connected with the grey matter of + the corpus dentatum. The superior peduncles, which descend from the + corpora quadrigemina of the cerebrum, form connexions mainly with the + corpus dentatum. The middle peduncles form a large proportion of the + white core, and their fibres terminate in the grey matter of the + foliated cortex of the hemispheres. It has been noticed that those + fibres which are lowest in the pons go to the upper surface of the + cerebellum and vice versa. + + _Histology of the Cerebellum._--The white centre of the cerebellum is + composed of numbers of medullated nerve fibres coursing to and from + the grey matter of the cortex. These fibres are supported in a + groundwork of neuroglial tissue, their nutrition being supplied by a + small number of blood vessels. + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_. + + FIG. 7.--Transverse Section through a Cerebellar Folium (after + Kolliker). Treated by the Golgi method. + + P. Axon of cell of Purkinje. + F. Moss fibres. + K and K^1. Fibres from white core of folium ending in molecular + layer in connexion with the dendrites of the cells of Purkinje. + M. Small cell of the molecular layer + GR. Granule cell. + GR^1. Axons of granule cells in molecular layer cut transversely. + M^1. Basket-cells. + ZK. Basket-work around the cells of Purkinje. + GL. Neuroglial cell. + N. Axon of an association cell.] + + The cortex (see fig. 7) consists of a thin layer of grey material + forming an outer coat of somewhat varying thickness over the whole + external surface of the laminae of the organ. When examined + microscopically it is found to be made up of two layers, an outer + "molecular" and an inner "granular" layer. Forming a layer lying at + the junction of these two are a number of cells, the _cells of + Purkinje_, which constitute the most characteristic feature of the + cerebellum. The bodies of these cells are pear-shaped. Their inner + ends taper and finally end in a nerve fibre which may be traced into + the white centre. In their course through the granule layer they give + off a number of branching collaterals, some turning back and passing + between the cells of Purkinje into the molecular layer. Their inner + ends terminate in one or sometimes two stout processes which + repeatedly branch dichotomously, thus forming a very elaborate dendron + in the molecular layer. The branchings of this dendron are also highly + characteristic in that they are approximately restricted to a single + plane like an espalier fruit tree, and those for neighbouring cells + are all parallel to one another and at right angles to the general + direction of the folium to which they belong. In the molecular layer + are found two types of cells. The most abundant are the so-called + _basket cells_ which are distributed through the whole thickness of + the layer. They have a rounded body giving off many branching dendrons + to their immediate neighbourhood and one long neuraxon which runs + parallel to the surface and to the long axis of the lamina. In its + course, this gives off numerous collaterals which run downward to the + bodies of Purkinje's cells. Their terminal branchings together with + similar terminals of other collaterals form the basket-work around the + bodies of these cells. + + The granular layer is sometimes termed the rust-coloured layer from + its appearance to the naked eye. It contains two types of nerve cells, + the small granule cells and the large granule cells. The former are + the more numerous. They give off a number of short dendrites with + claw-like endings, and a fine non-medullated neuraxon process. This + runs upward to the cortex, where it divides into two branches in the + form of a T. The branches run for some distance parallel to the axis + of the folium and terminate in unbranched ends. The large granule + cells are multipolar cells, many of the branchings penetrating well + into the molecular layer. The neuraxon process turns into the opposite + direction and forms a richly branching system through the entire + thickness of the granular layer. There is also an abundant plexus of + fine medullated fibres within the granule layer. + + The fibres of the white central matter are partly centrifugal, the + neuraxons of the cells of Purkinje, and partly centripetal. The + position of the cells of these latter fibres is not known. The fibres + give rise to an abundant plexus of fibrils in the granular layer, and + many reaching into the molecular layer ramify there, especially in the + immediate neighbourhood of the dendrites of Purkinje's cells. From the + appearance of their plexus of fibrils these are sometimes called _moss + fibres_. + + The _Fourth Ventricle_ is the dilated upper end of the central canal + of the medulla oblongata. Its shape is like an heraldic lozenge. Its + floor is formed by the grey matter of the posterior surfaces of the + medulla oblongata and pons, already described (see figs. 3 and 6); its + roof partly by the inferior vermis of the cerebellum, the _nodule_ of + which projects into its cavity, and partly by a thin layer, called + _valve of Vieussens_, or superior _medullary velum_; its lower lateral + boundaries by the divergent clavae and restiform bodies; its upper + lateral boundaries by the superior peduncles of the cerebellum. The + _inferior medullary velum_, a reflection of the pia mater and + epithelium from the back of the medulla to the inferior vermis, closes + it in below. Above, it communicates with the _aqueduct of Sylvius_, + which is tunnelled below the substance of the corpora quadrigemina. + Along the centre of the floor is the median furrow, which terminates + below in a pen-shaped form, the so-called _calamus scriptorius._ + Situated on its floor are the fasciculi teretes, striae acusticae, and + deposits of grey matter described in connexion with the medulla + oblongata. Its epithelial lining is continuous with that of the + central canal. + + + _The Cerebrum._ + + The _Cerebrum_ or GREAT BRAIN lies above the plane of the tentorium, + and forms much the largest division of the encephalon. It is customary + in human anatomy to include under the name of cerebrum, not only the + convolutions, the corpora striata, and the optic thalami, developed in + the anterior cerebral vesicle, but also the corpora quadrigemina and + crura cerebri developed in the mesencephalon or middle cerebral + vesicle. The cerebrum is ovoid in shape, and presents superiorly, + anteriorly and posteriorly a deep _median longitudinal fissure_, which + subdivides it into two hemispheres. Inferiorly there is a continuity + of structure between the two hemispheres across the mesial plane, and + if the two hemispheres be drawn asunder by opening out the + longitudinal fissure, a broad white band, the _corpus callosum_, may + be seen at the bottom of the fissure passing across the mesial plane + from one hemisphere to the other. The outer surface of each hemisphere + is convex, and adapted in shape to the concavity of the inner table of + the cranial bones; its inner surface, which bounds the longitudinal + fissure, is flat and is separated from the opposite hemisphere by the + falx cerebri; its under surface, where it rests on the tentorium, is + concave, and is separated by that membrane from the cerebellum and + pons. From the front of the pons two strong white bands, the _crura + cerebri_ or _cerebral peduncles_, pass forward and upward (see fig. + 2). Winding round the outer side of each crus is a flat white band, + the _optic tract_. These tracts converge in front, and join to form + the _optic commissure_, from which the two _optic nerves_ arise. The + crura cerebri, optic tracts, and optic commissure enclose a + lozenge-shaped space, which includes--(a) a grey layer, which, from + being perforated by several small arteries, is called _locus + perforatus posticus_; (b) two white mammillae, the _corpora + albicantia_; (c) a grey nodule, the _tuber cinereum_, from which (d) + the _infundibulum_ projects to join the _pituitary body_. Immediately + in front of the optic commissure is a grey layer, the _lamina cinerea_ + of the third ventricle; and between the optic commissure and the inner + end of each Sylvian fissure is a grey spot perforated by small + arteries, the _locus perforatus anticus_. + + If a transverse section is made at right angles to the surface of the + crura cerebri it will pass right through the mesencephalon and come + out on the dorsal side through the corpora quadrigemina (see fig. 8). + The ventral part of each crus forms the crusta, which is the + continuation forward of the anterior pyramidal fibres of the medulla + and pons, and is the great motor path from the brain to the cord. + Dorsal to this is a layer of pigmented grey matter, called the + _substantia nigra_, and dorsal to this again is the tegmentum, which + is a continuation upward of the formatio reticularis of the medulla, + and passing through it are seen three important nerve bundles. The + superior cerebellar peduncle is the most internal of these and + decussates with its fellow of the opposite side so that the two + tegmenta are continuous across the middle line. More externally the + mesial fillet is seen, while dorsal to the cerebellar peduncle is the + posterior longitudinal bundle. If the section happens to pass through + the superior corpus quadrigeminum a characteristic circular area + appears between the cerebellar peduncle and the fillet, which, from + its tint, is called the red nucleus. More dorsally still the section + will pass through the Sylvian aqueduct or passage from the third to + the fourth ventricle, and this is surrounded by a mass of grey matter + in the ventral part of which are the nuclei of the third and fourth + nerves. The third nerve is seen at the level of the superior corpus + quadrigeminum running from its nucleus of origin, through the red + nucleus, to a groove on the inner side of the crus called the + _oculo-motor_ groove, which marks the separation between the crusta + and tegmentum. Dorsal to the Sylvian aqueduct is a layer called the + _lamina quadrigemina_ and on this the corpora quadrigemina rest. The + superior pair of these bodies is overlapped by the pineal body and + forms part of the lower visual centres. Connexions can be traced to + the optic tract, the higher visual centre on the mesial surface of the + occipital lobe, the deep origin of the third or oculo-motor nerve as + well as to the mesial and lateral fillet. The inferior pair of + quadrigeminal bodies are more closely in touch with the organs of + hearing, and are connected by the lateral fillet with the cochlear + nucleus of the auditory nerve. + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_. + + FIG. 8.--Transverse Section through the Human Mesencephalon at the + level of the superior Quadrigeminal Body.] + + + _Surface of the Brain._ + + The peripheral part of each hemisphere, which consists of grey matter, + exhibits a characteristic folded appearance, known as gyri (or + convolutions) of the cerebrum. These gyri are separated from each + other by _fissures_ and _sulci_, some of which are considered to + subdivide the hemisphere into lobes, whilst others separate the gyri + in each lobe from each other. In each hemisphere of the human brain + five lobes are recognized: the temporo-sphenoidal, frontal, parietal, + occipital, and the central lobe or Island of Reil; it should, however, + be realized that these lobes do not exactly correspond to the outlines + of the bones after which they are named. Passing obliquely on the + outer face of the hemisphere from before, upward and backward, is the + well marked _Sylvian fissure_ (fig. 9, s), which is the first to + appear in the development of the hemisphere. Below it lies the + temporo-sphenoidal lobe, and above and in front of it, the parietal + and frontal lobes. As soon as it appears on the external surface of + the brain the fissure divides into three limbs, anterior horizontal + (s^1), ascending (s^2), and posterior horizontal (s^3), the latter + being by far the longest. The place whence these diverge is the + Sylvian point and corresponds to the pterion on the surface of the + skull (see ANATOMY: _Superficial and Artistic_). Between these three + limbs and the vallecula or main stem of the fissure are four + triangular tongues or opercula; these are named, according to their + position, orbital (fig. 9, C), frontal (pars triangularis) (B), + fronto-parietal (pars basilaris) (A) and temporal. The frontal lobe is + separated from the parietal by the _fissure of Rolando_ (fig. 9, r) + which extends on the outer face of the hemisphere from the + longitudinal fissure obliquely downward and forward towards the + Sylvian fissure. About 2 in. from the hinder end of the hemisphere is + the _parieto-occipital fissure_, which, commencing at the longitudinal + fissure, passes down the inner surface of the hemisphere, and + transversely outwards for a short distance on the outer surface of the + hemisphere; it separates the parietal and occipital lobes from each + other. + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_. + + FIG. 9.--Gyri and Sulci, on the outer surface of the Cerebral + Hemisphere. + + f^1, Sulcus frontalis superior. + f^2, Sulcus frontalis inferior. + f.m, Sulcus frontalis medius. + p.m, Sulcus paramedialis. + A, Pars basilaris. + B, Pars triangularis. + C, Pars orbitalis. + S, Sylvian fissure. + s^1, Anterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure). + s^2, Ascending limb (Sylvian fissure). + s^3. Posterior horizontal limb (Sylvian fissure). + s.asc, Ascending terminal part of the posterior horizontal limb of + the Sylvianfissure. + p.c.i, Inferior praecentral sulcus. + p.c.s, Superior praecentral sulcus. + r, Fissure of Rolando. + g.s, Superior genu. + g.i, Inferior genu. + d, Sulcus diagonalis. + t^1, Superior temporal sulcus (parallel sulcus). + t^2, Inferior temporal sulcus. + p^1, Inferior postcentral sulcus. + p^2, Superior postcentral sulcus. + p^3, Ramus horizontalis. + p^4, Ramus occipitalis. + s.o.t, Sulcus occipitalis transversus. + occ. lat, Sulcus occipitalis lateralis (the sulcus lunatus of Elliot + Smith). + c.m, Calloso-marginal sulcus. + c.t.r, Inferior transverse furrow.] + + The _Temporo-Sphenoidal Lobe_ presents on the outer surface of the + hemisphere three convolutions, arranged in parallel _tiers_ from above + downward, and named _superior, middle and inferior temporal_ gyri. The + fissure which separates the superior and middle of these convolutions + is called the _parallel fissure_ (fig. 9, t^1). The _Occipital Lobe_ + also consists from above downwards of three parallel gyri, named + _superior, middle and inferior occipital_. The _Frontal Lobe_ is more + complex; immediately in front of the fissure of Rolando, and forming + indeed its anterior boundary, is a convolution named _ascending + frontal_ or pre-central, which ascends obliquely backward and upward + from the Sylvian to the longitudinal fissure. Springing from the front + of this gyrus, and passing forward to the anterior end of the + cerebrum, are three gyri, arranged in parallel _tiers_ from above + downwards, and named _superior, middle and inferior frontal_ gyri, + which are also prolonged on to the orbital face of the frontal lobe. + The _Parietal Lobe_ is also complex; its most anterior gyrus, named + _ascending parietal_ or post-central, ascends parallel to and + immediately behind the fissure of Rolando. Springing from the upper + end of the back of this gyrus is the supra-parietal lobule, which, + forming the boundary of the longitudinal fissure, extends as far back + as the parieto-occipital fissure; springing from the lower end of the + back of this gyrus is the _supra-marginal_, which forms the upper + boundary of the hinder part of the Sylvian fissure; as this gyrus + occupies the hollow in the parietal bone, which corresponds to the + eminence, it may appropriately be named the _gyrus_ of the _parietal + eminence_. Above and behind the gyrus of the parietal eminence is the + _angular gyrus_, which bends round the posterior extremity of the + parallel fissure, while arching over the hinder end of the inferior + temporo-sphenoidal sulcus is the post-parietal gyrus. Lying in the + parietal lobe is the _intra-parietal_ fissure (fig. 9, p^3 and p^4), + which separates the gyrus of the parietal eminence from the + supra-parietal lobule. + + The _Central Lobe_ of the hemisphere, more usually called the _insula_ + or _island of Reil_, does not come to the surface of the hemisphere, + but lies deeply within the Sylvian fissure, the opercula forming the + margin of which, conceal it. It consists of four or five short gyri, + which radiate from the _locus perforatus anticus_, situated at the + inner end of the fissure. This lobe is almost entirely surrounded by a + deep sulcus called the limiting sulcus of Reil, which insulates it + from the adjacent gyri. It lies opposite the upper part of the + ali-sphenoid, where it articulates with the parietal and + squamous-temporal. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Orbital surface of the left frontal lobe and + the island of Reil; the tip of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe has been + removed to display the latter. + + 17. Convolution of the margin of the longitudinal fissure. + O. Olfactory fissure, over which the olfactory peduncle and lobe are + situated. + TR. Orbital sulcus. + 1" 1"'. Convolutions on the orbital suface. + 1,1,1,1. Under surface of infero-frontal convolution. + 4. Under surface of ascending frontal; and 5, of ascending parietal + convolutions. + C. Central lobe or insula.] + + In front of the central lobe, on the base of the brain, are the + _orbital gyri_, which are separated from one another by the _orbital + sulcus_. This is usually H-shaped, and the gyri are therefore + anterior, posterior, external and internal. Bisecting the internal + orbital gyrus is an antero-posteripr sulcus (_s. rectus_), beneath + which lies the olfactory lobe, bulbous in front, for the olfactory + nerves to arise from. + + On the mesial surface of the hemisphere, as seen when the brain is + longitudinally bisected and the cerebellum and medulla removed by + cutting through the crus cerebri (see fig. 11), the divided corpus + callosum is the most central object, while below it are seen the + fornix, septum lucidum and third ventricle, the description of which + will follow. The cerebral surface, above and in front of the corpus + callosum, is divided into two by a sulcus, the contour of which + closely resembles that of the upper margin of the corpus callosum. + This is the _calloso-marginal sulcus_, so called because it separates + the callosal gyrus, which lies between it and the corpus callosum, + from the marginal gyri nearer the margin of the brain. When the sulcus + reaches a point vertically above the hind end of the corpus callosum + it turns sharply upward and so forms the hinder limit of the marginal + gyri, the posterior inch or two of which is more or less distinctly + marked off to form the _paracentral lobule_, where the upper part of + the central fissure of Rolando turns over the margin of the brain. The + callosal gyrus, which is also called the gyrus fornicatus from its + arched appearance, is continued backward round the posterior end of + the corpus callosum, and so to the mesial surface of the temporal + lobe. Behind the upturned end of the calloso-marginal sulcus there is + a square area which is called the _precuneus_ or _quadrate lobe_; it + is bounded behind by the deeply cut internal parieto-occipital fissure + and this runs from the margin of the brain downward and forward to + join another fissure, the calcarine, at an acute angle, thus enclosing + a wedge-shaped piece of brain called the _cuneus_ between them. The + _calcarine_ fissure is fairly horizontal, and is joined about its + middle by the internal parieto-occipital, so that the part in front + of the junction is called the _pre-calcarine_, and that behind the + _post-calcarine_ fissure. The internal parieto-occipital and calcarine + are real fissures, because they cause an elevation in the interior of + the brain, known as the hippocampus minor. Just in front of the + anterior end of the calcarine fissure the callosal gyrus is + constricted to form the isthmus which connects it with the hippocampal + or uncinate gyrus. Below the calcarine fissure is a gyrus called the + _gyrus lingualis_, and this is bounded below by another true fissure, + the _collateral_, which runs parallel to the calcarine, but is + continued much farther forward into the temporal lobe and so forms the + lower boundary of the hippocampal gyrus. It will thus be seen that the + hippocampal gyrus is continuous posteriorly with the callosal gyrus + above by means of the isthmus, and with the gyrus lingualis below. The + hippocampal gyrus is bounded above by the dentate or hippocampal + fissure which causes the hippocampus major in the descending cornu and + so is a complete fissure. If its lips are separated the fascia dentata + or gyrus dentatus and the fimbria continued from the posterior pillar + of the fornix are seen. Anteriorly the fissure is arrested by the + recurved process of the upper part of the hippocampal gyrus, called + the _uncus_, and in front of this a slight sulcus, the _incisura + temporalis_, marks off the temporal pole or tip of the temporal lobe + from the region of the uncus. It will be seen that the callosal gyrus, + isthmus, and hippocampal gyrus form nearly a complete ring, and to + this the name of _limbic lobe_ is given. + + + _Interior of the Cerebrum._ + + If a horizontal slice be removed from the upper part of each + hemisphere (see fig. 12), the peripheral grey matter of the gyri will + be seen to follow their various windings, whilst the core of each + gyrus consists of white matter continuous with a mass of white matter + in the interior of the hemisphere. If a deeper slice be now made down + to the plane of the corpus callosum, the white matter of that + structure will be seen to be continuous with the white centre of each + hemisphere known as the centrum ovale. The _corpus callosum_ does not + equal the hemispheres in length, but approaches nearer to their + anterior than their posterior ends. It terminates behind in a free + rounded end, named the splenium (see fig. 11), whilst in front it + forms a knee-shaped bend, and passes downwards and backwards as far as + the lamina cinerea. If the dissection be performed on a brain which + has been hardened in spirit, the corpus callosum is seen to consist + almost entirely of bundles of nerve fibres, passing transversely + across the mesial plane between the two hemispheres; these fibres may + be traced into the white cores and grey matter of the gyri, and + connect the gyri, though by no means always corresponding ones, in the + opposite hemispheres. Hence the corpus callosum is a connecting or + commissural structure, which brings the gyri of the two hemispheres + into anatomical and physiological relation with each other. On the + surface of the corpus callosum a few fibres, the _striae + longitudinales_, run in the antero-posterior or longitudinal direction + (see fig. 12, b). Their morphological interest is referred to in the + section below on _Comparative Anatomy_. In the sulcus between the + corpus callosum and the limbic lobe a narrow band of fibres called the + _cingulum_ is seen, most of its fibres only run a short distance in it + and link together adjacent parts of the brain. If the corpus callosum + be now cut through on each side of its mesial line, the large cavity + or _lateral ventricle_ in each hemisphere will be opened into. + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-The book of Anatomy_. + + FIG. 11.--The Gyri and Sulci on the Mesial Aspect of the Cerebral + Hemisphere, r, Fissure of Rolando. r, o, Rostral sulcus. i, t, + Incisura temporalis.] + + The lateral ventricle is subdivided into a _central space_ or body, + and three bent prolongations or _cornua_; the _anterior cornu_ extends + forward, outward and downward into the frontal lobe; the _posterior + cornu_ curves backward, outward and inward into the occipital lobe; + the _descending cornu_ curves backward, outward, downward, forward + and inward, behind and below the optic thalamus into the + temporo-sphenoidal lobe. On the floor of the central space may be seen + from before backward the grey upper surface of the pear-shaped caudate + nucleus of the _corpus striatum_ (figs. 12 and 13, f), and to its + inner and posterior part a small portion of the _optic thalamus_, + whilst between the two is the curved flat band, the _taenia + semicircularis_ (figs. 12 and 13, g). Resting on the upper surface of + the thalamus is the vascular fringe of the velum interpositum, named + _choroid plexus_, and immediately internal to this fringe is the free + edge of the white _posterior pillar of the fornix_. The anterior cornu + has the anterior end of the corpus striatum projecting into it. The + posterior cornu has an elevation on its floor, the _hippocampus minor_ + (fig. 12, n), and between this cornu and the descending cornu is the + elevation called _eminentia collateralis_, formed by the collateral + fissure (fig. 12, o). + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--To show the Right Ventricle and the left half + of the Corpus Callosum. + + a, Transverse fibres, and + b, Longitudinal fibres of corpus callosum. + c, Anterior, and + d, Posterior cornua of lateral ventricle. + e, Septum lucidum. + f, Corpus striatum. + g, Taenia semicircularis. + h, Optic thalamus. + k, Choroid plexus. + l, Taenia hippocampi. + m, Hippocampus major. + n, Hippocampus minor. + o, Eminentia collateralis.] + + Extending down the descending cornu and following its curvature is the + _hippocampus major_, which terminates below in a nodular end, the _pes + hippocampi_; on its inner border is the white _taenia hippocampi_, + continuous above with the posterior pillar of the fornix. If the + taenia be drawn to one side the hippocampal fissure is exposed, at the + bottom of which the grey matter of the gyrus hippocampi may be seen to + form a well-defined dentated border (the so-called _fascia dentala_). + The choroid plexus of the pia mater turns round the gyrus hippocampi, + and enters the descending cornu through the lateral part of the great + transverse fissure between the taenia hippocampi and optic thalamus. + The lateral ventricle is lined by a ciliated epithelium called the + _ependyma._ This lining is continuous through the foramen of Monro + with that of the third ventricle, which again is continuous with the + lining of the fourth ventricle through the aqueduct of Sylvius. A + little fluid is contained in the cerebral ventricles, which, under + some pathological conditions, may increase greatly in quantity, so as + to occasion considerable dilatation of the ventricular cavities. + + If the corpus callosum be now divided about its middle by a transverse + incision, and the posterior half of this structure be turned back (see + fig. 13), the body of the fornix on which the corpus callosum rests is + exposed. If the anterior half of the corpus callosum be now turned + forward, the grey partition, or _septum lucidum_, between the two + lateral ventricles is exposed. This septum fits into the interval + between the under surface of the corpus callosum and the upper surface + of the anterior part of the fornix. It consists of two layers of grey + matter, between which is a narrow vertical mesial space, the _fifth + ventricle_ (fig. 13, e), and this space does not communicate with the + other ventricles nor is it lined with ependyma. If the septum be now + removed, the anterior part of the fornix is brought into view. + + The _fornix_ is an arch-shaped band of nerve fibres extending in the + antero-posterior direction. Its anterior end forms the _anterior_ + pillars of the arch, its posterior end the _posterior pillars_, whilst + the intermediate _body_ of the fornix forms the crown of the arch. It + consists of two lateral halves, one belonging to each hemisphere. At + the summit of the arch the two lateral halves are joined to form the + _body_; but in front the two halves separate from each other, and form + two anterior pillars, which descend in front of the third ventricle to + the base of the cerebrum, where they form the _corpora albicantia_, + and from these some white fibres called the bundle of Vicq d'Azyr + ascend to the optic thalamus (see fig. 11). Behind the body the two + halves diverge much more from each other, and form the posterior + pillars, in the triangular interval between which is a thin lamina of + commissural fibres called the _lyra_ (fig. 13, a). Each posterior + pillar curves downward and outward into the descending cornu of the + ventricle, and, under the name of _taenia hippocampi_, forms the + mesial free border of the hippocampus major (fig. 13, l). Eventually + it ends in the substance of the hippocampus and in the uncus of the + temporal lobe. If the body of the fornix be now divided by a + transverse incision, its anterior part thrown forward, and its + posterior part backward, the great transverse fissure of the cerebrum + is opened into, and the velum interpositum lying in that fissure is + exposed. + + The _velum interpositum_ is an expanded fold of pia mater, which + passes into the anterior of the hemispheres through the great + transverse fissure. It is triangular in shape; its base is a line with + the posterior end of the corpus callosum, where it is continuous with + the external pia mater; its lateral margins are fringed by the choroid + plexuses, which are seen in the bodies and descending cornua of the + lateral ventricles, where they are invested by the endothelial lining + of those cavities. Its apex, where the two choroid plexuses blend with + each other, lies just behind the anterior pillars of the fornix. The + interval between the apex and these pillars is the aperture of + communication between the two lateral ventricles and the third, + already referred to as the foramen of Monro. The choroid plexuses + contain the small _choroidal arteries_; and the blood from these is + returned by small veins, which join to form the _veins of Galen._ + These veins pass along the centre of the velum, and, as is shown in + fig. 1, open into the straight sinus. If the velum interpositum be now + carefully raised from before backward, the optic thalami, third + ventricle, pineal body and corpora quadrigemina are exposed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--A deeper dissection of the Lateral Ventricle, + and of the Velum Interpositum. + + a, Lyra, turned back. + b, b, Posterior pillars of the fornix, turned back. + c, c, Anterior pillars of the fornix. + d, Velum interpositum and veins of Galen. + e, Fifth ventricle. + f, f, Corpus striatum. + g, g, Taenia semicircularis. + h, h, Optic thalamus. + k, Choroid plexus. + l, Taenia hippocampi. + m, Hippocampus major in descending cornu. + n, Hippocampus minor. + o, Eminentia collateralis.] + + The _optic thalamus_ is a large, somewhat ovoid body situated behind + the corpus striatum, and above the crus cerebri. Its upper surface is + partly seen in the floor of the body of the lateral ventricle, but is + for the most part covered by the fornix and velum interpositum. Its + postero-inferior surface forms the roof of the descending cornu of + the ventricle, whilst its inner surface forms the side wall of the + third ventricle. At its outer and posterior part are two slight + elevations, in close relation to the optic tract, and named + respectively corpus geniculatum internum and externum. + + The posterior knob-like extremity of the thalamus is called the + _pulvinar_; this, as well as the two corpora geniculata and the + superior corpus quadrigeminum, is connected with the optic tract. + + The _third ventricle_ (see fig. 6) is a cavity situated in the mesial + plane between the two optic thalami. Its roof is formed by the velum + interpositum and body of the fornix; its floor by the posterior + perforated space, corpora albicantia, tuber cinereum, infundibulum, + and optic commissure; its anterior boundary by the anterior pillars of + the fornix, anterior commissure and lamina cinerea; its posterior + boundary by the corpora quadrigemina and posterior commissure. The + cavity of this ventricle is of small size in the living head, for the + inner surfaces of the two thalami are connected together by + intermediate grey matter, named the _middle_ or _soft commissure_. + Immediately in front of the corpora quadrigemina, the white fibres of + the _posterior commissure_ pass across between the two optic thalami. + If the anterior pillars of the fornix be separated from each other, + the white fibres of the _anterior commissure_ may be seen lying in + front of them. + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_. + + FIG. 14.--Horizontal Section through the Right Cerebral Hemisphere at + the Level of the Widest Part of the Lenticular Nucleus.] + + The _pineal body_ is a reddish cone-shaped body situated upon the + anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina (see figs. 3 and 6). From + its broad anterior end two white bands, the _peduncles_ of the _pineal + body_, pass forward, one on the inner side of each optic thalamus. + Each peduncle joins, along with the taenia semicircularis, the + anterior pillar of the fornix of its own side. In its structure this + body consists of tubular gland tissue containing gritty calcareous + particles, constituting the _brain sand_. Its morphology will be + referred to later. + + A general idea of the internal structure of the brain is best obtained + by studying a horizontal section made just below the level of the + Sylvian point and just above the great transverse fissure (see fig. + 14). Such a section will cut the corpus callosum anteriorly at the + genu and posteriorly at the splenium, but the body is above the plane + of section. Behind the genu the fifth ventricle is cut, and behind + that the two pillars of the fornix which here form the anterior + boundary of the third ventricle. At the posterior end of this is the + pineal body, which the section has just escaped. To the outer side of + the fornix is seen the foramen of Munro, leading into the front of the + body and anterior horn of the lateral ventricle. It will be seen that + the lateral boundary of this horn is the cut caudate nucleus of the + corpus striatum, while the lateral boundary of the third ventricle is + the cut optic thalamus, both of which bodies have been already + described, but external to these is a third triangular grey mass, with + its apex directed inward, which cannot be seen except in a section. + This is the lenticular nucleus of the corpus striatum, the inner or + apical half of which is of a light colour and is called the _globus + pallidus_, while the basal half is reader and is known as the + _putamen._ External to the putamen is a long narrow strip of grey + matter called the _claustrum_, which is sometimes regarded as a third + nucleus of the corpus striatum. These masses of grey matter, taken + together, are the basal nuclei of the brain. Internal to the + lenticular nucleus, and between it and the caudate nucleus in front + and the thalamus behind, is the _internal capsule_, through which run + most of the fibres connecting the cerebral cortex with the crus + cerebri. The capsule adapts itself to the contour of the lenticular + nucleus and has an anterior limb, a bend or genu, and a posterior + limb. Just behind the genu of the internal capsule is a very important + region, for here the great motor tract from the Rolandic region of the + cortex passes on its way to the crusta and spinal cord. Besides this + there are fibres passing from the cortex to the deep origins of the + facial and hypo-glossal nerves. Behind the motor tracts are the + sensory, including the fillet, the superior cerebellar peduncle and + the inferior quadrigeminal tract, while quite at the back of the + capsule are found the auditory and optic radiations linking up the + higher (cortical) and lower auditory and visual centres. Between the + putamen and the claustrum is the _external capsule_, which is smaller + and of less importance than the internal, while on the lateral side of + the claustrum is the white and then the grey matter of the central + lobe. As the fibres of the internal capsule run up toward the cortex + they decussate with the transverse fibres of the corpus callosum and + spread out to form the _corona radiata._ It has only been possible to + deal with a few of the more important bundles of fibres here, but it + should be mentioned that much of the white matter of the brain is + formed of association fibres which link up different cortical areas, + and which become medullated and functional after birth. + + + _Weight of the Brain._ + + This has been the subject of a great deal of research, but the results + are not altogether conclusive; it seems, however, that, although the + male brain is 4 to 5 oz. heavier than that of the female, its relative + weight to that of the body is about the same in the two sexes. An + average male brain weighs about 48 oz. and a female 43-1/2 oz. The + greatest absolute weight is found between twenty-five and thirty-five + years of age in the male and a little later in the female. At birth + the brain weighs comparatively much more than it does later on, its + proportion to the body weight being about 1 to 6. At the tenth year it + is about 1 to 14, at the twentieth 1 to 30, and after that about 1 to + 36.5. In old age there is a further slight decrease in proportion. In + many men of great intellectual eminence the brain weight has been + large--Cuvier's brain weighed 64-1/2 oz., Goodsir's 57-1/2, for + instance--but the exceptions are numerous. Brains over 60 oz. in + weight are frequently found in quite undistinguished people, and even + in idiots 60 oz. has been recorded. On the other hand, microcephalic + idiots may have a brain as low as 10 or even 8-1/2 oz., but it is + doubtful whether normal intelligence is possible with a brain weighing + less than 32 oz. The taller the individual the greater is his brain + weight, but short people have proportionally heavier brains than tall. + The weight of the cerebellum is usually one-eighth of that of the + entire brain. Attempts have been made to estimate the surface area of + the grey matter by dissecting it off and measuring it, and also by + covering it with gold leaf and measuring that. The results, however, + have not been conclusive. + + Further details of the brain, abundantly illustrated, will be found in + the later editions of any of the standard text-books on anatomy, + references to which will be found in the article on ANATOMY: _Modern + Human. Das Menschenhirn_, by G. Retzius (Stockholm, 1896), and + numerous recent memoirs by G. Elliot Smith and D.J. Cunningham in the + _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ and _Anatomisch Anzeig._, may be consulted. + + + _Histology of Cerebral Cortex._ + + The cerebral cortex (see fig. 15) consists of a continuous sheet of + grey matter completely enveloping the white matter of the hemispheres. + It varies in thickness in different parts, and becomes thinner in old + age, but all parts show a somewhat similar microscopic structure. + Thus, in vertical section, the following layers may be made out:-- + + 1. _The Molecular Layer (Stratum zonale)._--This is made up of a large + number of fine nerve branchings both medullated and non-medullated. + The whole forms a close network, the fibres of which run chiefly a + tangential course. The cells of this layer are the so-called _cells of + Cajal_. They possess an irregular body, giving off 4 or 5 dendrites, + which terminate within the molecular layer and a long nerve fibre + process or neuraxon which runs parallel to the surface of the + convolution. + + 2. _The Layer of small Pyramidal Cells._--The typical cells of this + layer are pyramid-shaped, the apices of the pyramids being directed + towards the surface. The apex terminates in a dendron which reaches + into the molecular layer, giving off several collateral horizontal + branches in its course. The final branches in the molecular layer take + a direction parallel to the surface. Smaller dendrites arise from the + lateral and basal surfaces of these cells, but do not extend far from + the body of the cell. The neuraxon always arises from the base of the + cell and passes towards the central white matter, thus forming one of + the nerve-fibres of that substance. In its path it gives off a number + of collaterals at right angles, which are distributed to the adjacent + grey matter. + + [Illustration: From Cunningham, _Text-book of Anatomy_. + + Fig. 15.--Diagram to illustrate Minute Structure of the Cerebral + Cortex. + + A. Neuroglia cells. + B. " " + C. Cell with short axon (N) which breaks up in a free arborization. + D. Spindle-shaped cell in stratum zonale. + E. Small pyramidal cell. + F. Large pyramidal cell. + G. Cell of Martinotti. + H. Polymorphic cell. + K. Corticipetal fibres.] + + 3. _The Layer of large Pyramidal Cells._--This is characterized by the + presence of numbers of cells of the same type as those of the + preceding layer, but of larger size. The nerve-fibre process becomes a + medullated fibre of the white matter. + + 4. _The Layer of Polymorphous Cells._--The cells of this layer are + irregular in outline, and give off several dendrites branching into + the surrounding grey matter. The neuraxon gives off a number of + collaterals, and then becomes a nerve-fibre of the central white + matter. + + Scattered through these three layers there are also a number of cells + (_cells of Golgi_) whose neuraxon divides at once, the divisions + terminating within the immediate vicinity of the cell-body. Some cells + are also found in which the neuraxon, instead of running into the + white matter of the brain, passes toward the surface; these are called + _cells of Martinotti_. + + The medullated nerve-fibres of the white matter when traced into the + cortex are seen to enter in bundles set vertically to the surface. + These bundles taper and are resolved into isolated fibres in the upper + parts of the pyramidal layers. The fibres constituting the bundles + form two sets. (a) The centrifugal fibres consist as above described + of the fibre processes of the pyramidal and polymorphous cells. (b) + The centripetal fibres ascend through the cortex to terminate within + the molecular layer by horizontally running branches. As they pass + through they give off a number of collaterals. The position of the + cells from which these fibres arise is not known. In addition to the + radially arranged bundles of fibres, networks are formed by the + interlacement with them of large numbers of fine medullated fibres + running tangentially to the surface. These are derived chiefly from + the collaterals of the pyramidal cells and of the centripetal fibres. + They form two specially marked bundles, one within the layer of the + polymorphous cells known as the _inner band of Baillarger_, and + another in the layer of large pyramidal cells called the _outer band + of Baillarger_. This latter is very thick in the calcarine region, and + forms the _white stria of Gennin_, while the inner band is best seen + in the precentral gyrus. As both these strands cross the already + mentioned radial bundles at right angles, they are regarded as + specialized parts of an _interradial reticulum_ of fibres, but, nearer + the surface than the radial bundles penetrate, tangential fibres are + found, and here they are called the _supraradial reticulum_. In + certain parts of the brain the fibres of this reticulum are more + closely set, and form the _band of Bechterew_ in the superficial part + of the small pyramidal cell zone. + + [Illustration: From _The Museum Catalogue of the Royal College of + Surgeons of England_. + + Fig. 16.--Brain of _Petromyzon marinus_ (dorsal view). A, Brain; B, + choroid plexus removed.] + + For further information on the structure of the cerebral cortex, see + A.W. Campbell, _Proc. R. Soc._ vols. lxxii. and lxxiv. + + + _Comparative Anatomy._ + + A useful introduction to the study of the vertebrate brain is that of + the Amphioxus, one of the lowest of the Chordata or animals having a + notochord. Here the brain is a very slightly modified part of the + dorsal tubular nerve-cord, and, on the surface, shows no distinction + from the rest of that cord. When a section is made the central canal + is seen to be enlarged into a cavity, the neurocoele, which, in the + young animal, communicates by an opening, the neuropore, with the + bottom of the olfactory pit, and so with the exterior. More ventrally + another slight diverticulum probably represents the infundibulum. The + only trace of an eye is a patch of pigment at the anterior end of the + brain, and there are no signs of any auditory apparatus. There are + only two pairs of cerebral nerves, both of which are sensory (Willey, + _Amphioxus_, 1894). In the Cyclostomata, of which the lamprey + (Petromyzon) is an example, the minute brain is much more complex, + though it is still only a very slight enlargement of the anterior end + of the cord. The single cavity seen in Amphioxus is here subdivided + into three: an anterior or prosencephalon, a middle or mesencephalon, + and a hinder or rhombencephalon. The rhombencephalon has a very slight + transverse thickening in the fore-part of its roof, this is the + rudimentary cerebellum (_Cer._); the rest of this part of the brain is + taken up by the large medulla, the cavity of which is the _fossa + rhomboidalis_ or fourth ventricle. This fossa is roofed over by the + epithelium lining the cavity of the ventricle, by pia mater and + blood-vessels constituting a choroid plexus (fig. 16, B). The fourth + ventricle communicates with the parts in front by means of a passage + known as the aqueduct of Sylvius. + + The mesencephalon or mid-brain, when looked at from the dorsal + surface, shows a pair of large hollow swellings, the optic lobes or + _corpora bigemina_. Their cavities open out from the aqueduct of + Sylvius, and from the nervous tissue in their walls the optic nerves + derive their fibres. From the front of the prosencephalon or anterior + vesicle the olfactory nerves come off, and at the base of each of + these are two hollow swellings; the larger and more anterior is the + olfactory bulb, the smaller and more posterior the cerebral + hemisphere. Both these swellings must be regarded as lateral + outgrowths from the blind front end of the original single vesicle of + the brain as seen in Amphioxus, and from the anterior subdivision or + prosencephalon in the lamprey. The anterior vesicle, however, is now + again subdivided, and that part from which the cerebral hemispheres + bud out, and the hemispheres themselves, is called the telencephalon, + while the posterior part of the original prosencephalon is known as + the thalamencephalon, or more rarely the diencephalon. On the dorsal + surface of the thalamencephalon are two nervous masses called the + ganglia habenulae; the right is much larger than the left, and from it + a stalk runs forward and upward to end in the vestigial pineal body + (or epiphysis), which contains rudiments of a pigmented retina and of + a lens, and which is usually regarded as the remains of one of a pair + of median eyes, though it has been suggested that it may be an organ + for the appreciation of temperature. From the small left ganglion + habenulae a still more rudimentary pineal stalk projects, and there + are signs of a third outgrowth (paraphysis) in front of these. On the + floor of the thalamencephalon the blind pouch-like infundibulum is in + contact with the pituitary body, an outgrowth from the combined + pituitary and olfactory pouch, which in the adult opens on to the top + of the head just in front of the pineal area. The anterior closed end + of the nerve-tube, in front of the foramina of Munro or openings from + which the hemispheres have grown out, is known as the _lamina + terminalis_, and in this is seen a little white commissure, connecting + the hemispheres of opposite sides and belonging entirely to the + telencephalon, known as the anterior commissure. The roof of the + telencephalon is mainly epithelial, and contains no traces of cortical + structure. In the posterior part of the roof of the thalamencephalon + is the small posterior commissure (Ahlborn, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ Bd. + xxxix., 1883, p. 191). In the Elasmobranch Fish, such as the sharks + and rays, the cerebellum (_Cer._ fig. 17) is very large and contains + the layers found in all the higher vertebrates. In the mesencephalon + fibres corresponding with those of the fillet of higher vertebrates + can be seen, and there is a nucleus in the hinder part of the _corpora + bigemina_ foreshadowing the separation into corpora quadrigemina. + There is only one pineal stalk in the roof of the thalamencephalon, + and the ganglia habenulae--very constant structures in the vertebrate + brain--are not so marked as in Petromyzon, but are, as usual, + connected with the olfactory parts of the cerebrum, with the surface + of the optic lobes (_tectum opticum_), and with the _corpus + interpedunculare_ (Meynert's bundle). They are united across the + middle line by a small _superior_ or _habenular commissure_. In the + floor of the thalamencephalon are two masses of ganglionic tissue, the + optic thalami. The infundibulum dilates into two rounded bodies, the + _lobi inferiores_, while the pituitary body or _hypophysis cerebri_ + has two lateral diverticula known as _sacci vasculosi_. Ganglia + geniculata are found for the first time in connexion with the optic + tracts in the lower part of the thalamus. The olfactory lobes (fig. + 17, _Olf. Bulb_) are very large and often separated by long stalks + from the cerebral hemispheres, which are comparatively much larger + than those of the Cyclostomata; their roof or pallium is nervous, but + devoid of cortical structure, while in the floor in some species large + anterior basal ganglia or _corpora striata_ are found + (Miklucho-Maclay, _Beitrage z. vergl. Neurol._, 1870; Edinger, _Arch. + mikr. Anat._ Bd. lviii., 1901, p. 661, "Cerebellum"). The Teleostean + Fish are chiefly remarkable for the great development of the optic + lobes and suppression of the olfactory apparatus. The pallium is + non-nervous, and the optic tracts merely cross one another instead of + forming a commissure. A process of the cerebellum called _valvula + cerebelli_ projects into the cavity of each optic lobe (Rabl. + Ruckhard, _Arch. Anat. u. Phys_., 1898, p. 345 [Pallium]; Haller, + _Morph. Jahrb._ Bd. xxvi., 1898, p. 632 [Histology and Bibliography]). + The brain of the Dipnoi, or mud fish, shows no very important + developments, except that the anterior pineal organ or paraphysis is + large (Saunders, _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 6, vol. iii., 1889, + p. 157; Burkhardt, _Centralnervensystem v. Protopterus_, Berlin, + 1892). + + [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_. + + FIG. 17.--Section of the Brain of Porbeagle Shark (_Lamna_).] + + In the Amphibia the brain is of a low type, the most marked advances + on that of the fish being that the anterior commissure is divided into + a dorsal and ventral part, of which the ventral is the true anterior + commissure of higher vertebrates, while the dorsal is a hippocampal + commissure and coincides in its appearance with the presence of a + small mass of cells in the outer layer of the median wall of the + pallium, which is probably the first indication of a hippocampal + cortex or cortex of any kind (Osborn, _Journ. Morph._ vol. ii., 1889, + p. 51). + + [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_. + + Fig. 18.--Section of Brain of Turtle (_Chelone_).] + + In the Reptilia the medulla has a marked flexure with a ventral + convexity, and an undoubted cerebral cortex for the first time makes + its appearance. The mesial wall of the cerebral hemisphere is divided + into a large dorsal hippocampal area (fig. 18, _Hip._) and a smaller + ventral olfactory tubercle. Between these two a narrow area of + ganglionic matter runs forward from the side of the _lamina + terminalis_ and is known as the paraterminal or precommissural area + (Elliot Smith, _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxxii. p. 411). To the + upper lateral part of the hemisphere Elliot Smith has given the name + of _neopallium_, while the lower lateral part, imperfectly separated + from it, is called the _pyriform lobe_. In the Lacertilia the pineal + eye, if it be an eye, is better developed than in any existing + vertebrate, though even in them there is no evidence of its being used + for sight. Behind the so-called pineal eye and its stalk is the + _epiphysis_ or pineal body, and sometimes there is a dorsal sac + between them (see fig. 18).[1] The middle or soft commissure appears + in certain reptiles (_Crocodilia_ and _Chelonia_), as does also the + _corpus mammillare_ (Edinger, Senckenberg, _Naturf. Gesell._ Bd. xix., + 1896, and Bd. xxii., 1899; Haller, _Morph. Jahrb._ Bd. xxviii., 1900, + p. 252). Among the birds there is great unity of type, the cerebellum + is large and, by its forward projection, presses the optic lobes down + toward the ventro-lateral part of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres + are also large, owing chiefly to the great size of the _corpora + striata_, which already show a differentiation into caudate nucleus, + putamen and globus pallidus. The pallium is reptilian in character, + though its cortical area is more extensive. The geniculate bodies are + very large (Bumm, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ Bd. xxxviii., 1883, p. 430; + Brandis, _Arch. mikr. Anat._ Bd. xli., 1893, p. 623, and xliii., 1894, + p. 96, and xliv., 1895, p. 534; Boyce and Warrington, _Phil. Trans._ + vol. cxci., 1899, p. 293). + + Among the Mammalia the Monotremata have a cerebellum which shows, in + addition to the central lobe of the lower vertebrates, a flocculus on + each side, and the two halves of the cerebellum are united by a + ventral commissure, the _pons varolii_. The pallium is reptilian in + its arrangement, but that part of it which Elliot Smith has named the + neopallium is very large, both in the Ornithorynchus and Echidna, a + fact very difficult to account for. In the latter animal the cortical + area is so extensive as to be thrown into many and deep sulci, and yet + the Echidna is one of the lowliest of mammals in other respects. A + well-marked rhinal fissure separates the pyriform lobe from the + neopallium, while, on the mesial surface, the hippocampal fissure + separates the neopallium from the hippocampal area. Just below the + hippocampal fissure a specially coloured tract indicates the first + appearance of the fascia dentata (see fig. 20). The anterior + commissure is divided, as in reptiles, into dorsal and ventral parts, + of which the latter is the larger (fig. 20, _Comm. V. and D_.), while + just behind the dorsal part is the first appearance of the fimbria or + fornix. In addition to the two fissures already named, there is, in + the Echidna, one which in position and mode of formation corresponds + with the Sylvian fissure of higher mammals. Elliot Smith, however, + wisely refuses to homologize it absolutely with that fissure, and + proposes the name of pseudosylvian for it. The pineal body is + rudimentary, and the optic lobes are now, and throughout the Mammalia, + subdivided into four _corpora quadrigemina_. + + [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_. + + FIG. 19.--Ventral and Dorsal Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.] + + Among the Marsupialia the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus) gives a very + good idea of a generalized mammalian brain, and shows a large + development of the parts concerned in the sense of smell. The most + important advance on the monotreme brain is that the calcarine fissure + has now appeared on the posterior part of the mesial surface and + causes a bulging into the ventricle, called the _calcar avis_ or + hippocampus minor, just as the hippocampal fissure causes the + _hippocampus major_ (Gervais, _Nuov. Arch. Mus_. tom. v., 1869; + Ziehen, _Jenaische Denkschr_. Bd. vi., 1897). + + [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_. + + FIG. 20.--Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of Ornithorynchus.] + + [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_. + + FIG. 2l.--Mesial and Lateral Views of the Brain of the Tasmanian Devil + (_Sarcophilus_).] + + In the Eutheria or mammals above the marsupials, the cerebellum + gradually becomes more complex, owing to the appearance of lateral + lobes between the flocculus and the vermis, as well as the + paraflocculus on the outer side of the flocculus. The corpus callosum + now first appears as a bridge between the neopallia, and its + development leads to the stretching of the hippocampal formation, so + that in the higher mammals the hippocampus is only found in the lower + and back part of the ventricle, while the rudiments of the dorsal part + remain as the _striae longitudinals_ on the corpus callosum. The + dorsal part of the original anterior commissure becomes the fornix, + and the paraterminal area is modified to form the septum lucidum. The + first appearance of the fissure of Rolando is probably in some of the + Carnivora, in which, as the _sulcus crucialis_, it forms the posterior + boundary of the "ursine lozenge" described by Mivart (_Journ. Linn. + Soc_. vol. xix., 1886) (see fig. 22, _Sulc. Cru_.). In the higher apes + or Anthropoidea the human fissures and sulci are largely recognizable, + so that a gibbon's brain, apart from all question of comparative + anatomy, forms a useful means of demonstrating to a junior class the + main gyri and sulci of Man in a simple and diagrammatic way. The main + points of difference, apart from greater simplicity, are that the + central lobe or island of Reil is exposed on the surface of the brain, + as it is in the human foetus, and that the anterior part of the + occipital lobe has a well-marked vertical sulcus, called the simian + sulcus or _Affenspalte_; this often has a semilunar shape with its + convexity forward, and is then called the _sulcus lunatus_. It is + usually concealed in European brains by the overgrowth of the + surrounding gyri, but it occasionally remains, though less frequently + than in the brains of Egyptian fellaheen. Its relation to the _white + stria of Gennari_ is especially interesting, and is recorded by Elliot + Smith in the _Anatomischer Anzeiger_, Bd. xxiv., 1904, p. 436. The + rhinal fissure, which is so characteristic a feature of the lower + mammals, almost disappears in Man, and is only represented by the + _incisura temporalis_ (see fig. 11, _i.t_). The hippocampal fissure + persists with little modification all through the mammalian class. The + calcarine fissure remains with many modifications from the marsupials + to man, and in view of the famous controversy of 1864, in which Owen, + Huxley and the then bishop of Oxford took part, it is interesting to + note that its hippocampus minor can now be clearly demonstrated, even + in the Marsupialia. Another very ancient and stable sulcus is the + _orbital_, which is a simple antero-posterior line until Man is + reached (see fig. 23, _Sulc. Orb._). The great point of importance, + however, in the evolution of the mammalian brain is the gradual + suppression of the olfactory region, and the development of the + neopallium, a development which takes a sudden stride between the + Anthropoid apes and Man. (For further particulars of this and other + points in the comparative anatomy of the brain, see _Catalogue of the + Physiological Series_ of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons + of England, vol. ii. 2nd ed., by R.H. Burne and G. Elliot Smith, + London, 1902.) + + [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_. + + FIG. 22.--Dorsal and Lateral Views of the Brain of a Ratel (_Mellivora + indica_).] + + + _Embryology._ + + The brain, like the rest of the nervous system, is developed from the + ectoderm or outer layer of the embryo by the formation of a groove in + the mid-dorsal line. The lips of this _medullary groove_ unite to form + a canal beginning at the place where the neck of the embryo is to be. + The part of the neural canal in front of the earliest union forms the + brain and very early becomes constricted into three vesicles, to which + the names of _prosencephalon_, _mesencephalon_ and _rhombencephalon_ + are now usually given. The simple tubular brain we have seen as a + permanent arrangement in Amphioxus, but the stage of the three + vesicles is a transitory one, and is not found in the adult of any + existing animal. From the sides of the prosencephalon, the optic + vesicles grow out before the neural tube is completely closed, and + eventually form the optic nerves and retinae, while, soon after this, + the cerebral hemispheres bulge from the antero-dorsal part of the + first primary vesicle, their points of evagination being the _foramina + of Munro_. From the ventral parts of these cerebral hemispheres the + olfactory lobes are constricted off, while just behind the openings + of the foramina of Munro a constriction occurs which divides the + prosencephalon into two secondary vesicles, the anterior of which, + containing the foramina of Munro, is called the _telencephalon_, while + the posterior is the _thalamencephalon_ or _diencephalon_. A + constriction also occurs in the hind vesicle or _rhombencephalon_, + dividing it into an anterior part, the _metencephalon_, from which the + cerebellum is developed, and a posterior or _myelencephalon_, the + primitive _medulla oblongata_. At this stage the general resemblance + of the brain to that of the lamprey is striking. + + Before the secondary constrictions occur three vertical flexures begin + to form. The first is known as the _cephalic_, and is caused by the + prosencephalon bending sharply downward, below and in front of the + mesencephalon. The second is the _cervical_, and marks the place where + the brain ends and the spinal cord begins; the concavity of this + flexure is ventral. The third to appear has a ventral convexity and is + known as the _pontine_, since it marks the site of the future _pons + Varolii_; it resembles the permanent flexure in the reptilian brain. + + [Illustration: From _Cat. R.C.S. England_. + + FIG. 23.--Lateral view of cerebral hemisphere of Gorilla + (_Anthropopithecus gorilla_).] + + It will now be seen that the original neural canal, which is lined by + ciliated epithelium, forms the ventricles of the brain, while + superficial to this epithelium (_ependyma_) the grey and white matter + is subsequently formed. It has been shown by His that the whole neural + tube may be divided into _dorsal_ or _alar_, and _ventral_ or _basal_ + laminae, and, as the cerebral hemispheres bud out from the dorsal part + of the anterior primary vesicle, they consist entirely of alar + laminae. The most characteristic feature of the human and anthropoid + brain is the rapid and great expansion of these hemispheres, + especially in a backward direction, so that the mesencephalon and + metencephalon are hidden by them from above at the seventh month of + intra-uterine life. At first the foramina of Munro form a + communication not only between the third and lateral ventricles, but + between the two lateral ventricles, so that the cavity of each + hemisphere is continuous with that of the other; soon, however, a + median longitudinal fissure forms, into which the mesoderm grows to + form the falx, and so the foramina of Munro are constricted into a + V-shaped canal. In the floor of the hemispheres the corpora striata + are developed at an early date by a multiplication of nerve cells, and + on the external surface a depression, called the _Sylvian fossa_, + marks the position of the future central lobe, which is afterwards + hidden as the lips of the fossa (_opercula_) gradually close in on it + to form the Sylvian fissure. The real fissures are complete infoldings + of the whole thickness of the vesicular wall and produce swellings in + the cavity. Some of them, like the choroidal on the mesial surface, + are developed very early, while the vesicle is little more than + epithelial, and contain between their walls an inpushing of mesoderm + to form the choroid plexus. Others, like the hippocampal and + calcarine, appear in the second and third months and correspond to + invaginations of the nervous tissue, the hippocampus major and minor. + The sulci appear later than the fissures and do not affect the + internal cavity; they are due to the rapid growth of the cortex in + certain areas. The corpus callosum and fornix appear about the third + month and their development is somewhat doubtful; they are probably + modifications of the lamina terminalis, but they may be secondary + adhesions between the adjacent surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres + where the cortical grey matter has not covered the white. They begin + at their antero-ventral part near the genu of the corpus callosum and + the anterior pillars of the fornix, and these are the parts which + first appear in the lower mammals. The original anterior vesicle from + which the hemispheres evaginate is composed, as already shown, of an + anterior part or telencephalon and a posterior or thalamencephalon; + the whole forming the third ventricle in the adult. Here the alar and + basal laminae are both found, but the former is the more important; + from it the optic thalami are derived, and more posteriorly the + geniculate bodies. The anterior wall, of course, is the lamina + terminalis, and from it are formed the _lamina cinerea_, the _corpus + callosum_, _fornix_ and _septum lucidum_. The roof largely remains + epithelial and is invaginated into the ventricle by the mesoderm to + form the _choroid plexuses_ of the third ventricle, but at the + posterior part it develops the _ganglia habenulae_ and the pineal + body, from a structure just in front of which both a lens and retinal + elements are derived in the lower forms. This is one great difference + between the development of this organ and that of the true eyes; + indeed it has been suggested that the pineal is an organ of thermal + sense and not the remains of a median eye at all. The floor of the + third ventricle is developed from the basal laminae, which here are + not very important and from which the _tuber cinereum_ and, until the + fourth month, single _corpus mammillare_ are developed. The + _infundibulum_ or stalk of the posterior part of the pituitary body at + first grows down in front of the _tuber cinereum_ and, according to + Gaskel's theory, represents an ancestral mouth to which the ventricles + of the brain and the central canal of the cord acted as the stomach + and intestine (_Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci._ 31, p. 379; and _Journ. of + Phys._ v. 10, p. 153). The reason why the basal lamina is here small + is because it contains the nuclei of no cranial nerves. The anterior + and posterior commissures appear before the middle and the middle + before the _corpus callosum_, as they do in phylogeny. In connexion + with the thalamencephalon, though not really belonging to it, may be + mentioned the anterior lobes of the pituitary body; these begin as an + upward _diverticulum_ from the posterior wall of the primitive pharynx + or _stomatodaeum_ about the fourth week. This _pouch of Rathke_, as it + is called, becomes nipped off by the developing base of the skull, and + its bifid blind end meets and becomes applied to the posterior part of + the body, which comes down from the brain. In the mesencephalon the + alar laminae form the _corpora quadrigemina_; these at first are + bigeminal and hollow as they are in the lower vertebrates. The basal + laminae thicken to form the _crura cerebri_. In the rhombencephalon + the division into basal and alar laminae is better marked than in any + other part; there is a definite groove inside the fourth ventricle, + which remains in the adult as the superior and inferior _fovea_ and + which marks the separation between the two laminae. In the basal + laminae are found the deep origins of most of the motor cranial + nerves, while those of the sensory are situated in the alar laminae. + The roof of the fourth ventricle widens out very much and remains + largely epithelial as the superior and inferior medullary vela. The + cerebellum develops in the anterior part of the roof of the + rhombencephalon as two lateral rudiments which unite in the mid line + and so form a transverse bar similar to that seen in the adult + lamprey; at the end of the second month the flocculus and + paraflocculus become marked, and later on a series of transverse + fissures occur dividing the various lobes. Of the cerebellar peduncles + the inferior develops first (third month), then the middle forming the + _pons_ (fourth month), and lastly the _superior_ (fifth month) (Elliot + Smith, _Review of Neurology and Psychiatry_, October 1903; W. Kuithan, + "Die Entwicklung des Kleinhirns bei Saugetieren," _Munchener Med. + Abhandl._, 1895; B. Stroud, "Mammalian cerebellum," _Journ. of Comp. + Neurology_, 1895). Much of our knowledge of the tracts of fibres in + the brain is due to the fact that they acquire their white sheaths at + different stages of development, some long after birth. + + For further details and references see Quain's _Anat._ vol. i. (1908); + Minot's _Human Embryology_ (New York); W. His, _Anat. menschlicher + Embryonen_ (Leipzig, 1881); Marshall's _Vertebrate Embryology_; + Kolliker, _Grundriss der Entwickelungsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1880); A. + Keith, _Human Embryology and Morphology_ (London, 1904); O. Hertwig, + _Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen Entwickelungslehre + der Wirbeltiere_, Bd. 2, part 3 (Jena, 1902-1906); _Development of the + Human Body_, J.P. McMurrich (1906). (F. G. P.) + + +2. PHYSIOLOGY + +The nervous system has as its function the co-ordinating of the +activities of the organs one with another. It puts the organs into such +mutual relation that the animal reacts as a whole with speed, accuracy +and self-advantage, in response to the environmental agencies which +stimulate it. For this office of the nervous system there are two +fundamental conditions. The system must be thrown into action by +agencies at work in the environment. Light, gravity, mechanical impacts, +and so on, which are conditions significant for animal existence, must +find the system responsive and through it evoke appropriate activity in +the animal organs. And in fact there have been evolved in the animal a +number of structures called receptive organs which are selectively +excitable by different environmental agencies. Connected with these +receptive organs lies that division of the nervous system which is +termed _afferent_ because it conducts impulses inwards towards the +nervous centres. This division consists of elongated nerve-cells, in man +some two million in number for each half of the body. These are living +threads of microscopic tenuity, each extending from a receptive organ to +a central nervous mass. These central nervous masses are in vertebrates +all fused into one, of which the part which lies in the head is +especially large and complex, because directly connected with +particularly important and delicate receptive organs. The part of the +central nervous organ which lies in the head has, in consequence of its +connexion with the most important receptive organs, evolved a dominant +importance in the nervous system, and this is especially true of the +higher animal forms. This head part of the central nervous organ is +sufficiently different from the rest, even to anatomical examination, to +have received a separate name, the _brain_. But the fact of its having +received a separate name ought not to obscure the singleness and +solidarity of the whole central nervous organ as one entity. The +functions of the whole central nervous organ from region to region are +essentially similar throughout. One of its essential functions is +reception, via afferent nerves, of nervous impulses generated in the +receptive organs by environmental agents as stimuli. In other words, +whatever the nature of the agent, its result on the receptive organs +enters the central nervous organ as a nervous impulse, and all segments +of the central nervous organ receive impulses so generated. Further, it +is not known that nervous impulses present qualitative differences among +themselves. It is with these impulses that the central nervous organ +whether spinal cord or brain has to deal. + +_Material and Psychical Signs of Cerebral Activity._--In the central +nervous organ the action resulting from entrant impulses has issue in +three kinds of ways. The reaction may die out, be suppressed, and so far +as discoverable lead to nothing; or the impulses may evoke effect in +either or both of two forms. Just as from the receptive organs, nerves +lead into the central nervous organ, so conversely from the central +organ other nerves, termed _efferent_, lead to various organs of the +body, especially glands and muscles. The reaction of the central nervous +organ to impulses poured into it commonly leads to a discharge of +impulses from it into glands and muscles. These centrifugal impulses +are, so far as is known, qualitatively like the centripetal impulses. On +reaching the glands and muscles they influence the activity of those +organs. Since those organs are therefore the mechanisms in which the +ultimate effect of the nervous reaction takes place, they are often +termed from this point of view _effector organs_. A change ensuing in +effector organs is often the only sign an observer has that a nervous +reaction has occurred, unless the nervous system under observation be +the observer's own. + +If the observer turns to his own nervous system for evidence of +reaction, he meets at once in numberless instances with _sensation_ as +an outcome or sign of its reaction. This effect he cannot show to any +being beside himself. He can only describe it, and in describing it he +cannot strictly translate it into any term of material existence. The +unbridged gulf between sensation and the changes produced in effector +organs necessitates a separate handling of the functions of the nervous +system according as their office under consideration is sensation or +material effect. This holds especially in the case of the brain, and for +the following reasons. + +_Psychosis and the Fore-Brain._--Hippocrates wrote, "It is through the +brain that we become mad, that delirium seizes us, that fears and +terrors assail us." "We know that pleasure and joy on the one hand and +pain and grief on the other are referable to the brain. It is in virtue +of it that we think, understand, see, hear, know ugliness and beauty, +evil and good, the agreeable and the disagreeable." Similarly and more +precisely Descartes indicated the brain, and the brain alone, as the +seat of consciousness. Finally, it was Flourens who perhaps first +definitely insisted on the restriction of the seat of consciousness in +higher animals to that part of the brain which is the fore-brain. A +functional distinction between the fore-brain and the remainder of the +nervous system seems, in fact, that consciousness and physical reactions +are adjunct to the fore-brain in a way in which they are not to the rest +of the system. After transection of the spinal cord, or of the brain +behind the fore-brain, psychical phenomena do not belong to the +reactions of the nervous arcs posterior to the transection, whereas they +do still accompany reactions of the nervous arcs in front and still +connected with the fore-brain. A man after severance of the spinal cord +does not possess in the strict sense consciousness of the limbs whose +afferent nerves lie behind the place of spinal severance. He can see +them with his eyes, and if the severance lie between the arms and the +legs, can feel the latter with his hands. He knows them to be a part of +his body. But they are detached from his consciousness. Sensations +derived from them through all other channels of sense than their own do +not suffice to restore them in any adequate measure to his +consciousness. He must have the sensations so called "resident" in them, +that is, referred to them, without need of any logical inference. These +can be yielded only by the receptive organs resident in the part itself, +its skin, its joints, its muscles, &c., and can only be yielded by those +receptive organs so long as the nerve impulses from them have access to +the fore-brain. Consciousness, therefore, does not seem to attach to any +portion of the nervous system of higher animals from which the +fore-brain has been cut off. In the dog it has been found that no sign +of memory, let alone intelligence, has been forthcoming after removal of +the greater part of the fore-brain. + +In lower vertebrates it is not clear that consciousness in primitive +form requires always the co-operation of the fore-brain. In them the +fore-brain does not seem a _conditio sine qua non_ for psychosis--so far +as we may trust the rather hazardous inferences which study of the +behaviour of fish, &c., allows. And the difference between higher and +lowlier animal forms in respect of the fore-brain as a condition for +psychosis becomes more marked when the Arthropoda are examined. The +behaviour of some Insecta points strongly to their possessing memory, +rudimentary in kind though it may be. But in them no homologue of the +fore-brain of vertebrates can be indisputably made out. The head ganglia +in these Invertebrates may, it is true, be analogous in function in +certain ways to the brain of vertebrates. Some experiments, not +plentiful, indicate that destruction of these head ganglia induces +deterioration of behaviour such as follows loss of psychical functions +in cases of destruction of the fore-brain in vertebrates. Though, +therefore, we cannot be clear that the head ganglia of these +Invertebrates are the same structure morphologically as the brain of +vertebrates, they seem to hold a similar office, exercising analogous +functions, including psychosis of a rudimentary kind. We can, therefore, +speak of the head ganglia of Arthropods as a brain, and in doing so must +remember that we define by physiological evidence rather than by +morphological. + +_Cerebral Control over Lower Nervous Centres._--There accrues to the +brain, especially to the fore-brain of higher Vertebrates, another +function besides that of grafting psychical qualities upon the reactions +of the nervous system. This function is exhibited as power to control in +greater or less measure the pure reflexes enacted by the system. These +pure reflexes have the character of fatality, in the sense that, given a +particular stimulus, a particular reaction unvaryingly follows; the same +group of muscles or the same gland is invariably thrown into action in +the same way. Removal of the fore-brain, i.e. of that portion of the +central nervous organ to which psychosis is adjunct, renders the nervous +reactions of the animal more predictable and less variable. The animal, +for instance, a dog, is given over more completely to simple reflexes. +Its skin is touched and it scratches the spot, its jaw is stroked and it +yawns, its rump is rubbed and it shakes itself, like a dog coming out of +water; and these reactions occur fatally and inopportunely, for +instance, when food is being offered to it, when the dog normally would +allow no such insignificant skin stimuli as the above to defer his +appropriate reaction. Goltz relates the behaviour of a dog from which +almost the whole fore-brain had been removed. The animal lived healthily +under the careful treatment accorded it. At feeding time a little +quinine (bitter) added to its sop of meat and milk led to the morsels, +after being taken into the mouth, being at once and regularly rejected. +None was ever swallowed, nor was the slightest hesitation in their +rejection ever obtained by any coaxing or command, or encouragement of +the animal by the attendant who constantly had charge of it. On the +other hand, directly an undoctored piece had entered the mouth it was +swallowed at once. Goltz threw to his own house-dog a piece of the same +doctored meat. The creature wagged its tail and took it eagerly, then +after receiving it into its mouth pulled a wry face and hesitated, +astonished. But on encouragement to go on eating it the dog did so. +Perhaps it deemed it unseemly to appear ungrateful to the giver and +reject the gift. It overcame its reflex of rejection, and by its +self-control gave proof of the intact cerebrum it possessed. + +There seems a connexion between consciousness and the power to modify +reflex action to meet the exigencies of the occasion. Pure reflexes are +admirably adapted to certain ends. They are reactions which have long +proved advantageous to the phylum of which the existent animal is the +representative embodiment. But the reflexes have a machine-like +fatality, and conscious aim does not forerun their execution. The +subject as active agent does not direct them. Yet they lie under the +control of higher centres. The cough, the eye-closure, the impulse to +smile, all these can be suppressed. The innate respiratory rhythm can be +modified to meet the requirements of vocal utterance. In other words, +the reaction of reflex arcs is controllable by the mechanism to whose +activity consciousness is adjunct. The reflexes controlled are often +reactions but slightly affecting consciousness, but consciousness is +very distinctly operative with the centres which exert the control. It +may be that the primary aim, object and purpose of consciousness is +control. "Consciousness in a mere automaton," writes Professor Lloyd +Morgan, "is a useless and unnecessary epiphenomenon." As to _how_ this +conscious control is operative on reflexes, how it intrudes its +influence on the running of the reflex machinery, little is known. + +_The Cerebrum an Organ giving Adaptation and Readjustment of Motor +Acts._--The exercise of this control and the acquirement of skilled +actions have obviously elements in common. By skilled actions, we +understand actions not innately given, actions acquired by training in +individual experience. The controlling centres pick out from an +ancestral motor action some part, and isolate and enhance that until it +becomes a skilled act. The motor co-ordination ancestrally provided for +the ring finger gives an extending of it only in company with extension +of the fingers on either side of it. The isolated lifting of the ring +finger can, however, soon be acquired by training. In such cases the +higher centre with conscious effort is able to dissociate a part from an +ancestral co-ordination, and in that way to add a skilled adapted act to +the powers of the individual. + +The nervous organs of control form, therefore, a special instrument of +adaptation and of readjustment of reaction, for better accommodation to +requirements which may be new. The attainment of more precision and +speed in the use of a tool, or the handling of a weapon, means a process +in which nervous organs of control modify activities of reflex centres +themselves already perfected ancestrally for other though kindred +actions. This process of learning is accompanied by conscious effort. +The effort consists not so much in any course of reasoning but rather in +the acquiring of new sensorimotor experience. To learn swimming or +skating by simple cogitation or mere visual observation is of course +impossible. The new ideas requisite cannot be constructed without motor +experience, and the training must include that motor experience. Hence +the training for a new skilled motor manoeuvre must be simply _ad hoc_, +and is of itself no training for another motor co-ordination. + +The more complex an organism the more points of contact does it have +with its environment, and the more does it need readjustment amid an +environment of shifting relationships. Hence the organs of consciousness +and control, being organs of adaptation and readjustment of reaction, +will be more pronounced the farther the animal scale is followed upward +to its crowning species, man. The cerebrum and especially the cerebral +cortex may be regarded as the highest expression of the nervous organ +of individual adaptation of reactions. Its high development in man makes +him the most successful animal on earth's surface at the present epoch. +The most important part of all this adjustment in his case, as he stands +now, consists doubtless in that nervous activity which is intellectual. +The mentality attached to his cerebrum includes reason in higher measure +than is possessed by the mentality of other animals. He, therefore, more +than they, can profitably forecast the future and act suitably to meet +it from memory of the past. The cerebrum has proved itself by his case +the most potent weapon existent for extending animal dominance over the +environment. + +_Means and Present Aims of Physiological Study of the Brain._--The +aspects of cerebral activity are therefore twofold. There is the +contribution which it makes to the behaviour of the animal as seen in +the creature's doings. On the other hand there is its product in the +psychical life of the animal. The former of these is subject matter for +physiology; the latter is especially the province of psychology. +Physiology does, however, concern itself with the psychical aspect of +cerebral functions. Its scope, embracing the study of the bodily organs +in regard to function, includes the psychic as well as the material, +because as just shown the former inextricably interlace with the latter. +But the relation between the psychic phenomena and the working of the +brain in regard to any data of fundamental or intimate character +connecting the two remains practically as unknown to us as to the Greek +philosophers. What physiology has at present to be content with in this +respect is the mere assigning of certain kinds of psychic events to +certain local regions of the cerebrum. This primitive quest constitutes +the greater part of the "neurology" of our day, and some advance has +been made along its lines. Yet how meagre are really significant facts +will be clear from the brief survey that follows. Before passing finally +from these general considerations, we may note that it becomes more and +more clear that the brain, although an organ than can be treated as a +whole, is complex in the sense that separable functions belong in some +measure to its several parts. + +The means principally adopted in studying the functions of the +brain--and it must be remembered that this study in its present phase is +almost exclusively a mere search for localization--are four. These are +the physiological, the clinico-pathological, the histological and the +zoological. The first named proceeds by observing the effects of +artificial excitation, chiefly electric, of various parts of the brain, +and the defects produced by destruction or removal of circumscribed +portions. The clinico-pathological proceeds by observing the +disturbances of body and mind occurring in disease or injury, and +ascertaining the extent of the disease or injury, for the most part +_post mortem_. The histological method examines the microscopic +structure of the various regions of the brain and the characters and +arrangement of the nerve-cells composing it. The zoological follows and +compares the general features of the brain, as represented in the +various types of animal creation. + +It is on the functions of the fore-brain that interest now mainly +focuses, for the reasons mentioned above. And the interest in the +fore-brain itself chiefly attaches to the functions of its cortex. This +is due to several causes. In man and the animals nearest him the cortex +forms by far the larger part of the whole cerebral hemisphere. More than +any other part it constitutes the distinctively human feature. It lies +accessible to various experimental observations, as also to traumatic +lesions and to the surgeon's art. It is composed of a great unbroken +sheet of grey matter; for that reason it is a structure wherein +processes of peculiar interest for the investigation in view are likely +to occur. To make this last inference more clear a reference to the +histology of nervous tissue must be made. The whole physiological +function of the nervous system may be summed up in the one word +"conduction." This "conduction" may be defined as the transmission of +states of excitement (nerve-impulses) along the neural arcs composing +the system. The whole nervous system is built up of chains of +nerve-cells (neurones) which are nervous conductors, the chains often +being termed arcs. Each neurone is an elongated cell which transmits +nerve-impulses from its one end to its other, without so far as is known +modifying the impulses in transit, unless in that part of the nerve-cell +where the nucleus lies. That part of the neurone or nerve-cell is called +the perikaryon or cell-body, and from that part usually many branches of +the cell (each branch being a nerve-fibre) ramify. There is no evidence +that impulses are modified in transit along a branch of a nerve-cell, +but there is clear evidence of manifold modification of nerve-impulses +in transit along the nerve-arcs of the nervous system. These nerve-arcs +are neurone-chains. In them one neurone continues the line of conduction +where the immediately foregoing neurone left it. That is, the neurones +are laid in conductive series, the far end of one apposed to the near +end of its precursor. The place of juxtaposition of the end of one +neurone against the beginning of another is called the _synapse_. At it +the conduction which has so far been wholly intra-neuronic is replaced +by an inter-neuronic process, in which the nerve impulse passes from one +neurone to the next. The process there, it is natural to think, must be +physiologically different from that conductive process that serves for +transmission merely within the neurone itself. It may be that to this +inter-neuronic conduction are due the differences between conduction in +nerve-_arcs_ and nerve-_trunks_ (nerve-fibres) respectively. Significant +of the former are changes in rhythm, intensity, excitability and +modifications by summation and inhibition; in fact a number of the main +features of nervous reaction. These characters impressed upon conduction +in nerve arcs (neurone-chains) would therefore be traceable to the +intercalation of perikarya and synapses, for both these structures are +absent from nerve-trunks. It is therefore probably to perikarya and +synapses that the greater part of the co-ordination, elaboration and +differentiation of nervous reactions is due. Now, perikarya and synapses +are not present in the _white_ matter of the central nervous organ, any +more than they are in nerve-trunks. They are confined exclusively to +those portions of the central organ which consist of _grey_ matter (so +called from its naked-eye appearance). Hence it is to the great sheet of +grey matter which enfolds the cerebrum that the physiologist turns, as +to a field where he would expect to find evidences of the processes of +cerebral co-ordination at work. It is therefore to items regarding the +functions of the great sheet of cerebral cortex that we may now pass. + +_The Cerebral Cortex and its Functions._--The main question which vexed +the study of the physiology of the cerebral hemispheres in the 19th +century was whether differences of function are detectible in the +different regions of the hemisphere and especially in those of its +cortex. One camp of experimenters and observers held that the cortex was +identical in function throughout its extent. These authorities taught +that the various faculties and senses suffer damage in proportion to the +amount of cortex removed or injured, and that it is a matter of +indifference what may be the particular region wherein the destruction +takes place. Against this an opposed set of observers held that +different regions perform different functions, and this latter +"differential" view was raised in two wholly dissimilar forms in the +first and last quarters of the 19th century respectively. In the first +quarter of the century, a school, with which the name of Gall is +prominently associated, held that each faculty of a set of particular +so-called "faculties," which it assumed constituted intelligence, has in +the brain a spatially separate organ proper to itself. Gall's doctrine +had two fundamental propositions. The first was that intelligence +resides exclusively in the brain: the second, that intelligence consists +of twenty-seven "faculties," each with a separate local seat in the +brain. The first proposition was not new. It is met with in Hippocrates, +and it had been elaborated by Descartes and others. But Bichat in his +_Anatomie generale_ had partly wandered from the gradually established +truth and referred the emotions to the visceral organs, returning to a +naive view popularly prevalent. Gall's first proposition was probably +raised especially in reaction against Bichat. But Gall's proposition was +retrograde from the true position of the science of his time. Flourens +and others of his contemporaries had already shown not only that +intelligence was resident exclusively in the brain, but that it was +resident exclusively in that part of the brain which is the fore-brain. +Now Gall placed certain of his twenty-seven intellectual faculties in +the cerebellum, which is part of the hind-brain. + +_Phrenology._--As to Gall's second proposition, the set of faculties +into which he analysed intelligence shows his power of psychological +analysis to have been so weak that it is matter of surprise his doctrine +could obtain even the ephemeral vogue it actually did. Among his +twenty-seven faculties are, for instance, "_l'amour de la progeniture, +l'instinct carnassier, l'amitie, la ruse, la sagacite comparative, +l'esprit metaphysique, le talent poetique, la mimique_," &c. Such +crudity of speculation is remarkable in one who had undoubtedly +considerable insight into human character. Each of the twenty-seven +faculties had its seat in a part of the brain, and that part of the +brain was called its "organ." The mere spatial juxtaposition or +remoteness of these organs one from another in the brain had, according +to Gall, an influence on the constitution of the mind. "_Comme l'organe +des arts est place loin de l'organe du sens des couleurs, cette +circonstance explique pourquoi les peintres d'histoire ont ete rarement +coloristes_." All these "faculty-organs" were placed by Gall at the +surface of the brain. "This explains the correspondence which exists +between craniology and the doctrine of the functions of the brain +(cerebral physiology), the single aim of my researches." Gall wrote that +he found the bump of pride (_la bosse de l'orgueil_) as far down in the +animal series as the goat. Broussais traced the "organ" of veneration as +far down as the sheep. Gall found the bump of murder (_bosse du +meurtre_) in the carnivora. Later it was traced also in herbivora. +Broussais added apologetically that "the herbivora cause a real +destruction of plants." + +Gall's doctrine enjoyed enormous vogue. He himself had the gifts and the +demerits of quackery. His doctrine possessed, apart from its falsity, +certain other mischievous qualities. "_Que ces hommes si glorieux, qui +font egorger les nations par millions, sachent qu'ils n'agissent point +de leur propre chef, que c'est la nature qui a place dans leur coeur la +rage de la destruction_." One of his scientific opponents rejoined, +"Nay, it is not that which they should know. What they should know is +that if providence has allowed to man the possibility of doing evil, it +has also endowed him with the power to do good." The main cause of the +success of phrenology (q.v.) has been no doubt the common desire of men +to read the characters and hidden thoughts of others by external signs. +Each bump or "bosse" on the cranium was supposed to indicate the +existence and degree of development of one or other of the twenty-seven +"faculties." One such "bosse" showed the development of the organ of +"goodness," and another the development of the organ of "murder." Such +an easy means to arrive at information so curious delighted many +persons, and they were not willingly undeceived. + +_Modern Localization Doctrines._--The crude localization of the +phrenologists is therefore too clumsy to possess an interest it might +otherwise have had as an early expression of belief in cerebral +localization, a belief which other labours have subsequently justified, +although on facts and lines quite different from these imagined by Gall +and his followers. Patient scientific toil by the hands of E. Hitzig and +D. Ferrier and their followers has slowly succeeded in obtaining certain +facts about the _cortex cerebri_ which not only show that different +regions of it are concerned with different functions, but, for some +regions at least, outline to some extent the kind of function exercised. +It is true that the greater part of the cortex remains still _terra +incognita_ unless we are content with mere descriptive features +concerning its coarse anatomy. For several scattered regions some +knowledge of their function has been gained by physiological +investigation. These scattered regions are the _visual_, the _auditory_, +the _olfactory_ and the _precentral_. + +The grey matter of the cerebral cortex is broadly characterized +histologically by the perikarya (nerve-cells bodies) which lie in it +possessing a special shape; they are pyramidal. The dendrite fibres of +these cells--that is, their fibres which conduct _towards_ the +perikarya--are branches from the apex and corners of the pyramid. From +the base often near its middle arises one large fibre--the axone fibre, +which conducts impulses away from the perikaryon. The general appearance +and arrangement of the neurones in a particle of cortical grey matter +are shown in fig. 15, above. The apices of the pyramidal perikarya are +turned towards the free surface of the cortex. The figure as interpreted +in terms of functional conduction means that the cortex is beset with +conductors, each of which collects nerve-impulses, from a minute but +relatively wide field by its branched dendrites, and that these +nerve-impulses converge through its perikaryon, issue by its axone, and +are carried whithersoever the axone runs. In some few cells the axone +breaks up into branches in the immediate neighbourhood of its own +perikaryon in the cortex. In most cases, however, the axone runs off +into the subjacent white matter, leaving the cortex altogether. On +reaching the subjacent white matter it mingles with other fibres and +takes one of the following courses:--(1) to the grey matter of the +cortex of the same hemisphere, (2) to the grey matter of the cortex of +the opposite hemisphere, (3) to the grey matter of the pons, (4) to the +grey matter of the bulb or spinal cord. It is noteworthy that the +dendrite fibres of these cortical neurones do not transgress the limits +of the grey cortex and the immediate neighbourhood of the perikaryon to +which they belong; whereas the discharging or axone fibre does in the +vast majority of cases transgress the limits of the grey matter wherein +its perikaryon lies. The cortical neurone therefore collects impulses in +the region of cortex just about its perikaryon and discharges them to +other regions, some not cortical or even cerebral, but spinal, &c. One +question which naturally arises is, do these cells spontaneously +generate their impulses or are they stirred to activity by impulses +which reach them from without? The tendency of physiology is to regard +the actions of the cortex as reactions to impulses communicated to the +cortical cells by nerve-channels reaching them from the sense organs. +The neurone conductors in the cortex are in so far considered to +resemble those of reflex centres, though their reactions are more +variable and complex than in the use of the spinal. The chains of +neurones passing through the cortex are more complex and connected with +greater numbers of associate complex chains than are those of the spinal +centres. But just as the reflex centres of the cord are each attached to +afferent channels arriving from this or that receptive-organ, for +instance, tactile-organs of the skin, or spindles of muscle-sense, &c., +so the regions of cortex whose function is to-day with some certainty +localized seem to be severally related each to some particular +sense-organ. The localization, so far as ascertained, is a localization +which attaches separate areas of cortex to the several species of sense, +namely the visual, the auditory, the olfactory, and so on. This being +so, we should expect to find the sensual representation in the cortex +especially marked for the organs of the great distance-receptors, the +organs which--considered as _sense_ organs--initiate sensations having +the quality of projicience into the sensible environment. The organs of +distance-receptors are the olfactory, the visual and the auditory. The +environmental agent which acts as stimulus in the case of the first +named is chemical, in the second is radiant, and in the last is +mechanical. + +_Olfactory Region of Cortex._--There is phylogenetic evidence that the +development of the _cortex cerebri_ first occurred in connexion with the +distance-receptors for chemical stimuli--that is, expressed with +reference to psychosis, in connexion with olfaction. The olfactory +apparatus even in mammals still exhibits a neural architecture of +primitive pattern. The cell which conducts impulses to the brain from +the olfactory membrane in the nose resembles cells in the skin of the +earthworm, in that its cell-body lies actually amid the epithelium of +the skin-surface and is not deeply buried near or in the central nervous +organ. Further, it has at its external end tiny hairlets such as occur +in specially receptive-cells but not usually in purely nervous cells. +Hence we must think that one and the same cell by its external end +receives the environmental stimulus and by its deep end excites the +central nervous organ. The cell under the stimulation of the +environmental agent will therefore generate in itself a nervous impulse. +This is the clearest instance we have of a neurone being actually +excited under natural circumstances by an agent of the environment +_directly_, not indirectly. The deep ends of these olfactory neurones +having entered the central nervous organ come into contact with the +dendrites of large neurones, called, from their shape, mitral. In the +dog, an animal with high olfactory sense, the axone of each olfactory +neurone is connected with five or six mitral cells. In man each +olfactory neurone is connected with a single mitral cell only. We may +suppose that the former arrangement conduces to intensification of the +central reaction by summation. At the same time it is an arrangement +which could tend to smother sharp differentiation of the central +reaction in respect to locality of stimulus at the receptive surface. +Considering the diffuse way in which olfactory stimuli are applied in +comparison, for instance, with visual, the exact localization of the +former can obviously yield little information of use for locating the +exact position of their source. On the other hand, in the case of visual +stimuli the locus of incidence, owing to the rectilinear propagation of +light, can serve with extraordinary exactitude for inferences as to the +position of their source. The adaptation of the neural connexions of the +two organs in this respect is therefore in accord with expectation. + +The earliest cerebral cortex is formed in connexion with the +neurone-chains coming into the central nervous organ from the patch of +olfactory cells on the surface of the head. The region of cerebrum thus +developed is the so-called olfactory lobe and hippocampal formation. The +greater part of the cerebral hemisphere is often termed the _pallium_, +because as its development extends it folds cloak-wise over the older +structures at the base of the brain. The olfactory lobe, from its +position, is sometimes called the _pallium basale_, and the hippocampal +formation the _pallium marginale_; and these two parts of the pallium +form what, on account of their phylogenetic history, Elliott Smith well +terms the _archipallium_. A fissure, the limbic fissure, marks off more +or less distinctly this archipallium from the rest of the pallium, a +remainder which is of later development and therefore designated by +Elliott Smith the _neopallium_. Of the archipallium, the portion which +constitutes the olfactory lobe is well formed in the selachian fish. In +the reptilian cerebrum the hippocampal region, the pallium marginale, +coexists in addition. These are both of them olfactory in function. Even +so high up in the animal scale as the lowest mammals they still form one +half of the entire pallium. But in the higher apes and in man the +olfactory portion of the pallium is but a small fraction of the pallium +as a whole. It is indeed so relatively dwarfed and obscured as to be +invisible when the brain is regarded from the side or above. The +olfactory part of the pallium exhibits little variation in form as +traced up through the higher animals. It is of course small in such +animals as Cetaceans, which are _anosmatic_. In highly osmatic such as +the dog it is large. The _uncus_, and _subiculum cornu ammonis_ of the +human brain, belong to it. Disease of these parts has been accompanied +by disturbance of the sense of smell. When stimulated electrically (in +the rabbit) the olfactory pallium occasions peculiar torsion of the nose +and lips (Ferrier), and change, often slowing or arrested, of the +respiratory rhythm. P.E. Flechsig has shown that the nerve-fibres of +this part of the pallium attain the final stage of their growth, that is +to say, acquire their sheaths of myelin, early in the ontogenetic +development of the brain. In the human brain they are myelinate before +birth. This is significant from the point of view of function, for +reasons which have been made clear especially by the researches of +Flechsig himself. + +The completion of the growth of the nerve-fibres entering and leaving +the cortex occurs at very various periods in the growth of the brain. +Study of the development of the fibres entering and leaving the various +regions of the pallium in the human brain, discovers that the regions +may be conveniently grouped into those whose fibres are perfected before +birth and those whose fibres are perfected during the first post-natal +month, and those whose fibres are perfected after the first but before +the end of the fourth post-natal month. The regions thus marked out by +completion before birth are five in number, and are each connected, as +also shown by collateral evidence, with one or other particular species +of sense-organ. And these regions have another character in common +recognizable in the nerve-fibres entering and leaving them, namely, they +possess fibres projected to or from parts of the nervous system +altogether outside the cortex itself. These fibres are termed +"projection" fibres. Other regions of the cortex possess fibres coming +from or going to various regions of the cortex itself, but do not +possess in addition, as do the five primitive cortical fields, the +fibres of projection. So that the facts established by Flechsig for the +regions of pallium, which other evidence already indicated as connected +with the sense-organ of smell, support that evidence and bring the +olfactory region of cortex into line with certain other regions of +cortex similarly primarily connected with organs of sense. + +It will be noted that what has been achieved by these various means of +study in regard to the region of the cortex to which olfactory functions +are attributed amounts at present to little more than the bare +ascertainment of the existence there of nervous mechanisms connected +with olfaction, and to the delimiting roughly of their extent and of +their ability to influence certain movements, and in man sensations, +habitually associated with exercise of the olfactory organ. As to what +part the cortical mechanism has in the elaboration or association of +mental processes to which olfaction contributes, no evidence worth the +name seems as yet forthcoming. In this respect our knowledge, or rather +our want of knowledge, of the functions of the olfactory region of the +cortex, is fairly typical of that to which we have to confess in regard +to the other regions of the cortex, even the best known. + +_Visual Region of the Cortex._--There is a region of the cortex +especially connected with vision. The _optic nerve_ and _tract_ +constitute the second link in the chain of neurones joining the retina +to the brain. They may therefore be regarded as the equivalent of an +intraspinal tract connecting the deep ends of the afferent neurones from +the skin with higher nervous centres. In the bony fishes the optic tract +reaches the grey matter of the optic lobe, a part of the mid-brain, to +which the so-called anterior colliculus is equivalent in the mammalian +brain. In the optic lobe the axones of the neurones of the optic tract +meet neurones whose axones pass in turn to the motor neurones of the +muscles moving the eyeballs, and also to other motor neurones. But in +these fish the optic tract has no obvious connexion with the fore-brain +or with any cerebral pallium. Ascending, however, to the reptilian brain +is found an additional arrangement: a small portion of the optic tract +passes to grey matter in front of the optic lobe. This grey matter is +the lateral geniculate body. From this geniculate body a number of +neurones extend to the pallial portion of the cerebrum, for in the +reptilian brain the pallium is present. The portion of pallium connected +with the lateral geniculate body lies above and behind the olfactory or +archipallium. It is a part of what was mentioned above as neopallium. + +In the mammalian brain the portion of the optic tract which goes to the +optic lobe (_ant. colliculus_ of the mammal) is dwarfed by great +development of the part which goes to the geniculate body and an +adjoining grey mass, the pulvinar (part of the optic thalamus). From +these latter pass large bands of fibres to the occipital region of the +neopallium. In mammals this visual region of the cortex is distinguished +in its microscopic features from the cortex elsewhere by a layer of +myelinate nerve-fibres, many of which are the axones of neurones of the +geniculate body and pulvinar. Thus, whereas in the bony fishes all the +third links of the conductive chain from the retina lead exclusively to +the final neurones of motor centres for muscles, in the mammal the +majority of the third links conduct to grey matter of the cortex +cerebri. + +The application of electric stimuli to the surface of the cortex does +not for the greater part of the extent of the cortex evoke in higher +mammalian brains any obvious effect; no muscular act is provoked. But +from certain limited regions of the cortex such stimulation does evoke +muscular acts, and one of these regions is that to which the neurones +forming the third link of the conductive chain from the retina pass. The +muscular acts thus provoked from that region are movements of the +eyeballs and of the neck turning the head. In the monkey the movement is +the turning of both eyeballs and the head away from the side stimulated. +In short, the gaze is directed as to an object on the opposite side. The +newer conductive chain traceable through the cortex does therefore, +after all, like the older one through the optic lobe, lead ultimately to +the motor neurones of the eye muscles and the neck, only it takes a +longer course thither and is undoubtedly much more complex. What gain is +effected by this new and as it were alternative and longer route, which +takes a path up to the cerebral cortex and down again, we can only +conjecture, but of one point we may rest well assured, namely, that a +much richer inter-connexion with other arcs of the nervous system is +obtained by the path that passes via the cortex. The functional +difference between the old conductive circuit and the new can at present +hardly indeed be stated even in outline. A natural inference might be +that the phylogenetically older and less complex path is concerned with +functions purely reflex-motor, not possessing sensation as an attribute. +But fish, which possess only the older path, can be trained to seize +bait of one colour and not of another colour, even against what appeared +to be an original colour-preference in them. Such discrimination +individually acquired seems to involve memory, though it may be +rudimentary in kind. Where motor reaction to visual stimuli appears to +involve memory--and without memory the training could hardly be +effective--some germ of consciousness can hardly be denied to the visual +reactions, although the reactions occurred in complete absence of a +cortical path and indeed of a visual cortex altogether. + +Removal of the visual pallium in the tortoise produces little or no +obvious defect in vision; but in the bird such a lesion greatly impairs +the vision of the eye of the side opposite to the lesion. The impairment +does not, however, amount to absolute blindness. Schrader's hawk, after +removal of the pallium, reacted to movements of the mice with which it +was caged. But the reactions were impaired: they lacked the sustained +purpose of the normal reactions. The bird saw the mice; that was +certain, for their movements across its field of vision made it turn its +gaze towards them. But on their ceasing to move, the reaction on the +part of the bird lapsed. Neither did their continuing to move excite the +attack upon them which would have been the natural reaction on the part +of the bird of prey towards its food. The bird apparently did not +recognize them as prey, but saw them merely as moving objects. It saw +them perhaps as things to which mental association gave no significance. +Similarly, a dog after ablation of the occipital lobes of the cortex is +able to see, for it avoids obstacles in its path; but if food is offered +to it or the whip held up to it, it does not turn towards the food or +away from the whip. It sees these things as if it saw them for the first +time, but without curiosity, and as if it had no experience of their +meaning. It gives no hint that it any longer understands the meaning of +even familiar objects so long as these are presented to it through the +sense of vision. Destruction of the visual cortex of one hemisphere +alone produces in the dog impairment of vision, not as in the bird +practically exclusively in the opposite eye, but in one lateral half of +each eye, and that half the half opposite the hemisphere injured. Thus +when the cortex destroyed is of the right cerebral hemisphere, the +resultant visual defect is in the left half of the field of vision of +both eyes. And this is so in man also. + +In man disturbances of sensation can be better studied because it is +possible to obtain from him his description of his condition. The +relation of the _cortex cerebri_ to human vision can be summarized +briefly as follows. The visual cortex is distinguishable in higher +mammals by a thin white stripe, the stripe of Gennari, seen in its grey +matter when that is sectioned. This stripe results from a layer of +nerve-fibres, many of which are axones from the neurones of the lateral +geniculate body and the pulvinar, the grey masses directly connected +with the optic nerve-fibres. In the dog, and in such monkeys as the +Macaque, the region of cortex containing this stripe traceable to optic +fibres forms practically the whole occipital lobe. But in the man-like +apes and in man this kind of cortex is confined to one region of the +occipital lobe, namely, that of the calcarine fissure and the _cuneus_ +behind that. This region of cortex thus delimited in man is one of +Flechsig's areas of earlier myelinization. It is also one of his areas +possessing projection fibres; and this last fact agrees with the +yielding by this area, when under electrical stimulation, of movements +indicating that impulses have been discharged from it into the motor +neurones of the muscles of the eyes and neck. Evidence from cases of +disease show that destruction of the cortex of the upper lip of the +calcarine fissure, say in the right half of the brain, causes in man +impairment in the upper right-hand quadrant of both retinae: destruction +of the lower lip of the fissure causes impairment in the lower +right-hand quadrants. Destruction of the calcarine region of one +hemisphere produces therefore "crossed hemianopia," that is, loss of the +opposite half of the field of vision. But in this hemianopia the region +of central vision is always spared. That is, the piece of visual field +which corresponds with the yellow spot of the retina is not affected in +either eye, unless the calcarine regions of both hemispheres are +destroyed. This central point of vision is connected therefore not with +one side of the brain only but with both. + +The impairment of sight is more severe in men than in lower animals. +Where the destruction of the visuo-sensory cortex in one calcarine +region is complete, a candle-flame offered in the hemianopic field +cannot even be perceived. It may hardly excite a reflex contraction of +the pupil. In such cases the visual defect amounts to blindness. But +this is a greater defect than is found in the dog even after entire +removal of both occipital lobes. The dog still avoids obstacles as it +walks. Its defect is rather, as said above, a complete loss of interest +in the visual images of things. But a dog or monkey after loss of the +visual cortex hesitates more and avoids obstacles less well in a +familiar place than it does when entirely blind from loss of the +peripheral organ of vision. In man extensive destruction of the visual +cortex has as one of its symptoms loss of memory of localities, thus, of +the paths of a garden, of the position of furniture, and of accustomed +objects in the patient's own room. This loss of memory of position does +not extend to spatial relations ordinarily appreciated by touch, such as +parts of the patient's own person or clothing. There is nothing like +this in the symptoms following blindness by loss of the eye itself. +Those who lose their sight by disease of the retina retain good memorial +pictures of positions and directions appreciated primarily by vision. + +Cases of disease are on record in which loss of visual memory has +occurred without hemianopia. Visual hallucinations referred to the +hemianopic side have been observed. This suggests that the function of +visual memory in regard to certain kinds of percepts must belong to +localities of cortex different from those pertaining to other visual +percepts. The area of cortex characterized by the stripe of Gennari +occupies in man, as mentioned, the calcarine and cuneate region. It is +surrounded by a cortical field which, though intimately connected with +it by manifold conducting fibres, &c., is yet on various grounds +distinct from it. This field of cortex surrounding the visuo-sensory of +the calcarine-cuneate region is a far newer part of the neopallium than +the region it surrounds. Both in the individual (Flechsig) and in the +phylum (Bolton, Campbell, Mott) its development occurs far later than +that of the visuo-sensory which it surrounds. Flechsig finds that it has +no "projection" fibres, that is, that it receives none of the optic +radiations from the lower visual centres and gives no centrifugal fibres +in the reverse direction. This field encompassing the visuo-sensory +region differs from the latter in its microscopic structure by absence +of the lower layer of stellate cells and by the presence in it of a +third or deep layer of pyramidal cells (Mott). Its fibres are on the +average smaller than are those of the visuo-sensory (W.A. Campbell). +This zonal field is small in the lower apes, and hardly discoverable in +the dog. In the anthropoid apes it is much larger. In man it is +relatively much larger still. The impairment of visual memory and visual +understanding in regard to direction and locality is said to be observed +in man only when the injury of the cortex includes not only the +calcarine-cuneate region but a wide area of the occipital lobe. From +this it is argued that the zonal field is concerned with memories and +recognitions of a kind based on visual perceptions. It has therefore +been termed the _visuo-psychic_ area. It is one of Flechsig's +"association-areas" of the cortex. + +Adjoining the antero-lateral border of the just-described _visuo-psychic +area_ lies another region separate from it and yet related to it. This +area is even later in its course of development than is the +visuo-psychic. It is one of Flechsig's "terminal fields," and its fibres +are among the last to ripen in the whole cortex. This terminal field is +large in man. It runs forward in the parietal lobe above and in the +temporal lobe below. Its wide extent explains, in the opinion of Mott, +the displacement of the visuo-sensory field from the outer aspect of the +hemisphere in the lower monkeys to the median aspect in man. To this +terminal field all the more interest attaches because it includes the +angular gyrus, which authorities hold to be concerned with the visual +memory of words. Study of diseased conditions of speech has shown that +the power to understand _written_ words may be lost or severely impaired +although the words may be perfectly distinct to the sight and although +the power to understand _heard_ words remains good. This condition is +asserted by many physicians to be referable to destruction of part of +the angular gyrus. Close beneath the cortex of the angular gyrus runs a +large tract of long fibres which pass from the visual cortex (see above) +to the auditory cortex (see below) in the superior temporal gyrus and to +the lower part of the frontal lobe. This lower part of the frontal lobe +is believed--and has long been believed--to be concerned intimately with +the production of the movements of speech. A difficulty besetting the +investigation of the function of the angular gyrus is the fact that +lesion of the cortex there is likely to implicate the underlying tract +of fibres in its damage. It cannot be considered to have been as yet +clearly ascertained whether the condition of want of recognition of seen +words--"word-blindness"--is due to cortical injury apart from +subcortical, to the angular gyrus itself apart from the underlying +tract. Word-blindness seems, in the right-handed, to resemble the +aphasia believed to be connected with the lower part of the frontal +lobe, in that it ensues upon lesions of the left hemisphere, not of the +right. In left-handed persons, on the contrary, it seems to attach to +the right hemisphere. + +_Auditory Region of the Cortex._--Besides the two great organs of +distance-receptors, namely, the nose and eye, whose cerebral apparatus +for sensation has just been mentioned, those of a third great +distance-receptor have to be considered. The agents of stimulation of +the two former are respectively chemical (olfactory) and radiant +(visual); the mode of stimulation of the third is mechanical, and the +sensations obtained by it are termed auditory. Their cerebral +localization is very imperfectly ascertained. Electric stimuli applied +to a part of the uppermost temporal gyrus excites movements of the ears +and eyes in the dog. Destruction of the same region when executed on +both hemispheres is argued by several observers to impair the sense of +hearing. To this region of cortex fibres have been traced from the lower +centres connected with the nerve-fibres coming from the cochlea of the +ear. From each cochlear nerve a path has been traced which passes to the +_insulae_ and the above-mentioned _temporal_ region of cortex of both +the cerebral hemispheres. The insula is a deeper-seated area of cortex +adjoining the uppermost temporal convolution. To it Flechsig's +chronological studies also impute a connexion with the nerves of the +ear. Early myelinization of fibres, presence of ascending and descending +"projection" tracts to and from lower centres outside the cortex, +calibre of fibres, microscopic characters of its cortical cells, all +those kinds of indirect items of evidence that obtain for the visual +cortex likewise mark out this insular-temporal area as connected fairly +directly with a special sense-organ, as in fact a sensory field of the +cortex; and the suspicion is that it is auditory. Clinical observation +supports the view in a striking way, but one requiring, in the opinion +of some, further confirmation. It is widely believed that destruction of +the upper and middle part of the uppermost temporal convolution produces +"word-deafness," that is, an inability to recognize familiar words when +heard, although the words are recognized when seen. + +More precise information regarding this auditory region of the cortex +has recently been obtained by the experiments of Kalischer. These show +that after removal of this region from both sides of the brain in the +dog the animal shows great defect in answering to the call of its +master. Whereas prior to the operation the animal will prick its ears +and attend at once to the lightest call, it requires after the removal +of the auditory regions great loudness and insistence of calling to make +it attend and react as it did. This is the more striking in view of +other experimental results obtained. Kalischer trained a number of his +dogs not to take meat offered them except at the sound of a particular +note given by an organ pipe or a harmonium. The dogs rapidly learned not +to take the food on the sounding of notes of other pitch than the one +taught them as the permissive signal. This reaction on the part of the +animal was not impaired by the removal of the so-called auditory regions +of the cortex. Kalischer suggests that this reaction taught by training +is not destroyed by the operation which so greatly impairs the common +reaction to the master's call, because the former is a simpler process +more allied to reflex action. In it the attention of the dog is already +fastened upon the object, namely the food, and the stimulus given by the +note excites a reaction which simply allows the act of seizing the food +to take place, or on the other hand stops it. In the case of answering +the call of the master the stimulus has to excite attention, to produce +perception of the locality whence it comes, and to invoke a complicated +series of movements of response. He finds that destruction of the +posterior colliculi of the mid-brain, which have long been known to be +in some way connected with hearing, likewise destroys the response to +the call of the master, but did not destroy the trick taught to his dogs +of taking meat offered at the sound of a note of one particular pitch +but not at notes of other pitch given by the same instrument. + +_Other Senses and Localization in the Cortex Cerebri._--Turning now to +the connexion between the function of the cortex and the senses other +than those of the great distance-receptors just dealt with, even less is +known. Disturbance and impairment of skin sensations are observable both +in experiments on the cerebrum of animals and in cases of cerebral +disease in man. But the localization in the cortex of regions specially +or mainly concerned with cutaneous sensation has not been made +sufficiently clear to warrant statement here. Still less is there +satisfactory knowledge regarding the existence of cortical areas +concerned with sensations originated in the alimentary canal. The least +equivocal of such evidence regards the sense of taste. There is some +slight evidence of a connexion between this sense and a region of the +hippocampal gyrus near to but behind that related to smell. + +As to the sensations excited by the numerous receptors which lie not in +any of the surface membranes of the body but embedded in the masses of +the organs and between them, the _proprioceptors_, buried in muscles, +tendons and joints, there is little doubt that these sensations may be +disturbed or impaired by injury of the _cortex cerebri_. They may +probably also be excited by cortical stimulation. But evidence of +localization of their seat in, and their details of connexion with, the +cortex, is at present uncertain. Many authorities consider it probable +that sensations of touch and the sensations initiated by the +proprioceptors of muscles and joints (the organs of the so-called +muscular sense) are specially related to the post-central gyrus and +perhaps to the pre-central gyrus also. The clearest items on this point +are perhaps the following. + +Besides the regions instanced above, in the limbic (olfactory), +occipital (visual), and temporal (auditory) lobes, as exhibiting +precocity of development, there is a region showing similar precocity in +the fronto-parietal portion of the hemisphere. This is the region which +in the Primates includes the large _central fissure_ (sometimes called +the fissure of Rolando). To it fibres are traced which seem to continue +a path of conduction that began with afferent tracts belonging to the +spinal cord, and tracts which there is reason to think conduct impulses +from the receptor-organs of skin and muscles. The part of the cortex +immediately behind the _central fissure_ seems to be the main cortical +goal for these upward-conducting paths. That _post-central_ strip of +cortex would in this view bear to these paths a relation similar to that +which the occipital and temporal regions bear to afferent tracts from +the retina and the cochlea. There are observations which associate +impaired tactual sense and impaired perception of posture and movement +of a limb with injury of the _central region_ of the cortex. But there +are a number also which show that the motor defect which is a +well-ascertained result of injury of the _pre-central_ gyrus is +sometimes unaccompanied by any obvious defect either of touch or of +muscular sense. It seems then that the motor centres of this region are +closely connected with the centres for cutaneous and muscular sense, yet +are not so closely interwoven with them that mechanical damage inflicted +on the one of necessity heavily damages the other as well. There is +evidence that the sensory cortex in this region lies posterior to that +which has been conveniently termed the "motor." These latter in the +monkey and the man-like apes and man lie in front of the central +fissure: the sensory lie probably behind it. A.W. Campbell has found +changes in the cortex of the post-central convolution ensuing in the +essentially sensory disease, _tabes dorsalis_, a disease in which +degeneration of sensory nerve-fibres of the muscular sense and of the +skin senses is prominent. He considers that in man and the man-like apes +the part of the post-central gyrus which lies next to and enters into +the _central fissure_ is concerned with simpler sensual recognitions, +while the adjoining part of that convolution farther back is a "psychic +region" concerned with more complex psychosis connected with the senses +of skin and muscle. His subdivision of the post-central gyrus is based +on histological differences which he discovers between its anterior and +its posterior parts and on the above-described analogous differentiation +of a "sensory" from a "psychic" part in the visual region of cortex. + +It will be noted that although certain regions of the cortex are found +connected closely with certain of the main sense organs, there are +important receptive organs which do not appear to have any special +region of cortex assigned to their sensual products. Thus, there is the +"vestibular labyrinth" of the ear. This great receptive organ, so +closely connected in function with the movements and adjustment of the +postures of the head and eyes, and indeed of the whole body, is +prominent in the co-ordination necessary for the equilibrium of the +body, an essential part of the fundamental acts of progression, +standing, &c. Yet neither structural nor functional connexion with any +special region of the cortex has been traced as yet for the labyrinthine +receptors. Perceptions of the position of the head and of the body are +of course part of our habitual and everyday experience. It may perhaps +be that these perceptions are almost entirely obtained through sense +organs which are not labyrinthine, but visual, muscular, tactual, and so +on. The labyrinth may, though it controls and adjusts the muscular +activities which maintain the balance of the body, operate reflexly +without in its operation exciting of itself sensations. The results of +the unconscious reflexes it initiated and guided would be perceptible +through other organs of sense. But against this purely unconscious +functioning of the labyrinth and its nervous apparatus stands the fact +that galvanic stimulation of the labyrinth is accompanied by well-known +distinctive sensations--including giddiness, &c. Moreover, the prominent +factor in sea-sickness, a disorder richly suffused with sensations, is +probably the labyrinth. Yet there is marked absence of evidence of any +special and direct connexion between the _cortex cerebri_ and the +labyrinth organs. + +Also there is curiously little evidence of connexion of the cortex with +the nervous paths of conduction concerned with pain. As far as the +present writer can find from reference to books and from the clinical +experience of others, "pain" is unknown as an _aura_ in cortical +epilepsy, or at most is of equivocal occurrence. + +The preceding brief exposition of some of the main features of the +localization of function in the _cortex cerebri_, gradually deciphered +by patient inquiry, shows that the scheme of partition of function so +far perceptible does not follow the quaint lines of analysis of the +phrenologists with their supposed mental entities, so-called +"faculties." On the contrary it is based, as some of those who early +favoured a differential arrangement of function in the cerebrum had +surmised, on the _separateness of the incoming channels from peripheral +organs of sense_. These organs fall into groups separate one from +another not only by reason of their spatial differentiation at the +surface and in the thickness of the body, but also because each group +generates sensations which introspection tells us are of a species +unbridgeably separate from those generated by the other groups. Between +sensations of hearing and sensations of sight there is a dissimilarity +across which no intermediate series of sensual phenomena extend. The two +species of sensations are wholly disparate. Similarly there is a total +and impassable gap between sensations of touch and sensations of sight +and sound. In other words the sensations fall into groups which are +wholly disparate and are hence termed species. But within each species +there exist multifold varieties of the specific sensation, e.g. +sensations of red, of yellow, &c. We should expect, therefore, that the +conducting paths from the receptive organs which in their function as +sense-organs yield wholly disparate sensations would in so far as +subserving sensation diverge and pass to separate neural mechanisms. +That these sense-organs should in fact be found to possess in the cortex +of the cerebrum separate fields for their sensual nervous apparatus is, +therefore, in harmony with what would be the _a priori_ supposition. + +But, as emphasized at the beginning of this article, the receptive +organs belonging to the surfaces and the depths of the body and forming +the starting-points for the whole system of the afferent nerves, have +two functions more or less separate. One of these functions is to excite +sensations and the other is to excite movements, by reflex action, +especially in glands and muscles. In this latter function, namely the +reflexifacient, all that the receptive organs effect is effected by +means of the efferent nerves. They all have to use the efferent, +especially the motor, nerves of the body. So rich is the connexion of +the receptive organs with the efferent nerves that it is not improbable +that, through the central nervous organ, each receptive organ is +connected with every motor nerve of the whole nervous system,--the facts +of strychnine poisoning show that if this is not literally true it is at +least approximately so. Hence one of the goals to which each afferent +fibre from a receptive organ leads is a number of motor nerves. Their +conducting paths must, therefore, converge in passing to the +starting-points of the motor nerves; because these latter are +instruments common to the use of a number of different receptive organs +in so far as they excite reflex actions. On the other hand those of +their conducting paths which are concerned in the genesis of sensation, +instead of converging, diverge, at least as far as the _cortex cerebri_, +or if not divergent, remain separate. These considerations would make it +appear likely that the conducting path from each receptive organ divides +in the central nervous system into two main lines, one of which goes off +to its own particular region of the _cortex cerebri_ whither run +conductors only of similar sensual species to itself, while the other +main line passes with many others to a great motor station where, as at +a telephone exchange, coordinate use of the outgoing lines is assured to +them all. Now there is in fact a portion of the cortex in mammals the +functions of which are so pre-eminently motor, as judged by our present +methods, that it is commonly designated the _motor cortex_ (see fig. +24). This region of the cortex occupies in the Primates, including Man, +the pre-central gyrus. Among the items of evidence which reveal its +motor capabilities are the following. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of +Foci in the Motor Field of Chimpanzee.] + +_The Precentral or Motor Region of the Cortex._--The application to it +of electric currents excites movements in the skeletal muscles. The +movements occur in the half of the body of the side crossed from that of +the hemisphere excited. The "motor representation," as it is termed, is +in the cortex better described as a representation of definite actions +than of particular muscles. The actions "represented" in the top part of +the gyrus, namely next the great longitudinal fissure, move the leg; +those in the lowest part of the gyrus belong to the tongue and mouth. +The topical distribution along the length of the gyrus may be described +in a general way as following a sequence resembling that of the motor +representation in the spinal cord, the top of the gyrus being taken as +corresponding with the caudal end of the spinal cord. The sequence as +the gyrus is followed downwards runs: perineum, foot, knee, hip, +abdomen, chest, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand, eyelids and ear, nose, +mouth and tongue. The nature of the movement is very fairly constant for +separate points of this motor cortex as observed both in the same and in +similar experiments. Thus flexion of the arm will be excitable from one +set of points, and extension of the arm from another set of points; +opening of the jaw from one set and closure from another, and so on. +These various movements if excited strongly tend to have characters like +those of the movements seen in an epileptic convulsion. Strong +stimulation excites in fact a convulsion like that of epilepsy, +beginning with the movement usual for the point stimulated and spreading +so as to assume the proportions of a convulsion affecting the entire +skeletal musculature of one half or even of the whole body. The +resemblance to an epileptic seizure is the closer because the movement +before it subsides becomes clonic (rhythmic) as in epilepsy. The +determination of the exact spots of cortex in which are represented the +various movements of the body has served a useful practical purpose in +indicating the particular places in the cortex which are the seat of +disease. These the physician can localize more exactly by reason of this +knowledge. Hence the surgeon, if the nature of the disease is such as +can be dealt with by surgical means, can without unnecessarily damaging +the skull and brain, proceed directly to the point which is the seat of +the mischief. + +The motor representation of certain parts of the body is much more +liberal than is that of others. There is little correspondence between +the mere mass of musculature involved and the area of the cortex devoted +to its representation. Variety of movement rather than force or energy +of movement seems to demand extent of cortex. The cortical area for the +thumb is larger than those for the whole abdomen and chest combined. The +cortical area for the tongue is larger than that for the neck. Different +movements of one and the same part are very unequally represented in the +cortex. Thus, flexion of the leg is more extensively represented than is +extension, opening of the jaw has a much larger cortical area than has +closure of the jaws. It is interesting that certain agents, for instance +strychnine, and the poison of the bacilli which cause the disease known +as tetanus or lock-jaw, upset this normal topography, and replace in the +cortex flexion of the limb by extension of the limb, and opening of the +jaw by closure of the jaw. There is, however, no evidence that they do +this by changing in any way the cortical mechanisms themselves. It is +more likely that their action is confined to the lower centres, bulbar +and spinal, upon which the discharge excited from the cortex plays. The +change thus induced in the movement excited by the cortex does, however, +show that the point of cortex which causes for instance opening of the +mouth is connected with the motor nerves to the closing muscles as well +as with those of the opening muscles. This is an item of evidence that +the "centres" of the cortex are connected with the motor nerves of +antagonistic muscles in such a way that when the "centre" excites one +set of the muscles to contract, it simultaneously under normal +circumstances causes inhibition of the motor neurones of the opposed set +of muscles (reciprocal innervation). In the great majority of movements +excited from the motor cortex of a single hemisphere of the cerebrum, +the movement evoked is confined to one side of the body, namely to that +opposite to the hemisphere stimulated. There are, however, important +exceptions to this. Thus, adduction of both vocal cords is excited from +the cortex of either hemisphere. The movement of closure of the eyelids +is usually bilateral, unless the stimulation be very weak; then the +movement is of the eyelids of the opposite side only. The same holds +true for the movements of the jaw. It, therefore, seems clear that with +many movements which are usually bilaterally performed in ordinary life, +such as opening of the jaw, blinking, &c., the symmetrical areas of the +motor regions of both hemispheres are simultaneously in action. + +In regard to all these movements elicitable by artificial stimuli from +the motor cortex it is obvious that were there clearer evidence that the +pallial region from which they are elicitable is fairly directly +connected with corticopetal paths subserving cutaneous sensation or +"muscular sense," the movements might be regarded as falling into the +category of higher reflexes connected with the organs of touch, muscular +sense, &c., just as the movements of the eyeball excitable from the +visual cortex may be regarded as higher reflexes connected with vision. +The evidence of the connexion of the reactions of the motor cortex with +cutaneous and muscular senses appears, however, scarcely sufficient to +countenance at present this otherwise plausible view, which has on +general grounds much to commend it. + +It is remarkable that movements of the eyeball itself, i.e. apart from +movement of the lids, are not in the category of movements elicitable +from the precentral gyrus, the "motor" cortex. They are found +represented in a region farther forward, namely in front of the +precentral gyrus altogether, and occupying a scattered set of points in +the direction frontal from the areas for movements of arm and face. This +frontal area yields on excitation conjugate movements of both eyeballs +extremely like if not exactly similar to those yielded by excitation of +the occipital (visual) region of the cortex. It is supposed by some that +this frontal area yielding eye-movements has its function in this +respect based upon afferent conductors from other parts of the eyeball +than the retina, for instance upon kinaesthetic (Bastian) impressions or +upon sensual impressions derived from the cornea and the coats of the +eyeball including the ciliary and iris muscles. The ocular muscles are +certainly a source of centripetal impulses, but their connexion with the +cortex is not clear as to either their nature or their seat. The +question seems for the present to allow no clearer answer. It is +certain, however, that the frontal area of eye movements has +corticofugal paths descending from it to the lower motor centres of the +eyeballs quite independent of those descending from the occipital +(visual) area of eye-movements. Further, it seems clear that in many +animals there is another cortical region, a third region, the region +which we saw above might be considered auditory, where movements of the +eyeball similar to those elicitable in the occipital and frontal cortex +can be provoked. A. Tschermak is inclined to give the eyeball movements +of the frontal region the significance of reflex movements which carry +the visual field in various directions in answer to demands made by +sensory data derived from touch, &c., as for instance from the hand. The +movements of the eyeballs elicitable from the occipital region of the +cortex he regards as probably concerned with directing the gaze toward +something seen, for instance, in the peripheral field of vision. The +occipital movement would, therefore, be excited through the retina, and +would result in bringing the yellow spot region of the retinae of both +eyes to bear upon the object. This view has much to justify it. The +movements of the eyeballs excited from the cortex of the auditory region +would in a similar way be explicable as bringing the gaze to bear upon a +direction in which a sound had been located, auditory initiation +replacing the visual and tactual of the occipital and the frontal +regions respectively. + +Turning from these still speculative matters to others less suggestive +but of actual ascertainment, we find that the motor nature of the +precentral cortex as ascertained by electric stimuli is further +certified by the occurrence of disturbance and impairment of motor power +and adjustment following destruction of that region of the cortex. The +movements which such a part as a limb executes are of course manifold in +purpose. The hind limb of a dog is used for standing, for stepping, for +scratching, for squatting, and, where a dog, for instance, has been +trained to stand or walk on its hind legs alone, for skilled acts +requiring a special training for their acquisition. It is found that +when the motor area of the brain has been destroyed, the limb is at +first paralysed for all these movements, but after a time the limb +recovers the ability to execute some of them, though not all. The +scratching movement suffers little, and rapid improvement after cerebral +injury soon effaces the impairment, at first somewhat pronounced, in the +use of the limb for walking, running, &c., and ordinary movements of +progression. Even when both hemispheres have been destroyed the dog can +still stand and walk and run. Destruction of the motor region of the +cortex renders the fore limbs of the dog unable to execute such skilled +movements as the steadying of a bone for gnawing or the trained act of +offering the paw in answer to the command of the master. Skilled acts of +the limb, apart from conjoined movements in which it, together with all +the other limbs, takes part, assume of course a larger share of the +office of the limb in the Primates than in the dog; and this is +especially true for the fore limb. It is when the fore-foot becomes a +hand that opportunity is given for its more skilled individual use and +for its training in movements as a tool, or for the handling of tools +and weapons. It is these movements which suffer most heavily and for the +longest period after injury of the motor region of the cortex. Hence the +disablement ensuing upon injury to the cortex would be expected to be +most apparent in the Primates; and it is so, and most of all in Man. +Further, in Man there ensues a condition called "contracture," which is +not so apparent or frequent a result in other animals,--indeed, does not +occur at all in other animals except the monkey. In contracture the +muscles of the paretic limb are not flaccid, as they are usually in +paralysis, but they are tense and the limb is more or less rigidly fixed +by them in a certain position, usually one of flexion at elbow and +wrist. This condition does not occur at first, but gradually supervenes +in the course of a number of weeks. In Man the destruction of the motor +area of the cortex cripples the limb even for the part it should play in +the combined limb movements of walking, &c., and cripples it to an +extent markedly contrasting with the slight disturbances seen in the +lower mammals, e.g. the dog. + +As regards the recovery of motor power after lesions of the motor +cortex, two processes seem at work which are termed respectively +_restitution_ and _compensation_. By the former is understood the +recovery obtained when a part of a "centre" is destroyed, and the rest +of the centre, although thrown out of function at first, recovers and +supplements the deficiency later. An example of restitution would be the +recovery from temporary hemianopia caused by a small injury in one +occipital lobe. By compensation is understood the improvement of an +impaired nervous function, traceable to other centres different from +those destroyed supplying means to compass the reaction originally +dependent on the centres subsequently destroyed. Instances of such +compensation are the recovery of taxis for equilibrium subsequent to +destruction of the labyrinth of the ear, where the recovery is traceable +to assistance obtained through the eye. It will be noted that these +instances of recovery by restitution and by compensation respectively +are taken, from cases of injury inflicted on receptive rather than on +motor centres. It is doubtful how far they really apply to the undoubted +improvement that does within certain limits progress and succeed in +partially effacing the paresis immediately consequent on lesions of the +motor area. It has to be remembered that in all cases of traumatic +injury to the nervous system, especially where the trauma implicates the +central nervous organ, the first effects and impairment of function +resulting are due to a mixed cause, namely on the one hand the +mechanical rupture of conducting paths actually broken by solution of +their continuity, and on the other hand the temporary interruption of +conducting paths by "shock." Shock effects are not permanent: they pass +off. They are supposed to be due to a change at the synapses connecting +neurone with neurone in the grey matter. They amount in effect to a +long-lasting and gradually subsiding inhibition. + + For diseases of the brain see NEUROPATHOLOGY, INSANITY, SKULL + (_Surgery_), &c. (C. S. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The literature of the pineal region is enormous. Studnicka (in + _Oppels Vergleichende mikrosk. Anat._ Teile 4-5, 1904, 1905) gives + 285 references. The present conception of the generalized arrangement + is: ([alpha]) A single glandular median organ from the fore-brain + called the paraphysis. ([beta]) A pouch of the ependymal roof of the + ventricle called the dorsal sac. ([gamma]) A right and left + epiphysis, one of which may be wholly or partially suppressed. These + may change their position to anterior and posterior in some animals. + + + + +BRAINERD, DAVID (1718-1747), American missionary among the Indians, was +born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the 20th of April 1718. He was orphaned +at fourteen, and studied for nearly three years (1739-1742) at Yale. He +then prepared for the ministry, being licensed to preach in 1742, and +early in 1743 decided to devote himself to missionary work among the +Indians. Supported by the Scottish "Society for Promoting Christian +Knowledge," he worked first at Kaunaumeek, an Indian settlement about 20 +m. from Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and subsequently, until his death, +among the Delaware Indians in Pennsylvania (near Easton) and New Jersey +(near Cranbury). His heroic and self-denying labours, both for the +spiritual and for the temporal welfare of the Indians, wore out a +naturally feeble constitution, and on the 19th of October 1747 he died +at the house of his friend, Jonathan Edwards, in Northampton, +Massachusetts. + + His _Journal_ was published in two parts in 1746 by the Scottish + Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; and in 1749, at Boston, + Jonathan Edwards published _An Account of the Life of the Late Rev. + David Brainerd, chiefly taken from his own Diary and other Private + Writings_, which has become a missionary classic. A new edition, with + the _Journal_ and Brainerd's letters embodied, was published by Sereno + E. Dwight at New Haven in 1822; and in 1884 was published what is + substantially another edition, _The Memoirs of David Brainerd_, edited + by James M. Sherwood. + + + + +BRAINERD, a city and the county-seat of Crow Wing county, Minnesota, +U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 127 m. N.W. of +Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 5703; (1900) 7524, of whom 2193 were +foreign-born; (1905) 8133; (1910) 8526. It is served by the Minnesota & +International and the Northern Pacific railways. The latter maintains +here large car and repair shops, and a sanatorium for its employees. +There are also the Sisters of St Joseph hospital, a county court house, +a public library and a Y.M.C.A. building. A dam across the Mississippi +provides water power (about 60,000 H.P.) which is utilized extensively +for manufacturing purposes. Lumbering is an important industry, and +there are saw mills and planing mills, and an extensive creosote plant +for treating railway ties and timber. There are also flour mills, paper +and pulp mills, cigar factories, a brewery, a large foundry and a grain +elevator. In 1906 large quantities of iron ore were discovered in the +vicinity, the new range, the Cuyuna, running through the city from +north-east to south-west. Brainerd, named in honour of David Brainerd, +was settled in 1870, and chartered as a city in 1883. + + + + +BRAINTREE, a market town in the Maldon parliamentary division of Essex, +England; 45 m. N.E. of London by a branch line from Witham of the Great +Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district, 5330. The parish church of St +Michael is a fine edifice of Early English work with later additions. A +corn exchange, mechanics' institute and public hall may also be +mentioned. The bishops of London had formerly a palace in the town, but +there are no remains of the building. The manufactures of silk and crape +have superseded that of woollen cloth, which was introduced by the +Flemings who fled to England to escape the persecution of the duke of +Alva. Matting and brushes are also made. On the north lies the large +village of BOCKING, with the Perpendicular parish church of St Mary, +similar industries, and a population of 3347. + + + + +BRAINTREE, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the +Monatiquot river about 10 m. S. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 4848; (1900) +598l, including 1250 foreign-born; (1905, state census) 6879; (1910) +8066. The New York, New Haven & Hartford railway crosses the town and +has stations at its villages of Braintree, South Braintree and East +Braintree, which are also served by suburban electric railways. In South +Braintree are the Thayer Academy (co-educational; opened 1877) and the +Thayer public library, both founded by and named in honour of General +Sylvanus Thayer (1785-1872), a well-known military engineer born in +Braintree, who was superintendent of the United States Military Academy +in 1817-1833 and has been called the "father of West Point." There are +large shoe factories and other manufactories. Bog iron was early found +in Braintree, and iron-works, among the first in America, were +established here in 1644. Braintree was first incorporated in 1640 from +land belonging to Boston and called Mount Wollaston, and was named from +the town in England. At Merry Mount, in that part of Braintree which is +now Quincy, a settlement was established by Thomas Morton in 1625, but +the gay life of the settlers and their selling rum and firearms to the +Indians greatly offended the Pilgrims of Plymouth, who in 1627 arrested +Morton; soon afterward Governor John Endecott of Massachusetts Bay +visited Merry Mount, rebuked the inhabitants and cut down their Maypole. +Later the place was abandoned, and in 1634 a Puritan settlement was made +here. In 1708 the town was divided into the North Precinct and the South +Precinct, and it was in the former, now Quincy, that John Adams, John +Hancock and John Quincy Adams were born. Quincy was separated from +Braintree in 1792 (there were further additions to Quincy from Braintree +in 1856), and Randolph in 1793. + + See D.M. Wilson, _Quincy, Old Braintree and Merry Mount_ (Boston, + 1906); C.F. Adams, Jr., _Three Episodes of Massachusetts History_ + (Boston, 1892 and 1896); W.S. Pattee, _History of Old Braintree and + Quincy_ (Quincy, 1878). + + + + +BRAKE, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Oldenburg, on the left +bank of the Weser, about halfway between Bremen and the mouth of the +river. Pop. 5000. It was for centuries the port of Bremen; and though, +since the founding of Bremerhaven, it no longer possesses a monopoly of +the river traffic as before, it still continues to flourish. Large docks +have been constructed, and the place has a considerable import trade in +English coal. Shipbuilding and weaving are carried on to some extent. + +Brake in Oldenburg must be distinguished from the village of the same +name in the principality of Lippe, known as Brake bei Limgo, which gave +its name to the cadet line of the counts of Lippe-Brake (1621-1709). + + + + +BRAKE. (1) A term for rough-tangled undergrowth, connected, according to +the _New English Dictionary_, with "break," to separate. The +"brake-fern" (_Pteris aquilina_) is the common "bracken," and is a +shortened form of that northern Eng. word, derived from a Scand. word +for "fern" (cf. Swed. _braken_), though often confused with "brake," +undergrowth. (2) A term applied to many implements and mechanical and +other appliances, often spelled "break." Here there are probably several +words, difficult to separate in origin, connected either with "break," +to separate, and its derived meanings, or with the Fr. _braquer_ +(appearing in such expressions as _braquer un canon_, to turn or point a +gun), from O. Fr. _brac_, modern _bras_, an arm, Lat. _bracchium_. The +word is thus used of a toothed instrument for separating the fibre of +flax and hemp; of the "break-rolls" employed in flour manufacture; of a +heavy wheeled vehicle used for "breaking in" horses, and hence of a +large carriage of the wagonette type; of an arm or lever, and so of the +winch of a crossbow and of a pump handle, cf. "brake-pump"; of a curb or +bridle for a horse; and of a mechanical appliance for checking the speed +of moving vehicles, &c. It is noteworthy that the two last meanings are +also possessed by the Fr. _frein_ and the Ger. _Bremse_. + +Brakes, in engineering, are instruments by means of which mechanical +energy may be expended in overcoming friction. They are used for two +main classes of purpose: (1) to limit or decrease the velocity of a +moving body, or to bring it completely to rest; and (2) to measure +directly the amount of frictional resistance between two bodies, or +indirectly the amount of energy given out by a body or bodies in motion. +Machines in which brakes are employed for purposes of the second class +are commonly known as dynamometers (q.v.). The other class is +exemplified in the brakes used on wheeled vehicles and on cranes, lifts, +&c. Here a body, or system of bodies, originally at rest, has been set +in motion and has received acceleration up to a certain velocity, the +work which has been done in that acceleration being stored up as "actual +energy" in the body itself. Before the body can be brought to rest it +must part with this energy, expending it in overcoming some external +resistance. If the energy be great in proportion to the usual resistance +tending to stop the body, the motion will continue for a long time, or +through a long distance, before the energy has been completely expended +and the body brought to rest. But in certain cases considerations of +safety or convenience require that this time or distance be greatly +shortened, and this is done by artificially increasing the external +resistance for the time being, by means of a brake. + +A simple method of obtaining this increased resistance is by pressing a +block or shoe of metal or wood against the rim of a moving wheel, or by +tightening a flexible strap or band on a rotating pulley or drum. In +wheeled road vehicles, a wheel may be prevented from rotating by a chain +passed through its spokes and attached to the body of the vehicle, when +the resistance is increased by the substitution of a rubbing for a +rolling action; or the same effect may be produced by fixing a slipper +or skid under the wheel. Other forms of brake depend, not on the +friction between two solid bodies, but on the frictional resistance of a +fluid, as in "fan" and "pump" brakes. Thus the motion of revolving +blades may be opposed by the resistance of the air or of a liquid in +which they are made to work, or the motion of a plunger fitting tightly +in a cylinder filled with a fluid may be checked by the fluid being +prevented from escape except through a narrow orifice. The fly used to +regulate the speed of the striking train in a clock is an example of a +fan brake, while a pump brake is utilized for controlling the recoil of +guns and in the hydraulic buffers sometimes fitted at terminal railway +stations to stop trains that enter at excessive speed. On electric +tramcars a braking effect is sometimes obtained by arranging the +connexions of the motors so that they act as generators driven by the +moving car. In this way a counter-torque is exerted on the axles. The +current produced is expended by some means, as by being made to operate +some frictional braking device, or to magnetize iron shoes carried on +the car just over, but clear of, the running rails, to which they are +then magnetically attracted (see TRACTION). + +The simplest way of applying a brake is by muscular force, exerted +through a hand or foot lever or through a screw, by which the brake +block is pressed against the rim of the wheel or the band brake +tightened on its drum. This method is sufficient in the case of most +road vehicles, and is largely used on railway vehicles. But the power +thus available is limited, and becomes inadequate for heavy vehicles +moving at high speeds. Moreover, on a train consisting of a number of +vehicles, the hand brakes on each of which are independent of all +others, either a brakesman must be carried on each, or a number of the +brakes must be left unused, with consequent loss of stopping power; +while even if there is a brakesman on every vehicle it is impossible to +secure that all the brakes throughout the train are applied with the +promptness that is necessary in case of emergency. + +Considerations of this sort led to the development of power brakes for +railway trains. Of these there are five main classes:-- + + + Railway power brakes. + +(1) Mechanical brakes, worked by springs, friction wheels on the axle, +chains wound on drums, or other mechanical devices, or by the force +produced when, by reason of a sudden checking of the speed of the +locomotive, the momentum of the cars causes pressure on the draw-bars or +buffing devices. (2) Hydraulic brakes, worked by means of water forced +through pipes into proper mechanism for transmitting its force to the +brake-shoes. (3) Electric brakes. (4) Air and vacuum brakes, worked by +compressed air or by air at atmospheric pressure operating on a vacuum. +(5) Brakes worked by steam or water from the boiler of the engine, +operating by means of a cylinder; the use of these is generally limited +to the locomotive. Of this kind is the counter-pressure or water brake +of L. le Chatelier. If the valve gear of a locomotive in motion be +reversed and the steam regulator be left open, the cylinders act as +compressors, pumping air from the exhaust pipe into the boiler against +the steam pressure. A retarding effect is thus exercised, but at the +cost of certain inconveniences due to the passage of hot air and cinders +from the smoke box through the cylinders. To remedy these, le Chatelier +arranged that a jet of hot water from the boiler should be delivered +into the exhaust pipe, so that steam and not the hot flue gases should +be pumped back. + +Power brakes may be either continuous or independent--continuous if +connected throughout the train and with the locomotive by pipes, wires, +&c., as the compressed air, vacuum and electric brakes; independent if +not so connected, as the buffer-brakes and hand-brakes. Continuous +brakes may be divided into two other great classes--automatic and +non-automatic. The former are so arranged that they are applied +automatically on all the coaches of the train if any important part of +the apparatus is broken, or the couplings between cars are ruptured; in +an emergency they can be put on by the guard, or (in some cases) by a +passenger. Non-automatic brakes can be applied only by the person +(usually the engine-driver) to whom the management of them is given; +they may become inoperative on all the coaches, and always on those +which have become detached, if a coupling or other important and +generally essential part is broken. Many mechanical and several +hydraulic and electrical continuous brakes have been invented and tried; +but experience has shown them so inadequate in practice that they have +all practically disappeared, leaving the field to the air and the vacuum +brakes. At first these were non-automatic, but in 1872 the automatic +air-brake was invented by George Westinghouse, and the automatic +vacuum-brake was developed a few years later. + +Those respects in which non-automatic brakes are inadequate will be +understood from the following summary of the requirements most important +in a train-braking apparatus: (1) It must be capable of application to +every wheel throughout the train. (2) It must be so prompt in action +that the shortest possible time shall elapse between its first +application and the moment when the full power can be exerted throughout +the train. (3) It must be capable of being applied by the engine-driver +or by any of the officials in charge of the train, either in concert or +independently. (4) The motion of the train must be arrested in the +shortest possible distance. (5) The failure of a vital part must declare +itself by causing the brake to be applied and to remain applied until +the cause of failure is removed. (6) The breaking of the train in two or +more parts must cause immediate automatic application of the brakes on +all the coaches. (7) When used in ordinary service stops it must be +capable of gradual and uniform application (followed, if necessary, by a +full emergency application at any part of the service application) and +of prompt release under all conditions of application. (8) It must be +simple in operation and construction, not liable to derangement, and +inexpensive in maintenance. + + + Simple air-brake. + + The Westinghouse non-automatic or "straight" air-brake, patented in + 1869, consists in its simplest form of a direct-acting, steam-driven + air-pump, carried on the locomotive, which forces compressed air into + a reservoir, usually placed under the foot-plate of the locomotive. + From this reservoir a pipe is led through the engine cab, where it is + fitted with a three-way cock, to the rear of the locomotive tender, + where it terminates in a flexible hose, on the end of which is a + coupling. The coaches are furnished with a similar pipe, having hose + and coupling at each end, which communicates with one end of a + cylinder containing a piston, to the rod of which the brake-rods and + levers are connected. The application of the brakes is effected by the + engine-driver turning the three-way cock, so that compressed air flows + through the pipe and, acting against one side of the brake-cylinder + piston, applies the brake-shoes to the wheels by the movement of this + piston and the rods and levers connected to it. To release the brakes + the three-way cock is turned to cut off communication between the main + reservoir and the train-pipe, and to open a port permitting the escape + of the compressed air in the train-pipe and brake-cylinders. This + brake was soon found defective and inadequate in many ways. An + appreciable time was required for the air to flow through the pipes + from the locomotive to the car-cylinders, and this time increased + quickly with the length of the trains. Still more objectionable, + however, was the fact that on detached coaches the air-brakes could + not be applied, the result being sometimes serious collisions between + the front and rear portions of the train. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Westinghouse Air-Brake. + + Section through Triple-Valve and Brake-Cylinder.] + + + Automatic air-brake. + + In the Westinghouse "ordinary" automatic air-brake a main air + reservoir on the engine is kept charged with compressed air at 80 lb. + per sq. in. by means of the steam-pump, which may be controlled by an + automatic governor. On electric railways a pump, driven by an electric + motor, is generally employed; but occasionally, on trains which run + short distances, no pump is carried, the main reservoir being charged + at the terminal points with sufficient compressed air for the journey. + Conveniently placed to the driver's hand is the driver's valve, by + means of which he controls the flow of air from the main reservoir to + the train-pipe, or from the train-pipe to the atmosphere. A + reducing-valve is attached to the driver's valve, and in the normal or + running position of the latter reduces the pressure of the air flowing + from the main reservoir to the train-pipe by 10 or 15 lb. per sq. in. + From the engine a train-pipe runs the whole length of the train, being + rendered continuous between each vehicle and between the engine and + the rest of the train by flexible hose couplings. Each vehicle is + provided with a brake-cylinder H (fig. 1), containing a piston, the + movement of which applies the brake blocks to the wheels, an + "auxiliary air-reservoir" G, and an automatic "triple-valve" F. The + auxiliary reservoir receives compressed air from the train-pipe and + stores it for use in the brake-cylinder of its own vehicle, and both + the auxiliary reservoir and the triple-valve are connected directly or + indirectly with the train-pipe through the pipe E. The automatic + action of the brake is due to the construction of the triple-valve, + the principal parts of which are a piston and slide-valve, so arranged + that the air in the auxiliary reservoir acts at all times on the side + of the piston to which the slide-valve is attached, while the air in + the train-pipe exerts its pressure on the opposite side. So long as + the brakes are not in operation, the pressures in the train-pipe, + triple-valve and auxiliary reservoir are all equal, and there is no + compressed air in the brake-cylinder. But when, in order to apply the + brake, the driver discharges air from the train-pipe, this + equilibrium is destroyed, and the greater pressure in the auxiliary + reservoir forces the triple-valve to a position which allows air from + the auxiliary reservoir to pass directly into the brake-cylinder. This + air forces out the piston of the brake-cylinder and applies the + brakes, connexion being made with the brake-rigging at R. The purpose + of the small groove n which establishes communication between the two + sides of the piston when the brakes are off, is to prevent their + unintended application through slight leakage from the train-pipe. To + release the brakes, the driver, by moving the handle of his valve to + the release position, admits air from the main reservoir to the + train-pipe, the pressure in which thus becomes greater than that in + the auxiliary reservoir; the piston and slide-valve of the + triple-valve are thereby forced back to their normal position, the + compressed air in the brake-cylinder is discharged, and the piston is + brought back by the coiled spring, thus releasing the brakes. At the + same time the auxiliary reservoir is recharged. + + + Quick-acting air-brake. + + With this "ordinary" brake, since an appreciable time is required for + the reduction of pressure to travel along the train-pipe from the + engine, the brakes are applied sensibly sooner at the front than at + the end of the train, and with long trains this difference in the time + of application becomes a matter of importance. The "quick-acting" + brake was introduced to remedy this defect. For it the triple valve is + provided with a supplementary mechanism, which, when the air pressure + in the train-pipe is suddenly or violently reduced, opens a passage + whereby air from the train-pipe is permitted to enter the + brake-cylinder directly. The result is twofold: not only is the + pressure from the auxiliary reservoir acting in the brake-cylinder + reinforced by the pressure in the train-pipe, but the pressure in the + train-pipe is reduced locally in every vehicle in extremely rapid + succession instead of at the engine only, and in consequence all the + brakes are applied almost simultaneously throughout the train. The + same effect is produced should the train break in two, or a hose or + any part of the train-pipe burst; but during ordinary or "service" + stops the triple-valve acts exactly as in the ordinary brake, the + quick-acting portion, that is, the vertical piston and valve seen in + fig. 1, not coming into operation. When the handle Z is turned to the + position X the quick-acting mechanism is rendered inoperative, and + when it is at Y the brake on the vehicle concerned is wholly cut out + of action. + + A further improvement introduced in the Westinghouse brake in 1906 was + designed to give quick action for service as well as emergency stops. + In this the triple-valve is substantially the same as in the ordinary + brake. The additional mechanism of the quick-acting portion is + dispensed with, but instead, a small chamber, normally containing air + at atmospheric pressure, is provided on each vehicle, and is so + arranged that it is put into communication with the train-pipe by the + first movement of the triple-valve. As soon, therefore, as the driver, + by lowering the pressure in the train-pipe, causes the triple-valve in + the foremost vehicle of the train to operate, a certain quantity of + air rushes out of the train-pipe into the small chamber; a further + local reduction in the pressure of the train-pipe in that vehicle is + thereby effected, and this almost instantaneously actuates the + triple-valve of the succeeding vehicle, and so on throughout the + train. In this way, on a train 1800 ft. long, consisting of sixty + 30-ft. vehicles, the brake-blocks may be applied, with equal force, on + the last vehicle about 2-1/2 seconds later than on the first. + + + High-speed air-brake. + + Brake-blocks can be applied, without skidding the wheels, with greater + pressure at high speeds than at low. Advantage is taken of this fact + in the design of the Westinghouse "high-speed" brake, invented in + 1894, which consists of attachments enabling the pressure in the + train-pipe and reservoirs to be increased at the will of the driver. + The increased pressure acting in the brake-cylinder increases in the + same proportion the pressure of the brake-shoes against the wheels. + Attached to the brake cylinder is a valve for automatically reducing + the pressure therein proportionately to the reduction in speed, until + the maximum pressure under which the brakes are operated in making + ordinary stops is reached, when this valve closes and the maximum safe + pressure for operating the brakes at ordinary speeds is retained until + a stop is made. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2--Automatic Vacuum-Brake, showing its general + arrangement.] + + + Automatic Vacuum-Brake. + + In the automatic vacuum-brake, the exhausting apparatus generally + consists of a combined large and small ejector (a form of jet-pump) + worked by steam and under the control of the driver, though sometimes + a mechanical air-pump, driven from the crosshead of the locomotive, is + substituted for the small ejector. These ejectors, of which the small + one is at work continuously while the large one is only employed when + it is necessary to create vacuum quickly, e.g. to take off the brakes + after a short stop, produce in the train-pipe a vacuum equal to about + 20 in. of mercury, or in other words reduce the pressure within it to + about one-third of an atmosphere. The train-pipe extends the whole + length of the train and communicates under each vehicle with a + cylinder, to the piston of which, by suitable rods and levers, the + brake-shoes are connected. The communication between the train-pipe + and the cylinder is controlled by a ball-valve, one form of which is + shown in fig. 2. The release-valve is for the purpose of withdrawing + the ball from its seat when it is necessary to take off the brakes by + hand; it is made air-tight by a small diaphragm, the pressure of + which, when there is vacuum in the pipe, pulls in the spindle and + allows the ball to fall freely into its seat. When air is exhausted + through the train-pipe it travels out from below the piston direct, + and from above it past the ball, which is thus forced off its seat, to + roll back again when the exhaustion is complete. In this state of + affairs the piston is held in equilibrium and the brake-blocks are + free of the wheels. To apply them, air is admitted to the train-pipe, + either purposely by the guard or driver, or accidentally by the + rupture of the train-pipe or coupling-hose between the vehicles. The + air passes to the lower side of the piston, but is prevented from + gaining access to the upper side by the ball-valve which blocks the + passage; hence the pressure becomes different on the two sides of the + piston, which in consequence is forced upwards and thus applies the + brakes. They are released by the re-establishment of equilibrium (by + the use of the large ejector if necessary); when this is done the + piston falls and the brakes drop off. The general arrangement of the + apparatus is shown in fig. 2. To render the application of the brakes + nearly simultaneous throughout a long train, the valve in the guard's + van is arranged to open automatically when the driver suddenly lets in + air to the train-pipe. This valve has a small hole through its stem, + and is secured at the top by a diaphragm to a small dome-like chamber, + which is exhausted when a vacuum is created in the train-pipe. A + gradual application destroys the vacuum in the chamber as quickly as + in the pipe and the diaphragm remains unmoved; but with a sudden one + the vacuum below the valve is destroyed more quickly, and with the + difference of pressure the diaphragm lifts the valve and admits air. A + rapid-acting valve (fig. 3) is sometimes interposed between the + train-pipe and the cylinder on each vehicle. In the normal or running + position, a vacuum is maintained below the valve A and above the + diaphragm B, while the chamber below B and above A is at atmospheric + pressure. For an emergency application of the brake, air is suddenly + admitted to the train-pipe and thus to the lower side of A, and the + pressure acting on the under side of B is sufficient to cause it to + lift the valve A, and to admit air from the atmosphere, both to the + brake-cylinder and the train-pipe, through the clappet-valve D, which + also rises because of the difference of pressure on its two sides. In + a graduated application, neither D nor A rises from its seat, but air + from the train-pipe finds access to the brake-cylinder by passing + around the peg C, which is so proportioned as to allow the necessary + amount of air to enter the brake-cylinder, and so obtain simultaneous + action of the brake throughout the train. When the handle E is turned + so as to prevent the clappet D from rising, the rapid action is cut + out and the brake acts as an ordinary vacuum automatic brake. A + modification of the device for obtaining accelerated action, described + above in connexion with the Westinghouse brake, is also applicable. + Accelerating chambers, again containing air at atmospheric pressure, + are provided on each vehicle and are connected with the train-pipe by + valves which open as the vacuum in the latter begins to decrease with + the operation of the driver's valve. The air thus admitted into the + train-pipe effects a still further local reduction of the vacuum, + which is sufficient to actuate the accelerating valve of each next + succeeding vehicle and is thus rapidly propagated throughout the + train. + + + Brake trials. + + Famous tests of railway brakes were those made by Sir Douglas Galton + and Mr George Westinghouse on the London, Brighton and South Coast + railway, in England, in 1878, and by a committee of the Master Car + Builders' Association, near Burlington, Iowa, in 1886 and 1887. The + object of the former series (for accounts of which see _Proc. Inst. + Mech. Eng._, 1878, 1879) was to determine the co-efficient of friction + between the brake-shoe and the wheel, and between the wheel and rail + at different velocities when the wheels were revolving and when + skidded, i.e. stopped in their rotation and caused to slide. These + experiments were the first of their kind ever undertaken, and for many + years their results furnished most of the trustworthy data obtainable + on the friction of motion. It was found that the co-efficient of + friction between cast-iron shoes and steel-tired wheels increased as + the speed of the train decreased, varying from 0.111 at 55 m. an hour + to 0.33 when the train was just moving. It also decreased with the + time during which the brakes were applied; thus at 20 m. an hour the + co-efficient was at the beginning 0.182, after ten seconds 0.133, + after twenty seconds 0.099. Generally speaking, especially at moderate + speeds, the decrease in the co-efficient of friction due to time is + less than the increase due to decrease of speed, although when the + time is long the reverse may be true. When the wheels are skidded the + retardation of the train is always reduced; therefore, for the + greatest braking effect, the pressures on the brake-shoes should never + be sufficient to cause the wheels to slide on the rails. The + Burlington brake tests were undertaken to determine the practicability + of using power brakes on long and heavy freight trains. In the 1886 + tests there were five competitors--three buffer-brakes, one + compressed-air brake, and one vacuum-brake. The tests comprised stops + with trains of twenty-five and fifty vehicles, at 20 and 40 m. an + hour, on the level and on gradients of 1 in 100. They demonstrated + that the buffer-brakes were inadequate for long trains, and that + considerable improvements in the continuous brakes, both + compressed-air and vacuum, would be needed to make them act quickly + enough to avoid excessive shocks in the rear vehicles. In 1887 the + trials of the year before were repeated by the same committee, and at + the same place. Trains of fifty vehicles, about 2000 ft. long and + fitted with each brake, were again provided, and there were again five + competitors, but they all entered continuous brakes--three + compressed-air brakes, one vacuum and one electric. The results of the + first day's test of the train equipped with Westinghouse brakes are + shown in Table I., the distances in which are the feet run by the + train after the brakes were set, and the times the seconds that + elapsed from the application of the brakes to full stop. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3--Rapid-acting Vacuum-Brake Valve.] + + + TABLE I.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1887--Automatic + Air-Brakes._ + + +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+ + | Speed in | Distance | Time in | Equivalent Distance | + | Miles per | in Feet. | Seconds. | at 20 m. and 40 m. | + | Hour. | | | | + +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | 19-1/2 | 186 | 9-3/4 | 196 | . . | + | 19-1/4 | 215 | 11 | 233 | . . | + | 36-1/2 | 588 | 17 | . . | 693 | + +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + + The remarkable shortness of these stops is the more evident when they + are compared with the best results obtained in 1886, as shown in Table + II. + + + TABLE II.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars, 1886--Automatic + Air-Brakes._ + + +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+ + | Speed in | Distance | Time in | Equivalent Distance | + | Miles. | in Feet. | Seconds. | at 20 m. and 40 m. | + +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | 23.5 | 424 | 17-1/2 | 307 | . . | + | 20.3 | 354 | 16 | 340 | . . | + | 40 | 922 | 22-1/2 | . . | 922 | + | 40 | 927 | 22-3/4 | . . | 927 | + +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + + The time that elapsed between the application of the brakes on the + engine and on the fiftieth vehicle was almost twice as great in 1886 + as in 1887, being in the latter tests only five to six seconds, and in + 1887 the stops were made in less than two-thirds the distance required + in 1886. Still, violent shocks were caused by the rear vehicles + running against those in front, before the brakes on the former were + applied with sufficient force to hold them, and these shocks were so + severe as to make the use of the brakes in practice impossible on long + trains. When the triple-valves were actuated electrically, however, + the stops were still further improved, as shown in Table III. + + + Table III.--_Stops of a Train of Fifty Empty Cars--Electric + Application of Air-Brakes._ + + +-----------+----------+----------+---------------------+ + | Speed in | Distance | Time in | Equivalent Distance | + | Miles. | in Feet. | Seconds. | at 20 m. and 40 m. | + +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | 21-1/2 | 160 | 7 | 139 | . . | + | 23 | 183 | 8 | 138 | . . | + | 38 | 475 | 14-1/2 | . . | 519 | + | 36-1/2 | 460 | 14 | . . | 545 | + +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + + Although the same levers, shoes, rods and other connexions were used, + there were no shocks in the fiftieth car of the train on any stop, + whether on the level or on a gradient. The committee in charge + reported that the best type of brake for long freight trains was one + operated by air, in which the valves were actuated by electricity, but + they expressed doubt of the practicability of using electricity on + freight trains. The Westinghouse Company then proceeded to quicken the + action of the triple-valve, operated by air only, so that stops with + fifty-car trains could be made without shock, and without electrically + operated valves; and they were so successful in this respect that, + towards the end of the same year, 1887, with a train of fifty + vehicles, stops were made without shock, fully equalling in quickness + and shortness of distance run any that had been made at the trials by + the electrically operated brakes. + + In 1889 some further tests were made by Sir Douglas Galton with the + automatic vacuum-brake, on a practically level portion of the + Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (now the Great Central). + The train was composed of an engine, tender and forty carriages, the + total length over buffers being 1464 ft., and the total weight 574 + tons, of which 423 tons were braked. At a speed of about 32 m. an hour + this train was brought to a standstill in twelve seconds after the + application of the brakes, in a distance of 342 ft. + + + + +BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE (fl. 1200), English monk, and author of a +chronicle narrating the fortunes of the monastery of Bury St Edmunds +between 1173 and 1202. He is only known to us through his own work. He +was a native of Bury St Edmunds; he served his novitiate under Samson of +Tottington, who was at that time master of the novices, but afterwards +sub-sacrist, and, from 1182, abbot of the house. Jocelyn took the habit +of religion in 1173, during the time of Abbot Hugo (1157-1180), through +whose improvidence and laxity the abbey had become impoverished and the +inmates dead to all respect for discipline. The fortunes of the abbey +changed for the better with the election of Samson as Hugo's successor. +Jocelyn, who became abbot's chaplain within four months of the election, +describes the administration of Samson at considerable length. He tells +us that he was with Samson night and day for six years; the picture +which he gives of his master, although coloured by enthusiastic +admiration, is singularly frank and intimate. It is all the more +convincing since Jocelyn is no stylist. His Latin is familiar and easy, +but the reverse of classical. He thinks and writes as one whose +interests are wrapped up in his house; and the unique interest of his +work lies in the minuteness with which it describes the policy of a +monastic administrator who was in his own day considered as a model. + +Jocelyn has also been credited with an extant but unprinted tract on the +election of Abbot Hugo (Harleian MS. 1005, fo. 165); from internal +evidence this appears to be an error. He mentions a (non-extant) work +which he wrote, before the _Cronica_, on the miracles of St Robert, a +boy whom the Jews of Bury St Edmunds were alleged to have murdered +(1181). + + See the editions of the _Cronica Jocelini de Brakelonda_ by T. Arnold + (in _Memorials of St Edmund's Abbey_, vol. i. Rolls series, 1890), and + by J.G. Rokewood (Camden Society, 1840); also Carlyle's _Past and + Present_, book ii. A translation and notes are given in T.E. Tomlin's + _Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century in the Chronicle of + Jocelyn de Brakelond_ (1844). There is also a translation of Jocelyn + by Sir E. Clarke (1907). + + + + +BRAMAH, JOSEPH (1748-1814), English engineer and inventor, was the son +of a farmer, and was born at Stainborough, Yorkshire, on the 13th of +April 1748. Incapacitated for agricultural labour by an accident to his +ankle, on the expiry of his indentures he worked as a cabinet-maker in +London, where he subsequently started business on his own account. His +first patent for some improvements in the mechanism of water-closets was +taken out in 1778. In 1784 he patented the lock known by his name, and +in 1795 he invented the hydraulic press. For an important part of this, +the collar which secured water-tightness between the plunger and the +cylinder in which it worked, he was indebted to Henry Maudslay, one of +his workmen, who also helped him in designing machines for the +manufacture of his locks. In 1806 he devised for the Bank of England a +numerical printing machine, specially adapted for bank-notes. Other +inventions of his included the beer-engine for drawing beer, machinery +for making aerated waters, planing machines, and improvements in +steam-engines and boilers and in paper-making machinery. In 1785 he +suggested the possibility of screw propulsion for ships, and in 1802 the +hydraulic transmission of power; and he constructed waterworks at +Norwich in 1790 and 1793. He died in London on the 9th of December 1814. + + + + +BRAMANTE, or BRAMANTE LAZZARI (c. 1444-1514), Italian architect and +painter, whose real name was Donate d'Augnolo, was born at +Monte-Asdrualdo in Urbino, in July 1444. He showed a great taste for +drawing, and was at an early age placed under Fra Bartolommeo, called +Fra Carnavale. But though he afterwards gained some fame as a painter, +his attention was soon absorbed by architecture. He appears to have +studied under Scirro Scirri, an architect in his native place, and +perhaps under other masters. He then set out from Urbino, and proceeded +through several of the towns of Lombardy, executing works of various +magnitudes, and examining patiently all remains of ancient art. At last, +attracted by the fame of the great Duomo, he reached Milan, where he +remained from 1476 to 1499. He seems to have left Milan for Rome about +1500. He painted some frescoes at Rome, and devoted himself to the study +of the ancient buildings, both in the city and as far south as Naples. +About this time the Cardinal Caraffa commissioned him to rebuild the +cloister of the Convent della Pace. Owing to the celerity and skill with +which Bramante did this, the cardinal introduced him to Pope Alexander +VI. He began to be consulted on nearly all the great architectural +operations in Rome, and executed for the pope the palace of the +Cancelleria or chancery. Under Julius II., Alexander's successor, +Bramante's talents began to obtain adequate sphere of exercise. His +first large work was to unite the straggling buildings of the palace and +the Belvedere. This he accomplished by means of two long galleries or +corridors enclosing a court. The design was only in part completed +before the death of Julius and of the architect. So impatient was the +pope and so eager was Bramante, that the foundations were not +sufficiently well attended to; great part of it had, therefore, soon to +be rebuilt, and the whole is now so much altered that it is hardly +possible to decipher the original design. + +Besides executing numerous smaller works at Rome and Bologna, among +which is specially mentioned by older writers a round temple in the +cloister of San Pietro-a-Montorio, Bramante was called upon by Pope +Julius to take the first part in one of the greatest architectural +enterprises ever attempted--the rebuilding of St Peter's. Bramante's +designs were complete, and he pushed on the work so fast that before his +death he had erected the four great piers and their arches, and +completed the cornice and the vaulting in of this portion. He also +vaulted in the principal chapel. After his death on the 11th of March +1514, his design was much altered, in particular by Michelangelo. + + See Pungileoni, _Memoire intorno alla vita ed alle opere di Bramante_ + (Rome, 1836); H. Semper, _Donato Bramante_ (Leipzig, 1879). + + + + +BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS, BARON (1817-1907), English judge, was born at +Hitchin, on the 14th of September 1817. He received his education at +Bedford school. The son of a solicitor, he was early familiarized with +legal principles. Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1843, he at +once joined the old home circuit, and after enjoying a lucrative +practice as a junior, took silk in 1859. His name is identified with +many of the famous trials of the reign of Queen Victoria. He was engaged +in the Simon Bernard case (of the Orsini plot celebrity), in that of +_Roupell_ v. _Waite_, and in the Overend-Gurney prosecutions. The two +_causes celebres_, however, in which Hawkins attained his highest legal +distinction were the Tichborne trials and the great will case of +_Sugden_ v. _Lord St Leonards_. In both of these he was victorious. In +the first his masterly cross-examination of the witness Baigent was one +of the great features of the trial. He did a lucrative business in +references and arbitrations, and acted for the royal commissioners in +the purchase of the site for the new law courts. Election petitions also +formed another branch of his extensive practice. Hawkins was raised to +the bench in 1876, and was assigned to the then exchequer division of +the High Court, not as baron (an appellation which was being abolished +by the Judicature Act), but with the title of Sir Henry Hawkins. He was +a great advocate rather than a great lawyer. His searching voice, his +manner, and the variety of his facial expression, gave him an enormous +influence with juries, and as a cross-examiner he was seldom, if ever, +surpassed. He was an excellent judge in chambers, where he displayed a +clear and vigorous grasp of details and questions of fact. His knowledge +of the criminal law was extensive and intimate, the reputation he gained +as a "hanging" judge making him a terror to evil-doers; and the court +for crown cases reserved was never considered complete without his +assistance. In 1898 he retired from the bench, and was raised to the +peerage under the title of Baron Brampton. He frequently took part in +determining House of Lords appeals, and his judgments were distinguished +by their lucidity and grasp. He held for many years the office of +counsel to the Jockey Club, and as an active member of that body found +relaxation from his legal and judicial duties at the leading race +meetings, and was considered a capable judge of horses. In 1898 he was +received into the Roman Catholic Church, and in 1903 he presented, in +conjunction with Lady Brampton (his second wife), the chapel of SS. +Augustine and Gregory to the Roman Catholic cathedral of Westminster, +which was consecrated in that year. In 1904 he published his +_Reminiscences_. He died in London on the 6th of October 1907, and Lady +Brampton in the following year. + + + + +BRAMPTON, a market town in the Eskdale parliamentary division of +Cumberland, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Carlisle, on a branch of the North +Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2494. It is picturesquely situated in a +narrow valley opening upon that of the Irthing. The town has an +agricultural trade, breweries, and manufactures of cotton and tweeds. +The neighbourhood is rich in historical associations. Two miles N.E. of +Brampton is the castle of Naworth, a fine example of a Border fortress. +It was built in the reign of Edward III., by a member of the family of +Dacre, who for many generations had had their stronghold here. +Overlooking a deep wooded ravine, with streams to the east and west, the +great quadrangular castle was naturally defended except on the south, +where it was rendered secure by a double moat and drawbridge. By +marriage in 1577 with Lady Elizabeth Dacre it passed into the hands of +William Howard, afterwards lord warden of the Marches, the "Belted Will" +of Sir Walter Scott and the Border ballads, who acquired great fame by +his victories over the Scottish moss-troopers. The castle, the walls of +which have many secret passages and hiding-places, is inhabited, and in +its hall are numerous fine pictures, including a portrait of Charles I. +by Van Dyck. Not far distant is Lanercost Priory, where in 1169 an +Augustinian monastery was established. In 1311 Robert Bruce and his army +were quartered here, and the priory was pillaged in 1346 by David, king +of Scotland. From this time its prosperity declined, and at its +dissolution under Henry VIII. it consisted only of a prior and seven +canons. The Early English church has a restored nave, but retains much +fine carving. The chancel is ruined, but the interesting crypt is +preserved. + + + + +BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL, BARON (1808-1892), English +judge, was born in London on the 12th of June 1808, being the eldest son +of George Bramwell, of the banking firm of Dorrien, Magens, Dorrien & +Mello. He was educated privately, and at the age of sixteen he entered +Dorriens' bank. In 1830 he gave up this business for the law, being +admitted as a student at Lincoln's Inn in 1830, and at the Inner Temple +in 1836. At first he practised as a special pleader, but was eventually +called to the bar at both Inns in 1838. He soon worked his way into a +good practice both in London and the home circuit, his knowledge of law +and procedure being so well recognized that in 1850 he was appointed a +member of the Common Law Procedure Commission, which resulted in the +Common Law Procedure Act of 1852. This act he drafted jointly with his +friend Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Willes, and thus began the abolition +of the system of special pleading. In 1851 Lord Cranworth made Bramwell +a queen's counsel, and the Inner Temple elected him a bencher--he had +ceased to be a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1841. In 1853 he served on the +royal commission to inquire into the assimilation of the mercantile laws +of Scotland and England and the law of partnership, which had as its +result the Companies Act of 1862. It was he who, during the sitting of +this commission, suggested the addition of the word "limited" to the +title of companies that sought to limit their liability, in order to +prevent the obvious danger to persons trading with them in ignorance of +their limitation of liability. As a queen's counsel Bramwell enjoyed a +large and steadily increasing practice, and in 1856 he was raised to the +bench as a baron of the court of exchequer. In 1867, with Mr Justice +Blackburn and Sir John Coleridge, he was made a member of the judicature +commission. In 1871 he was one of the three judges who refused the seat +on the judicial committee of the privy council to which Sir Robert +Collier, in evasion of the spirit of the act creating the appointment, +was appointed; and in 1876 he was raised to the court of appeal, where +he sat till the autumn of 1881. As a puisne judge he had been +conspicuous as a sound lawyer, with a strong logical mind unfettered by +technicalities, but endowed with considerable respect for the common +law. His rulings were always clear and decisive, while the same quality +marked his dealings with fact, and, coupled with a straightforward, +unpretentious manner, gave him great influence with juries. In the court +of appeal he was perhaps not so entirely in his element as at _nisi +prius_, but the same combination of sound law, strong common sense and +clear expression characterized his judgments. His decisions during the +three stages of his practical career are too numerous to be referred to +particularly, although _Ryder_ v. _Wombwell_ (L.R. 3 Ex. 95); _R._ v. +_Bradshaw_ (14 Cox C.C. 84); _Household Fire Insurance Company_ v. +_Grant_ (4 Ex. Div. 216); _Stonor_ v. _Fowle_ (13 App. Cas. 20), _The +Bank of England_ v. _Vagliano Brothers_ (App. Cas. 1891) are good +examples. Upon his retirement, announced in the long vacation of 1881, +twenty-six judges and a huge gathering of the bar entertained him at a +banquet in the Inner Temple hall. In December of the same year he was +raised to the peerage, taking the title Baron Bramwell of Hever, from +his home in Kent. In private life Bramwell had simple tastes and enjoyed +simple pleasures. He was musical and fond of sports. He was twice +married: in 1830 to Jane (d. 1836), daughter of Bruno Silva, by whom he +had one daughter, and in 1861 to Martha Sinden. He died on the 9th of +May 1892. + +His younger brother, Sir Frederick Bramwell (1818-1903), was a +well-known consulting engineer and "expert witness." + + At all times Lord Bramwell had been fond of controversy and + controversial writing, and he wrote constant letters to _The Times_ + over the signature B. (he also signed himself at different times + Bramwell, G.B. and L.L.). He joined in 1882 the Liberty and Property + Defence League, and some of his writings after that date took the form + of pamphlets published by that society. + + + + +BRAN, in Celtic legend, the name of (1) the hero of the Welsh _Mabinogi +of Branwen_, who dies in the attempt to avenge his sister's wrongs; he +is the son of Llyr (= the Irish sea-god Ler), identified with the Irish +Bran mac Allait, Allait being a synonym of Ler; (2) the son of Febal, +known only through the 8th-century Irish epic, _The Voyage of Bran_ (to +the world below); (3) the dog of Ossian's Fingal. Bran also appears as a +historical name, Latinized as _Brennus_. See Kuno Meyer and D. Nutt, +_The Voyage of Bran_ (London, 1895). + + + + +BRAN, the ground husk of wheat, oats, barley or other cereals, used for +feeding cattle, packing and other purposes (see FLOUR). The word occurs +in French _bren_ or _bran_, in the dialects of other Romanic languages, +and also in Celtic, cf. Breton _brenn_, Gaelic _bran_. The _New English +Dictionary_ considers these Celtic forms to be borrowed from French or +English. In modern French _bren_ means filth, refuse, and this points to +some connexion with Celtic words, e.g. Irish _brean_, manure. If so, the +original meaning would be refuse. "Bran-new," i.e. quite new, is now +the common form of "brand-new," that which is fresh from the "brand," +the branding-iron used for marking objects, &c. + + + + +BRANCH (from the Fr. _branche_, late Lat. _branca_, an animal's paw), a +limb of a tree; hence any offshoot, e.g. of a river, railway, &c., of a +deer's antlers, of a family or genealogical tree, and generally a +subdivision or department, as in "a branch of learning." The phrase, to +destroy "root and branch," meaning to destroy utterly, taken originally +from Malachi iv. 1, was made famous in 1641 by the so-called "Root and +Branch" Bill and Petition for the abolition of episcopal government, in +which petition occurred the sentence, "That the said government, with +all its dependencies, roots and branches, be destroyed." Among technical +senses of the word "branch" are: the certificate of proficiency given to +pilots by Trinity House; and in siege-craft a length of trench forming +part of a zigzag approach. + + + + +BRANCO, or PARIMA, a river of northern Brazil and tributary of the Rio +Negro, formed by the confluence of the Takutu, or "Upper Rio Branco," +and Uraricoera, about 3 deg. N. lat. and 60 deg. 28' W. long., and +flowing south by west to a junction with the Negro. It has rapids in its +upper course, but the greater part of its length of 348 m. is navigable +for steamers of light draught. The Takutu rises in the Roraima and +Coirrit ranges on the Guiana frontier, while the Uraricoera rises in the +Serra de Parima, on the Venezuelan frontier, and has a length of 360 m. +before reaching the Branco. These are white water rivers, from which the +Branco (white) derives its name, and at its junction with the Negro the +two differently-coloured streams flow side by side for some distance +before mingling. + + + + +BRANCOVAN, or BRANCOVEANU, the name of a family which has played an +important part in the history of Rumania. It was of Servian origin and +was connected with the family of Branko or Brankovich. Constantine +Brancovan, the most eminent member of the family, was born in 1654, and +became prince of Walachia in 1689. In consequence of his anti-Turkish +policy of forming an alliance first with Austria and then with Russia, +he was denounced to the Porte, deposed from his throne, brought under +arrest to Constantinople and imprisoned (1710) in the fortress of Yedi +Kuleh (Seven Towers). Here he was tortured by the Turks, who hoped thus +to discover the fortune of L3,000,000, which Constantine was alleged to +have amassed. He was beheaded with his four sons on the 26th of August +1714. His faithful friend Enake Vacarescu shared his fate. Constantine +Brancovan became, through his tragic death, the hero of Rumanian popular +ballads. His family founded and endowed the largest hospital in +Walachia, the so-called Spital Brancovanescu. + + See O.G. Lecca, _Familiile Boeresti Romane_ (Bucharest, 1899), p. 90, + sqq. (M. G.) + + + + +BRAND, JOHN (1744-1806), English antiquary, was born on the 19th of +August 1744 at Washington, Durham, where his father was parish clerk. +His early years were spent at Newcastle-on-Tyne with his uncle, a +cordwainer, to whom he was apprentice in his fourteenth year. Showing +promise, however, at Newcastle grammar school, friends interested +themselves in him and assisted him to go to Oxford. It was not, however, +until his twenty-eighth year that he matriculated at Lincoln College, +but before this he had been ordained, holding in succession the curacies +of Bolam, Northumberland, of St Andrew's, Newcastle, and of Cramlington, +8 m. from the county town. He graduated in 1775 and two years later was +elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Having for a short time +been under-usher at the Newcastle grammar school, the duke of +Northumberland, a former patron, gave him in 1784 the rectory of the +combined parishes of St Mary-at-Hill and St Mary Hubbard, London. +Appointed secretary to the Society of Antiquaries in the same year, he +was annually re-elected until his death in 1806. He was buried in the +chancel of his church. His most important work is _Observations on +Popular Antiquities: including the whole of Mr Bourne's "Antiquitates +Vulgares," with addenda to every chapter of that work_. This was +published in London in 1777, and after Brand's death, a new edition +embodying the MSS. left by him, was published by Sir Henry Ellis in +1813. Brand also published a poem entitled: _On Illicit Love, written +among the ruins of Godstow Nunnery, near Oxford_ (1775, Newcastle); _The +History and Antiquities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne_ (2 vols., London, 1789), +and many papers in the _Archaeologia_. + + + + +BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY (1823-1888), president of the Orange Free State, +was the son of Sir Christoffel Brand, speaker of the House of Assembly +of the Cape Colony. He was born at Cape Town on the 6th of December +1823, and was educated at the South African College in that city. +Continuing his studies at Leiden, he took the degree of D.C.L. in 1845. +He was called to the English bar from the Inner Temple in 1849, and +practised as an advocate in the supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope +from that year until 1863. In 1858 he was appointed professor of law in +the South African College. He was elected president of the Orange Free +State in 1863, and subsequently re-elected for five years in 1869, 1874, +1879 and 1884. In 1864 he resisted the pressure of the Basuto on the +Free State boundary, and after vainly endeavouring to induce Moshesh, +the Basuto chief, to keep his people within bounds, he took up arms +against them in 1865. This first war ended in the treaty of Thaba +Bosigo, signed on the 3rd of April 1866; and a second war, caused by the +treachery of the Basuto, ended in the treaty of Aliwal North, concluded +on the 12th of February 1869. In 1871 Brand was solicited by a large +party to become president of the Transvaal, and thus unite the two Dutch +republics of South Africa; but as the project was hostile to Great +Britain he declined to do so, and maintained his constant policy of +friendship towards England, where his merits were recognized in 1882 by +the honour of the G.C.M.G. He died on the 14th of July 1888. (See ORANGE +FREE STATE: _History_.) + + + + +BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS (1788-1866), English chemist, was born in London +on the 11th of January 1788. After leaving Westminster school, he was +apprenticed, in 1802, to his brother, an apothecary, with the view of +adopting the profession of medicine, but his bent was towards chemistry, +a sound knowledge of which he acquired in his spare time. In 1812 he was +appointed professor of chemistry to the Apothecaries' Society, and +delivered a course of lectures before the Board of Agriculture in place +of Sir Humphry Davy, whom in the following year he succeeded in the +chair of chemistry at the Royal Institution, London. His _Manual of +Chemistry_, first published in 1819, enjoyed wide popularity, and among +other works he brought out a _Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art_ +in 1842, on a new edition of which he was engaged when he died at +Tunbridge Wells on the 11th of February 1866. + + + + +BRANDENBURG, the name of a margraviate and electorate which played an +important part in German history, and afterwards grew into the kingdom +of Prussia. During the early years of the Christian era, the district +was inhabited by the Semnones, and afterwards by various Slavonic +tribes, who were partially subdued by Charlemagne, but soon regained +their independence. The history of Brandenburg begins when the German +king, Henry the Fowler, defeated the Havelli, or Hevelli, and took their +capital, Brennibor, from which the name Brandenburg is derived. It soon +came under the rule of Gero, margrave of the Saxon east mark, who +pressed the campaign against the Slavs with vigour, while Otto the Great +founded bishoprics at Havelberg and Brandenburg. When Gero died in 965, +his mark was divided into two parts, the northern portion, lying along +both banks of the middle Elbe, being called the north or old mark, and +forming the nucleus of the later margraviate of Brandenburg. After Otto +the Great died, the Slavs regained much of their territory, Brandenburg +fell again into their hands, and a succession of feeble margraves ruled +only the district west of the Elbe, together with a small district east +of that river. + + + Albert the Bear. + +A new era began in 1106 when Lothair, count of Supplinburg, became duke +of Saxony. Aided by Albert the Bear, count of Ballenstadt, he renewed +the attack on the Slavs, and in 1134 appointed Albert margrave of the +north mark. The new margrave continued the work of Lothair, and about +1140 made a treaty with Pribislaus, the childless duke of Brandenburg, +by which he was recognized as the duke's heir. He took at once the +title margrave of Brandenburg, but when Pribislaus died in 1150, a +stubborn contest followed with Jazko, a relation of the late duke, which +was terminated in 1157 in Albert's favour. Albert was the real founder +of Brandenburg. Under his rule Christianity and civilization were +extended, bishoprics were restored and monasteries founded. The country +was colonized with settlers from the lower Rhineland, land was brought +under cultivation, forts were built, German laws and customs introduced, +and gradually the woods and marshes were converted into lands of +comparative fertility. + + + Otto III. + +When Albert died in 1170, Brandenburg fell to his eldest son, Otto I. +(c. 1130-1184), who compelled the duke of Pomerania to own his +supremacy, and slightly increased by conquest the area of the mark. +Otto's son, Otto II., was the succeeding margrave, and having quarrelled +with his powerful neighbour, Ludolf, archbishop of Magdeburg, was forced +to own the archbishop's supremacy over his allodial lands. He died in +1205, and was followed by his step-brother, Albert II. (c. 1174-1220), +who assisted the emperor Otto IV. in various campaigns, but later +transferred his allegiance to Otto's rival, Frederick of Hohenstaufen, +afterwards the emperor Frederick II. His sons, John I. and Otto III., +ruled Brandenburg in common until the death of John in 1266, and their +reign was a period of growth and prosperity. Districts were conquered or +purchased from the surrounding dukes; the marriage of Otto with +Beatrice, daughter of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, in 1253, added upper +Lusatia to Brandenburg; and the authority of the margraves was extended +beyond the Oder. Many monasteries and towns were founded, among them +Berlin; the work of Albert the Bear was continued, and the prosperity of +Brandenburg formed a marked contrast to the disorder which prevailed +elsewhere in Germany. Brandenburg appears about this time to have fallen +into three divisions--the old mark lying west of the Elbe, the middle +mark between the Elbe and the Oder, and the new mark, as the newly +conquered lands beyond the Oder began to be called. When Otto died in +1267, the area of the mark had been almost doubled, and the margraves +had attained to an influential position in the Empire. The +_Sachsenspiegel_, written before 1235, mentions the margrave as one of +the electors, by virtue of the office of chamberlain, which had probably +been conferred on Albert the Bear by the German king Conrad III. + + + Otto IV. + +In 1258 John and Otto had agreed upon a division of their lands, but the +arrangement only took effect on Otto's death in 1267, when John's son, +John II., received the electoral dignity, together with the southern +part of the margraviate, which centred around Stendal, and Otto's son, +John III., the northern or Saltzwedel portion. John II.'s brother, Otto +IV., who became elector in 1281, had passed his early years in struggles +with the archbishop of Magdeburg, whose lands stretched like a wedge +into the heart of Brandenburg. In 1280 he was wounded in the head with a +dart, and as he retained there a part of the weapon for a year, he was +called "Otto with the dart." He secured the appointment of his brother +Eric as archbishop of Magdeburg in 1283, and was afterwards engaged in +various feuds. Songs attributed to him are found in F.H. von der Hagen's +_Minnesinger_. Otto was succeeded in 1309 by his nephew, Valdemar, who, +assisted by other members of his family, conquered Pomerellen, which he +shared with the Teutonic order in 1310, and held his own in a struggle +with the kings of Poland, Sweden and Denmark and others, over the +possession of Stralsund. + +In order to pay for these wars, and to meet the expenses of a splendid +court, the later margraves had sold various rights to the towns and +provinces of Brandenburg, and so aided the development of local +government. John III. of Saltzwedel had shared his possessions with his +brothers, but in 1303 they were reunited by his nephew Hermann, who +purchased lower Lusatia in the same year. Hermann's daughter Agnes +married the elector Valdemar, and on the death of her only brother, John +VI., in 1317, the possessions of the Saltzwedel branch of the family +passed to Valdemar, together with Landsberg and the Saxon Palatinate, +which had been purchased from Albert the Degenerate, landgrave of +Thuringia. Valdemar thus gathered the whole of the mark under his rule, +together with upper and lower Lusatia, and various outlying districts. +He died childless in 1319, and was succeeded by his nephew Henry II., +who died in 1320, when the Ascanian family, as the descendants of Albert +the Bear were called, from the Latinized form of the name of their +ancestral castle of Aschersleben, became extinct. + + + Wittelsbach dynasty. + +Brandenburg now fell into a deplorable condition, portions were seized +by neighbouring princes, and the mark itself was disputed for by various +claimants. In 1323 King Louis IV. took advantage of this condition to +bestow the mark upon his young son, Louis, and thus Brandenburg was +added to the possessions of the Wittelsbach family, although Louis did +not receive the extensive lands of the Ascanian margraves. Upper and +lower Lusatia, Landsberg, and the Saxon Palatinate had been inherited by +female members of the family, and passed into the hands of other +princes, the old mark was retained by Agnes, the widow of Valdemar, who +was married again to Otto II., duke of Brunswick, and the king was +forced to acknowledge these claims, and to cede districts to Mecklenburg +and Bohemia. During the early years of the reign of Louis, who was +called the margrave Louis IV. or V., Brandenburg was administered by +Bertold, count of Henneberg, who established the authority of the +Wittelsbachs in the middle mark, which, centring round Berlin, was the +most important part of the margraviate. The quarrel between King Louis +and Pope John XXII. was inimical to the interests of Brandenburg, which +was ravaged by the Poles, torn by the strife of contending clerical +factions, and alternately neglected and oppressed by the margrave. Trade +and commerce were at a standstill, agriculture was neglected, the +privileges and estates of the margrave passed into private hands, the +nobles were virtually independent, and the towns sought to defend +themselves by means of alliances. During the struggle between the +families of Wittelsbach and Luxemburg, which began in 1342, there +appeared in Brandenburg an old man who claimed to be the margrave +Valdemar. He was gladly received by the king of Poland, and other +neighbouring princes, welcomed by a large number of the people, and in +1348 invested with the margraviate by King Charles IV., who eagerly +seized this opportunity to deal a blow at his enemy. This step compelled +Louis to make peace with Charles, who abandoned the false Valdemar, +invested Louis and his step-brothers with Brandenburg, and in return was +recognized as king. Louis recovered the old mark in 1348, drove his +opponent from the land, and in 1350 made a treaty with his +step-brothers, Louis the younger and Otto, at Frankfort-on-Oder, by +which Brandenburg was handed over to Louis the younger and Otto. Louis, +who then undertook the government, made peace with his neighbours, +finally defeated the false Valdemar, and was recognized by the Golden +Bull of 1356 as one of the seven electors. The emperor Charles IV. took +advantage of a family quarrel over the possessions of Louis the elder, +who died in 1361, to obtain a promise from Louis the younger and Otto, +that the margraviate should come to his own son, Wenceslaus, in case the +electors died childless. Louis the younger died in 1365, and when his +brother Otto, who had married a daughter of Charles IV., wished to leave +Brandenburg to his own family Charles began hostilities; but in 1373 an +arrangement was made, and Otto, by the treaty of Furstenwalde, abandoned +the margraviate for a sum of 500,000 gold gulden. + + + Imperial control. + +Under the Wittelsbach rule, the estates of the various provinces of +Brandenburg had obtained the right to coin money, to build fortresses, +to execute justice, and to form alliances with foreign states. Charles +invested Wenceslaus with the margraviate in 1373, but undertook its +administration himself, and passed much of his time at a castle which he +built at Tangermunde. He diminished the burden of taxation, suppressed +the violence of the nobles, improved navigation on the Elbe and Oder, +and encouraged commerce by alliances with the Hanse towns, and in other +ways. He caused a _Landbook_ to be drawn up in 1375, in which are +recorded all the castles, towns and villages of the land with their +estates and incomes. When Charles died in 1378, and Wenceslaus became +German and Bohemian king, Brandenburg passed to the new king's +half-brother Sigismund, then a minor, and a period of disorder ensued. +Soon after Sigismund came of age, he pledged a part of Brandenburg to +his cousin Jobst, margrave of Moravia, to whom in 1388 he handed over +the remainder of the electorate in return for a large sum of money, and +as the money was not repaid, Jobst obtained the investiture in 1397 from +King Wenceslaus. Sigismund had also obtained the new mark on the death +of his brother John in 1396, but sold this in 1402 to the Teutonic +order. Jobst paid very little attention to Brandenburg, and the period +was used by many of the noble families to enrich themselves at the +expense of the poorer and weaker towns, to plunder traders, and to carry +on feuds with neighbouring princes. When in 1410 Sigismund and Jobst +were rivals for the German throne, Sigismund, anxious to obtain another +vote in the electoral college, declared the bargain with Jobst void, and +empowered Frederick VI. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, to +exercise the Brandenburg vote at the election. (See FREDERICK I., +ELECTOR OF BRANDENBURG.) In 1411 Jobst died and Brandenburg reverted to +Sigismund, who appointed Frederick as his representative to govern the +margraviate, and a further step was taken when, on the 30th of April +1415, the king invested Frederick of Hohenzollern and his heirs with +Brandenburg, together with the electoral privilege and the office of +chamberlain, in return for a payment of 400,000 gold gulden, but the +formal ceremony of investiture was delayed until the 18th of April 1417, +when it took place at Constance. + + + Condition before the Hohenzollern rule. + +During the century which preceded the advent of the Hohenzollerns in +Brandenburg its internal condition had become gradually worse and worse, +and had been accompanied by a considerable loss of territory. The +central power had become weakened and the central organization relaxed, +while the electorate had lost most of the advantages which formerly +distinguished it from other German fiefs. Under the rule of the earliest +margraves, it was the official side of their position that was +prominent, and it was not forgotten that they were technically only the +representatives of the emperor. But in the 13th century this feeling +began to disappear, and Brandenburg enjoyed an independence and carried +out an independent policy in a way that was not paralleled by any other +German state. The emperor was still suzerain indeed, but his relations +with the mark were so insignificant that they exercised practically no +influence on its development; and so the power of the Ascanian margraves +was virtually unlimited. This independence was enhanced by the fact that +few great nobles had followed Albert the Bear in his work of conquest, +and that consequently there were few large lordships with their crowd of +dependents. The towns, the village communities and the knights held +their lands and derived their rights directly from the margraves. The +towns and villages had generally been laid out by contractors or +_locatores_, men not necessarily of noble birth, who were installed as +hereditary chief magistrates of the communities, and received numerous +encouragements to reclaim waste lands. This mode of colonization was +especially favourable to the peasantry, who seem in Brandenburg to have +retained the disposal of their persons and property at a time when +villenage or serfdom was the ordinary _status_ of their class elsewhere. +The dues paid by these contractors in return for the concessions formed +the main source of the revenue of the margraves. Gradually, however, the +expenses of warfare, liberal donations to the clergy, and the +maintenance of numerous and expensive households, compelled them to +pledge these dues for sums of ready money. This proceeding gave the +barons and knights an opportunity to buy out the village magistrates and +to replace them with nominees of their own. Thus the condition of the +peasants grew worse, and their freedom was practically destroyed when +the emperor Louis IV. recognized the jurisdiction of the nobles over +their estates. Henceforth the power of the nobles steadily increased at +the expense of the peasants, who soon sank into servitude. Instead of +communicating directly with the margrave through his burgraves and +bailiffs, or _vogts_, the village communities came to be represented by +the nobles who had obtained possession of their lands. Many of the towns +were forced into the same position. Others were able to maintain their +independence, and to make use of the pecuniary needs of the margraves to +become practically municipal republics. Their strength, however, was +perhaps more usefully shown in their ability to resist the nobles, a +proceeding which saved industry and commerce from extinction at a time +of unbridled lawlessness. In the pecuniary embarrassments of the +margraves also originated the power of the _Stande_, or estates, +consisting of the nobles, the clergy and the towns. The first recorded +instance of the _Stande_ co-operating with the rulers occurred in 1170; +but it was not till 1280 that the margrave solemnly bound himself not to +raise a _bede_ or special voluntary contribution without the consent of +the estates. In 1355 the _Stande_ secured the appointment of a permanent +councillor, without whose concurrence the decrees of the margraves were +invalid. In the century which followed the extinction of the Ascanian +house, liberty degenerated into licence, and the country was given over +to anarchy. Only the most powerful towns were able to maintain their +independence; others, together with the clergy, regularly paid blackmail +to the neighbouring nobles. Under these conditions it is no wonder that +the electorate not only completely lost its political importance, but +also suffered a considerable diminution of territory. Upper and lower +Lusatia, the new mark of Brandenburg, and other outlying districts had +been shorn away, and the electorate now consisted of the old mark, the +middle mark with Priegnitz, Uckermark and Sternberg, a total area of not +more than 10,000 sq.m. + + + Frederick of Hohenzollern, 1412. + +Such was the condition and extent of Brandenburg in 1411 when Frederick +of Hohenzollern became the representative of King Sigismund therein. +Entering the electorate with a strong force in June 1412, his authority +was quickly recognized in the middle mark, but the nobles of the old +mark and of Priegnitz refused to follow this example. The two succeeding +years were skilfully used by Frederick to make peace with the +neighbouring princes, and having thus isolated his domestic enemies, he +turned his arms against them early in 1414. Their strongholds were +stormed, and in a few weeks their leaders were either prisoners or +fugitives. A general peace was then declared at Tangermunde which +enabled Frederick to leave the mark to the rule of his wife, Elizabeth, +and to turn his attention elsewhere. Returning to Brandenburg as elector +in 1416, the last flickers of the insurrection were extinguished; and +when Frederick was invested at Constance in April 1417 his authority +over the mark was undisputed. His next difficulty was with Pomerania, +which had been nominally under the suzerainty of Brandenburg since 1181. +The revival of this claim by the elector provoked an invasion of the +mark by an army of Pomeranians with their allies in 1420, when Frederick +inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Angermunde; but in 1424 a +temporary coolness between the elector and the emperor Sigismund led to +a renewal of the attack which Frederick was unable to repulse. This +reverse, together with the pressure of other business, induced him to +leave Brandenburg in January 1426, after handing over its government to +his eldest son, John. John, called the "Alchemist," who was born in +1403, had been disappointed in his hope of obtaining the vacant +electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg in 1423. Lacking the diplomatic and +military qualities of his father, his difficulties were augmented by the +poverty of the country, and the evils which Frederick had suppressed +quickly returned. The feeling of security vanished, the towns banded +themselves together for defensive purposes, the rights of the margrave +were again pledged to provide money, and in 1432 the land was ravaged by +the Hussites. John never attained to the electoral dignity; for, in +1437, his father in arranging a division of his territories decided that +Brandenburg should pass to his second and fourth sons, both of whom were +named Frederick. The elder of the two took up the government at once, +whereupon John left the mark for South Germany, where he remained until +his death in 1464. + + + Frederick II. + +Frederick II., who became elector on his father's death in September +1440, was born on the 19th of November 1413, and earned the surname of +"Iron" through his sternness to his country's enemies. He had little +difficulty in repressing the turbulence of the nobles which had been +quickened into life during the regency of his brother, but found it less +easy to deal with the towns. Three strong leagues had been formed among +them about 1431, and the spirit of municipal independence was most +prominently represented by the neighbouring and allied towns of Berlin +and Coln. In his conflict with the towns over his refusal to ratify all +their privileges the elector's task was lightened by a quarrel between +the magistrates and the burghers of Berlin, which he was called in to +decide in 1442. He deposed the governing oligarchy, changed the +constitution of the town, forbade all alliances and laid the foundations +of a castle. The inhabitants soon chafed under these restrictions. A +revolt broke out in 1447, but the power of the elector overawed the +people, who submitted their case to the estates, with the result that +the arrangement of 1442 was re-established. In 1447 Frederick was +compelled to cede the old mark and Priegnitz to his younger brother, +Frederick, under whose feeble rule they quickly fell into disorder. In +1463, however, when the younger Frederick died childless, the elector +united them again with his own possessions and took measures to suppress +the prevailing anarchy. In his dealings with neighbouring rulers +Frederick pursued a peaceful and conciliatory policy. In 1442 he +obtained some small additions to his territory, and the right of +succession to the duchy of Mecklenburg in case the ducal family should +die out. In 1445 an old feud with the archbishop of Magdeburg was +settled, and in 1457 a treaty of mutual succession was made with the +houses of Saxony and Hesse. Cottbus and Peitz in Lusatia were acquired, +and retained after a quarrel with George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and +the new mark of Brandenburg was purchased from the Teutonic order in +1454. An attempt, however, to secure the duchy of Pomerania-Stettin +failed, and the concluding years of this reign were troubled by warfare +with the Pomeranians. + +The general success of Frederick's rule was secured by the sedulous care +with which he confined himself to the work of government. He is said to +have refused the thrones of Poland and Bohemia; and although he made +pilgrimages to the Holy Land and to Rome, his interest in ecclesiastical +questions was mainly directed towards quickening the religious life of +his people. He obtained important concessions from Pope Nicholas V. with +regard to the appointment of bishops and other ecclesiastical matters in +1447, and in general maintained cordial relations with the papacy. About +1467 his only son, John, died, and increasing infirmity led him to +contemplate abdication. An arrangement was made with his brother, Albert +Achilles, to whom early in 1470 the mark was handed over, and Frederick +retired to Plassenburg where he died on the 10th of February 1471. + + + Albert Achilles. + +Albert appeared in Brandenburg early in the same year, and after +receiving the homage of his people took up the struggle with the +Pomeranians, which he soon brought to a satisfactory conclusion; for in +May 1472 he not only obtained the cession of several districts, but was +recognized as the suzerain of Pomerania and as its future ruler. The +expenses of this war led to a quarrel with the estates. A subsidy was +granted which the elector did not regard as adequate, and by a dexterous +use of his power he established his right to take an excise on beer. +Albert's most important contribution to the history of Brandenburg was +the issue on the 24th of February 1473 of the _Dispositio Achillea_. By +this instrument the elector decreed that the electoral mark should pass +in its entirety to his eldest son, an establishment of primogeniture +which had considerable influence on the future development of the +country. He then entrusted the government to his eldest son, John, and +left Brandenburg. Handicapped by poverty, John had to face attacks from +two quarters. The Pomeranians, inspired by the declaration of the +emperor Frederick III. that their land was a direct fief of the Empire, +and aided by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, took up arms; and a +quarrel broke out with John, duke of Sagan, over the possessions of +John's brother-in-law, Henry XI., duke of Glogau. To deal with these +difficulties Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, and during his stay +drove back the Pomeranians, and added Crossen and other parts of duke +Henry's possessions to the electorate. Again left in charge of the +country, John beat back a fresh attack made by John of Sagan in 1482; +and he became elector on his father's death in March 1486. He added the +county of Zossen to his possessions in 1490, and in 1493 made a fresh +treaty with the duke of Pomerania. Although he brought a certain degree +of order into the finances, his poverty and the constant inroads of +external enemies prevented him from seriously improving the condition of +the country. John, who was called "Cicero," either on account of his +eloquence, or of his knowledge of Latin, was interested in learning, +welcomed Italian scholars to the electorate, and strove to improve the +education of his people. He died at Arneburg on the 9th of January 1499, +and was succeeded by his son Joachim I. + + + Joachim. + +When Joachim undertook the government of Brandenburg he had to deal with +an amount of disorder almost as great as that which had taxed the +energies of Frederick I. a century before. Highway robbery was general, +the lives and property of traders were in continual jeopardy, and the +machinery for the enforcement of the laws was almost at a standstill. +About 1504 an attack of unusual ferocity on some Frankfort traders +aroused the elector's wrath, and during the next few years the execution +of many lawbreakers and other stern measures restored some degree of +order. In this and in other ways Joachim proved himself a sincere friend +to the towns and a protector of industry. Following the economic +tendencies of the time he issued sumptuary laws and encouraged +manufactures; while to suppress the rivalry among the towns he +established an order of precedence for them. Equally important was his +work in improving the administration of justice, and in this direction +he was aided by scholars from the university which he had founded at +Frankfort-on-Oder in 1506. He gave a new organization to the highest +court of justice, the _Kammergericht_, secured for himself an important +voice in the choice of its members, and ordered that the local law +should be supplemented by the law of Rome. He did not largely increase +the area of Brandenburg, but in 1524 he acquired the county of Ruppin, +and in 1529 he made a treaty at Grimnitz with George and Barnim XI., +dukes of Pomerania, by which he surrendered the vexatious claim to +suzerainty in return for a fresh promise of the succession in case the +ducal family should become extinct. Joachim's attitude towards the +teaching of Martin Luther which had already won many adherents in the +electorate, was one of unrelenting hostility. The Jews also felt the +weight of his displeasure, and were banished in 1510. + + + Joachim II. + +Ignoring the _Dispositio Achillea_, the elector bequeathed Brandenburg +to his two sons. When he died in July 1535 the elder, Joachim II., +became elector, and obtained the old and middle marks, while the +younger, John, received the new mark. John went definitely over to the +side of the Lutherans in 1538, while Joachim allowed the reformed +doctrines free entrance into his dominions in 1539. The elector, +however, unlike his brother, did not break with the forms of the Church +of Rome, but established an ecclesiastical organization independent of +the pope, and took up a position similar to that of King Henry VIII. in +England. Many of the monasteries were suppressed, a consistory was set +up to take over the functions of the bishops and to act as the highest +ecclesiastical court of the country. In 1541 the new ecclesiastical +system was confirmed by the emperor Charles V. With regard to this +policy the elector was probably influenced by considerations of greed. +The bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus were secularized; +their administration was entrusted to members of the elector's family; +and their revenues formed a welcome addition to his impoverished +exchequer. Nor did Joachim neglect other opportunities for adding to his +wealth and possessions. In 1537 he had concluded a treaty with Frederick +III., duke of Liegnitz, which guaranteed to the Hohenzollerns the +succession to the Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau in the +event of the ducal family becoming extinct; this arrangement is +important as the basis of the claim made by Frederick the Great on +Silesia in 1740. The treaty was declared invalid by the German king, +Ferdinand I.; but the elector insisted on its legality, and in 1545 +strengthened his position by arranging a double marriage between members +of his own family and that of Duke Frederick. Of more immediate +consequence was an arrangement made in 1569 with the representatives of +Joachim's kinsman, Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, after which the +elector obtained the joint investiture of the duchy of Prussia from +Sigismund II., king of Poland, and was assured of the succession if the +duke's family became extinct. Joachim's luxurious habits, his partiality +for adventurers, and his delight in building, led him to incur such a +heavy expenditure that after pledging many of his lands and rights he +was compelled in 1540 to appeal for help to the estates. Taking +advantage of his difficulties, the estates voted him a sum of money as +the price of valuable concessions, the most important of which was that +the elector should make no alliance without their consent. Fresh +liabilities were soon incurred, and in spite of frequent contributions +from the estates Joachim left at his death in January 1571 a heavy +burden of debt to his son and successor, John George. + + + John George. + +The elector's death was followed ten days later by that of his brother, +John, and as John left no sons the whole of Brandenburg, together with +the districts of Beeskow and Storkow which had been added by purchase to +the new mark, were united under the rule of his nephew, John George. +Born on the 11th of September 1525 this prince had served in the field +under Charles V., and, disliking his father's policy and associates, had +absented himself from Berlin, and mainly confined his attention to +administering the secularized bishopric of Brandenburg which he had +obtained in 1560. When he became elector he hastened to put his ideas +into practice. His father's favourites were exiled; foreigners were +ousted from public positions and their places taken by natives; and +important economies were effected, which earned for John George the +surname of _Oekonom_, or steward. To lighten the heavy burden of debt +left by Joachim the elector proposed a tax on wheat and other cereals. +Some opposition was shown, but eventually the estates of both divisions +of the mark assented; only, however at the price of concessions to the +nobles, predominant in the diet, which thrust the peasantry into +servitude. Thus the rule of John George was popular with the nobles, and +to some extent with the towns. Protestant refugees from France and the +Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Brandenburg, and a period of +peace was beneficial to a land, the condition of which was still much +inferior to that of other parts of Germany. In religion the elector was +a follower of Luther, whose doctrines were prevalent among his people. +He had accepted the _Formula Concordiae_, a Lutheran document +promulgated in June 1580, and sought to prevent any departure from its +tenets. His dislike of Calvinism, or his antipathy to external +complications, however, prevented him from taking any serious steps to +defend Protestantism from the attacks of the counter-reformation. He did +indeed join the league of Torgau, which voted assistance to Henry IV. of +France in 1591; but he refused to aid the United Provinces, or even to +give assistance to his eldest son, Joachim Frederick, administrator of +the archbishopric of Magdeburg, whose claim to sit and vote in the +imperial diet was contested, or to his grandson, John George, whose +election to the bishopric of Strassburg was opposed by a Roman Catholic +minority in the chapter. This indifference to the welfare of the +Protestants added to the estrangement between the elector and his eldest +son, which was further accentuated when John George, ignoring the +_Dispositio Achillea_, bequeathed the new mark to one of his younger +sons. He died on the 8th of January 1598. + + + Joachim Frederick. + +Joachim Frederick, who now became elector, was born on the 27th of +January 1546. Since 1553 he had held the bishopric of Havelberg, since +1555 that of Lebus; he had been administrator of Magdeburg since 1566, +and of Brandenburg since 1571. Resigning these dignities in 1598, he +contested his father's will, and was successful in preventing a +division of the electorate. An agreement with George Frederick, the +childless margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth, paved the way for an +arrangement with the elector's younger brothers, who after the +margrave's death in April 1603, shared his lands in Franconia, and were +compensated in other ways for surrendering all claims on Brandenburg. +This agreement, known as the Gera Bond, ratified the _Dispositio +Achillea_. By George Frederick's death, Joachim became administrator of +the duchy of Prussia, ruled nominally by the weak-minded Albert +Frederick, but he had some difficulty in asserting his position. In +Brandenburg he made concessions to the nobles at the expense of the +peasantry, and admitted the right of the estates to control taxation. In +religious matters he was convinced of the necessity of a union between +Lutherans and Calvinists, and took steps to bring this about. Public +opinion, however, in Brandenburg was too strong for him, and he was +compelled to fall back upon the Lutheran _Formula_ and the religious +policy of his father. Joachim seems to have been a wise ruler, who +improved in various ways the condition of the mark. He married +Catherine, daughter of John, margrave of Brandenburg-Custrin, and when +he died, on the 18th of July 1608, was succeeded by his eldest son John +Sigismund. + + + John Sigismund. + +The new elector, born on the 8th of November 1572, had married in 1594 +Anna, daughter of Albert Frederick of Prussia, a union which not only +strengthened the pretensions of the electors of Brandenburg to the +succession in that duchy, but gave to John Sigismund a claim on the +duchies of Cleves, Julich and Berg, and other Rhenish lands should the +ruling family become extinct. In March 1609 the death of Duke John +William left these duchies without a ruler, and by arrangement they were +occupied jointly by the elector and by his principal rival, Wolfgang, +son of Philip Louis, count palatine of Neuburg. This proceeding aroused +some opposition, and, complicated by religious considerations and by the +excited state of European politics, almost precipitated a general war. +However, in November 1614 the dispute was temporarily settled by the +treaty of Xanten. Brandenburg obtained the duchy of Cleves with the +counties of Mark and Ravensberg, but as the Dutch and Spanish garrisons +were not withdrawn, these lands were only nominally under the elector's +rule. In 1609, John Sigismund had joined the Evangelical Union, probably +to win support in the Rhineland, and the same consideration was +doubtless one reason why, in 1613, he forsook the Lutheran doctrines of +his family, and became an adherent of the reformed, or Calvinist, faith. +This step aroused grave discontent in the electorate, and, quickly +abandoning his attempts to proselytize, the elector practically conceded +religious liberty to his subjects. Over the Cleves-Julich succession, +John Sigismund had incurred heavy expenses, and the public debt had +again mounted up. He was thus obliged to seek aid from the estates, and +in return for grants to make concessions to the nobles. The elector +spent much of his time in Prussia striving to assert his authority in +that duchy, and in August 1618, according to the arrangement of 1569, +became duke by the death of Albert Frederick. He only enjoyed this +dignity for a short time, as he died on the 23rd of December 1619. He +was succeeded by his eldest son, George William. + + + George William. + +The new elector, born on the 3rd of November 1597, proved a weak and +incapable ruler. He had married Elizabeth, daughter of Frederick IV., +elector palatine of the Rhine, and sister of the elector Frederick V., +afterwards king of Bohemia, and before his accession had acted as his +father's representative in Cleves. Although a Protestant he was under +the influence of Adam, count of Schwarzenberg, who was a Roman Catholic +of imperialist sympathies. As a result the elector remained neutral +during the early years of the Thirty Years' War in spite of his +relationship with Frederick of the Palatinate, and the obvious danger to +his Rhenish lands. This attitude was not successful. Brandenburg was +ravaged impartially by both parties, and in 1627 George William attacked +his brother-in-law, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who was using Prussia +as a base of operations for his war against Poland. This campaign was +short and inglorious for Brandenburg, and the elector was soon compelled +to make peace. Although alarmed by the edict of restitution of 1629, +George William took no steps to help the Protestants. In 1631, however, +Gustavus Adolphus marched on Berlin, compelled the elector to cede the +fortress of Spandau, and to aid him with men and money. The Brandenburg +troops then assisted the Swedes until after the death of Gustavus in +1632, and the Swedish defeat at Nordlingen in 1634, when the elector +assented to the treaty of Prague, which was made in May 1635 between the +emperor Ferdinand II. and John George I., elector of Saxony. The +imperialists did nothing, however, to drive the Swedes from Brandenburg, +and the unfortunate land was entirely at the mercy of the enemy. This +was the principal reason why the elector was unable to annex Pomerania +when its last duke, Bogislaus XIV., died in 1637. In 1638 George William +transferred his residence to Konigsberg, leaving Schwarzenberg to +administer the electorate. Although his harsh measures aroused some +irritation, the count did something to rid the land of the Swedes and to +mitigate its many evils; but its condition was still very deplorable +when George William died at Konigsberg on the 1st of December 1640, +leaving an only son, Frederick William. The most important facts in the +internal history of Brandenburg during the 16th century were the +increase in the power of the estates, owing chiefly to the continuous +pecuniary needs of the electors; the gradual decline in the political +importance of the towns, due mainly to intestine feuds; and the lapse of +the peasantry into servitude. These events gave a preponderance of power +to the nobles, but concurrently a number of circumstances were silently +preparing the way for a great increase of authority on the part of the +ruler. The substitution of the elector for the pope as head of the +church; the introduction of Roman law with its emphasis on a central +authority and a central administration; the determined and successful +efforts to avoid any partition of the electorate; and the increasing +tendency of the separate sections of the diet to act independently; all +tended in this direction. This new order was heralded in 1604 by the +establishment of a council of state, devoted to the interests of the +elector, which strengthened his authority, and paved the way for a +bureaucratic government. + + + Frederick William, the "Great Elector." + +When Frederick William, the "Great Elector," became ruler of Brandenburg +in 1640 he found the country in a very deplorable condition. Trade and +agriculture were almost destroyed, and the inhabitants, compelled to +support the Swedish army of occupation, suffered also from the +disorderly conduct of the native soldiers. Although the young elector +spent the two first years of his reign mainly in Prussia, he was by no +means forgetful of Brandenburg, and began resolutely to root out the +many evils which had sprung up during the feeble rule of his father. The +powers of Schwarzenberg were curtailed; the state council was restored; +and the licence of the soldiers was restrained, while their numbers were +reduced. Then turning his attention to the Swedes a truce was arranged, +and soon afterwards, in return for an indemnity, they agreed to evacuate +the electorate. Having returned to Brandenburg in 1643, Frederick +William remained neutral during the concluding years of the Thirty +Years' War, and set to work to organize an army and to effect financial +reforms. About the same time diplomatic methods freed Cleves, Mark and +Ravensberg from foreign troops, but the estates of these lands gained a +temporary victory when the elector attacked their privileges. However, +in 1647 his title was formally admitted by Wolfgang, count palatine of +Neuburg. + +The terms of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 are the best commentary on +the general success of the elector's policy. Although he was obliged to +give up his claim to the western part of Pomerania in favour of Sweden, +he secured the eastern part of that duchy, together with the secularized +bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden and Kammin, and other lands, the whole +forming a welcome addition to the area of Brandenburg. He was also +promised the archbishopric of Magdeburg when its administrator, +Augustus, duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, should die. This event happened in +1680 when he secured the lands of the archbishopric. The elector did +not, however, take possession of the newly-acquired territories at once. +Fresh difficulties arose with Sweden, and it was not until 1653 that +eastern Pomerania was freed from her soldiers. Meanwhile a new quarrel +had broken out with Wolfgang of Neuburg. In 1650 Frederick William +attacked his rival, but a variety of circumstances, among others a +change of government in the Netherlands, and the resistance of the +estates of Cleves, thwarted his plans, and he was compelled to listen to +the mediating powers, and to acquiesce in the _status quo_. + +Profiting by these reverses the elector then undertook a series of +internal reforms, tending to strengthen the central authority, and to +mitigate the constant lack of money, which was perhaps his chief +obstacle to success; a work in which he was aided by George, count of +Waldeck (1620-1692), who became his chief adviser about this time. In +1651 the powers of the state council were extended to include all the +lands under the elector's rule; and a special committee was appointed to +effect financial economies, and so to augment the electoral resources. +In imperial politics Frederick William supported the election of +Ferdinand, son of the emperor Ferdinand III., as king of the Romans in +1653; but when the emperor failed to fulfil his promises, influenced by +Waldeck, he acted in opposition to the imperial interests, and even +formed a plan for a great alliance against the Habsburgs. These projects +were disturbed by the war which broke out in 1655 between Sweden and +Poland. In this struggle the elector fought first on one side and then +on the other; but the important consequences of his conduct belong +rather to the history of the duchy of Prussia (q.v.). The transfer of +the elector's support from Sweden to Poland in 1656 was followed by the +fall from power of Waldeck, who was succeeded by Otto von Schwerin +(1616-1679), under whose influence the elector's relations with the +emperor became more cordial. + +The increase in the prestige of Brandenburg was due chiefly to his army, +which was gradually brought to a high state of efficiency. A proper +organization was established to superintend the pay and maintenance of +the soldiers, and they were commanded by experienced officers, among +others by Georg Derfflingen (1606-1695), and Otto von Sparr (1605-1668). +The general poverty, however, made the estates reluctant to support a +standing army, and after the peace of Oliva in 1660, it was reduced to +about 3500 men. The continual difficulties with the estates of his +different dominions had harassed and hampered the elector, and the +general peace which followed the treaty of Oliva offered a favourable +opportunity to curtail their powers. Undaunted by two previous rebuffs +he attacked the estates of Cleves, and by a display of force gained a +substantial victory. Some important privileges were annulled, and he +obtained a considerable sum of money. The _Landtag_ of Brandenburg was +not cowed so easily into submission, but an increase of revenue was +obtained, and the stubborn struggle which ensued in Prussia ended in a +victory for the ruler. This increased income enabled the elector to take +a more considerable part in European politics. In 1663 he assisted the +imperialists in their struggle with the Turks; in 1666 the dispute over +Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg was finally settled, and Brandenburg were +confirmed in the possession of these lands; and in the same year a +reconciliation was effected with Sweden. Several disputes which +threatened to disturb the peace of the Empire were settled through his +mediation, and he compelled the citizens of Magdeburg to do homage to +him. In religious matters he interceded with the emperor and the diet +for the Protestants, and sought, but without success, to bring about a +reconciliation between Lutherans and Calvinists in Brandenburg. + +The elector's relations with Louis XIV. of France are full of interest. +After the conclusion of the war of devolution in 1667, he allied himself +with Louis, and together they agreed to support the candidature of +Wolfgang of Neuburg for the vacant Polish throne. In 1668, moreover, he +refused to join the triple alliance against France, but soon afterwards +became aware of the danger to his country from the aggressive policy of +Louis. The United Provinces were bound to him by religious interests, +political considerations, and family ties alike, and he could not be +indifferent when their position was threatened by France. In spite of +tempting offers from Louis, he was the first to join the Dutch when they +were attacked by Louis in 1672, and conducted an ineffectual campaign on +the Rhine until June 1673, when he was forced to make peace. In July +1674, however, he joined the Empire, the United Provinces and Spain, and +in return for a subsidy, fought against France in Alsace. Meanwhile +Louis had instigated the Swedes to invade Brandenburg, which had been +left to the care of John George II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau. Hastening +from Franconia to defend the electorate, Frederick William gained a +complete victory over a superior number of the enemy at Fehrbellin on +the 28th of June 1675, a great and glorious day for the arms of +Brandenburg. Aided by the imperialists and the Danes, he followed up +this success, and cleared Brandenburg and Pomerania of the Swedes, +capturing Stettin in 1677 and Stralsund in 1678, while an attack made by +Sweden on Prussia was successfully repelled. The general peace of +Nijmwegen was followed by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye in June 1679 +between Sweden and Brandenburg. Owing, however, to the insistence of +Louis XIV. and the indifference, or weakness, of the emperor Leopold I., +the elector was forced to restore western Pomerania to Sweden, in return +for the payment of 300,000 crowns by France. This feebleness on the part +of his ally induced Frederick William to listen more readily to the +overtures of Louis, and in 1679, and again in 1681, he bound himself to +support the interests of France. He had, moreover, a further grievance +against the emperor as Leopold refused to recognize his right to the +Silesian duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, which had been left +without a ruler in 1675. About 1684, however, the foreign policy of +Brandenburg underwent another change. Disliking the harshness shown by +Louis to the Protestants, the elector concluded an alliance with +William, prince of Orange, in August 1685; and entered into more +friendly relations with the emperor. Further incensed against France by +the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, he made an alliance with +Leopold in January 1686, agreeing in return for a subsidy to send troops +against the Turks. Soon afterwards he received Schwiebus to compensate +him for abandoning his claim on the Silesian duchies, and in a secret +treaty made promises of support to Leopold. The great elector died in +May 1688, leaving his territories to his eldest son, Frederick. + +The remarkable services of Frederick William to his country can best be +judged by comparing its condition in 1640 with that in 1688. At his +accession the greater part of his territory was occupied by strangers +and devastated by war, and in European politics Brandenburg was merely +an appendage of the empire. Its army was useless; its soil was poor; its +revenue was insignificant. At his death the state of Brandenburg-Prussia +was a power to be reckoned with in all European combinations. Inferior +to Austria alone among the states of the Empire, it was regarded as the +head of the German Protestantism; while the fact that one-third of its +territory lay outside the Empire added to its importance. Its area had +been increased to over 40,000 sq. m.; its revenue had multiplied +sevenfold; and its small army was unsurpassed for efficiency. The +elector had overthrown Sweden and inherited her position on the Baltic, +and had offered a steady and not ineffectual resistance to the ambition +of France. + +While thus winning for himself a position in the councils of Europe, +Frederick William was not less active in strengthening the central +authority within his own dominions. He found Brandenburg a +constitutional state, in which the legislative power was shared between +the elector and the diet; he left it to his successor substantially an +absolute monarchy. Many circumstances assisted to bring about this +change, among the chief of which were the want of harmonious action on +the part of the estates, and the decline in the political power of the +towns. The substitution of a permanent excise for the subsidies granted +from time to time by the estates also tended to increase his +independence, and the officials or _Steuerrathe_, appointed by him to +collect this tax in the towns, gradually absorbed many of the +administrative functions of the local authorities. The nobles and +prelates generally preferred to raise their share of the revenue by the +old method of a _bede_, or contribution, thus weakening the remaining +bond between them and the burghers. + +In matters of general administration Frederick William showed himself a +prudent and careful ruler, and laid the foundation of the future +greatness of Prussia in almost every department. The wounds inflicted by +the Thirty Years' War were in a great measure healed, and the finances +and credit of the state were established on a firm basis. Agriculture +and commerce were improved and encouraged by a variety of useful +measures, and in this connexion the settlement of a large number of +Flemings, and the welcome extended to French Protestants, both before +and after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, were of incalculable +service. A small but efficient navy was founded, and strict economy, +together with increasing resources, enabled a disciplined army to be +maintained. Education was not neglected, a trading company was +established, and colonies were founded on the west coast of Africa. In +religious matters Calvinists and Lutherans were placed upon an equality, +but the elector was unable to impress his own spirit of tolerance upon +the clergy, who were occupied with ecclesiastical squabbles while the +state of education and of public morals left much to be desired. The +condition of the peasantry, however, during this reign reached its +lowest point, and the "recess," or charter, of 1653 practically +recognizes the existence of villenage. While the nobles had been losing +power with regard to the ruler they had been increasing it at the +expense of the peasants. The Thirty Years' War afforded them frequent +opportunities of replacing the village _Schulzen_, or magistrates, with +officials of their own; and the fact that their share of taxation was +wholly wrung from the peasants made the burden of the latter much +heavier than that of the townsmen. + + + Frederick III. + +The new elector, Frederick III., followed in general the policy of his +father. Having persuaded his step-brothers to surrender the +principalities bequeathed to them by the great elector, he assisted +William of Orange to make his descent on England; then in 1688 allied +himself with other German princes against Louis XIV., and afterwards +fought for the Empire against both France and Turkey. Before he became +elector Frederick had promised the emperor that he would restore +Schwiebus, and he was now called upon to fulfil this engagement, which +after some murmuring he did in 1695. This fact, however, together with +some slights put upon him at the peace of 1697, led him to look with +less favour upon imperial interests. Frederick's chief adviser about +this time was Eberhard Danckelmann (1643-1722), whose services in +continuing the reforming work of the great elector were very valuable; +but having made many enemies, the electress Sophia among them, he fell +from power in 1697, and was imprisoned for several years. The most +important work of the elector was to crown the labours of his father by +securing the kingly title for himself and his descendants. Broached in +1692 this matter was brought up again in 1698 when the emperor and his +ministers, faced with the prospect of a fight over the Spanish +succession, were anxious to conciliate Brandenburg. It was at length +decided that the title should be taken from Prussia rather than from +Brandenburg as the former country lay outside the Empire, and in return +Frederick promised to assist Leopold with 8000 men. The coronation +ceremony took place at Konigsberg on the 18th of January 1701. The +territorial additions to Brandenburg during this reign were few and +unimportant, but the comparative wealth and prosperity enabled the +elector to do a good deal for education, and to spend some money on +buildings. In 1694 the university of Halle was founded; academies for +arts and sciences were established, and Berlin was greatly improved. The +subsequent history of Brandenburg is merged in that of Prussia (q.v.). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H. Brosien, _Geschichte der Mark Brandenburg in + Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1887); G.G. Kuster, _Bibliotheca historica + Brandenburgensis_ (Breslau, 1743); and _Accessiones_ (Breslau, 1768), + and _Collectio opusculorum historiam marchicam illustrantium_ + (Breslau, 1731-1733); A. Voss and G. Stimming, _Vorgeschichtliche + Alterthumer aus der Mark Brandenburg_ (Berlin, 1886-1890); F. Voigt, + _Geschichte des brandenburgisch-preussischen Staats_ (Berlin, 1878); + E. Berner, _Geschichte des preussischen Staats_ (Berlin, 1890-1891); + A.F. Riedel, _Codex diplomaticus Brandenburgensis_ (Berlin, + 1838-1865); J. Heidemann, _Die Reformation in der Mark Brandenburg_ + (Berlin, 1889); _Forschungen zur brandenburgischen und preussischen + Geschichte_, edited by R. Koser (Leipzig, 1888 fol.); T. Carlyle, + _History of Frederick the Great_, vol. i. (London, 1858); J.G. + Droysen, _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_ (Berlin, 1855-1886); E. + Lavisse, _Etude sur une des origines de la monarchie prussienne_ + (Paris, 1875); B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_, Band + ii. (Leipzig, 1901). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +BRANDENBURG, the central and one of the largest provinces of Prussia, +consisting of a part of the former electorate of Brandenburg from which +it derives its name. With the other territories of the elector of +Brandenburg, it was merged in 1701 in the kingdom of Prussia, and when +the administration of Prussia was reformed in 1815, Brandenburg became +one of the provinces of Prussia. The boundaries of the new province, +however, differed considerably from those of the old district. The old +mark, the district on the left bank of the Elbe, was added to the +province of Saxony, and in return a district to the south, taken from +the kingdom of Saxony, was added to the province of Brandenburg. It has +an area of 15,382 sq. m., and is divided into the two governments of +Potsdam and Frankfort-on-Oder; the capital, Berlin, forming a separate +jurisdiction. The province is a sandy plain interspersed with numerous +fertile districts and considerable stretches of woodland, mostly pine +and fir. Its barrenness was formerly much exaggerated, when it was +popularly described as the "sandbox of the Holy Roman Empire." It is +generally well watered by tributaries of its two principal rivers, the +Elbe and the Oder, and is besides remarkable for the number of its +lakes, of which it contains between 600 and 700. The mineral products +comprise lignite, limestone, gypsum, alum and potter's earth; barley and +rye are the usual cereals; fruits and vegetables are abundant; and +considerable quantities of hemp, flax, hops and tobacco are raised. The +breeding of sheep receives much attention, and the province exports wool +in considerable quantity. Bees are largely kept, and there is an +abundance of game. The rivers and lakes also furnish fish, particularly +carp, of excellent quality. The climate is cold and raw in winter, +excessively hot in summer, and there are frequently violent storms of +wind. The manufacturing industry of the province is both varied and +extensive, but is for the most part concentrated in the principal towns. +The most important branches are the spinning and weaving of wool and +cotton, the manufacturing of paper, and the distillation of brandy. Pop. +(1895) 2,821,695; (1905) 3,529,839. + + + + +BRANDENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the district and province of +same name, on the river Havel, 36 m. S.W. from Berlin, on the main line +to Magdeburg and the west. Pop. (1905) 51,251, including 3643 military. +The town is enclosed by walls, and is divided into three parts by the +river--the old town on the right and the new town on the left bank, +while on an island between them is the "cathedral town,"--and is also +called, from its position, "Venice." Many of the houses are built on +piles in the river. There are five old churches (Protestant), all more +or less noteworthy. These are the Katharinenkirche (nave 1381-1401, +choir c. 1410, western tower 1583-1585), a Gothic brick church with a +fine carved wooden altar and several interesting medieval tombs; the +Petrikirche (14th century Gothic); the cathedral (Domkirche), originally +a Romanesque basilica (1170), but rebuilt in the Gothic style in the +14th century, with a good altar-piece (1465), &c., and noted for its +remarkable collection of medieval vestments; the Gothardskirche, partly +Romanesque (1160), partly Gothic (1348); the Nikolaikirche (12th and +13th centuries), now no longer used. There is also a Roman Catholic +church. Of other buildings may be mentioned the former town hall of the +"old town" (Altstadt Rathaus), built in the 13th and 14th centuries, now +used as government offices; the new Real-gymnasium; and the town hall in +the Neustadt, before which, in the market-place, stands a Rolandssaule, +a colossal figure 18 ft. in height, hewn out of a single block of stone. +A little north of the town is the Marienberg, or Harlungerberg, on which +the heathen temple of Triglaff and afterwards the church and convent of +St Mary were built. On the top stands a lofty monument to the soldiers +from the Mark who fell in the wars of 1864, 1866 and 1870-71. The town +has a considerable trade, with manufactures of woollens, silks, linens, +hosiery and paper, as well as breweries, tanneries, boat-building and +bicycle factories. + +Brandenburg, originally _Brennaburg_ (_Brennabor_) or _Brendanburg_, was +originally a town of the Slavic tribe of the Hevelli, from whom it was +captured (927-928) by the German king Henry I. In 948 Otto I. founded a +bishopric here, which was subordinated first to the archdiocese of +Mainz, but from 968 onwards to the newly created archbishopric of +Magdeburg. It was, however, destroyed by the heathen Wends in 983, and +was only restored when Albert the Bear recaptured the town from them in +1153. In 1539 the bishop of Brandenburg, Matthias von Jagow, embraced +the Lutheran faith, and five years later the Protestant worship was +established in the cathedral. The see was administered by the elector of +Brandenburg until 1598 and then abolished, its territories being for the +most part incorporated in the electoral domains. The cathedral chapter, +however, survived, and though suppressed in 1810, it was restored in +1824. It consists of twelve canons, of whom three only are spiritual, +the other nine prebends being held by noblemen; all are in the gift of +the king of Prussia. + +The "old" and "new" towns of Brandenburg were for centuries separate +towns, having been united under a single municipality so late as 1717. + + See Schillmann, _Geschichte der Stadt Brandenburg_ (Brandenburg, + 1874-1882). + + + + +BRANDER, GUSTAVUS (1720-1787), English naturalist, who came of a Swedish +family, was born in London in 1720, and was brought up as a merchant, in +which capacity he achieved success and became a director of the Bank of +England. His leisure time was occupied in scientific pursuits, and at +his country residence at Christchurch in Hampshire he became interested +in the fossils so abundant in the clays of Hordwell and Barton. A set of +these was presented by him to the British Museum, and they were +described by D.C. Solander in the beautifully illustrated work entitled +_Fossilia Hantoniensia collecta, et in Musaeo Britannico deposita a +Gustavo Brander_ (London, 1766). Brander was elected F.R.S. in 1754, and +he was also a trustee of the British Museum. He died on the 21st of +January 1787. + + + + +BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN (1842- ), Danish critic and literary +historian, was born in Copenhagen on the 4th of February 1842. He became +a student in the university in 1859, and first studied jurisprudence. +From this, however, his maturer taste soon turned to philosophy and +aesthetics. In 1862 he won the gold medal of the university for an essay +on _The Nemesis Idea among the Ancients_. Before this, indeed since +1858, he had shown a remarkable gift for verse-writing, the results of +which, however, were not abundant enough to justify separate +publication. Brandes, indeed, did not collect his poems till so late as +1898. At the university, which he left in 1864, Brandes was much under +the influence of the writings of Heiberg in criticism and Soren +Kierkegaard in philosophy, influences which have continued to leave +traces on his work. In 1866 he took part in the controversy raised by +the works of Rasmus Nielsen in a treatise on "Dualism in our Recent +Philosophy." From 1865 to 1871 he travelled much in Europe, acquainting +himself with the condition of literature in the principal centres of +learning. His first important contribution to letters was his _Aesthetic +Studies_ (1868), in which, in several brief monographs on Danish poets, +his maturer method is already foreshadowed. In 1870 he published several +important volumes, _The French Aesthetics of Our Days_, dealing chiefly +with Taine, _Criticisms and Portraits_, and a translation of _The +Subjection of Women_ of John Stuart Mill, whom he had met that year +during a visit to England. Brandes now took his place as the leading +critic of the north of Europe, applying to local conditions and habits +of thought the methods of Taine. He became _docent_ or reader in _Belles +Lettres_ at the university of Copenhagen, where his lectures were the +sensation of the hour. On the professorship of Aesthetics becoming +vacant in 1872, it was taken as a matter of course that Brandes would be +appointed. But the young critic had offended many susceptibilities by +his ardent advocacy of modern ideas; he was known to be a Jew, he was +convicted of being a Radical, he was suspected of being an atheist. The +authorities refused to elect him, but his fitness for the post was so +obvious that the chair of Aesthetics in the university of Copenhagen +remained vacant, no one else daring to place himself in comparison with +Brandes. In the midst of these polemics the critic began to issue the +most ambitious of his works, _Main Streams in the Literature of the +Nineteenth Century_, of which four volumes appeared between 1872 and +1875 (English translation, 1901-1905). The brilliant novelty of this +criticism of the literature of the chief countries of Europe at the +beginning of the 19th century, and his description of the general revolt +against the pseudo-classicism of the 18th century, at once attracted +attention outside Denmark. The tumult which gathered round the person of +the critic increased the success of the work, and the reputation of +Brandes grew apace, especially in Germany and Russia. Among his later +writings must be mentioned the monographs on _Soren Kierkegaard_ (1877), +on _Esaias Tegner_ (1878), on _Benjamin Disraeli_ (1878), _Ferdinand +Lassalle_ (in German, 1877), _Ludvig Holberg_ (1884), on _Henrik Ibsen_ +(1899) and on _Anatole France_ (1905). Brandes has written with great +fulness on the main contemporary poets and novelists of his own country +and of Norway, and he and his disciples have long been the arbiters of +literary fame in the north. His _Danish Poets_ (1877), containing +studies of Carsten Hauch, Ludwig Bodtcher, Christian Winther, and +Paludan-Muller, his _Men of the Modern Transition_ (1883), and his +_Essays_ (1889), are volumes essential to the proper study of modern +Scandinavian literature. He wrote an excellent book on _Poland_ (1888; +English translation, 1903), and was one of the editors of the German +version of _Ibsen_. In 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen and settled in +Berlin, taking a considerable part in the aesthetic life of that city. +His political views, however, made Prussia uncomfortable for him, and he +returned in 1883 to Copenhagen, where he found a whole new school of +writers and thinkers eager to receive him as their leader. The most +important of his recent works has been his study of Shakespeare +(1897-1898), which was translated into English by William Archer, and at +once took a high position. It was, perhaps, the most authoritative work +on Shakespeare, not principally intended for an English-speaking +audience, which had been published in any country. He was afterwards +engaged on a history of modern Scandinavian literature. In his critical +work, which extends over a wider field than that of any other living +writer, Brandes has been aided by a singularly charming style, lucid and +reasonable, enthusiastic without extravagance, brilliant and coloured +without affectation. His influence on the Scandinavian writers of the +'eighties was very great, but a reaction, headed by Holger Drachmann, +against his "realistic" doctrines, began in 1885 (see DENMARK: +_Literature_). In 1900 he collected his works for the first time in a +complete and popular edition, and began to superintend a German complete +edition in 1902. + +His brother Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), also a well-known critic, was the +author of a number of plays, and of two psychological novels: _A +Politician_ (1889), and _Young Blood_ (1899). + + + + +BRANDING (from Teutonic _brinnan_, to burn), in criminal law a mode of +punishment; also a method of marking goods or animals; in either case by +stamping with a hot iron. The Greeks branded their slaves with a Delta, +[Delta], for [Greek: doulos]. Robbers and runaway slaves were marked by +the Romans with the letter F (_fur_, _fugitivus_); and the toilers in +the mines, and convicts condemned to figure in gladiatorial shows, were +branded on the forehead for identification. Under Constantine the face +was not permitted to be so disfigured, the branding being on the hand, +arm or calf. The canon law sanctioned the punishment, and in France +galley-slaves could be branded "TF" (_travaux forces_) until 1832. In +Germany, however, branding was illegal. The punishment was adopted by +the Anglo-Saxons, and the ancient law of England authorized the penalty. +By the Statute of Vagabonds (1547) under Edward VI. vagabonds, gipsies +and brawlers were ordered to be branded, the first two with a large V on +the breast, the last with F for "fraymaker." Slaves, too, who ran away +were branded with S on cheek or forehead. This law was repealed in 1636. +From the time of Henry VII. branding was inflicted for all offences +which received benefit of clergy (q.v.), but it was abolished for such +in 1822. In 1698 it was enacted that those convicted of petty theft or +larceny, who were entitled to benefit of clergy, should be "burnt in the +most visible part of the left cheek, nearest the nose." This special +ordinance was repealed in 1707. James Nayler, the mad Quaker, who in the +year 1655 claimed to be the Messiah, had his tongue bored through and +his forehead branded B for blasphemer. + +In the Lancaster criminal court a branding-iron is still preserved in +the dock. It is a long bolt with a wooden handle at one end and an M +(malefactor) at the other. Close by are two iron loops for firmly +securing the hands during the operation. The brander, after examination, +would turn to the judge and exclaim, "A fair mark, my lord." Criminals +were formerly ordered to hold up their hands before sentence to show if +they had been previously convicted. + +Cold branding or branding with cold irons became in the 18th century the +mode of nominally inflicting the punishment on prisoners of higher rank. +"When Charles Moritz, a young German, visited England in 1782 he was +much surprised at this custom, and in his diary mentioned the case of a +clergyman who had fought a duel and killed his man in Hyde Park. Found +guilty of manslaughter he was _burnt_ in the hand, if that could be +called burning which was done with a cold iron" (Markham's _Ancient +Punishments of Northants_, 1886). Such cases led to branding becoming +obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except in the case of deserters +from the army. These were marked with the letter D, not with hot irons +but by tattooing with ink or gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were +also branded with BC (bad character). By the British Mutiny Act of 1858 +it was enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other penalty, +may order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 in. below the +armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than 1 in. long. +In 1879 this was abolished. + + See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle, + _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (London, 1896). + + + + +BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1790-1867), German philologist and historian +of philosophy, was born at Hildesheim and educated at Kiel University. +In 1812 he graduated at Copenhagen, with a thesis _Commentationes +Eleaticae_ (a collection of fragments from Xenophanes, Parmenides and +Melissus). For a time he studied at Gottingen, and in 1815 presented as +his inaugural dissertation at Berlin his essay _Von dem Begriff der +Geschichte der Philosophie_. In 1816 he refused an extraordinary +professorship at Heidelberg in order to accompany B.G. Niebuhr to Italy +as secretary to the Prussian embassy. Subsequently he assisted I. Bekker +in the preparation of his edition of Aristotle. In 1821 he became +professor of philosophy in the newly founded university of Bonn, and in +1823 published his _Aristotelius et Theophrasti Metaphysica_. With +Boeckh and Niebuhr he edited the _Rheinisches Museum_, to which he +contributed important articles on Socrates (1827, 1829). In 1836-1839 he +was tutor to the young king Otho of Greece. His great work, the +_Handbuch der Geschichte der griechisch-rom. Philos_. (1835-1866; +republished in a smaller and more systematic form, _Gesch. d. +Entwickelungen d. griech. Philos_., 1862-1866), is characterized by +sound criticism. Brandis died on the 21st of July 1867. + + See Trendelenburg, _Zur Erinnerung an C. A. B_. (Berlin, 1868). + + + + +BRANDON, a city and port of entry of Manitoba, Canada, on the +Assiniboine river, and the Canadian Pacific and Canadian Northern +railways, situated 132 m. W. of Winnipeg, 1184 ft. above the sea. Pop. +(1891) 3778; (1907) 12,519. It is in one of the finest agricultural +sections and contains a government experimental farm, grain elevators, +saw and grist mills. It was first settled in 1881, and incorporated as a +city in 1882. + + + + +BRANDON, a market town in the Stowmarket parliamentary division of +Suffolk, England, on the Little Ouse or Brandon river, 86-1/2 m. N.N.E. +from London by the Ely-Norwich line of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. +(1901) 2327. The church of St Peter is Early English with earlier +portions; there is a free grammar school founded in 1646; and the town +has some carrying trade by the Little Ouse in corn, coal and timber. +Rabbit skins of fine texture are dressed and exported. Extensive +deposits of flint are worked in the neighbourhood, and the work of the +"flint-knappers" has had its counterpart here from the earliest eras of +man. Close to Brandon, but in Norfolk across the river, at the village +of Weeting, are the so-called Grimes' Graves, which, long supposed to +show the foundations of a British village, and probably so occupied, +were proved by excavation to have been actually neolithic flint +workings. The pits, though almost completely filled up (probably as they +became exhausted), were sunk through the overlying chalk to the depth of +20 to 60 ft., and numbered 254 in all. Passages branched out from them, +and among other remains picks of deer-horn were discovered, one actually +bearing in the chalk which coated it the print of the workman's hand. + + + + +BRANDY, an alcoholic, potable spirit, obtained by the distillation of +grape wine. The frequently occurring statement that the word "brandy" is +derived from the High German _Branntwein_ is incorrect, inasmuch as the +English word (as Fairley has pointed out) is quite as old as any of its +continental equivalents. It is simply an abbreviation of the Old English +_brandewine_, _brand-wine_ or _brandy wine_, the word "brand" being +common to all the Teutonic languages of northern Europe, meaning a thing +burning or that has been burnt. John Fletcher's _Beggar's Bush_ (1622) +contains the passage, "Buy brand wine"; and from the Roxburgh _Ballads_ +(1650) we have "It is more fine than brandewine." The word "brandy" came +into familiar use about the middle of the 17th century, but the +expression "brandywine" was retained in legal documents until 1702 +(Fairley). Thus in 1697 (_View Penal Laws_, 173) there occurs the +sentence, "No aqua vitae or brandywine shall be imported into England." +The _British Pharmacopoeia_ formerly defined French brandy, which was +the only variety mentioned (officially _spiritus vini gallici_), as +"Spirit distilled from French wine; it has a characteristic flavour, and +a light sherry colour derived from the cask in which it has been kept." +In the latest edition the Latin title _spiritus vini gallici_ is +retained, but the word _French_ is dropped from the text, which now +reads as follows: "A spirituous liquid distilled from wine and matured +by age, and containing not less than 36-1/2% by weight or 43-1/2% by +volume of ethyl hydroxide." The _United States Pharmacopoeia_ (1905), +retains the Latin expression _spiritus vini gallici_ (English title +_Brandy_), defined as "an alcoholic liquid obtained by the distillation +of the fermented, unmodified juice of fresh grapes." + +Very little of the brandy of commerce corresponds exactly to the former +definition of the _British Pharmacopoeia_ as regards colouring matter, +inasmuch as trade requirements necessitate the addition of a small +quantity of caramel (burnt sugar) colouring to the spirit in the +majority of cases. The object of this is, as a rule, not that of +deceiving the consumer as to the apparent age of the brandy, but that of +keeping a standard article of commerce at a standard level of colour. It +is practically impossible to do this without having recourse to caramel +colouring, as, practically speaking, the contents of any cask will +always differ slightly, and often very appreciably, in colour intensity +from the contents of another cask, even though the age and quality of +the spirits are identical. + +The finest brandies are produced in a district covering an area of +rather less than three million acres, situated in the departments of +Charente and Charente Inferieure, of which the centre is the town of +Cognac. It is generally held that only brandies produced within this +district have a right to the name "cognac." The Cognac district is +separated into district zones of production, according to the quality of +the spirit which each yields. In the centre of the district, on the left +bank of the Charente, is the _Grande Champagne_, and radiating beyond it +are (in order of merit of the spirit produced) the _Petite Champagne_, +the _Borderies_ (or _Premiers Bois_), the _Fins Bois_, the _Bons Bois_, +the _Bois Ordinaires_, and finally the _Bois communs dits a terroir_. +Many hold that the brandy produced in the two latter districts is not +entitled to the name of "cognac," but this is a matter of controversy, +as is also the question as to whether another district called the +_Grande Fine Champagne_, namely, that in the immediate neighbourhood of +the little village of Juillac-le-Coq, should be added to the list. The +pre-eminent quality of the Cognac brandies is largely due to the +character of the soil, the climate, and the scientific and systematic +cultivation of the vines. For a period--from the middle 'seventies to +the 'nineties of the 19th century--the cognac industry was, owing to the +inroads of the phylloxera, threatened with almost total extinction, but +after a lengthy series of experiments, a system of replanting and +hybridizing, based on the characteristics of the soils of the various +districts, was evolved, which effectually put a stop to the further +progress of the disease. In 1907 the area actually planted with the vine +in the Cognac district proper was about 200,000 acres, and the +production of cognac brandy, which, however, varies widely in different +years, may be put down at about five million gallons per annum. The +latter figure is based on the amount of wine produced in the two +Charentes (about forty-five million gallons in 1905). + + +GENUINE COGNAC BRANDIES. + +(Excepting the alcohol, results are expressed in grammes per 100 litres +of absolute alcohol.) + + +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+ + | | Alcohol |Total| Non- | | "Higher | | | + | Age, &c. |% by vol.|Acid.|volatile|Esters.|Alcohols."|Aldehyde.|Furfural.| + | | | | Acid. | | | | | + +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+ + | 1. _New_ 1904 | 61.7 | 45 | 5 | 82 | 125 | 8 | 2.3 | + | 2. _New_, still heated by steam coil| 56.3 | 22 | 4 | 61 | 100 | 3 | 1.2 | + | 3. _New_ | 67.7 | 51 | .. | 158 | 152 | 6 | 1.3 | + | 4. _Five years old_, 1900 vintage | 57.7 | 92 | 37 | 125 | .. | .. | .. | + | 5. _1875 vintage_, pale | 46.7 | 144 | 37 | 177 | 261 | 55 | 1.0 | + | 6. _1848 vintage_, brown | 38.5 | 254 | 109 | 190 | 488 | 32 | 2.1 | + +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+ + + _Note._--In the above table the acid is expressed in terms of acetic + acid, the esters are expressed as ethyl acetate, and the aldehyde as + acetaldehyde. The "Higher Alcohol" figures do not actually represent + these substances, but indicate the relative coloration obtained with + sulphuric acid when compared with an iso-butyl standard under certain + conditions. + +Brandy is also manufactured in numerous other districts in France, and +in general order of commercial merit may be mentioned the brandies of +Armagnac, Marmande, Nantes and Anjou. The brandies commanding the lowest +prices are broadly known as the _Trois-Six de Monlpellier_. In a class +by themselves are the _Eaux-de-vie de Marc_, made from the wine +pressings or from the solid residues of the stills. Some of these, +particularly those made in Burgundy, have characteristic qualities, and +are considered by many to be very fine. The consumption is chiefly +local. Brandy of fair quality is also made in other wine-producing +countries, particularly in Spain, and of late years colonial (Australian +and Cape) brandies have attracted some attention. The comsumption of +brandy in the United Kingdom amounts to about two million gallons. + +Brandy, in common with other potable spirits, owes its flavour and aroma +to the presence of small quantities of substances termed secondary or +by-products (sometimes "impurities"). These are dissolved in the ethyl +alcohol and water which form over 99% of the spirit. The nature and +quantity of all of these by-products have not yet been fully +ascertained, but the knowledge in this direction is rapidly progressing. +Ch. Ordonneau fractionally distilled 100 litres of 25-year-old cognac +brandy, and obtained the following substances and quantities thereof:-- + + Grammes in + 100 Litres. + + Normal propyl alcohol 40.0 + Normal butyl alcohol 218.6 + Amyl alcohol 83.8 + Hexyl alcohol 0.6 + Heptyl alcohol 1.5 + Ethyl acetate 35.0 + Ethyl propionate, butyrate and caproate 3.0 + Oenanthic ether (about) 4.0 + Aldehyde 3.0 + Acetal traces + Amines traces + +Most of the above substances, in fact probably all of them, excepting +the oenanthic ether, are contained in other spirits, such as whisky and +rum. The oenanthic ether (ethyl pelargonate) is one of the main +characteristics which enable us chemically to differentiate between +brandy and other distilled liquors. Brandy also contains a certain +quantity of free acid, which increases with age, furfural, which +decreases, and small quantities of other matters of which we have as yet +little knowledge. + +The table gives analyses, by the present author (excepting No. 3, which +is by F. Lusson), of undoubtedly genuine commercial cognac brandies of +various ages. + +_Storage and Maturation._--Brandy is stored in specially selected oak +casks, from which it extracts a certain quantity of colouring matter and +tannin, &c. Commercial cognac brandies are generally blends of different +growths and vintages, the blending being accomplished in large vats some +little time prior to bottling. The necessary colouring and sweetening +matter is added in the vat. In the case of pale brandies very little +colouring and sweetening are added, the usual quantity being in the +neighbourhood of 1/2 to 1%. Old "brown brandies," which are nowadays not +in great demand, require more caramel and sugar than do the pale +varieties. The preparation of the "liqueur," as the mixed caramel and +sugar syrup is termed, is an operation requiring much experience, and +the methods employed are kept strictly secret. Fine "liqueur" is +prepared with high-class brandy, and is stored a number of years prior +to use. Brandy, as is well known, improves very much with age (for +chemical aspects of maturation see SPIRITS), but this only holds good +when the spirit is in _wood_, for there is no material appreciation in +quality after bottling. It is a mistake to believe, however, that brandy +improves indefinitely, even when kept in wood, for, as a matter of fact, +after a certain time--which varies considerably according to the type of +brandy, the vintage, &c.--there is so much evaporation of alcohol that a +number of undesirable changes come about. The brandy begins to "go +back," and becomes, as it is called, "worn" or "tired." It is necessary, +therefore, that the bottling should not be deferred too long. Sometimes, +for trade reasons, it is necessary to keep brandy in cask for a long +period, and under these conditions the practice is to keep a series of +casks, which are treated as follows:--The last cask is kept filled by +occasionally adding some spirit from the cask next in order, the latter +is filled up by spirit taken from the third cask from the end, and so +on, until the first cask in the row is reached. The latter is filled up +or "topped" with some relatively fresh spirit. + +Brandy is much employed medicinally as a food capable of supplying +energy in a particularly labile form to the body, as a stimulant, +carminative, and as a hypnotic. + +_Adulteration._--A good deal has been written about the preparation of +artificial brandy by means of the addition of essential oils to potato +or beetroot spirit, but it is more than doubtful whether this practice +was really carried on on a large scale formerly. What undoubtedly did +occur was that much beet, potato or grain spirit was used for blending +with genuine grape spirit. Prosecutions under the Food and Drugs Act, by +certain English local authorities in the year 1904, resulted in the +practical fixation of certain chemical standards which, in the opinion +of the present writer, have, owing to their arbitrary and unscientific +nature, resulted in much adulteration of a type previously non-existent. +There is no doubt that at the present time artificial esters and higher +alcohols, &c., are being used on an extensive scale for the preparation +of cheap brandies, and the position, in this respect, therefore, has not +been inproved. Where formerly fraud was practically confined to the +blending of genuine brandy with spirit other than that derived from the +grape, it is now enhanced by the addition of artificial essences to the +blend of the two spirits. (P. S.) + + + + +BRANDYWINE, the name of a stream in Pennsylvania and Delaware, U.S.A., +which runs into the Delaware river a few miles east of Wilmington, +Delaware. It is famous as the scene of the battle of Brandywine in the +American War of Independence, fought on the 11th of September 1777 about +10 m. north-west of Wilmington, and a few miles inside the Pennsylvania +border. Sir William Howe, the British commander-in-chief, while opposed +to Washington's army in New Jersey, had formed the plan of capturing +Philadelphia from the south side by a movement by sea to the head of +Delaware Bay. But contrary winds and accidents delayed the British +transports so long that Washington, who was at first puzzled, was able +to divine his opponents' intentions in time; and rapidly moving to the +threatened point he occupied a strong entrenched position at the fords +over the Brandywine, 25 m. south-west of Philadelphia. Here on the 11th +of September the British attacked him. Howe's plan, which was carefully +worked out and exactly executed, was to deliver an energetic feint +attack against the American front, to take a strong column 12 m. up the +stream, and crossing beyond Washington's right to attack his +entrenchments in rear. Washington was successfully held in play during +the movement, and General Sullivan, the commander of the American right +wing, misled by the conflicting intelligence which reached him from +up-stream, was surprised about noon by definite information as to the +approach of Cornwallis on his right rear. Changing front "right back" in +the dense country, he yet managed to oppose a stubborn resistance to the +flanking attack, and with other troops that were hurried to the scene +his division held its ground for a time near Birmingham meeting-house. +But Howe pressed his attack sharply and drove back the Americans for 2 +m.; the holding attack of the British right was converted into a real +one, and by nightfall Washington was in full retreat northward toward +Chester, protected by General Greene and a steady rear-guard, which held +off Howe's column for the necessary time. The British were too exhausted +to pursue, and part of Howe's force was inextricably mixed up with the +advancing troops of the frontal attack. The American loss in killed, +wounded and prisoners was about 1000; that of the British less than 600. +Howe followed up his victory, and on the 27th of September entered +Philadelphia. + + + + +BRANFORD, a township, including a borough of the same name, in New Haven +county, Connecticut, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Branford river and at +the head of a short arm of Long Island Sound, about 7 m. E.S.E. of New +Haven. Pop. of the township (1890) 4460; (1900) 5706 (1968 +foreign-born);(1910) 6047; of the borough (1910) 2560. The borough is +served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by an electric +line connecting with New Haven. A range of rocky hills commands fine +views of the Sound, the shore is deeply indented, the harbour and bays +are dotted with islands, and the harbour is deep enough for small craft, +and these natural features attract many visitors during the summer +season. In Branford is the James Blackstone Memorial library (1896), +designed by Solon Spencer Beman (b. 1853) in the Ionic style (the +details being taken from the Erechtheum at Athens). On the interior of +the dome which covers the rotunda are a series of paintings by Oliver +Dennett Grover (b. 1861) illustrating the evolution of book-making, and +between the arches are medallion portraits, by the same artist, of New +England authors--Longfellow, Emerson, Hawthorne, Lowell, Bryant, +Whittier, Holmes and Mrs Stowe. The library was erected by Timothy B. +Blackstone (1829-1900), a native of Branford, and president of the +Chicago & Alton railway from 1864 to 1899--as a memorial to his father, +a descendant of William Blackstone (d. 1675), the New England pioneer. +The principal industries of Branford are the manufacture of malleable +iron fittings, locks and general hardware, the quarrying of granite, and +oyster culture. + +The territory of Totoket (now the township of Branford) was purchased +from the Indians by the New Haven Plantation, in December 1638, for +eleven coats of trucking cloth and one coat of English cloth, but with +the reservation for a few Indians of what is still known as Indian Neck. +In 1640 the general court of New Haven granted it to the Rev. Samuel +Eaton (1596?-1665), a brother of Theophilus Eaton, on condition that he +brought friends from England to settle it. As Eaton went to England and +did not return, Totoket was granted in 1644 to settlers mostly from +Wethersfield, Conn., on condition that they should organize a church +state after the New Haven model and join the New Haven Jurisdiction. The +settlement was made in the same year, and about two years later several +new families came from Southampton, Long Island, under the leadership of +the Rev. Abraham Pierson (c. 1608-1678), an ardent advocate of the +church state, who was chosen pastor at Totoket. The present name of the +township, derived from Brentford, England, was adopted about 1645. After +the members of the New Haven Jurisdiction had submitted to Connecticut, +Pierson, in 1666-1667, led the most prominent citizens of Branford to +New Jersey, where they were leaders in founding Newark. The borough of +Branford was incorporated in 1893. + + See E.C. Baldwin, _Branford Annals_, in Papers of New Haven Colony + Historical Society (New Haven, 1882 and 1888). + + + + +BRANGWYN, FRANK (1867-), English painter, was born at Bruges, and +received his first instruction from his father, the owner of an +establishment for church embroideries and kindred objects, who took a +leading part in the Gothic revival under Pugin. When the family moved to +England, Brangwyn attracted the attention of William Morris by a drawing +on which he was engaged at South Kensington museum. He worked for some +time in Morris's studio, and then travelled more than once to the East, +whereby his sense of colour and the whole further development of his art +became deeply influenced. Indeed, the impressions he then received, and +his love of Oriental decorative art--tiles and carpets--exercised a +greater influence on him than any early training or the works of any +European master. His whole tendency is essentially decorative: a +colour-sense of sumptuous richness is wedded to an equally strong sense +of well-balanced, harmonious design. These qualities, together with a +summary suppression of the details which tie a subject to time and +place, give his compositions a nobly impressive and universal character, +such as may be seen in his decorative panel "Modern Commerce" in the +ambulatory of the Royal Exchange, London. Among other decorative schemes +executed by him are those for "L'Art nouveau" in the rue de Provence, +Paris; for the hall of the Skinners' Company, London; and for the +British room at the Venice International Exhibition, 1905. The +Luxembourg museum has his "Trade on the Beach"; the Venice municipal +museum, the "St Simon Stylites"; the Stuttgart gallery, the "St John the +Baptist"; the Munich Pinakothek, the "Assisi"; the Carnegie Institute in +Pittsburg, his "Sweetmeat Seller"; the Prague gallery, his "Turkish +Boatmen"; and the National Gallery of New South Wales, "The Scoffers." +Brangwyn embarked successfully in many fields of applied art, and made +admirable designs for book decoration, stained glass, furniture, +tapestry, metal-work and pottery. He devoted himself extensively to +etching, and executed many plates of astonishing vigour and dramatic +intensity. He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1904. + + + + +BRANKS, (probably akin to Irish _brancas_, a halter; Ger. _Pranger_, +fetter, pillory), or SCOLDING-BRIDLE, a contrivance formerly in use +throughout England and Scotland for the punishment of scolding women. It +is said to have originated in the latter country. It seems to have never +been a legalized form of punishment; but corporations and lords of +manors in England, town councils, kirk-sessions and barony courts in +Scotland assumed a right to inflict it. While specially known as the +"Gossip's or Scold's Bridle" the branks was also used for women +convicted of petty offences, breaches of the peace, street-brawling and +abusive language. It was the equivalent of the male punishments of the +stocks and pillory. In its earliest form it consisted of a hoop +head-piece of iron, opening by hinges at the side so as to enclose the +head, with a flat piece of iron projecting inwards so as to fit into +the mouth and press the tongue down. Later it was made, by a +multiplication of hoops, more like a cage, the front forming a mask of +iron with holes for mouth, nose and eyes. Sometimes the mouth-plate was +armed with a short spike. With this on her head the offending woman was +marched through the streets by the beadle or chained to the market-cross +to be gibed at by passers. The date of origin is doubtful. It was used +at Edinburgh in 1567, at Glasgow in 1574, but not before the 17th +century in any English town. A brank in the church of Walton-on-Thames, +Surrey, bears date 1633; while another in a private collection has the +crowned cipher of William III. The Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, the +Scottish National Museum of Antiquities at Edinburgh, the towns of +Lichfield, Shrewsbury, Leicester and Chester have examples of the brank. +As late as 1856 it was in use at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire. + + See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle, + _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (Chicago, 1896). + + + + +BRANT, JOSEPH (1742-1807), American Indian chief of the Mohawk tribe, +known also by his Indian name, THAYENDANEGEA, was born on the banks of +the Ohio river in 1742. In early youth he attracted the attention of Sir +William Johnson, who sent him to be educated by Dr Eleazar Wheelock at +Lebanon, Conn., in Moor's Indian charity school, in which Dartmouth +College had its origin. He took part, on the side of the English, in the +French and Indian War, and in 1763 fought with the Iroquois against +Pontiac. Subsequently he settled at Canajoharie, or Upper Mohawk Castle +(in what is now Montgomery county, New York), where, being a devout +churchman, he devoted himself to missionary work, and translated the +Prayer Book and St Mark's Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (1787). When Guy +Johnson (1740-1788) succeeded his uncle, Sir William, as superintendent +of Indian affairs in 1774, Brant became his secretary. At the outbreak +of the War of Independence, he remained loyal, was commissioned colonel, +and organized and led the Mohawks and other Indians allied to the +British against the settlements on the New York frontier. He took part +in the Cherry Valley Massacre, in the attack on Minisink and the +expedition of General St Leger which resulted in the battle of Oriskany +on the 6th of August 1777. After the war he discouraged the continuance +of Indian warfare on the frontier, and aided the commissioners of the +United States in securing treaties of peace with the Miamis and other +western tribes. Settling in Upper Canada, he again devoted himself to +missionary work and in 1786 visited England, where he raised funds with +which was erected the first Episcopal church in Upper Canada. His +character was a peculiar compound of the traits of an Indian +warrior--with few rivals for daring leadership--and of a civilized +politician and diplomat of the more conservative type. He died on an +estate granted him by the British government on the banks of Lake +Ontario on the 24th of November 1807. A monument was erected to his +memory at Brantford, Ontario, Canada (named in his honour) in 1886. + + See W.L. Stone, _Life of Joseph Brant_ (2 vols., New York, 1838; new + ed., Albany, 1865); Edward Eggleston and Elizabeth E. Seelye, _Brant + and Red Jacket_ in "Famous American Indians" (New York, 1879); and a + _Memoir_ (Brantford, 1872). + + + + +BRANT, SEBASTIAN (1457-1521), German humanist and satirist, was born at +Strassburg about the year 1457. He studied at Basel, took the degree of +doctor of laws in 1489, and for some time held a professorship of +jurisprudence there. Returning to Strassburg, he was made syndic of the +town, and died on the 10th of May 1521. He first attracted attention in +humanistic circles by his Latin poetry, and edited many ecclesiastical +and legal works; but he is now only known by his famous satire, _Das +Narrenschiff_(1494), a work the popularity and influence of which were +not limited to Germany. Under the form of an allegory--a ship laden with +fools and steered by fools to the fools' paradise of Narragenia--Brant +here lashes with unsparing vigour the weaknesses and vices of his time. +Although, like most of the German humanists, essentially conservative in +his religious views, Brant's eyes were open to the abuses in the church, +and the _Narrenschiff_ was a most effective preparation for the +Protestant Reformalion. Alexander Barclay's _Ship of Fools_ (1509) is a +free imitation of the German poem, and a Latin version by Jacobus +Locher (1497) was hardly less popular than the German original. There is +also a large quantity of other "fool literature." Nigel, called Wireker +(fl. 1190), a monk of Christ Church Priory, Canterbury, wrote a +satirical _Speculum stultorum_, in which the ambitious and discontented +monk figured as the ass Brunellus, who wanted a longer tail. Brunellus, +who has been educated at Paris, decides to found an order of fools, +which shall combine the good points of all the existing monastic orders. +_Cock Lovell's Bote_ (printed by Wynkyn de Worde, c. 1510) is another +imitation of the _Narrenschiff_. Cock Lovell is a fraudulent currier who +gathers round him a rascally collection of tradesmen. They sail off in a +riotous fashion up hill and down dale throughout England. Brant's other +works, of which the chief was a version of Freidank's _Bescheidenheit_ +(1508), are of inferior interest and importance. + + Brant's _Narrenschiff_ has been edited by F. Zarncke (1854); by K. + Goedeke (1872); and by F. Bobertag (Kurschner's _Deutsche + Nationalliteratur_, vol. xvi., 1889). A modern German translation was + published by K. Simrock in 1872. On the influence of Brant in England + see especially C.H. Herford, _The Literary Relations of England and + Germany in the 16th Century_ (1886). + + + + +BRANTFORD, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, on the Grand +river, and on the Grand Trunk, and Toronto, Hamilton & Buffalo railways. +The river is navigable to within 2-1/2 m. of the town; for the remaining +distance a canal has been constructed. Agricultural implements, plough, +engine, bicycle and stove works, potteries and large railway shops +constitute the important industrial establishments. It contains an +institute for the education of the blind, maintained by the provincial +government, and a women's college. The city is named in honour of the +Mohawk Indian chief, Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), who settled in the +neighbourhood after the American War of Independence, in which he had +led the Six Nations (Iroquois) on the British side. The amalgamated +tribes of the Six Nations still make it their headquarters, and a +monument to Brant has been erected in Victoria Square. Brantford is one +of the most flourishing industrial towns of the province, and its +population rose from 9616 in 1881 to 20,713 in 1907. + + + + +BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE (d. 1394), English lord treasurer and bishop of +Exeter, came of a Durham family. An older relative, Ralph de +Brantingham, had served Edward II. and Edward III., and Thomas was made +a clerk in the treasury. Edward III. obtained preferment for him in the +church, and from 1361 to 1368 he was employed in France in responsible +positions. He was closely associated with William of Wykeham, and while +the latter was in power as chancellor, Brantingham was lord treasurer +(1369-1371, and 1377-1381), being made bishop of Exeter in 1370. He +continued to play a prominent part in public affairs under Richard II., +and in 1389 was again lord treasurer for a few months. He died in 1394 +and was buried in Exeter cathedral. + + + + +BRANTOME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE, SEIGNEUR AND ABBE DE (c. 1540-1614), +French historian and biographer, was born in Perigord about 1540. He was +the third son of the baron de Bourdeille. His mother and his maternal +grandmother were both attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois, and +at her death in 1549 he went to Paris, and later (1555) to Poitiers, to +finish his education. He was given several benefices, the most important +of which was the abbey of Brantome (see below), but he had no +inclination for an ecclesiastical career. At an early age he entered the +profession of arms. He showed himself a brave soldier, and was brought +into contact with most of the great leaders who were seeking fame or +fortune in the wars that distracted the continent. He travelled much in +Italy; in Scotland, where he accompanied Mary Stuart (then the widow of +Francis I.); in England, where he saw Queen Elizabeth (1561, 1579); in +Morocco (1564); and in Spain and Portugal. He fought on the galleys of +the order of Malta, and accompanied his great friend, the French +commander Philippe Strozzi (grandson of Filippo Strozzi, the Italian +general, and nephew of Piero), in his expedition against Terceira, in +which Strozzi was killed (1582). During the wars of religion under +Charles IX. he fought in the ranks of the Catholics, but he allowed +himself to be won over temporarily by the ideas of the reformers, and +though he publicly separated himself from Protestantism it had a marked +effect on his mind. A fall from his horse compelled him to retire into +private life about 1589, and he spent his last years in writing his +_Memoirs_ of the illustrious men and women whom he had known. He died on +the 15th of July 1614. + +Brantome left distinct orders that his manuscript should be printed; a +first edition appeared, however, late (1665-1666) and not very complete. +Of the later editions the most valuable are: one in 15 volumes (1740); +another by Louis Jean Nicolas Monmerque (1780-1860) in 8 volumes +(1821-1824), reproduced in Buchan's _Pantheon litteraire_; that of the +Bibliotheque elzevirienne, begun (1858) by P. Merimee and L. Lacour, and +finished, with vol. xiii., only in 1893; and Lalanne's edition for the +Societe de l'Histoire de France (12 vols., 1864-1896). Brantome can +hardly be regarded as a historian proper, and his _Memoirs_ cannot be +accepted as a very trustworthy source of information. But he writes in a +quaint conversational way, pouring forth his thoughts, observations or +facts without order or system, and with the greatest frankness and +naivete. His works certainly gave an admirable picture of the general +court-life of the time, with its unblushing and undisguised profligacy. +There is not a _homme illustre_ or a _dame galante_ in all his gallery +of portraits who is not stained with vice; and yet the whole is narrated +with the most complete unconsciousness that there is anything +objectionable in their conduct. + + The edition of L. Lalanne has great merit, being the first to indicate + the Spanish, Italian and French sources on which Brantome drew, but it + did not utilize all the existing MSS. It was only after Lalanne's + death that the earliest were obtained for the Bibliotheque Nationale. + At Paris and at Chantilly (Musee Conde) all Brantome's original MSS., + as revised by him several times, are now collected (see the + _Bibliotheque de l'ecole des Chartes_, 1904), and a new and definitive + edition has therefore become possible. Brantome's poems (which amount + to more than 2200 verses) were first published in 1881; see Lalanne's + edition. + + + + +BRANTOME, a town of south-western France, in the department of Dordogne, +20 m. N. by W. of Perigueux by steam-tramway. Pop. (1906) 1230. The town +is built, in great part, on an island in the river Dronne. It is well +known for the remains of an abbey founded by Charlemagne about 770 and +afterwards destroyed by the Normans. The oldest existing portion is a +square tower dating from the 11th century, built upon a rock beside the +church which it overlooks. It communicates by a staircase with the +church, a rectangular building partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, to the +west of which are the remains of a cloister. The abbey buildings date +from the 18th century, and now serve as hotel-de-ville, magistrature and +schools. Caves in the neighbouring rocks were inhabited by the monks +before the building of the abbey; one of them, used as an oratory, +contains curious carvings, representing the Last Judgment and the +Crucifixion. In the middle of the 16th century Pierre de Bourdeille came +into possession of the abbey, from which he took the name of Brantome. + +Brantome has some old houses and a church of the 15th century, which was +once fortified and is now used as a market. Truffles are the chief +article of commerce; and there are quarries of freestone in the +neighbourhood. The dolmen which is known as Pierre-Levee, to the east of +the town, is the most remarkable in Perigord. + + + + +BRANXHOLM, or BRANKSOME, a feudal castle, now modernized, and an ancient +seat of the Buccleuchs, on the Teviot, 3 m. S.W. of Hawick, Roxburgh, +Scotland. It was at Branksome Hall that Sir Walter Scott laid the scene +of _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_. + + + + +BRANXTON, or BRANKSTON, a village of Northumberland, England, 10-1/2 m. +E. by N. of Kelso, and 2 m. E.S.E. of Coldstream, and 10 m. N.W. of +Wooler. It was on Branxton Hill, immediately south of the village, that +the battle of Flodden (q.v.) was fought between the English and the +Scots on the 9th of September 1513. During the fight the Scots centre +pushed as far as Branxton church, but "the King's Stone," which lies +N.W. of the church and is popularly supposed to mark the spot where +James IV. fell, is some three-quarters of a mile from the scene of the +battle; it is believed in reality to mark the sepulchre of a chieftain, +whose name had already perished in the 16th century. Branxton church, +dedicated to St Paul, was rebuilt in 1849 in Norman style. Of the older +building nothing remains save the chancel arch. + + + + +BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE (d. 1211), lord of Brecknock, Radnor and Limerick, +spent the early part of his life fighting the Welsh in Radnorshire. He +was high in King John's favour, received a large number of honours, and +was even given the custody of Prince Arthur. But John and he quarrelled, +probably over money (1207). In 1208 John began to suspect the fidelity +of the whole family, and William had to fly to Ireland. After a number +of attempted reconciliations, he was outlawed (1210) and died at Corbeil +(1211). It is said that his wife and son were starved to death by John. + + See _Foedera_, i. 107; _Histoire des ducs_ (ed. Michel), Wendover; + Kate Norgate's _John Lackland_. + +A descendant, William de Braose (d. 1326), lord of Gower, was a devoted +follower of Edward I., and in 1299 was summoned to parliament as baron +de Braose; and his nephew Thomas de Braose (d. 1361) also distinguished +himself in the wars and was summoned as baron de Braose in 1342. This +latter barony became extinct in 1399; but a claim to the barony of +William de Braose, which, as he had no son, fell into abeyance between +his two daughters and co-heirs, Alina (wife of Lord Mowbray) and Joan +(wife of John de Bohun), or their descendants, may still be traced by +careful genealogists in various noble English families. + + + + +BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND (1804-1867), French painter, was born at +Bordeaux, and studied art in Paris, where in 1825 he won a _prix de +Rome_ with a picture ("Chasse de Meleagre") now in the Bordeaux gallery. +He went to Italy and painted a number of landscapes which were exhibited +between 1827 and 1835; but subsequently he devoted himself mainly to +animal-painting, in which his reputation as an artist was made. His +"Lutte de taureaux" (1837), in the _musee_ at Nantes, and his "Vache +attaquee par des loups" (1845), in the Leipzig museum, were perhaps the +best of his pictures; but he was remarkable for his accuracy of +observation and correct drawing. He was elected a member of the +Institute in 1846. He died at Paris on the 28th of February 1867. + + + + +BRAS D'OR, a landlocked and tideless gulf or lake of high irregular +outline, 50 m. long by 20 m. broad, almost separating Cape Breton Island +(province of Nova Scotia, Canada) into two parts. A ship canal across +the isthmus (about 1 m. wide) completes the severance of the island. The +entrance to the gulf is on the N.E. coast of the island, and it is +connected with the Atlantic by the Great and Little Bras d'Or channels, +which are divided by Boulardeire Island. One channel is 25 m. long and +from 1/4 m. to 3 m. broad, but is of little depth, the other (used by +shipping) is 22 m. long, 1 to 1-1/2 m. wide, and has a depth of 60 +fathoms. The gulf or lake is itself divided into two basins, the inner +waters being known as the Great Bras d'Or Lake. The waters are generally +from 12 to 60 fathoms deep, but in the outer basin (known as the Little +Bras d'Or Lake) are soundings said to reach nearly 700 ft. The shores of +the gulf are very picturesque and well wooded and have attracted many +tourists. Sea fishing (cod, mackerel, &c.) is the chief industry. The +name is said to be a corruption of an Indian word, but it assumed its +present form during the French occupation of Cape Breton Island. + + + + +BRASDOR, PIERRE (1721-1799), French surgeon, was born in the province of +Maine. He took his degree in Paris as master of surgery in 1752, and was +appointed regius professor of anatomy and director of the Academy of +Surgery. He was a skilful operator, whose name was long attached to a +ligature of his invention; and he was an ardent advocate of inoculation. +He died in Paris on the 28th of September 1799. + + + + +BRASIDAS (d. 422 B.C.), a Spartan officer during the first decade of the +Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Tellis and Argileonis, and won his +first laurels by the relief of Methone, which was besieged by the +Athenians (431 B.C.). During the following year he seems to have been +eponymous ephor (Xen. _Hell_. ii. 3, 10), and in 429 he was sent out as +one of the three commissioners ([Greek: symbouloi]) to advise the +admiral Cnemus. As trierarch he distinguished himself in the assault on +the Athenian position at Pylos, during which he was severely wounded +(Thuc. iv. n. 12). + +In the next year, while Brasidas mustered a force at Corinth for a +campaign in Thrace, he frustrated an Athenian attack on Megara (Thuc. +iv. 70-73), and immediately afterwards marched through Thessaly at the +head of 700 helots and 1000 Peloponnesian mercenaries to join the +Macedonian king Perdiccas. Refusing to be made a tool for the +furtherance of Perdiccas's ambitions, Brasidas set about the +accomplishment of his main object, and, partly by the rapidity and +boldness of his movements, partly by his personal charm and the +moderation of his demands, succeeded during the course of the winter in +winning over the important cities of Acanthus, Stagirus, Amphipolis and +Torone as well as a number of minor towns. An attack on Eion was foiled +by the arrival of Thucydides, the historian, at the head of an Athenian +squadron. In the spring of 423 a truce was concluded between Athens and +Sparta, but its operation was at once imperilled by Brasidas's refusal +to give up Scione, which, the Athenian partisans declared, revolted two +days after the truce began, and by his occupation of Mende shortly +afterwards. An Athenian fleet under Nicias and Nicostratus recovered +Mende and blockaded Scione, which fell two years later (421 B.C.). +Meanwhile Brasidas joined Perdiccas in a campaign against Arrhabaeus, +king of the Lyncesti, who was severely defeated. On the approach of a +body of Illyrians, who, though summoned by Perdiccas, unexpectedly +declared for Arrhabaeus, the Macedonians fled, and Brasidas's force was +rescued from a critical position only by his coolness and ability. This +brought to a head the quarrel between Brasidas and Perdiccas, who +promptly concluded a treaty with Athens, of which some fragments have +survived (_I.G._ i. 42). + +In April 422 the truce with Sparta expired, and in the same summer Cleon +was despatched to Thrace, where he stormed Torone and Galepsus and +prepared for an attack on Amphipolis. But a carelessly conducted +reconnaissance gave Brasidas the opportunity for a vigorous and +successful sally. The Athenian army was routed with a loss of 600 men +and Cleon was slain. On the Spartan side only seven men are said to have +fallen, but amongst them was Brasidas. He was buried at Amphipolis with +impressive pomp, and for the future was regarded as the founder ([Greek: +oikistaes]) of the city and honoured with yearly games and sacrifices +(Thuc. iv. 78-v. 11). At Sparta a cenotaph was erected in his memory +near the tombs of Pausanias and Leonidas, and yearly speeches were made +and games celebrated in their honour, in which only Spartiates could +compete (Paus. in. 14). + +Brasidas united in himself the personal courage characteristic of Sparta +with those virtues in which the typical Spartan was most signally +lacking. He was quick in forming his plans and carried them out without +delay or hesitation. With an oratorical power rare amongst the +Lacedaemonians he combined a conciliatory manner which everywhere won +friends for himself and for Sparta (Thuc. iv. 81). + + See in particular Thucydides, ii.-v.; what Diodorus xii. adds is + mainly oratorical elaboration or pure invention. A fuller account will + be found in the histories of Greece (e.g. those of Grote, Beloch, + Busolt, Meyer) and in G. Schimmelpfeng, _De Brasidae Spartani rebus + gestis atque ingenio_ (Marburg, 1857). + + + + +BRASS, a river, town and district of southern Nigeria, British West +Africa. The Brass river is one of the deltaic branches of the Niger, +lying east of the Rio Nun or main channel of the river. From the point +of divergence from the main stream to the sea the Brass has a course of +about 100 m., its mouth being in 6 deg. 20' E., 4 deg. 35' N. Brass town +is a flourishing trading settlement at the mouth of the river. It is the +headquarters of a district commissioner and the seat of a native court. +Its most conspicuous building is a fine church, the gift of a native +chief. The capital of the Brass tribes is Nimbe, 30 m. up river. + +The Brass river, called by its Portuguese discoverers the Rio Bento, is +said to have received its English name from the brass rods and other +brass utensils imported by the early traders in exchange for palm-oil +and slaves. The Brass natives, of the pure negro type, were noted for +their savage character. In 1856 their chiefs concluded a treaty with +Great Britain agreeing to give up the slave-trade in exchange for a duty +on the palm-oil exported. Finding their profitable business as middlemen +between the up-river producer and the exporter threatened by the +appearance of European traders, they made ineffective complaints to the +British authorities. The establishment of the Royal Niger Company led to +further loss of trade, and on the 29th of January 1895 the natives +attacked and sacked the company's station at Akassa on the Rio Nun, over +forty prisoners being killed and eaten as a sacrifice to the fetish +gods. In the following month a punitive expedition partially destroyed +Nimbe, and a heavy fine was paid by the Brass chiefs. Since then the +country has settled down under British administration. The trade +regulations of which complaint had been made were removed in 1900 on the +establishment of the protectorate of Southern Nigeria (see NIGERIA). + + Valuable information concerning the country and people will be found + in the _Report by Sir John Kirk on the Disturbances at Brass (Africa_, + No. 3, 1896). + + + + +BRASS (O. Eng. _braes_), an alloy consisting mainly if not exclusively +of copper and zinc; in its older use the term was applied rather to +alloys of copper and tin, now known as bronze (q.v.)Thus the brass of +the Bible was probably bronze, and so also was much of the brass of +later times, until the distinction between zinc and tin became clearly +recognized. The Latin word _aes_ signifies either pure copper or bronze, +not brass, but the Romans comprehended a brass compound of copper and +zinc under the term _orichalcum_ or _aurichalcum_, into which Pliny +states that copper was converted by the aid of cadmia (a mineral of +zinc). + +In England there is good evidence of the manufacture of brass with zinc +at the end of the 16th century, for Queen Elizabeth by patent granted to +William Humfrey and Christopher Schutz the exclusive right of working +calamine and making brass. This right subsequently devolved upon a body +called the "Governors, Assistants and Societies of the City of London of +and for the Mineral and Battery Works," which continued to exercise its +functions down to the year 1710. + +When a small percentage of zinc is present, the colour of brass is +reddish, as in _tombac_ or red brass, which contains about 10%. With +about 20% the colour becomes more yellow, and a series of metals is +obtained which simulate gold more or less closely; such are _Dutch +metal, Mannheim gold, similar_ and _pinchbeck_, the last deriving its +name from a London clockmaker, Christopher Pinchbeck, who invented it in +1732. Ordinary brass contains about 30% of zinc, and when 40% is +present, as in _Muntz, yellow_ or _patent_ metal (invented by G.F. Muntz +in 1832), the colour becomes a full yellow. When the proportion of zinc +is largely increased the colour becomes silver-white and finally grey. +The limit of elasticity increases with the percentage of zinc, as also +does the amount of elongation before fracture, the maximum occurring +with 30%. The tenacity increases with the proportion of zinc up to a +maximum with 45%; then it decreases rapidly, and with 50% the metals are +fragile. By varying the proportion between 30 and 43% a series of alloys +may be prepared presenting very varied properties. The most malleable of +the series has an elongation of about 60%, with a tensile strength of +17.5 tons per sq. in. Increase in the proportion of zinc gives higher +tensile strength, accompanied, however, by a smaller percentage of +elongation and a materially increased tendency to produce unsound +castings. The quality of copper-zinc alloys is improved by the addition +of a small quantity of iron, a fact of which advantage is taken in the +production of Aich's metal and delta metal. Of the latter there are +several varieties, modified in composition to suit different purposes. +Some of them possess high tensile strength and ductility. They are +remarkably resistant to corrosion by sea-water, and are well suited for +screw-propellers as well as for pump-plungers, pistons and glands. +Heated to a dull red delta metal becomes malleable and can be worked +under the hammer, press or stamps. By such treatment an ultimate tensile +strength of 30 tons per sq. in. may be obtained, with an elongation of +32% in 2 in. and a contraction of area of 30%. + +In the arts brass is a most important and widely used alloy. As compared +with copper its superior hardness makes it wear better, while being more +fusible it can be cast with greater facility. It is readily drawn into +fine wire, and formed into rolled sheets and rods which are machined +into a huge number of useful and ornamental articles. It is susceptible +of a fine polish, but tarnishes with exposure to the air; the brilliancy +of the surface can, however, be preserved if the metal is thoroughly +cleansed by "dipping" in nitric acid and "lacquered" with a coating of +varnish consisting of seed-lac dissolved in spirit. + + + + +BRASSES, MONUMENTAL, a species of engraved sepulchral memorials which in +the early part of the 13th century began to take the place of tombs and +effigies carved in stone. Made of hard _latten_ or sheet brass, let into +the pavement, and thus forming no obstruction in the space required for +the services of the church, they speedily came into general use, and +continued to be a favourite style of sepulchral memorial for three +centuries. Besides their great value as historical monuments, they are +interesting as authentic contemporary evidence of the varieties of +armour and costume, or the peculiarities of palaeography and heraldic +designs, and they are often the only authoritative records of the +intricate details of family history. Although the intrinsic value of the +metal has unfortunately contributed to the wholesale spoliation of these +interesting monuments, they are still found in remarkable profusion in +England, and they were at one time equally common in France, Germany and +the Low Countries. In France, however, those that survived the troubles +of the 16th century were totally swept away during the reign of terror, +and almost the only evidence of their existence is now supplied by the +collection of drawings bequeathed by Gough to the Bodleian library. The +fine memorials of the royal house of Saxony in the cathedrals of Meissen +and Freiberg are the most artistic and striking brasses in Germany. +Among the 13th-century examples existing in German churches are the +full-length memorials of Yso von Welpe, bishop of Verden (1231), and of +Bernard, bishop of Paderborn (1340). Many fine Flemish specimens exist +in Belgium, especially at Bruges. Only two or three examples, and these +of late date, are known in Scotland, among which are the memorials of +Alexander Cockburn (1564) at Ormiston; of the regent Murray (1569) in +the collegiate church of St Giles, Edinburgh; and of the Minto family +(1605) in the south aisle of the nave of Glasgow cathedral. England is +the only country which now possesses an extensive series of these +interesting memorials, of which it is calculated that there may be about +4000 still remaining in the various churches. They are most abundant in +the eastern counties, and this fact has been frequently adduced in +support of the opinion that they were of Flemish manufacture. But in the +days when sepulchral brasses were most in fashion the eastern counties +of England were full of commercial activity and wealth, and nowhere do +the engraved memorials of civilians and prosperous merchants more abound +than in the churches of Ipswich, Norwich, Lynn and Lincoln. Flemish +brasses do occur in England, but they were never numerous, and they are +readily distinguished from those of native workmanship. The Flemish +examples have the figures engraved in the centre of a large plate, the +background filled in with diapered or scroll work, and the inscription +placed round the edge of the plate. The English examples have the +figures cut out to the outline and inserted in corresponding cavities in +the slab, the darker colour of the stone serving as a background. This +is not an invariable distinction, however, as "figure-brasses" of +Flemish origin are found both at Bruges and in England. But the +character of the engraving is constant, the Flemish work being more +florid in design, the lines shallower, and the broad lines cut with a +chisel-pointed tool instead of the lozenge-shaped burin. The brass of +Robert Hallum, bishop of Salisbury, the envoy of Henry V. to the council +of Constance, who died and was interred there in 1416, precisely +resembles the brasses of England in the peculiarities which distinguish +them from continental specimens. Scarcely any of the brasses which now +exist in England can be confidently referred to the first half of the +13th century, though several undoubted examples of this period are on +record. The full-sized brass of Sir John d'Aubernon at Stoke d'Abernon +in Surrey (c. 1277) has the decorations of the shield filled in with a +species of enamel. Other examples of this occur, and the probability is, +that, in most cases, the lines of the engraving were filled with +colouring-matter, though brass would scarcely bear the heat requisite to +fuse the ordinary enamels. A well-known 13th-century example is that of +Sir Roger de Trumpington (c. 1290), who accompanied Prince Edward in his +expedition to Palestine and is represented cross-legged. About half a +dozen instances of this peculiarity are known. The 14th-century brasses +are much more numerous, and present a remarkable variety in their +details. The finest specimen is that of Nicholas Lord Burnell (1315) in +the church of Acton Burnell, Shropshire. In the 15th century the design +and execution of monumental brasses had attained their highest +excellence. The beautiful brass of Thomas Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d. +1401), and his wife Margaret, which formerly covered the tomb in St +Mary's church, Warwick, is a striking example. One of the best specimens +of plate armour is that of Sir Robert Stantoun (1458) in Castle +Donnington church, Leicestershire, and one of the finest existing +brasses of ecclesiastics is that of Abbot de la Mare of St Albans. It is +only in the 16th century that the engraved representations become +portraits. Previous to that period the features were invariably +represented conventionally, though sometimes personal peculiarities were +given. A large number of brasses in England are _palimpsests_, the back +of an ancient brass having been engraved for the more recent memorial. +Thus a brass commemorative of Margaret Bulstrode (1540) at Hedgerley, on +being removed from its position, was discovered to have been previously +the memorial of Thomas Totyngton, abbot of St Edmunds, Bury (1312). The +abbey was only surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1539, so that before the +year was out the work of spoliation had begun, and the abbot's brass had +been removed and re-engraved to Margaret Bulstrode. In explanation of +the frequency with which ancient brasses have thus been stolen and +re-erected after being engraved on the reverse, as at Berkhampstead, it +may be remarked that all the sheet brass used in England previous to the +establishment of a manufactory at Esher by a German in 1649, had to be +imported from the continent. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + Fig. 1.--Sir John D'Abernon, 1277. Stoke D'Abernon Surrey. + + Fig. 2.--Margaret de Camoys. 1310. Trotton, Sussex. + + Fig. 3.--Henry de Grofhurst, c. 1330 Horsemonden, Kent. + + Fig. 4.--Sir Nicholas Burnell, 1382. Acton Burnell, Shropshire. + + Fig. 5.--Margaret Lady Cobham, 1385. Cobham, Kent. + + Fig. 6.--Sir John Corp and Eleanor, his grand-daughter 1391, 1361. + Stoke Fleming, Devonshire. + + Fig. 7.--Sir Symon de Felbrigge and Margaret his wife, 1400. + Felbrigge, Norfolk. + + Figs. 1 and 6 from Waller's _Monumental Brasses._ + + Figs. 5 and 7 from Boutell's _Monumental Brasses._ + + Figs. 2, 3, and 4 by permission of the _Monumental Brass Society_.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + Fig. 1.--Thomas de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick and Lady, 1406 and 1401. + St. Mary's Church, Warwick. + + Fig. 2.--Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin, 1417. New College, + Oxford. + + Fig. 3.--Sir William Vernon and Lady, 1467. Tong Church, Shropshire. + + Fig. 4.--John Shelley, Esq., 1526, and his wife Elizabeth, 1513. + Clapham, Sussex. + + Fig. 5.--Dame Margaret Chute, 1614. Mardon, Herefordshire. + + Fig. 6.--Sir Edward Filmer and Lady, 1638. East Sutton, Kent. + + Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 6 from Waller's _Monumental Brasses_. + + Figs. 4 and 5 by permission of the _Monumental Brass Society_.] + + AUTHORITIES.--(1) General: _Manual for the Study of Monumental + Brasses_ (Oxford, 1848); Boutell's _Monumental Brasses of England_, + engravings on wood, folio (London, 1849); _Manual of Monumental + Brasses_, by H. Haines (2 vols. 8vo, 1861); Waller's _Series of + Monumental Brasses in England_ (London and Oxford, Parkers, 1863); + _Monumental Brasses_, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, 1890); _The Brasses of + England_, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, London, 1907). (2) English Counties: + Cotman's _Engravings of the most Remarkable of the Sepulchral Brasses + of Norfolk_ (4to, London, 1813-1816); and second edition, with plates + and notes by Meyrick, Albert Way and Sir Harris Nicholas (2 vols. + folio, London, 1839); _Illustrations of Monumental Brasses in + Cambridge_ (4to, Camden Society, 1846); _Monumental Brasses of + Northamptonshire_, by F. Hudson (folio, 1853); _The Monumental Brasses + of Wiltshire_, by G. Kite (8vo, London, 1860); _Architectural and + Historical Notes of the Churches of Cambridgeshire_, by A.C. Hill + (8vo, 1880); _Monumental Brasses of Cornwall_, by E.H.W. Dunken (4to, + London, 1882); _Monumental Brasses of Worcestershire and + Herefordshire_, ed. by C.T. Davis (1884); _Kentish Brasses_, by W.D. + Belcher (4to, London, 1888); _List of Monumental Brasses in the County + of Norfolk_, by the Rev. E. Farrer (Norwich, 1890); _The Monumental + Brasses of Lancashire and Cheshire_, by James Thornby (8vo, Hull, + 1893); _Monumental Brasses in the Bedfordshire Churches_, by Grace + Isherwood (8vo, London, 1906), a large collection of rubbings of + special interest and value. (3) Foreign: _Monumental Brasses and + Incised Slabs in Belgium_ (8vo, 1849); _Books of Facsimiles of + Monumental Brasses of the Continent of Europe_, folio (1884), by the + Rev. W.F. Greeny. + + + + +BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ETIENNE (1814-1874), Belgian +ethnographer, was born at Bourbourg, near Dunkirk, on the 8th of +September 1814. He entered the Roman Catholic priesthood, was professor +of ecclesiastical history in the Quebec seminary in 1845, vicar-general +at Boston in 1846, and from 1848 to 1863 travelled as a missionary, +chiefly in Mexico and Central America. He gave great attention to +Mexican antiquities, published in 1857-1859 a history of Aztec +civilization, and from 1861 to 1864 edited a collection of documents in +the indigenous languages. In 1863 he announced the discovery of a key to +Mexican hieroglyphic writing, but its value is very questionable. In +1864 he was archaeologist to the French military expedition in Mexico, +and his _Monuments anciens du Mexique_ was published by the French +Government in 1866. Perhaps his greatest service was the publication in +1861 of a French translation of the _Popol Vuh_, a sacred book of the +Quiche Indians, together with a Quiche grammar, and an essay on Central +American mythology. In 1871 he brought out his _Bibliotheque +Mexico-Guatemalienne_, and in 1869-1870 gave the principles of his +decipherment of Indian picture-writing in his _Manuscrit Troano, etudes +sur le systeme graphique et la langue des Mayas._ He died at Nice on the +8th of January 1874. His chief merit is his diligent collection of +materials; his interpretations are generally fanciful. + + + + +BRASSEY, THOMAS (1805-1870), English railway contractor, was born at +Buerton, near Chester, on the 7th of November 1805. His father, besides +cultivating land of his own, held a large farm of the marquess of +Westminster; his ancestors, according to family tradition, having been +settled for several centuries at Bulkeley, near Malpas, Cheshire, before +they went to Buerton in 1663. Thomas Brassey received an ordinary +commercial education at a Chester school. At the age of sixteen he was +apprenticed to a surveyor, and on the completion of his term became the +partner of his master, eventually assuming the sole management of the +business. In the local surveys to which he devoted his attention during +his early years he acquired the knowledge and practical experience which +were the necessary foundation of his great reputation. His first +engagement as railway contractor was entered upon in 1835, when he +undertook the execution of a portion of the Grand Junction railway, on +the invitation of the distinguished engineer Joseph Locke, who soon +afterwards entrusted him with the completion of the London and +Southampton railway, a task which involved contracts to the amount of +L4,000,000 sterling and the employment of a body of 3000 men. At the +same time he was engaged on portions of several other lines in the north +of England and in Scotland. In conjunction with his partner, W. +Mackenzie, Brassey undertook, in 1840, the construction of the railway +from Paris to Rouen, of which Locke was engineer. He subsequently +carried out the extension of the same line. A few years later he was +engaged with his partner on five other French lines, and on his own +account on the same number of lines in England, Wales and Scotland. +Brassey was now in control of an industrial army of 75,000 men, and the +capital involved in his various contracts amounted to some L36,000,000. +But his energy and capacity were equal to still larger tasks. He +undertook in 1851 other works in England and Scotland; and in the +following year he engaged in the construction of railways in Holland, +Prussia, Spain and Italy. One of his largest undertakings was the Grand +Trunk railway of Canada, 1100 m. in length, with its fine bridge over +the St Lawrence. In this work he was associated with Sir M. Peto and +E.L. Betts. In the following years divisions of his industrial army were +found in almost every country in Europe, in India, in Australia and in +South America. Besides actual railway works, he originated and +maintained a great number of subordinate assistant establishments, coal +and iron works, dockyards, &c., the direction of which alone would be +sufficient to strain the energies of an ordinary mind. His profits were, +of course, enormous, but prosperity did not intoxicate him; and when +heavy losses came, as sometimes they did, he took them bravely and +quietly. Among the greatest of his pecuniary disasters were those caused +by the fall of the great Barentin viaduct on the Rouen and Havre +railway, and by the failure of Peto and Betts. Brassey was one of the +first to aim at improving the relations between engineers and +contractors, by setting himself against the corrupt practices which were +common. He resolutely resisted the "scamping" of work and the bribery of +inspectors, and what he called the "smothering of the engineer"; and he +did much in this way to bring about a better state of things. +Large-hearted and generous to a rare degree, modest and simple in his +taste and manners, he was conscious of his power as a leader in his +calling, and knew how to use it wisely and for noble ends. Honours came +to him unsought. The cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred on him. +From Victor Emmanuel he received the cross of the Order of St Maurice +and St Lazarus; and from the emperor of Austria the decoration of the +Iron Crown, which it is said had not before been given to a foreigner. +He died at St Leonards on the 8th of December 1870. His life and labours +are commemorated in a volume by Sir Arthur Helps (1872). + +He left three sons, of whom the eldest, THOMAS (b. 1836), was knighted +and afterwards (1886) created BARON BRASSEY. Lord Brassey, who was +educated at Rugby and Oxford, entered parliament as a liberal in 1865, +and devoted himself largely to naval affairs. He was civil lord of the +admiralty (1880-1883), and secretary to the admiralty (1883-1885); and +both before and after his elevation to the peerage did important work on +naval and statistical inquiries for the government. In 1893-1805 he was +president of the Institution of Naval Architects. In 1894 he was a +lord-in-waiting, and from 1895 to 1900 was governor of Victoria. In 1908 +he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque Ports. His voyages in his +yacht "Sunbeam" from 1876 onwards, with his first wife (d. 1887), who +published an interesting book on the subject, took him all over the +world. Lord Brassey married a second time in 1890. Among other +publications, his inauguration of the _Naval Annual_ (1886 onwards), and +his volumes on _The British Navy_, are the most important. His eldest +son Thomas, who edited the _Naval Annual_ (1890-1904), and +unsuccessfully contested several parliamentary constituencies, was born +in 1862. + + + + +BRASSO (Ger. _Kronstadt_; Rumanian, _Brasov_), a town of Hungary, in +Transylvania, 206 m. S.E. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900) 34,511. It +is the capital of the comitat (county) of the same name, also known as +Burzenland, a fertile country inhabited by an industrious population of +Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. Brasso is beautifully situated on the +slopes of the Transylvanian Alps, in a narrow valley, shut in by +mountains, and presenting only one opening on the north-west towards the +Burzen plain. The town is entirely dominated by the Zinne of +Kapellenberg, a mountain rising 1276 ft. above the town (total altitude +3153 ft.), from which a beautiful view is obtained of the lofty +mountains around and of the carefully cultivated plain of the +Burzenland, dotted with tastefully built and well-kept villages. On the +summit of the mountain is one of the numerous monuments erected in 1896 +in different parts of the country to commemorate the thousandth +anniversary of the foundation of the Hungarian state. It is known as +Arpad's Monument, and consists of a Doric column erected on a circular +pedestal, which supports the bronze figure of a warrior from the time of +Arpad. + +Brasso consists of the inner town, which is the commercial centre, and +the suburbs of Blumenau, Altstadt and Obere Vorstadt or Bolgarszeg, +inhabited respectively by Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. To the east of +the inner town rises the Schlossberg, crowned by the citadel, which was +erected in 1553, and constitutes the principal remaining fragment of the +old fortifications with which Brasso was encircled. The most interesting +building in the town is the Protestant church, popularly called the +Black Church, owing to its smoke-stained walls, caused by the great fire +of 1689. This church, the finest in Transylvania, is a Gothic edifice +with traces of Romanesque influence, and was built in 1385-1425. In the +square in front of it is the statue of Johannes Honterus (1498-1549), +"the apostle of Transylvania," who was born in Brasso, and established +here the first printing-press in Transylvania. In the principal square +of the inner town stands the town hall, built in 1420 and restored in +the 18th century, with a tower 190 ft. high. Brasso is the most +important commercial and manufacturing town of Transylvania. Lying near +the frontier of Rumania, with easy access through the Tomos pass, it +developed from the earliest time an active trade with that country and +with the whole of the Balkan states. Its chief industries are iron and +copper works, wool-spinning, turkey-red dyeing, leather goods, paper, +cement and petroleum refineries. The timber industry in all its +branches, with a speciality for the manufacture of the wooden bottles +largely used by the peasantry in Hungary and in the Balkan states, as +well as the dairy industry, and ham-curing are also fully developed. A +peculiarity of Brasso, which constitutes a survival of the old methods +of trade with the Balkan states, is the number of money-changers who ply +their trade at small movable tables in the market-place and in the open +street. Brasso is the most populous town of Transylvania, and its +population is composed in about equal numbers of Germans, Magyars and +Rumanians. The town, especially on market days, presents an animated and +picturesque aspect. Here are seen Germans, Szeklers, Magyars, Rumanians, +Armenians and Gipsies, each of them wearing their distinctive national +costume, and talking and bargaining in their own special idiom. + +Amongst the places of interest round Brasso is the watering-place +Zaizon, 15 m. to the east, with ferruginous and iodine waters; while +about 17 m. to the south-west lies the pretty Rumanian village of +Zernest, where in 1690 the Austrian general Heussler was defeated and +taken prisoner by Imre (Emerich) Tokoly, the usurper of the +Transylvanian throne. + +Brasso was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1211, and soon became a +flourishing town. Through the activity of Honterus it played a leading +part in the introduction of the Reformation in Transylvania in the 16th +century. The town was almost completely destroyed by the big fire of +1689. During the revolution of 1848-1849 it was besieged by the +Hungarians under General Bern from March to July 1849, and several +engagements between the Austrian and the Hungarian troops took place in +its neighbourhood. + + + + +BRATHWAIT, RICHARD (1588-1673), English poet, son of Thomas Brathwait, +was born in 1588 at his father's manor of Burneshead, near Kendal, +Westmorland. He entered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1604, and remained +there for some years, pursuing the study of poetry and Roman history. He +removed to Cambridge to study law and afterwards to London to the Inns +of Court. Thomas Brathwait died in 1610, and the son went down to live +on the estate he inherited from his father. In 1617 he married Frances +Lawson of Nesham, near Darlington. On the death of his elder brother, +Sir Thomas Brathwait, in 1618, Richard became the head of the family, +and an important personage in the county, being deputy-lieutenant and +justice of the peace. In 1633 his wife died, and in 1639 he married +again. His only son by this second marriage, Sir Stafford Brathwait, was +killed in a sea-fight against the Algerian pirates. Richard Brathwait's +most famous work is _Barnabae Itinerarium or Barnabees Journall_ [1638], +by "Corymbaeus," written in English and Latin rhyme. The title-page says +it is written for the "travellers' solace" and is to be chanted to the +old tune of "Barnabe." The story of "drunken Barnabee's" four journeys +to the north of England contains much amusing topographical information, +and its gaiety is unflagging. Barnabee rarely visits a town or village +without some notice of an excellent inn or a charming hostess, but he +hardly deserves the epithet "drunken." At Banbury he saw the Puritan who +has become proverbial, + + "Hanging of his cat on Monday + For killing of a Mouse on Sunday." + +Brathwait's identity with "Corymbaeus" was first established by Joseph +Haslewood. In his later years he removed to Catterick, where he died on +the 4th of May 1673. Among his other works are: _The Golden Fleece_ +(1611), with a second title-page announcing "sonnets and madrigals," and +a treatise on the _Art of Poesy_, which is not preserved; _The Poets +Willow; or the Passionate Shepheard_ (1614); _The Prodigals Teares_ +(1614); _The Schollers Medley, or an intermixt Discourse upon Historicall +and Poeticall relations_ (1614), known in later editions as a _Survey of +History_ (1638, &c.); a collection of epigrams and satires entitled _A +Strappado for the Divell_ (1615), with which was published incongruously +_Loves Labyrinth_ (edited, 1878, by J.W. Ebsworth); _Natures Embassie; +or, the wildemans measures; danced naked by twelve satyres_ (1621), +thirty satires finding antique parallels for modern vices; with these are +bound up _The Shepheards Tales_ (1621), a collection of pastorals, one +section of which was reprinted by Sir Egerton Brydges in 1815; two +treatises on manners, _The English Gentleman_ (1630) and _The English +Gentlewoman_ (1631); _Anniversaries upon his Panarete_ (1634), a poem in +memory of his wife; _Essaies upon the Five Senses_ (1620); _The Psalmes +of David ... and other holy Prophets, paraphras'd in English_ (1638); _A +Comment upon Two Tales of ... Jeffray Chaucer_ (1665; edited for the +Chaucer Soc. by C. Spurgeon, 1901). Thomas Hearne, on whose testimony +(MS. collections for the year 1713, vol. 47, p. 127) the authorship of +the _Itinerarium_ chiefly rests, not inappropriately called him "the +scribler of those times," and the list just given of his works, published +under various pseudonyms, is by no means complete. + + A full bibliography is given in Joseph Haslewood's edition of + _Barnabee's Journall_ (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1876). See also J. Corser, + _Collectanea_ (Chetham Soc., 1860, &c.). + + + + +BRATIANU (or BRATIANO), ION C. (1821-1891), Rumanian statesman, was born +at Pitesci in Walachia on the 2nd of June 1821. He entered the Walachian +army in 1838, and visited Paris in 1841 for purposes of study. Returning +to Walachia, he took part, with his friend C.A. Rosetti and other +prominent politicians, in the Rumanian rebellion of 1848, and acted as +prefect of police in the provisional government formed in that year. The +restoration of Russian and Turkish authority shortly afterwards drove +him into exile. He took refuge in Paris, and endeavoured to influence +French opinion in favour of the proposed union and autonomy of the +Danubian principalities. In 1854, however, he was sentenced to a fine of +L120 and three months' imprisonment for sedition, and later confined in +a lunatic asylum; but in 1856 he returned home with his brother, +Dimitrie Bratianu, afterwards one of his foremost political opponents. +During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Bratianu figured +prominently as one of the Liberal leaders. He assisted in 1866 in the +deposition of Cuza and the election of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, +under whom he held several ministerial appointments during the next four +years. He was arrested for complicity in the revolution of 1870, but +soon released. In 1876, aided by C.A. Rosetti, he formed a Liberal +cabinet, which remained in power until 1888. For an account of his work +in connexion with the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the Berlin congress, +the establishment of the Rumanian kingdom, the revision of the +constitution, and other reforms, see RUMANIA. After 1883 Bratianu acted +as sole leader of the Liberals, owing to a quarrel with C.A. Rosetti, +his friend and political ally for nearly forty years. His long tenure of +office, without parallel in Rumanian history, rendered Bratianu +extremely unpopular, and at its close his impeachment appeared +inevitable. But any proceedings taken against the minister would have +involved charges against the king, who was largely responsible for his +policy; and the impeachment was averted by a vote of parliament in +February 1890. Bratianu died on the 16th of May 1891. Besides being the +leading statesman of Rumania during the critical years 1876-1888, he +attained some eminence as a writer. His French political pamphlets, +_Memoire sur l'empire d'Autriche dans la question d'Orient_ (1855), +_Reflexions sur la situation_ (1856), _Memoire sur la situation de la +Moldavie depuis le traite de Paris_ (1857), and _La Question religieuse +en Roumanie_ (1866), were all published in Paris. + + For his other writings and speeches see _Din Scrierile si cuvintarile + lui I.C. Bratianu_, 1821-1891 (Bucharest, 1903, &c.), edited with a + biographical introduction by D.A. Sturza. A brief anonymous biography, + _Ion C. Bratianu_, appeared at Bucharest in 1893. + + + + +BRATLANDSDAL (i.e. Bratland valley), a gorge of southern Norway in +Stavanger _amt_ (county), formed by the Bratland river, a powerful +torrent issuing into Lake Suldal. A remarkable road traverses the gorge +by means of cuttings and a tunnel, and the scenery is among the most +magnificent in Norway. It is usually approached from Stavanger by way of +Sand and Lake Suldal, and the road divides above the gorge, branches +running north to Odde and south-east through Telemarken. The junction +of the roads is near Breifond, 13 m. above Naes at the mouth of the +river, on the west shore of Lake Roldal, which is fed by the snowfield +to the west, north and east, and is drained by the Bratland river. + + + + +BRATTISHING, or BRANDISHING (from the Fr. _breteche_), in architecture, +a sort of crest or ridge on a parapet, or species of embattlement. The +term, however, is generally employed to describe the ranges of flowers +which form the crests of so many parapets in the Tudor period. + + + + +BRATTLEBORO, a village of Windham county, Vermont, U.S.A., in a township +(pop. 1910, 7541) of the same name, in the south-east part of the state, +60 m. N. of Springfield, Massachusetts, on the Connecticut river. Pop. +(1890) 5467; (1900) 5297 (686 foreign-born); (1910) 6517. It is served +by the Central Vermont and the Boston & Maine railways. Situated in a +hilly, heavily wooded country, it is an attractive place, with a few +houses dating from the 18th century. Among the manufactures are toys, +furniture, overalls and organs, the Estey and the Carpenter organs being +made there. First settled about 1753, Brattleboro took its name from one +of the original patentees, William Brattle (1702-1776), a Massachusetts +loyalist. It was incorporated ten years later. + + See H. Burnham, _Brattleboro_ (Brattleboro, 1880), and H.M. Burt, _The + Attractions of Brattleboro, Glimpses of Past and Present_ + (Brattleboro, 1866). + + + + +BRAUNAU (Czech _Broumov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 139 m. E.N.E. of +Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7622, chiefly German. The town is built on a +rocky eminence on the right bank of the Steine. It has an imposing +Benedictine abbey, once a castle, but converted into a religious house +in 1322, when Ottakar I. gave the district to the Benedictines. +Noteworthy also is the great church of Saints Wenceslaus and Adalbert, +built between 1683 and 1733. This stands on the site where, in 1618, the +Protestants attempted to build a church, the forcible prevention of +which by Abbot Wolfgang Solander was the immediate cause of the protest +of the Bohemian estates and the "defenestration" of the ministers +Martinic and Slavata, which opened the Thirty Years' War. After the +battle of the White Hill, near Prague (1620), the town was deprived of +all its privileges, which were, however, in great part restored nine +years later. It is now a manufacturing centre (cloth, woollen and cotton +stuffs, &c.) and has a considerable trade. + + + + +BRAUNSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, 38 m. by rail +S.W. of Konigsberg, on the Passarge, 4 m. from its mouth in the Frisches +Haff. Pop. (1900) 12,497. It possesses numerous Roman Catholic +institutions, of which the most important is the Lyceum Hosianum +(enjoying university rank), founded in 1564 by the cardinal bishop +Stanislaus Hosius. Brewing, tanning, and the manufactures of soap, +yeast, carriages and bricks are the most important industries of the +town, which also carries on a certain amount of trade in corn, ship +timber and yarn. The river is navigable for small vessels. The castle of +Braunsberg was built by the Teutonic knights in 1241, and the town was +founded ten years later. Destroyed by the Prussians in 1262, it was +restored in 1279. The town, which was the seat of the bishops of +Ermeland from 1255 to 1298, was granted the "law of Lubeck" by its +bishop in 1284, and admitted to the Hanseatic League. After numerous +vicissitudes it fell into the hands of the Poles in 1520, and in 1626 it +was captured by Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedes kept possession till 1635. +It fell to Prussia by the first partition of Poland in 1772. + + + + +BRAVO (Ital. for "brave"), the name for hired assassins such as were +formerly common in Italy. The word had at first no evil meaning, but was +applied to the retainers of the great noble houses, or to the +cavalier-type of swashbucklers familiar in fiction. In later Italian +history, especially in that of Venice, the _bravi_ were desperate +ruffians who for payment were ready to commit any crime, however foul. + + + + +BRAWLING (probably connected with Ger. _brallen_, to roar, shout), in +law, the offence of quarrelling, or creating a disturbance in a church +or churchyard. During the early stages of the Reformation in England +religious controversy too often became converted into actual +disturbance, and the ritual lawlessness of the parochial clergy very +frequently provoked popular violence. To repress these disturbances an +act was passed in 1551, by which it was enacted "that if any person +shall, by words only, quarrel, chide or brawl in any church or +churchyard, it shall be lawful for the ordinary of the place where the +same shall be done and proved by two lawful witnesses, to suspend any +person so offending, if he be a layman, from the entrance of the church, +and if he be a clerk, from the ministration of his office, for so long +as the said ordinary shall think meet, according to the fault." An act +of 1553 added the punishment of imprisonment until the party should +repent. The act of 1551 was partly repealed in 1828 and wholly repealed +as regards laymen by the Ecclesiastical Courts Jurisdiction Act 1860. +Under that act, which applies to Ireland as well as to England, persons +guilty of riotous, violent or indecent behaviour, in churches and +chapels of the Church of England or Ireland, or in any chapel of any +religious denomination, or in England in any place of religious worship +duly certified, or in churchyards or burial-grounds, are liable on +conviction before two justices to a penalty of not more than L5, or +imprisonment for any term not exceeding two months. This enactment +applies to clergy as well as to laity, and a clergyman of the Church of +England convicted under it may also be dealt with under the Clergy +Discipline Act of 1892 (_Girt v. Fillingham_, 1901, L.R. Prob. 176). +When Mr J. Kensit during an ordination service in St Paul's cathedral +"objected" to one of the candidates for ordination, on grounds which did +not constitute an impediment or notable crime within the meaning of the +ordination service, he was held to have unlawfully disturbed the bishop +of London in the conduct of the service, and to be liable to conviction +under the act of 1860 (_Kensit_ v. _Dean and Chapter of St Paul's_, +1905, L.R. 2 K.B. 249). The public worship of Protestant Dissenters, +Roman Catholics and Jews in England had before 1860 been protected by a +series of statutes beginning with the Toleration Act of 1689, and ending +with the Liberty of Religious Worship Act 1855. These enactments, though +not repealed, are for practical purposes superseded by the summary +remedy given by the act of 1860. In Scotland disturbance of public +worship is punishable as a breach of the peace (_Dougall_ v. _Dykes_, +1861, 4 Irvine 101). + +In British possessions abroad interference with religious worship is +usually dealt with by legislation, and not as a common-law offence. In +India it is an offence voluntarily to cause disturbance to any assembly +lawfully engaged in the performance of religious worship or religious +ceremonies (Penal Code, s. 296). Under the Queensland Criminal Code of +1899 (s. 207) penalties are imposed on persons who wilfully and without +lawful justification or excuse (the proof of which lies on them) +disquiet or disturb any meeting of persons lawfully assembled for +religious worship, or assault any forces lawfully officiating at such +meeting, or any of the persons there assembled. + +In the United States disturbance of religious worship is treated as an +offence under the common law, which is in many states supplemented by +legislation (see Bishop, _Amer. Crim. Law_, 8th ed. 1892, vol. i. s. +542, vol. ii. ss. 303-305; California Penal Code, s. 302; _Revised Laws +of Massachusetts_, 1902, chap. 212, s. 30.). + + + + +BRAY, SIR REGINALD (d. 1503), British statesman and architect, was the +second son of Sir Richard Bray, one of the privy council of Henry VI. +Reginald was born in the parish of St John Bedwardine, near Worcester, +but the date of his birth is uncertain. He was receiver-general and +steward of the household to Sir Henry Stafford, second husband of +Margaret, countess of Richmond, whose son afterwards became King Henry +VII. The accession of the king Henry VII. favoured the fortunes of +Reginald Bray, who was created a knight of the Bath at the coronation +and afterwards a knight of the Garter. In the first year of Henry VII.'s +reign he was given a grant of the constableship of Oakham Castle in +Rutland, and was appointed joint chief justice with Lord Fitz Walter of +all the forest south of Trent and chosen of the privy council. +Subsequently he was made high treasurer and chancellor of the duchy of +Lancaster. In October 1494 he became high steward of the university of +Oxford, and he was a member of the parliament summoned in the 11th year +of Henry VII's reign. In June 1497 he was at the battle of Blackheath, +and his services in repressing the Cornish rebels were rewarded with a +gift of estates and the title of knight banneret. His taste and skill in +architecture are attested by Henry VII.'s chapel at Westminster and St +George's chapel at Windsor. He directed the building of the former, and +the finishing and decoration of the latter, to which, moreover, he was a +liberal contributor, building at his own expense a chapel still called +by his name and ornamented with his crest, the initial letters of his +name, and a device representing the hemp-bray, an instrument used by +hemp manufacturers. He died in 1503, before the Westminster chapel was +completed, and was interred in St George's chapel. + + + + +BRAY, THOMAS (1656-1730), English divine, was born at Marton, +Shropshire, in 1656, and educated at All Souls' College, Oxford. After +leaving the university he was appointed vicar of Over-Whitacre, and +rector of Sheldon in Warwickshire, where he wrote his famous +_Catechetical Lectures_. Henry Compton, bishop of London, appointed him +in 1696 as his commissary to organize the Anglican church in Maryland, +and he was in that colony in 1699-1700. He took a great interest in +colonial missions, especially among the American Indians, and it is to +his exertions that the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel owes +its existence. He also projected a successful scheme for establishing +parish libraries in England and America, out of which grew the Society +for Promoting Christian Knowledge. From 1706 till his death in February +1730 he was rector of St Botolph-Without, Aldgate, London, being +unceasingly engaged in philanthropic and literary pursuits. + + + + +BRAY, a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire, +England, beautifully situated on the west (right) bank of the Thames, 1 +m. S. of Maidenhead Bridge. Pop. (1901) 2978. There are numerous +riverside residences in the locality. The church of St Michael has +portions of various dates from the Early English period onward, and is +much restored. It contains a number of brasses of the 14th, 15th, 16th +and 17th centuries. A well-known ballad, "The Vicar of Bray," tells how +a vicar held his position by easy conversions of faith according to +necessity, from the days of Charles II. until the accession of George I. +and the foundation of "the illustrious house of Hanover" (1714). One +Francis Carswell, who is buried in the church, was vicar for forty-two +years, approximately during this period, dying in 1709; but the legend +is earlier, and the name of the vicar who gave rise to it is not +certainly known. That of Simon Aleyn, who held the office from c. 1540 +to 1588, is generally accepted, as, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward +VI., Mary and Elizabeth, he is said to have been successively Papist, +Protestant, Papist and Protestant. The name of Simon Simonds is also +given on the authority of the vicar of the parish in 1745; Simonds died +a canon of Windsor in 1551, but had been vicar of Bray. Tradition +ascribes the song to a soldier in Colonel Fuller's troop of dragoons in +the reign of George I. + + + + +BRAY, a seaport and watering-place of Co. Wicklow, Ireland, 12 m. S.S.E. +of Dublin on the Dublin & South-Eastern railway, situated on both sides +of the river Bray. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7424. For parliamentary +purposes it is divided between the eastern division of county Wicklow +and the southern of county Dublin. A harbour was constructed by the +urban district council (the harbour authority) which accommodates ships +of 400 tons. There is some industry in brewing, milling and fishing, but +the town, which is known as the "Irish Brighton," is almost wholly +dependent for its prosperity on visitors from Dublin and elsewhere. It +therefore possesses all the equipments of a modern seaside resort; there +is a fine sea-wall with esplanade upwards of a mile in length; the +bathing is good, and race meetings are held. The town is rapidly +increasing in size. The coast, especially towards the promontory of Bray +Head, offers beautiful sea-views, and some of the best inland scenery in +the county is readily accessible, such as the Glens of the Dargle and +the Downs, the demesne of Powerscourt, the Bray river, with its loughs, +and the pass of the Scalp. The demesne of Kilruddery, the seat of the +earls of Meath, is specially beautiful. About 1170 Bray was bestowed by +Richard de Clare or Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and Strigul, on Walter +de Reddesford, who took the title of baron of Bray, and built a castle. + + + + +BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE (1773-1854), English antiquary and topographer, +was born at Lambeth, London, in 1773. He was apprenticed to the +enamelling trade, but early developed literary tastes. He formed a close +friendship with John Britton, which lasted for sixty-five years. They +entered into a literary partnership, and after some small successes at +song and play writing they became joint editors of _The Beauties of +England and Wales_, themselves writing many of the volumes. Long after +he had become famous as a topographer, Brayley continued his enamel +work. In 1823 he was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He +died in London on the 23rd of September 1854. His other works include +_Sir Reginalde or the Black Tower_ (1803); _Views in Suffolk, Norfolk +and Northamptonshire, illustrative of works of Robt. Bloowifield_ +(1806); _Lambeth Palace_ (1806); _The History of the Abbey Church of +Westminster_ (2 vols., 1818); _Topographical Sketches of +Brighthelmstone_ (1825); _Historical and Descriptive Accounts of +Theatres of London_ (1826); _Londiniana_ (1829); _History of Surrey_ (5 +vols., 1841-1848). + + + + +BRAZIER (from the Fr. _brasier_, which comes from _braise_, hot +charcoal), a metal receptacle for holding burning coals or charcoal, +much used in southern Europe and the East for warming rooms. Braziers +are often elegant in form, and highly artistic in ornamentation, with +chased or embossed feet and decorated exteriors. + + + + +BRAZIL, or BRASIL, a legendary island in the Atlantic Ocean. The name +connects itself with the red dye-woods so called in the middle ages, +possibly also applied to other vegetable dyes, and so descending from +the _Insulae Purpurariae_ of Pliny. It first appears as the _I. de +Brazi_ in the Venetian map of Andrea Bianco (1436), where it is found +attached to one of the larger islands of the Azores. When this group +became better known and was colonized, the island in question was +renamed Terceira. It is probable that the familiar existence of "Brazil" +as a geographical name led to its bestowal upon the vast region of South +America, which was found to supply dye-woods kindred to those which the +name properly denoted. The older memory survived also, and the Island of +Brazil retained its place in mid-ocean, some hundred miles to the west +of Ireland, both in the traditions of the forecastle and in charts. In +J. Purdy's _General Chart of the Atlantic_, "corrected to 1830," the +"Brazil Rock (high)" is marked with no indication of doubt, in 51 deg. +10' N. and 15 deg. 50' W. In a chart of currents by A.G. Findlay, dated +1853, these names appear again. But in his 12th edition of Purdy's +_Memoir Descriptive and Explanatory of the N. Atlantic Ocean_ (1865), +the existence of Brazil and some other legendary islands is briefly +discussed and rejected. (See also ATLANTIS.) + + + + +BRAZIL, a republic of South America, the largest political division of +that continent and the third largest of the western hemisphere. It is +larger than the continental United States excluding Alaska, and slightly +larger than the great bulk of Europe lying east of France. Its extreme +dimensions are 2629 m. from Cape Orange (4 deg. 21' N.) almost due south +to the river Chuy (33 deg. 45' S. lat.), and 2691 m. from Olinda (Ponta +de Pedra, 8 deg. 0' 57" S., 34 deg. 50' W.) due west to the Peruvian +frontier (about 73 deg. 50' W.). The most northerly point, the Serra +Roraima on the Venezuela and British Guiana frontier (5 deg. 10' N.), is +56 m. farther north than Cape Orange. The area, which was augmented by +more than 60,000 sq. m. in 1903 and diminished slightly in the boundary +adjustment with British Guiana (1904), is estimated to have been +3,228,452 sq. m. in 1900 (A. Supan, _Die Bevolkerung der Erde_, Gotha, +1904). A subsequent planimetric calculation, which takes into account +these territorial changes, increases the area to 3,270,000 sq. m. + +_Boundaries._--Brazil is bounded N. by Colombia, Venezuela and the +Guianas, N.E., E. and S.E. by the Atlantic, S. by Uruguay, Paraguay and +Bolivia, and W. by Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and +Colombia. Its territory touches that of every South American nation, +except Chile, and with each one there has been a boundary dispute at +some stage in its political life. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns +attempted to define the limits between their American colonies in 1750 +and 1777, and the lines adopted still serve in great part to separate +Brazil from its neighbours. Lack of information regarding the +geographical features of the interior, however, led to some indefinite +descriptions, and these have been fruitful sources of dispute ever +since. The Portuguese were persistent trespassers in early colonial +times, and their land-hunger took them far beyond the limits fixed by +Pope Alexander VI. In the boundary disputes which have followed, Brazil +seems to have pursued this traditional policy, and generally with +success. + +Beginning at the mouth of the Arroyo del Chuy, at the southern extremity +of a long sandbank separating Lake Mirim from the Atlantic (33 deg.45' +S. lat.), the boundary line between Brazil and Uruguay passes up that +rivulet and across to the most southerly tributary of Lake Mirim, thence +down the western shore of that lake to the Jaguarao and up that river to +its most southerly source. The line then crosses to the hill-range +called Cuchilla de Sant' Anna, which is followed in a north-west +direction to the source of the Cuareim, or Quarahy, this river becoming +the boundary down to the Uruguay. This line was fixed by the treaty of +1851, by which the control of Lake Mirim remains with Brazil. Beginning +at the mouth of the Quarahy, the boundary line between Brazil and +Argentina ascends the Uruguay, crosses to the source of the Santo +Antonio, and descends that small stream and the Iguassu to the Parana, +where it terminates. This line was defined by the treaty of 1857, and by +the decision of President Cleveland in 1895 with regard to the small +section between the Uruguay and Iguassu rivers. The boundary with +Paraguay was definitely settled in 1872. It ascends the Parana to the +great falls of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and thence westward along the +water-parting of the Sierra de Maracayu to the _cerro_ of that name, +thence northerly along the Sierra d'Amambay to the source of the +Estrella, a small tributary of the Apa, and thence down those two +streams to the Paraguay. From this point the line ascends the Paraguay +to the mouth of the Rio Negro, the outlet of the Bahia Negra, where the +Bolivian boundary begins. As regards the Peruvian boundary, an agreement +was reached in 1904 to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the +president of Argentina in case further efforts to reach an amicable +settlement failed. The provisional line, representing the Brazilian +claim, begins at the termination of the Bolivian section (the +intersection of the 11th parallel with the meridian of 72 deg. 26' W. +approx.) and follows a semicircular direction north-west and north to +the source of the Javary (or Yavary), to include the basins of the Purus +and Jurua within Brazilian jurisdiction. The line follows the Javary to +its junction with the Amazon, and runs thence north by east direct to +the mouth of the Apaporis, a tributary of the Yapura, in about 1 deg. +30' S. lat., 69 deg. 20' W. long., where the Peruvian section ends. The +whole of this line, however, was subject to future adjustments, Peru +claiming all that part of the Amazon valley extending eastward to the +Madeira and lying between the Beni and the east and west boundary line +agreed upon by Spain and Portugal in 1750 and 1777, which is near the +7th parallel. With regard to the section between the Amazon and the +Apaporis river, already settled between Brazil and Peru, the territory +has been in protracted dispute between Peru, Ecuador and Colombia; but a +treaty of limits between Brazil and Ecuador was signed in 1901 and +promulgated in 1905. The boundary with Colombia, fixed by treaty of +April 24, 1907, follows the lower rim of the Amazon basin, as defined by +Brazil. The Colombian claim included the left bank of the Amazon +eastward to the Auahy or Avahy-parana channel between the Amazon and +Yapura, whence the line ran northward to the Negro near the intersection +of the 66th meridian. The Brazilian line ran north and north-west from +the mouth of the Apaporis to the 70th meridian, which was followed to +the water-parting south of the Uaupes basin, thence north-east to the +Uaupes river, which was crossed close to the 69th meridian, thence +easterly along the Serra Tunaji and Isana river to Cuyari, thence +northerly up the Cuyari and one of its small tributaries to the Serra +Capparro, and thence east and south-east along this range to the Cucuhy +rock (Pedra de Cucuhy) on the left bank of the Negro, where the +Colombian section ends. Negotiations for the settlement of this +controversy, which involved fully one-third of the state of Amazonas, +were broken off in 1870, but were resumed in 1905. The boundary with +Venezuela, which was defined by a treaty of 1859, runs south-eastward +from Cucuhy across a level country intersected by rivers and channels +tributary to both the Negro and Orinoco, to the Serra Cupuy watershed +which separates the rivers of the Amazon and Orinoco valleys. This +watershed includes the ranges running eastward and northward under the +names of Imeri, Tapiira-peco, Curupira, Parima and Pacaraima, the +Venezuelan section terminating at Mt. Roraima. On the 9th of December +1905 protocols were signed at Caracas accepting the line between Cucuhy +and the Serra Cupuy located in 1880, and referring the remainder, which +had been located by a Brazilian commission in 1882 and 1884, to a mixed +commission for verification. + +The disputed boundary between Brazil and British Guiana, which involved +the possession of a territory having an estimated area of 12,741 sq. m., +was settled by arbitration in 1904 with the king of Italy as arbitrator, +the award being a compromise division by which Great Britain received +about 7336 sq. m. and Brazil about 5405. The definite boundary line +starts from Mt. Roraima and follows the water-parting east and south to +the source of the Ireng or Mahu river, which with the Takutu forms the +boundary as far south as 1 deg. N. to enclose the basin of the Essequibo +and its tributaries, thence it turns east and north of east along the +Serra Acaria to unite with the unsettled boundary line of Dutch Guiana +near the intersection of the 2nd parallel north with the 56th meridian. +Negotiations were initiated in 1905 for the definite location of the +boundary with Dutch Guiana. Running north-east and south-east to enclose +the sources of the Rio Paru, it unites with the French Guiana line at 2 +deg. 10' N., 55 deg. W., and thence runs easterly along the +water-parting of the Serra Tumuc-Humac to the source of the Oyapok, +which river is the divisional line to the Atlantic coast. The boundary +with French Guiana (see GUIANA), which had long been a subject of +dispute, was settled by arbitration in 1900, the award being rendered by +the government of Switzerland. The area of the disputed territory was +about 34,750 sq. m. + + _Physical Geography._--A relief map of Brazil shows two very irregular + divisions of surface: the great river basins, or plains, of the + Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata, which are practically connected by low + elevations in Bolivia, and a huge, shapeless mass of highlands filling + the eastern projection of the continent and extending southward to the + plains of Rio Grande do Sul and westward to the Bolivian frontier. + Besides these there are a narrow coastal plain, the low plains of Rio + Grande do Sul, and the Guiana highlands on the northern slope of the + Amazon basin below the Rio Negro. + + + Relief. + + The coastal plain consists in great part of sandy beaches, detritus + formations, and partially submerged areas caused by uplifted beaches + and obstructed river channels. Mangrove swamps, lagoons and marshes, + with inland canals following the coast line for long distances, are + characteristic features of a large extent of the Brazilian coast. + Parts of this coastal plain, however, have an elevation of 100 to 200 + ft., are rolling and fertile in character, and terminate on the coast + in a line of bluffs. In the larger depressions, like that of the + Reconcavo of Bahia, there are large alluvial areas celebrated for + their fertility. This plain is of varying width, and on some parts of + the coast it disappears altogether. In Rio Grande do Sul, where two + large lakes have been created by uplifted sand beaches, the coastal + plain widens greatly, and is merged in an extensive open, rolling + grassy plain, traversed by ridges of low hills (_cuchillas_), similar + to the neighbouring republic of Uruguay. The western part of this + plain is drained by the Uruguay and its tributaries, which places it + within the river Plate (La Plata) basin. + + The two great river basins of the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata + comprise within themselves, approximately, three-fifths of the total + area of Brazil. Large areas of these great river plains are annually + flooded, the flood-plains of the Amazon extending nearly across the + whole country and comprising thousands of square miles. The Amazon + plain is heavily forested and has a slope of less than one inch to the + mile within Brazilian territory--one competent authority placing it at + about one-fifth of an inch per mile. The La Plata basin is less + heavily wooded, its surface more varied, and its Brazilian part stands + at a much higher elevation. + + Of the two highland regions of Brazil, that of the northern slope of + the Amazon basin belongs physically to the isolated mountain system + extending eastward from the Negro and Orinoco to the Atlantic, the + water-parting of which forms the boundary line between the Guianas and + Brazil. The culminating point is near the western extremity of this + chain and its altitude is estimated at 8500 ft. The ranges gradually + diminish in elevation towards the east, the highest point of the + Tumuc-Humac range, on the frontier of French Guiana, being about 2600 + ft. The Brazilian plateau slopes southward and eastward, traversed by + broken ranges of low mountains and deeply eroded by river courses. The + table-topped hills of Almeyrin (or Almeirim) and Erere, which lie near + the lower Amazon and rise to heights of 800 and 900 ft., are generally + considered the southernmost margin of this plateau, though Agassiz and + others describe them as remains of a great sandstone sheet which once + covered the entire Amazon valley. Its general elevation has been + estimated to be about 2000 ft. It is a stony, semi-arid region, thinly + wooded, having good grazing _campos_ in its extreme western section. + Its semi-arid character is due to the mountain ranges on its northern + frontier, which extract the moisture from the north-east trades and + leave the Brazilian plateau behind them with a very limited rainfall, + except near the Atlantic coast. The more arid districts offer no + inducement for settlement and are inhabited only by a few roving bands + of Indians, but there were settlements of whites in the grazing + districts of the Rio Branco at an early date, and a few hundreds of + adventurers have occupied the mining districts of the east. In + general, Brazilian Guiana, as this plateau region is sometimes called, + is one of the least attractive parts of the republic. + + The great Brazilian plateau, which is the most important physical + division of Brazil, consists of an elevated tableland 1000 to 3000 ft. + above the sea-level, traversed by two great mountain systems, and + deeply eroded and indented by numerous rivers. A thick sandstone sheet + once covered the greater part if not all of it, remains of which are + found on the elevated _chapadas_ of the interior and on isolated + elevations extending across the republic toward its western frontier. + These chapadas and elevations, which are usually described as mountain + ranges, are capped by horizontal strata of sandstone and show the + original surface, which has been worn away by the rivers, leaving here + and there broad flat-topped ridges between river basins and narrower + ranges of hills between river courses. From the valleys their rugged, + deeply indented escarpments, stretching away to the horizon, have the + appearance of a continuous chain of mountains. The only true mountain + systems, however, so far as known, are the two parallel ranges which + follow the contour of the coast, and the central, or Goyana, system. + The first consists of an almost continuous range crossing the northern + end of Rio Grande do Sul and following the coast northward to the + vicinity of Cape Frio, and thence northward in broken ranges to the + vicinity of Cape St Roque, and a second parallel range running from + eastern Sao Paulo northeast and north to the eastern margin of the Sao + Francisco basin in northern Bahia, where that river turns eastward to + the Atlantic. The first of these is generally known as the Serra do + Mar, or Coast Range, though it is locally known under many names. Its + culminating point is in the Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgaos), near + Rio de Janeiro, which reaches an elevation of 7323 ft. The inland + range, which is separated from the Coast Range in the vicinity of Rio + de Janeiro by the valley of the Parahyba do Sul river, is known as the + Serra da Mantiqueira, and from the point where it turns northward to + form the eastern rim of the Sao Francisco basin, as the Serra do + Espinhaco. This range is also known under various local names. Its + culminating point is toward the western extremity of the Mantiqueira + range where the Itatiaya, or Itatiaia-assu, peak rises to an elevation + of 8898 ft. (other measurements give 9823 ft.), probably the highest + summit in Brazil. This range forms the true backbone of the maritime + mountainous belt and rises from the plateau itself, while the Coast + Range rises on its eastern margin and forms a rim to the plateau. + North of Cape Frio the Coast Range is much broken and less elevated, + while the Serra do Espinhaco takes a more inland course and is + separated from the coast by great gently-sloping, semi-barren + terraces. The second system--the Central or Goyana--consists of two + distinct chains of mountains converging toward the north in the + elevated _chapadao_ between the Tocantins and Sao Francisco basins. + The eastern range of this central system, which crosses western Minas + Geraes from the so-called Serra das Vertentes to the valley of the + Paracatu, a western tributary of the Sao Francisco, is called the + Serra da Canastra and Serra da Matta da Corde. Its culminating point + is toward its southern extremity in the Serra da Canastra, 4206 ft. + above sea-level. The western range, or what is definitely known of it, + runs across southern Goyaz, south-west to north-east, and forms the + water-parting between the Parana and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. Its + culminating point is in the Montes Pyreneos, near the city of Goyaz, + and is about 4500 ft. above sea-level. + + The great part of this immense region consists of _chapadoes_, as the + larger table-land areas are called, _chapadas_ or smaller sections of + the same, and broadly excavated river valleys. How extensive this work + of erosion has been may be seen in the Tocantins-Araguaya basin, where + a great pear-shaped depression, approximately 100 to 500 m. wide, 700 + m. long, and from 1000 to 1500 ft. deep, has been excavated northward + from the centre of the plateau. Southward the Parana has excavated + another great basin and eastward the Sao Francisco another. Add to + these the eroded river basins of the Xingu, Tapajos and Guapore on the + north and west, the Paraguay on the south-west, and the scores of + smaller rivers along the Atlantic coast, and we may have some + conception of the agencies that have been at work in breaking down and + shaping this great table-land, perhaps the oldest part of the + continent. The most southern of these _chapadoes_, that of the Parana + basin, in which may be included the northern part of the Uruguay and + eastern part of the Paraguay basins, includes the greater part of the + states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Parana and Sao Paulo, + the south-western corner of Minas Geraes, a part of southern Goyaz, + and the south-eastern corner of Matto Grosso. The greatest elevation + is on its eastern or Atlantic margin where the average is about 3280 + ft. above sea-level. The plateau breaks down abruptly toward the sea, + and slopes gradually some hundreds of feet toward the south and west. + There has been considerable denudation toward the west, the eastern + tributaries of the Parana rising very near the coast. The northern and + western parts of this plateau have an average elevation a little less + than that of the Atlantic margin, and their slopes are toward the + south and east, those of Goyaz and Matto Grosso being abrupt and + deeply eroded. This great _chapadao_ is in many respects the best part + of Brazil, having a temperate climate, extensive areas of fertile + soil, rich forests and a regular rainfall. Its Atlantic slopes are + heavily wooded, but the western slopes exhibit grass-covered _campos_ + between the river courses. The Sao Francisco _chapadao_, which has a + general elevation of about 2600 ft., covers the greater part of the + states of Minas Geraes and Bahia, and a small part of western + Pernambuco, and might also be considered continuous with those of the + Parnahyba and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. This region is more tropical + in character, partially barren, and has an uncertain rainfall, a large + part of the Sao Francisco basin and the upper Atlantic slope of its + eastern rim being subject to long-continued droughts. This region is + well wooded along the river courses of Minas Geraes, the lower + Atlantic slopes of Bahia, which are perhaps outside the plateau + proper, and on the weather side of some of the elevated ridges where + the rainfall is heavy and regular. It has extensive _campos_ and large + areas of exposed rock and stony steppes, but is richly provided with + mineral deposits. It breaks down less abruptly toward the Atlantic, + the slopes in Bahia being long and gradual. The Parnahyba _chapadao_ + covers the state of Piauhy, the southern part of Maranhao, and the + western part of Ceara. Its general elevation is less than that of the + Sao Francisco region, owing to the slope of the plateau surface toward + the Amazon depression and to denudation. It resembles the Sao + Francisco region in its uncertain rainfall and exposure to droughts, + and in having large areas of _campos_ suitable for grazing purposes. + It is thinly wooded, except in the north, where the climatic + conditions approach those of the Amazon valley. Its climate is more + tropical and its development has gone forward less rapidly than in the + more temperate regions of the south. The Amazonian _chapadao_, which + includes the remainder of the great Brazilian plateau west of the Sao + Francisco and Parnahyba regions and which appears to be the + continuation of these tablelands westward, is much the largest of + these plateau divisions. It covers the greater part of the states of + Matto Grosso and Goyaz, a large part of southern Para, the southern + margin of Amazonas, and a considerable part of western Maranhao. It + includes the river basins of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingu, Tapajos, + and the eastern tributaries of the Guapore-Madeira. A considerable + part of it has been excavated by these rivers to a level which gives + their valleys the elevation and character of lowlands, though isolated + hills and ranges with the characteristic overlying horizontal + sandstone strata of the ancient plateau show that it was once a + highland region. The southern margin of this plateau breaks down + abruptly toward the south and overlooks the Parana and Paraguay basins + from elevations of 2600 to 3000 ft. There is great diversity in the + character and appearance of this extensive region. It lies wholly + within the tropics, though its more elevated districts enjoy a + temperate climate. Its _chapadas_ are covered with extensive _campos_, + its shallow valleys with open woodlands, and its deeper valleys with + heavy forests. The rainfall is good, but not heavy. The general slope + is toward the Amazon, and its rivers debouch upon the Amazonian plain + through a succession of falls and rapids. + + There remains only the elevated valley of the Parahyba do Sul, lying + between the so-called Serra das Vertentes of southern Minas Geraes and + the Serra do Mar, and extending from the Serra da Bocaina, near the + city of Sao Paulo, eastward to Cape Frio and the coastal plain north + of that point. It includes a small part of eastern Sao Paulo, the + greater part of the state of Rio de Janeiro, a small corner of + Espirito Santo, and a narrow strip along the southern border of Minas + Geraes. It is traversed by two mountain chains, the Serra da + Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar, and the broad, fertile valley of the + Parahyba do Sul which lies between them, and which slopes gently + toward the east from a general elevation exceeding 2000 ft. in Sao + Paulo. This region is the smallest of the _chapadao_ divisions of the + great plateau, and might be considered either a southward extension of + the Sao Francisco or an eastward extension of the Parana _chapadao_. + It is one of the most favoured regions of Brazil, having an abundant + rainfall, extensive forests of valuable timber, and large areas of + fertile soil. The mountain slopes are still masses of dense forest, + though their lower elevations and neighbouring valleys have been + cleared for cultivation and by dealers in rosewood and other valuable + woods. This elevated valley is noted for its fertility and was once + the principal coffee-producing district of Brazil. + + [Illustration: BRAZIL + + Scale, 1:17,000,000] + + + Rivers. + + Outside the two great river systems of the Amazon and river Plate (Rio + de la Plata), which are treated under their respective titles, the + rivers of Brazil are limited to the numerous small streams and three + or four large rivers which flow eastward from the plateau regions + directly into the Atlantic. The Amazon system covers the entire + north-western part of the republic, the state of Amazonas, nearly the + whole of Para and the greater part of Matto Grosso being drained by + this great river and its tributaries. If the Tocantins-Araguaya basin + is included in the hydrographic system, the greater part of Goyaz and + a small part of Maranhao should be added to this drainage area. The + Tocantins is sometimes treated as a tributary of the Amazon because + its outlet, called the Rio Para, is connected with that great river by + a number of inland channels. It is an entirely separate river, + however, and the inland communication between them is due to the + slight elevation of the intervening country above their ordinary + levels and to the enormous volume of water brought down by the Amazon, + especially in the flood season. As the outlet of the Tocantins is so + near to that of the Amazon, and their lower valleys are conterminous, + it is convenient to treat them as parts of the same hydrographic + basin. + + In the extreme north-east corner of the republic where the Brazilian + Guiana plateau slopes toward the Atlantic there is a small area lying + outside the drainage basin of the Amazon. Its rivers flow easterly + into the Atlantic and drain a triangular-shaped area of the plateau + lying between the northern frontier and the southern and western + watersheds of the Araguary, whose extreme limits are about 0 deg. 30' + N. lat. and 53 deg. 50' W. long. The more important of these rivers + are the Araguary, Amapa, Calcoene, Cassipore and Oyapok. The Araguary + rises in the Tumuc-Humac mountains, in about 2 deg. 30' N. lat., 52 + deg. 10' W. long., and follows a tortuous course south and north-east + to the Atlantic. Its largest tributary, the Amapary, rises still + farther west. Little is known of the country through which it flows, + and its channel is broken by rapids and waterfalls where it descends + to the coastal plain. The Amapa is a short river rising on the eastern + slopes of the same range and flowing across a low, wooded plain, + filled with lagoons. The Calcoene and Cassipore enter the Atlantic + farther north and have a north-east course across the same plain. All + these small rivers are described as auriferous and have attracted + attention for this reason. The Oyapok, or Vicente Pinzon, is the + best-known of the group and forms the boundary line between Brazil and + French Guiana under the arbitration award of 1900. It rises in about 2 + deg. 05' N., 53 deg. 48' W., and flows easterly and north-easterly to + the Atlantic. Its course is less tortuous than that of the Araguary. + + The rivers of the great Brazilian plateau which flow directly to the + Atlantic coast may be divided into two classes: those of its northward + slope which flow in a northerly and north-easterly direction to the + north-east coast of the republic, and those which drain its eastern + slope and flow to the sea in an easterly direction. The former reach + the coastal plain over long and gradual descents, and are navigable + for considerable distances. The latter descend from the plateau much + nearer the coast, and are in most cases navigable for short distances + only. In both classes navigation is greatly impeded by sandbars at the + mouths of these rivers, while in the districts of periodical rainfall + it is greatly restricted in the dry season. The more important rivers + of the first division, which are described in more detail under the + titles of the Brazilian states through which they flow, are the + following: the Gurupy, Tury-assu, Mearim, Itapicuru and Balsas, in the + state of Maranhao; the Parnahyba and its tributaries in Piauhy; + Jaguaribe in Ceara; and the Apody and Piranhas in Rio Grande do Norte. + Of these the Parnahyba is the most important, having a total length of + about 900 m., broken at intervals by rapids and navigable in sections. + It receives only one important tributary from Maranhao--the Rio das + Balsas, 447 m. long--and five from Piauhy, the Urussuhy-assu, + Gurgueia, Caninde, Poty and Longa. Piauhy is wholly within its + drainage basin, although the river forms the boundary line between + that state and Maranhao throughout its entire length. All the rivers + in this division are influenced by the periodical character of the + rainfall, their navigable channels being greatly shortened in the dry + season (August-January). In Ceara the smaller rivers become dry + channels in the dry season, and in protracted droughts the larger ones + disappear also. + + The rivers of the second division are included in a very great + extension of coast and are influenced by wide differences in climate. + Their character is also determined by the distance of the Serra do Mar + from the coast, the more southern rivers having short precipitous + courses. The more northern rivers are subject to periodical variations + in volume caused by wet and dry seasons, but the greater distance of + the coast range and the more gradual breaking down of the plateau + toward the sea, give them longer courses and a greater extent of + navigable water. North of the Sao Francisco the watershed projecting + from the plateau eastward toward Cape St Roque, known as the Serra da + Borborema in Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte where its direction + becomes north-east, leaves a triangular section of the easterly slope + in which the river courses are short and much broken by rapids. The + rainfall, also, is limited and uncertain. The largest of this group of + small rivers is the Parahyba do Norte, belonging to the state of + Parahyba, whose length is said to be less than 200 m., only 5 or 6 m. + of which are navigable for small steamers. The Sao Francisco, which + belongs to the inland plateau region, is the largest river of the + eastern coast of Brazil and exists by virtue of climatic conditions + wholly different from those of the coast where it enters the Atlantic. + The tributaries of the lower half of this great river, which belong to + the Atlantic coast region, are small and often dry, but the upper + river where the rainfall is heavier and more regular receives several + large affluents. The river is navigable up to the Paulo Affonso falls, + 192 m. from the coast, and above the falls there is a much longer + stretch of navigable water. + + From the Sao Francisco to Cape Frio there are many short rivers rising + on the slopes of the plateau and crossing the narrow coastal plain to + the sea. There are also a few of greater length which rise far back on + the plateau itself and flow down to the plain through deeply cut, + precipitous courses. The navigable channels of these rivers are + restricted to the coastal plain, except where a river has excavated + for itself a valley back into the plateau. The more important of these + rivers are the Itapicuru, Paraguassu, Contas or Jussiape, Pardo or + Patype, and Jequitinhonha, of Bahia; the Mucury, and Doce, of Espirito + Santo; and the Parahyba do Sul of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Of the + Bahia group, the Jequitinhonha, sometimes called the Belmonte on its + lower course, is the longest and most important, rising near Serro in + the state of Minas Geraes and flowing in a curving north-east + direction for a distance of about 500 m., 84 of which are navigable + inland from the sea. The Mucury and Doce also rise in Minas Geraes, + and are much broken in their descent to the lower plains, the former + having a navigable channel of 98 m. and the latter of 138 m. The + Parahyba, or Parahyba do Sul, which enters the sea about 30 m. north + of Cape S. Thome, is the largest and most important of the Atlantic + coast rivers south of the Sao Francisco. It rises on an elevated + tableland in the state of Sao Paulo and flows across the state of Rio + de Janeiro from west to east, through a broad fertile valley producing + coffee in its most elevated districts and sugar on its alluvial + bottom-lands nearer the sea. It has a total length of 658 m., 57 of + which are navigable between S. Fidelis and its mouth, and about 90 m. + of its upper course. + + South of Cape Frio there are no large rivers along the coast because + of the proximity of the Serra do Mar--the coastal plain being very + narrow and in places disappearing altogether. There are many short + streams along this coast, fed by heavy rainfalls, but they have no + geographic importance and no economic value under existing conditions. + The largest of these and the only one of commercial value is the + Ribeira de Iguape, which has its source on the tablelands of Parana + and after receiving several affluents west of the Serra do Mar breaks + through a depression in that range and discharges into the Atlantic + some miles below Santos on the southern boundary of the state of Sao + Paulo. This river has a navigable channel of 118 m. below Xiririca, + and communicates with an inland canal or waterway extending for many + miles along this coast and known as the Iguape, or Mar Pequeno. In Rio + Grande do Sul the Atlantic coastal plain extends westward more than + half-way across the state, and is well watered by numerous streams + flowing eastward to the Lagoa dos Patos. Of these only two are of + large size--the Guayba and Camaquam. The first is formed by the + confluence of the Jacuhy, Cahy, Sinos and Gravatahy, and is known + under this name only from Porto Alegre to the Ponta de Itapua, where + it enters the Lagoa dos Patos. This river system drains a large part + of the northern mountainous region of the state, and has a + considerable extension of navigable channels between the plateau + margin and the lake. In the extreme southern part of the state, the + Lagoa Mirim empties into the Lagoa dos Patos through a navigable + channel 61-1/2 m. long, called the Rio Sao Goncalo. + + The Brazilian rivers of the Rio de la Plata system are numerous and + important. Those of the Paraguay drain the south-western part of Matto + Grosso, and the tributaries of the Parana cover the western slopes of + the Serra do Mar from Rio Grande do Sul north to the south-west part + of Minas Geraes, and include the south-east part of Matto Grosso and + the south part of Goyaz within their drainage basin. This is one of + the most important fluvial systems of Brazil, but its economic value + is impaired by the great waterfalls of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and + Uribu-punga, and by the rapids and waterfalls in the majority of its + affluents near their junction with the main stream. Between the two + great waterfalls of the Parana there is an open channel of 276 m., + passing through a rich and healthy country, and receiving large + tributaries from one of the most fertile regions of Brazil. Among the + larger of these are the great falls of the Iguassu, near the junction + of that river with the Parana. Though the Uruguay plays a less + important part, its relations to the country are similar to those of + the Parana, and its tributaries from the plateau region are similarly + broken by falls and rapids. The Paraguay is in great part a lowland + river, with a sluggish current, and is navigable by large river + steamers up to Corumba, and by smaller steamers to Cuyaba and the + mouth of the Jauru. + + + Lakes. + + Compared with the number, length and volume of its rivers, Brazil has + very few lakes, only two of which are noticeable for their size. There + are a number of lakes in the lowland region of the Amazon valley, but + these are mainly overflow reservoirs whose areas expand and contract + with the rise and fall of the great river. The coastal plain is also + intersected by lagoons, lakes and inland channels formed by uplifted + beaches. These inland channels often afford many miles of sheltered + navigation. The lakes formed in this manner are generally shallow, and + are sometimes associated with extensive swamps, as in southern Bahia. + The lakes of the Alagoas coast, however, are long, narrow and deep, + occupying valleys which were deeply excavated when the land stood at a + higher level, and which were transformed into lakes by the elevation + of the coast. The largest of these are the Lagoa do Norte, on whose + margin stands the city of Maceio, and the Lagoa do Sul, a few miles + south of that city. Both have outlets to the sea, and the former is + salt There is a large number of these lakes along the coasts of + Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, some of them of considerable size. + The two largest lakes of this class are on the coast of Rio Grande do + Sul and are known as the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim. Both of + these lakes lie nearly parallel with the coast line, are separated + from the ocean by broad sand beaches filled with small lakes, and + communicate with the ocean through the same channel. The Lagoa dos + Patos is about 124 m. long with a maximum width of 37 m., and Lagoa + Mirim is 108 m. long with a maximum width of 15 m. Both are navigable, + though comparatively shallow and filled with sandbanks. So far as + known, there are no lakes of noteworthy size in the interior of the + country. There are a few small lakes in Maranhao and Piauhy, some in + Goyaz in the great valley of the Araguaya, and a considerable number + in Matto Grosso, especially in the Paraguay basin, where the sluggish + current of that river is unable to carry away the rainfall in the + rainy season. + + + Coast. + + The coast of Brazil is indented with a number of almost landlocked + bays, forming spacious and accessible harbours. The larger and more + important of these are Todos os Santos, on which is located the city + of Sao Salvador or Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro or Guanabara, beside + which stands the capital of the republic. These two are freely + accessible to the largest ships afloat. The bays of Espirito Santo, + Paranagua and Sao Francisco have similar characteristics, but they are + smaller and more difficult of access. The first is the harbour for the + city of Victoria, and the other two for ports of the same name in + southern Brazil. The port of Pernambuco, or Recife, is formed by a + stone reef lying across the entrance to a shallow bay at the mouth of + two small rivers, Beberibe and Capibaribe, and is accessible to + steamers of medium draught. Santa Catharina and Maranhao have + well-sheltered harbours formed by an island lying in the mouth of a + large bay, but the latter is shallow and difficult of access. Para, + Parnahyba, Parahyba, Santos and Rio Grande do Sul are river ports + situated near the sea on rivers having the same name; but, with the + exception of Para and Santos, they are difficult of access and are of + secondary importance. There are still other bays along the coast which + are well adapted for commercial purposes but are used only in the + coasting trade. Many of the Atlantic coast rivers would afford + excellent port facilities if obstructions were removed from their + mouths. + + _Geology._--Brazil is a region which has been free from violent + disturbances since an early geological period. It has, indeed, been + subject to oscillations, but the movements have been regional in + character and have not been accompanied by the formation of any + mountain chain or any belt of intense folding. From the Devonian + onwards the beds lie flat or dip at low angles. They are faulted but + not sharply folded. The mountain ranges of the east of Brazil, from + Cape St Roque to the mouth of the river Plate, are composed chiefly of + crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Some of the metamorphic rocks may + belong to the older Palaeozoic period, but the greater part of the + series is probably Archaean. Similar rocks cover a large area in the + province of Goyaz and in the south of the Matto Grosso, and they form, + also, the hills which border the basin of the Amazon on the confines + of Venezuela and Guiana. They constitute, in fact, an incomplete rim + around the basin of sedimentary beds which occupies the Amazonian + depression. In a large part of this basin the covering of sedimentary + deposits is comparatively thin. The crystalline floor is exposed in + the valleys of the Madeira, Xingu, &c. Some of the rocks thus exposed + are, however, eruptive (e.g. in the Tapajoz), and probably do not + belong to the Archaean. The crystalline rocks are succeeded by beds + which have been referred to the Cambrian and Silurian systems. In the + valley of the Trombetas, one of the northern tributaries of the + Amazon, fossils have been found which indicate either the top of the + Ordovician or the bottom of the Silurian. In the Maecuru, another + northern affluent, graptolites of Ordovician age have been discovered, + and Silurian fossils are said to have been found in the Maraca. + Elsewhere the identification of the Silurian and older systems does + not rest on palaeontological evidence. Devonian beds cover a much more + extensive area. They crop out in a band some 25 to 50 m. north of the + lower Amazon and in another band at a still greater distance south of + that river. These bands are often concealed by more recent deposits, + but it is clear that in this region the Devonian beds form a basin or + synclinal with the Amazon for its axis. Devonian beds also lie upon + the older rocks in the Matto Grosso and other provinces in the + interior of Brazil, where they generally form plateaux of nearly + horizontal strata. Fossils have been found in many localities. They + belong to either the lower or the middle division of the Devonian + system. The fauna shows striking analogies with that of the Bokkeveld + beds of South Africa on the one hand and of the Hamilton group of + North America on the other. The Carboniferous system in Brazil + presents itself under two facies, the one marine and the other + terrestrial. In the basin of the Lower Amazon the Carboniferous beds + lie within the Devonian synclinal and crop out on both sides of the + river next to the Devonian bands. There is a lower series consisting + of sandstone and an upper series of limestone. The former appears to + be almost unfossiliferous, the latter has yielded a rich marine fauna, + which belongs to the top of the Carboniferous or to the + Permo-carboniferous. In southern Brazil, on the other hand, in Rio + Grande do Sul, Parana, &c., the beds of this period are of terrestrial + origin, containing coal seams and remains of plants. Some of the + plants are European forms, others belong to the Glossopteris flora + characteristic of India and South Africa. The beds are homotaxial with + the Karharbari series of India, and represent either the top of the + Carboniferous or the base of the Permian of Europe. The only Mesozoic + system which is represented in Brazil by marine beds is the + Cretaceous, and the marine facies, is restricted to the coasts and the + basin of the Amazon. In the province of Sergipe, on the east coast, + the beds are approximately on the horizon of the Cenomanian; in the + valley of the Amazon they belong to the highest parts of the + Cretaceous system, and the fauna shows Tertiary affinities. In the + interior of Brazil, the Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid by a + series of red sandstones, &c., which appear to be of continental + origin and of which the age is uncertain. Tertiary beds cover a + considerable area, especially in the Amazonian depression. They + consist chiefly of sands and clays of aeolian and freshwater origin. + Of the Pleistocene and recent deposits the most interesting are the + remains of extinct animals (_Glyptodon_, _Mylodon_, _Megatherium_, + &c.) in the caves of the Sao Francisco. + + From the above account it will appear that, excepting near the coast + and in the basin of the Amazon, there is no evidence that any part of + Brazil has been under the sea since the close of the Devonian period. + During the Triassic and Jurassic periods even the basin of the Amazon + appears to have been dry land. Eruptive rocks occur in the Devonian + and Carboniferous beds, but there is no evidence of volcanic activity + since the Palaeozoic epoch. The remarkable "stone reefs" of the + north-east coast are ancient beaches hardened by the infiltration of + carbonate of lime. They are quite distinct in their formation from the + coral reefs of the same coast. + + _Climate._--Brazil lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, less + than one-twelfth of its area lying south of the tropic of Capricorn. + In general terms, it is a tropical country, with sub-tropical and + temperate areas covering its three southern states and a great part of + the elevated central plateau. The forest-covered, lowland valley of + the Amazon is a region of high temperatures which vary little + throughout the year, and of heavy rainfall. There is no appreciable + change of seasons, except that produced by increased rainfall in the + rainy season. The average temperature according to Castelnau is about + 78 deg.F., or 82.40 deg. to 84.20 deg. F. according to Agassiz. There + is an increase in the rainfall from August to October, and again from + November to March, the latter being the regular rainy season, but the + time varies considerably between the valley of the upper Amazon and + those of the upper Madeira and Negro. There is usually a short dry + season on the upper Amazon in January and February, which causes two + annual floods--that of November-December, and the great flood of + March-June. The subsidence of the latter usually lasts until October. + The average rainfall throughout the whole Amazon valley is estimated + by Reclus as "probably in excess of 2 metres" (78.7 in.), and the + maximum rise of the great flood is about 45 ft. The prevailing winds + in the Amazon valley are easterly and westerly (or south-westerly), + the former warm and charged with moisture, the latter dry and cold. + The easterly winds, which are deflections of the trade winds, blow + upstream with great regularity and force, more especially in the + winter or dry season, and are felt as far inland as the mouths of the + Madeira and Negro. Above these they are less regular and are attracted + northward by the heated _llanos_ of Venezuela in winter, or southward + by the heated _campos_ of Matto Grosso in summer. The cold + south-westerly winds are felt when the sun is north of the equator, + and are most severe, for a few days, in the month of May, when a + _tempo da friagem_ (cold period) causes much discomfort throughout the + upper Amazon region. There are winter winds from the Andes, but in the + summer season there are cold currents of air from up-river (_ventos da + cima_) which are usually followed by downpours of rain. + + The coastal plain as far south as Santos is a region of high + temperatures and great humidity. The year is usually divided into a + winter (_inverno_) and summer (_verao_), corresponding approximately + to a dry and wet season. The "dry" season, however, is a season of + moderate rainfall, except on the north-east coast where arid + conditions prevail. Another exception is that of the Pernambuco coast, + where the rainy season comes between March and August, with the + heaviest rainfall from May to July, which is the time of the southern + winter. Going southward there is also a gradual decrease in the mean + annual temperature, the difference between Rio de Janeiro and the + Amazon being about 5 deg. The north-east coast, which is sandy and + barren, shows an average mean annual temperature (at Fortaleza) of + nearly 80 deg. F., which is slightly higher than those of Maranhao and + Para. At Pernambuco the mean summer temperature is 79.5 deg. and that + of winter 76.8 deg., which are about 3 deg. lower than the mean + temperature of Bahia in summer, and 5 deg. higher than the Bahia mean + in winter. South of Bahia there is a gradual increase in the rainfall, + that of Rio de Janeiro exceeding 43 in. per annum. At Santos the + rainfall is exceptionally heavy and the mean temperature high, but + below that point the climatic conditions are considerably modified, + the range in temperature being greater, the mean annual temperature + lower, and the rainfall more evenly distributed throughout the year. + The winds are more variable, and the seasons are more sharply defined. + In Rio Grande do Sul the range in temperature is from 26 deg. to 80 + deg., the climate being similar to that of Uruguay. At Pelotas, a + sea-level port on Lagoa dos Patos, the mean annual temperature is + about 63 deg. and the annual rainfall about 42 in. Extreme variations + in temperature are often produced by cold south-west storms from the + Argentine pampas, which sweep across southern Brazil as far north as + Cape Frio, the fall in temperature sometimes being 22 deg. to 27 deg. + These storms usually last from two to three days and cause much + discomfort. Winter rains are more frequent in southern Brazil, and + violent storms prevail in August and September. At Blumenau, on the + Santa Catharina coast, the annual rainfall is 53 in. + + The climatic conditions of the Brazilian plateau are widely different + from those of the coast in many respects. There is less uniformity in + temperature, and the elevated _chapadas_ are generally hotter during + the day and cooler at night than are localities of the same latitude + on the coast. The Brazilian Guiana plateau, lying immediately north of + the equator, is in great part a hot, stony desert. Geographically it + belongs to the Amazon basin, as its western and southern slopes are + drained by tributaries of that great river. Climatically, however, it + is a region apart. It lies in the north-east trade winds belt, but the + mountain chain on its northern frontier robs these winds of their + moisture and leaves the greater part of the Brazilian plateau + rainless. Its eastern and western extremities, however, receive more + rain, the former being well forested, while the latter is covered with + grassy _campos_. South of the Amazon valley and filling a great part + of the eastern projection of the continent, is another arid, + semi-barren plateau, lying within the south-east trade winds belt, and + extending from Piauhy southward to southern Bahia. It covers the state + of Piauhy and the western or inland parts of the states of Ceara, Rio + Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco and Bahia. The year is divided + into a dry and wet season, the first from June to December, when rain + rarely falls, the streams dry up and the _campos_ are burned bare, and + the second from January to May when the rains are sometimes heavy and + the _campos_ are covered with luxuriant verdure. The rains are neither + regular nor certain, however, and sometimes fail for a succession of + years, causing destructive _seccas_ (droughts). The interior districts + of Ceara, Pernambuco and Bahia have suffered severely from these + _seccas_. The sun temperature is high on these barren tablelands, but + the nights are cool and refreshing. The prevailing winds are the + south-east trades, which have lost some of their moisture in rising + from the coastal plain. In summer, becoming warmed by the heated + surface of the plateau, they sweep across it without a cloud or drop + of rain. In winter the plateau is less heated, and cold currents of + air from the west and south-west cause precipitation over a part if + not all of this region. South and south-west of this arid plateau lie + the inhabited tablelands of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Minas + Geraes, where the climate is greatly modified by a luxuriant + vegetation and southerly winds, as well as by the elevation. Minas + Geraes is forested along its water courses and along its southern + border only; its sun temperature, therefore, is high and the rainfall + in its northern districts is comparatively light. Sao Paulo is partly + covered by open _campos_, and these also serve to augment the maximum + temperature. In both of these states, however, the nights are cool, + and the mean annual temperature ranges from 68 deg. to 77 deg., the + northern districts of Minas Geraes being much warmer than the + southern. In Sao Paulo and southern Minas Geraes there are sometimes + frosts. In the Parahyba valley, which extends across the state of Rio + de Janeiro, the mean temperature is somewhat higher than it is in Sao + Paulo and Minas Geraes, and the nights are warmer, but the higher + valleys of the Serra do Mar enjoy a delightfully temperate climate. + The rainfall throughout this region is abundant, except in northern + Minas Geraes, where the climatic conditions are influenced to some + extent by the arid eastern plateau. South of Sao Paulo the tablelands + of Parana, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate + climate, with an abundant rainfall. There are occasional frosts, but + snow is never seen. Of Goyaz and Matto Grosso very little can be said. + The lower river valleys of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingu, Tapajos and + Paraguay are essentially tropical, their climate being hot and humid + like that of the Amazon. The higher valleys of the Parana and its + tributaries, and of the rivers which flow northward, are sub-tropical + in character, having high sun temperatures and cool nights. Above + these, the _chapadas_ lie open to the sun and wind and have a cool, + bracing atmosphere even where high sun temperatures prevail. The mean + annual temperature at Goyaz (city), according to a limited number of + observations, is about 77 deg. There is no absolutely dry season in + this part of the great Brazilian plateau, though the year is + customarily divided into a dry and wet season, the latter running + from September to April in Goyaz, and from November to April in Matto + Grosso. The prevailing winds are from the north-west in this region, + and westerly winds in the rainy season are usually accompanied by + rain. + + _Fauna._--The indigenous fauna of Brazil is noteworthy not only for + the variety and number of its genera and species, but also for its + deficiency in the larger mammals. Of this, one of the best authorities + on the subject (H.W. Bates in _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_) + says: "Brazil, moreover, is throughout poor in terrestrial mammals, + and the species are of small size." It is noteworthy, also, for the + large number of species having arboreal habits, the density and extent + of the Amazon forests favouring their development rather than the + development of those of terrestrial habits. Of Quadrumana there are + about fifty species in Brazil, all arboreal, thirty-eight of which + inhabit the Amazon region. They belong mostly to the _Cebidae_ family, + and are provided with prehensile tails. The Carnivora are represented + by six species of the _Felidae_, the best known of which is the onca, + or jaguar (_F. onca, L_.), and the cougar, or puma (_F. concolor_); + three species of the _Canidae_, the South American wolf (_C. + jubatus_), and two small jackals (_C. brasiliensis_ and _C. vetulus_); + and a few species of the Mustelina including two of the otter, two + _Galictis_ and one _Mephitis_. Of the plantigrades, Brazil has no + bears, but has the related species of raccoon (_Nasua socialis_ and + _N. solitaria_), popularly called _coatis_. The opossum (_Didelphis_) + is represented by three or four species, two of which are so small + that they are generally called wood rats. The rodents are numerous and + include several peculiar species. Only one species of hare is found in + Brazil, the _Lepus brasiliensis_, and but one also of the squirrel + (_Scyurus_). Of the amphibious rodents, the prea (_Cavia aperea_), + moco (_C. rupestris_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_), cutia (_Dasyprocta + aguti_) and capybara (_Hydrochoerus capybara_) are noteworthy for + their size and extensive range. Their flesh is used as an article of + food, that of the paca being highly esteemed. Of the Muridae there are + several genera and a large number of species, some of them evidently + importations from the Old World. Brazil has three groups of animals + similar to the common rat--the _Capromydae_, _Loncheridae_ and + _Psammoryctidae_--the best known of which is the "tuco-tuco" + (_Clenomys brasiliensis_), a small burrowing animal of Rio Grande do + Sul which excavates long subterranean galleries and lives on roots and + bulbs. One of the characteristic orders of the Brazilian fauna is that + of the Edentata, which comprises the sloth, armadillo and ant-eater. + These animals are found only in the tropical regions of South America. + The range of the sloth is from the Guianas south into Minas Geraes, + the armadillo as far south as the Argentine pampas and the ant-eater + from the Amazon south to Paraguay, though it is found in the Amazon + region principally. The sloth (_Bradypus_) is an arboreal animal which + feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of the Cecropias. It includes + two recognized genera and half a dozen species, the best known of + which is _B. didactylus_. The common name in Brazil is _preguica_, + which is equivalent to its English name. Of armadillos, commonly + called _tatu_ in Brazil, the largest species is the _Dasypus gigas_, + but the best known is the _tatu-ete_ (_D. octocinctus_), which is + highly esteemed for its flesh. The ant-eaters (_Myrmecophaga_) are + divided into three or four species, one of which (_M. jubata_) is + exclusively terrestrial, and the others arboreal. The popular name for + the animal is _tamandua_. The _M. jubata_, or _tamandua bandeira_, is + sometimes found as far south as Paraguay. Of the ruminants, Brazil has + only four or five species of _Cervidae_, which are likewise common to + other countries of South America. The largest of these is the marsh + deer (_C. paludosus_), which in size resembles its European congeners. + The others are the _C. campestris_, _C. nemorivagus_, _C. rufus_ and a + small species or variety called _C. nanus_ by the Danish naturalist Dr + P.W. Lund. The pachyderms are represented by three species of the + peccary (_Dicotyles_) and two of the anta, or tapir (_Tapirus_). The + former are found over a wide range of country, extending into Bolivia + and Argentina, and are noted for their impetuous pugnacity. The tapir + also has an extensive range between the coast and the foothills of the + Andes, and from northern Argentina to south-eastern Colombia. It is + the largest of the Brazilian mammals, and inhabits densely forested + tracts near river courses. The two species are _T. americanus_, which + is the larger and best known, and the _anta chure_, found in Minas + Geraes, which is said to be identical with the _T. Roulini_ of + Colombia. Perhaps the most interesting mammal of Brazil is the + _manati_, or sea-cow (_Manatus americanus_), which inhabits the lower + Amazon and sometimes reaches a length of 15 to 20 ft. It is taken with + the harpoon and its oil is one of the commercial products of the + Amazon valley. + + The avifauna of Brazil is rich in genera, species and individuals, + especially in species with brilliantly-coloured plumage. It is + estimated that more than half the birds of Brazil are insectivorous, + and that more than one-eighth are climbers. The range in size is a + wide one--from the tiny humming-bird to the ema, rhea, or American + ostrich. Although the order which includes song-birds is numerous in + species and individuals, it is noticeably poor in really good + songsters. On the other hand it is exceptionally rich in species + having strident voices and peculiar unmusical calls, like the _paco_ + (_Coracina scuttata_) and the _araponga_ (_Chasmorhynchus + nudicollis_). Two species of vultures, twenty-three of falcons and + eight of owls represent the birds of prey. The best known vulture is + the common _urubu_ (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig), which is the + universal scavenger of the tropics. The climbers comprise a large + number of species, some of which, like those of the parrot + (_Psittacidae_) and woodpecker (_Picus_), are particularly noticeable + in every wooded region of the country. One of the most striking + species of the former is the brilliantly-coloured _arara_ + (_Macrocercus_, L.), which is common throughout northern Brazil. + Another interesting species is the toucan (_Ramphastos_), whose + enormous beak, awkward flight and raucous voice make it a conspicuous + object in the great forests of northern Brazil. In strong contrast to + the ungainly toucan is the tiny humming-bird, whose beautiful plumage, + swiftness of flight and power of wing are sources of constant wonder + and admiration. Of this smallest of birds there are fifty-nine + well-known species, divided into two groups, the _Phaethorninae_, + which prefer the forest shade and live on insects, and the + _Trochilinae_, which frequent open sunny places where flowers are to + be found. One of the Brazilian birds whose habits have attracted much + interest is the _Joao de Barro_ (Clay John) or oven bird (_Furnarius + rufus_), which builds a house of reddish clay for its nest and + attaches it to the branch of a tree, usually in a fork. The thrush is + represented by a number of species, one of which, the _sabia_ + (_Mimus_), has become the popular song-bird of Brazil through a poem + written by Goncalves Dias. The dove and pigeon have also a number of + native species, one of which, the _pomba jurity_ (_Peristera + frontalis_), is a highly-appreciated table luxury. The gallinaceous + birds are well represented, especially in game birds. The most + numerous of these are the _perdiz_ (partridge), the best known of + which is the _Tinamus maculosa_ which frequents the _campos_ of the + south, the _inhambu_ (_Crypturus_), _capoeira_ (_Odontophorus_), and + several species of the penelope family popularly known as the + _jacutinga, jacu_ and _jacu-assu_. The common domesticated fowl is not + indigenous. Among the wading and running birds, of which the _ema_ is + the largest representative, there are many species of both + descriptions. In the Amazon lowlands are white herons (_Ardea + candidissima_), egrets (_A. egretta_), bitterns (_A. exilis_), blue + herons (_A. herodias_) scarlet ibises (_Ibis rubra_), roseate + spoonbills (_Platalea ajaja_); on higher ground the beautiful peacock + heron (_A. helias_) which is easily domesticated; and on the dry + elevated _campos_ the _ceriema_ (_Dicholophus cristatus_) which is + prized for its flesh, and the _jacamin_ (_Psophia crepitans_) which is + frequently domesticated. Prominent among the storks is the great + black-headed white crane, called the _jaburu_ (_Mycteria americana_), + which is found along the Amazon and down the coast and grows to a + height of 4-1/2 ft. Of the swimmers, the number of species is smaller, + but some of them are widely distributed and numerous in individuals. + There are but few species of ducks, and they are apparently more + numerous in southern Brazil than on the Amazon. + + The reptilian fauna exhibits an exceptionally large number of + interesting genera and species. A great part of the river systems of + the country with their flooded areas are highly favourable to the + development of reptilian life. Most prominent among these is the + American alligator, of which there are, according to Netterer, two + genera and eight species in Brazil. They are very numerous in the + Amazon and its tributaries and in the Paraguay, and are found in all + the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Three of the Brazilian species are + voracious and dangerous. The largest of the Amazon species are the + _jacare-assu_ (_Caiman niger_), _jacare_ (_C. fissipes_) and + _jacare-tinga_ (_C. sclerops_). The Amazon is also the home of one of + the largest fresh-water turtles known, the _Emys amazonica_, locally + called the _jurara-assu_ or _tartaruga grande_. These turtles are so + numerous that their flesh and eggs have long been a principal food + supply for the Indian population of that region. Another Amazon + species, the _E. tracaxa_, is still more highly esteemed for its + flesh, but it is smaller and deposits fewer eggs in the sandy river + beaches. Lagartos (_Iguanas_) and lizards are common everywhere. The + ophidians are also numerous, especially in the wooded lowlands + valleys, and the poisonous species, though less numerous than others, + include some of the most dangerous known--the rattlesnake _surucucu_ + (_Lachesis rhombeatus_), and _jararaca_ (_Bothrops_). The Amazon + region is frequented by the _giboia_ (boa constrictor), and the + central plateau by the _sucuriu_ (_Eunectes murinus_), both + distinguished for their enormous size. The batrachians include a very + large number of genera and species, especially in the Amazon valley. + + The fauna of the rivers and coast of Brazil is richer in species and + individuals than that of the land. All the rivers are richly stocked, + and valuable fishing grounds are to be found along the coast, + especially that of southern Bahia and Espirito Santo where the + _garoupa_ (_Serranus_) is found in large numbers. Some of the small + fish along the coast are highly esteemed for their flavour. Whales + were once numerous between Capes St Roque and Frio, but are now rarely + seen. Of the edible river fish, the best known is the _pirarucu_ + (_Sudis gigas_), a large fish of the Amazon which is salted and dried + for market during the low-water season. Fish is a staple food of the + Indian tribes of the Amazon region, and their fishing season is during + the period of low water. The visit of Professor Louis Agassiz to the + Amazon in 1865 resulted in a list of 1143 species, but it is believed + that no less than 1800 to 2000 species are to be found in that great + river and its tributaries. + + In strong contrast to the poverty of Brazil in the larger mammals is + the astonishing profusion of insect life in every part of the country. + The Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are especially numerous, both in + species and individuals. A striking illustration of this extraordinary + profusion was given by the English naturalist H.W. Bates, who found + 7000 species of insects in the vicinity of only one of his collecting + places on the Amazon (Ega), of which 550 species were of butterflies. + Within an hour's walk of Para are to be found, he says, about 700 + species of butterflies, "whilst the total number found in the British + Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports only + 321." (H.W. Bates, _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_.) One of the + rare species of the Amazon _Morphos_ (_M. hecuba_) measures 8 to 9 in. + across its expanded wings. Dipterous insects are also very numerous in + species, especially in those of sanguinary habits, such as the + mosquito, _pium_, _maroim_, _carapana_, _borochudo_, &c. In some + places these insects constitute a veritable plague, and the infested + regions are practically uninhabitable. The related species of the + _Oestridae_ family, which include the widely disseminated _chigoe_ or + _bicho do pe_ (_Pulex penetrans_), and the equally troublesome _berne_ + (_Cutiterebra noxialis_), which is so injurious to animals, are + equally numerous. The most numerous of all, however, and perhaps the + most harmful to civilized man, are the termites and ants, which are + found everywhere in the uninhabited campo and forest regions, as well + as in the cultivated districts. Nature has provided several species of + animals, birds and reptiles, to feed upon these insects, and various + poisonous and suffocating compounds are used to destroy them, but with + no great degree of success. It is not uncommon to find once cultivated + fields abandoned because of their ravages and to see large _campos_ + completely covered with enormous ant-hills. The termites, or "white + ants," are exceptionally destructive because of their habit of + tunnelling through the softer woods of habitations and furniture, + while some species of ants, like the _sauba_, are equally destructive + to plantations because of the rapidity with which they strip a tree of + its foliage. Spiders are represented by a very large number of + species, some of which are beautifully coloured. The largest of these + is the _Mygale_ with a body 2 in. in length and outstretched legs + covering 7 in., a monster strong enough to capture and kill small + birds. A large _Mygale_ found on the island of Siriba, of the Abrolhos + group, feeds upon lizards, and has been known to attack and kill young + chickens. One of the most troublesome pests of the interior is a + minute degenerate spider of the genus _Ixodes_, called _carrapato_, or + bush-tick, which breeds on the ground and then creeps up the grass + blades and bushes where it waits for some passing man or beast. Its + habit is to bury its head in its victim's skin and remain there until + gorged with blood, when it drops off. Scorpions are common, but are + considered less poisonous than some European species. + + _Flora._--Brazil not only is marvellously rich in botanical species, + but included at the beginning of the 20th century the largest area of + virgin forest on the surface of the earth. The flora falls naturally + into three great divisions: that of the Amazon basin where exceptional + conditions of heat and moisture prevail; that of the coast where heat, + varying rainfall, oceanic influences and changing seasons have greatly + modified the general character of the vegetation; and that of the + elevated interior, or _sertao_, where dryer conditions, rocky + surfaces, higher sun temperatures and large open spaces produce a + vegetation widely different from those of the other two regions. + Besides these, the flora of the Paraguay basin varies widely from that + of the inland plateau, and that of the Brazilian Guiana region is + essentially distinct from the Amazon. The latter region is densely + forested from the Atlantic to the Andes, but with a varying width of + about 200 m. on the coast to about 900 m. between the Bolivian and + Venezuelan _llanos_, and thus far civilization has made only a very + slight impression upon it. Even where settlements have been located, + constant effort is required to keep the vegetation down. Along the + coast, much of the virgin forest has been cut away, not only for the + creation of cultivated plantations, but to meet the commercial demand + for Brazil-wood and furniture woods. + + The chief characteristic of the Amazonian forest, aside from its + magnitude, is the great diversity of genera and species. In the + northern temperate zone we find forests of a single species, others of + three or four species; in this great tropical forest the habit of + growth is solitary and an acre of ground will contain hundreds of + species--palms, myrtles, acacias, mimosas, cecropias, euphorbias, + malvaceas, laurels, cedrellas, bignonias, bombaceas, apocyneas, + malpigias, lecythises, swartzias, &c. The vegetation of the lower + river-margins, which are periodically flooded, differs in some + particulars from that of the higher ground, and the same variation is + to be found between the forests of the upper and lower Amazon, and + between the Amazon and its principal tributaries. The density of the + forest is greatly augmented by the _cipos_, or lianas, which overgrow + the largest trees to their tops, and by a profusion of epiphytes which + cover the highest branches. As a rule the trees of the Amazon forest + are not conspicuously high, a few species rarely reaching a height of + 200 ft. The average is probably less than one-half that height. This + is especially true of the flood plains where the annual inundations + prevent the formation of humus and retard forest growth. The largest + of the Amazon forest trees are the _massaranduba_ (_Mimusops elata_), + called the cow-tree because of its milky sap, the _samauma_ + (_Eriodendron samauma_) or silk-cotton tree, the _pau d' arco_ + (_Tecoma speciosa_), _pau d' alho_ (_Catraeva tapia_), _bacori_ + (_Symphonea coccinea_), _sapucaia_ (_Lecythis ollaria_), and + _castanheira_ or brazil-nut tree (_Bertholletia excelsa_). The Amazon + region has a comparatively narrow frontage on the Atlantic. In + Maranhao, which belongs to the coast region, open spaces or _campos_ + appear, though the state is well wooded and its forests have the + general characteristics of the lower Amazon. South-east of the + Parnahyba the coast region becomes dryer and more sandy and the + forests disappear. The coast and tide-water rivers are fringed with + mangrove, and the sandy plain reaching back to the margin of the + inland plateau is generally bare of vegetation, though the carnahuba + palm (_Copernicia cerifera_) and some species of low-growing trees are + to be found in many places. The higher levels of this plain are + covered with shrubs and small trees, principally mimosas. The slopes + of the plateau, which receive a better rainfall, are more heavily + forested, some districts being covered with deciduous trees, forming + _catingas_ in local parlance. This dry, thinly-wooded region extends + south to the states of Parahyba, where a more regular rainfall favours + forest growth nearer the coast. Between Parahyba and southern Bahia + forests and open plains are intermingled; thence southward the narrow + coastal plain and bordering mountain slopes are heavily forested. The + sea-coast, bays and tide-water rivers are still fringed with mangrove, + and on the sandy shores above Cape Frio grow large numbers of the + exotic cocoa-nut palm. Many species of indigenous palms abound, and in + places the forests are indescribably luxuriant. These are made up, as + Prince Max zu Neuwied found in southern Bahia in 1817, "of the genera + _Cocos_, _Melastoma_, _Bignonia_, _Rhexia_, _Mimosa_, _Inga_, + _Bombax_, _Ilex_, _Laurus_, _Myrthus_, _Eugenia_, _Jacaranda_, + _Jatropha_, _Visinia_, _Lecythis_, _Ficus_, and a thousand other, for + the most part, unknown species of trees." Further inland the higher + country becomes more open and the forests are less luxuriant. Giant + cacti and spiny scrub abound. Then come the _catinga_ tracts, and, + beyond these, the open _campos_ of the elevated plateau, dotted with + clumps of low growing bushes and broken by tracts of _carrasco_, a + thick, matted, bushy growth 10 to 12 ft. in height. Formerly this + coast region furnished large quantities of Brazil-wood (_Caesalpinia + echinata_), and the river valleys have long been the principal source + of Brazil's best cabinet-wood--rosewood (_Dalbergia nigra_), jacaranda + (_Machaeriumfirmum_, Benth.), vinhatico (_Plathymenia foliosa_, + Benth.), peroba (_Aspidosperma peroba_), cedro, &c. The exotic + _mangabeira_ (mango) is found everywhere along the coast, together + with the bamboo, orange, lemon, banana, cashew, &c. + + Of the great inland region, which includes the arid campos of the + north, the partially-wooded plateaus of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and Matto + Grosso, the temperate highlands of the south, and the tropical + lowlands of the Paraguay basin, no adequate description can be given + without taking each section in detail, which can be done to better + advantage in describing the individual states. In general, the + _carrasco_ growth extends over the whole central plateau, and heavy + forests are found only in the deep river valleys. Those opening + northward have the characteristic flora of the Amazon basin. The + Paraguay basin is covered with extensive marshy tracts and open + woodlands, the palms being the conspicuous feature. The vegetation is + similar to that of Paraguay and the Chaco, and aquatic plants are + specially numerous and luxuriant. On the temperate uplands of the + southern states there are imposing forests of South American pine + (_Araucaria brasiliensis_), whose bare trunks and umbrella-like tops + give to them the appearance of open woodland. These forests extend + from Parana into Rio Grande do Sul and smaller tracts are also found + in Minas Geraes. Large tracts of _Ilex paraguayensis_, from which + _mate_, or Paraguay-tea, is gathered, are found in this same region. + + The economic plants of Brazil, both indigenous and exotic, are + noticeably numerous. Coffee naturally occupies first place, and is + grown wherever frosts are not severe from the Amazon south to Parana. + The states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes are the + largest producers, but it is also grown for export in Espirito Santo, + Bahia and Ceara. The export in 1905 was 10,820,604 bags of 132 lb. + each, with an official valuation of L21,420,330. Sugar cane, another + exotic, has an equally wide distribution, and cotton is grown along + the coast from Maranhao to Sao Paulo. Other economic plants and fruits + having a wide distribution are tobacco, maize, rice, beans, sweet + potatoes, bananas, cacao (_Theobroma cacao_), mandioca or cassava + (_Manihot utilitissima_), _aipim_ or sweet mandioca (_M. aipi_), + guavas (_Psidium guayava_, Raddi), oranges, lemons, limes, grapes, + pineapples, _mamao_ (_Carica papaya_), bread-fruit (_Artocarpus + incisa_), jack fruit (_A. integrifolia_), and many others less known + outside the tropics. Among the palms there are several of great + economic value, not only as food producers but also for various + domestic uses. The fruit of the _pupunha_ or peach palm (_Guilielma + speciosa_) is an important food among the Indians of the Amazon + valley, where the tree was cultivated by them long before the + discovery of America. Humboldt found it among the native tribes of the + Orinoco valley, where it is called _pirijao_. The ita palm, + _Mauritia_, _flexuosa_ (a fan-leaf palm) provides an edible fruit, + medullary meal, drink, fibre, roofing and timber, but is less used on + the Amazon than it is on the lower Orinoco. The _assai_ (_Euterpe + oleracea_) is another highly-prized palm because of a beverage made + from its fruit along the lower Amazon. A closely-related species or + variety (_Euterpe edulis_) is the well-known palmito or cabbage palm + found over the greater part of Brazil, whose terminal phylophore is + cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Another highly useful palm is the + _carnauba_ or _carnahuba_ (_Copernicia cerifera_) which supplies + fruit, medullary meal, food for cattle, boards and timber, fibre, wax + and medicine. The fibre of the _piassava (Leopoldinia piassava_, or + _Attalea funifera_) is widely used for cordage, brushes and brooms. + There are many other palms whose fruit, fibre and wood enter largely + into the domestic economy of the natives, but the list given shows how + important a service these trees rendered to the aboriginal inhabitants + of tropical America, and likewise how useful they still are to the + people of tropical Brazil. Another vegetable product of the Amazon + region is made from the fruit of the _Paullinia sorbilis_, Mart., and + is known by the name of _guarana_. It is largely consumed in Bolivia + and Matto Grosso, where it is used in the preparation of a beverage + which has excellent medicinal properties. The Brazilian flora is also + rich in medicinal and aromatic plants, dye-woods, and a wide range of + gum and resin-producing shrubs and trees. The best known of these are + sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha, cinchona, jaborandi and copaiba; vanilla, + tonka beans and cloves; Brazil-wood and anatto (_Bixa orellana_); + india-rubber and balata. India-rubber is derived principally from the + _Hevea guayanensis_, sometimes called the _Siphonia elastica_, which + is found on the Amazon and its tributaries as far inland as the + foothills of the Andes. Other rubber-producing trees are the + _manicoba_ (_Jatropha Glasiovii_) of Ceara, and the _mangabeira_ + (_Hancornia speciosa_), of the central upland regions. + +_Population._--The first explorers of Brazil reported a numerous Indian +population, but, as the sea-coast afforded a larger and more easily +acquired food supply than did the interior, the Indian population was +probably numerous only in a comparatively small part of this immense +territory, along the sea-coast. Modern explorations have shown that the +unsettled inland regions of Brazil are populated by Indians only where +the conditions are favourable. They are to be found in wooded districts +near rivers, and are rarely found on the elevated _campos_. The +immediate result of European colonization was the enslavement and +extermination of the Indians along the coast and in all those favoured +inland localities where the whites came into contact with them. The +southern districts and the Amazon and its tributaries were often raided +by slave-hunting expeditions, and their Indian populations were either +decimated, or driven farther into the inaccessible forests. But there is +no record that the inland districts of western and north-western Brazil +were treated in this manner, and their present population may be assumed +to represent approximately what it was when the Europeans first came. +According to the census of 1890 the Indian population was 1,295,796, but +so far as the migratory tribes are concerned the figures are only +guesswork. A considerable number of these Indians have been gathered +together in _aldeas_ under the charge of government tutors, but the +larger part still live in their own villages or as nomads. + +Down to the beginning of the 19th century the white colonists were +almost exclusively Portuguese. The immigration from countries other than +Portugal during the first half of that century was small, but before its +close it increased rapidly, particularly from Italy. Fully nine-tenths +of these immigrants, including those from the mother country, were of +the Latin race. The introduction of African slaves followed closely upon +the development of agricultural industries, and continued nominally +until 1850, actually until 1854, and according to some authors until +1860. About 1826 it was estimated that the negro population numbered +2,500,000 or three times the white population of that period. The +unrestricted intermixture of these three races forms the principal basis +of the Brazilian population at the beginning of the 20th century. Brazil +has never had a "colour line," and there has never been any popular +prejudice against race mixtures. According to the census of 1872 the +total population was 9,930,478, of which 1,510,806 were slaves; the race +enumeration gave 3,787,289 whites, 1,959,452 Africans, 386,955 Indians, +and 3,801,782 mixed bloods. The Indian population certainly exceeded the +total given, and the white population must have included many of mixed +blood, the habit of so describing themselves being common among the +better classes of South American mestizos. The census of 1890 increased +the total population to 14,333,915, which, according to an unofficial +analysis (_Statesman's Year Book_, 1905), was made up of 6,302,198 +whites, 4,638,495 mixed bloods, 2,097,426 Africans, and 1,295,796 +Indians. This analysis, if correct, indicates that the vegetative +increase of the whites has been greater than that of the Africans and +mixed races. This is not the conclusion of many observers, but it may +be due to the excessive infant mortality among the lower classes, where +an observance of the simplest sanitary laws is practically unknown. The +census of the 31st of December 1900 was strikingly defective; it was +wholly discarded for the city of Rio de Janeiro, and had to be completed +by office computations in the returns from several states. The +compilation of the returns was not completed and published until May +1908, according to which the total population was 17,318,556, of which +8,825,636 were males and 8,492,920 females. Not including the city of +Rio de Janeiro, whose population was estimated at 691,565 in conformity +with a special municipal census of 1906, the total population was +16,626,991, of which 15,572,671 were Roman Catholics, 177,727 +Protestants, 876,593 of other faiths. The returns also show a total of +3,038,500 domiciles outside the federal capital, which gives an average +of 5.472 to the domicile. These returns will serve to correct the +exaggerated estimate of 22,315,000 for 1900 which was published in +Brazil and accepted by many foreign publications. + +The racial character of the people is not uniform throughout the +republic, the whites predominating in the southern states, the Indians +in Amazonas and, probably, Matto Grosso, and the mixed races in the +central and northern coast states. The excess of whites over the +coloured races in the southern states is due to their smaller slave +population and to the large number of immigrants attracted to them. +Slavery was not abolished until the 13th of May 1888, but a number of +successful colonies had already been founded in these states. Other +colonies were founded in Bahia, Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro during +the same period, but they were unsuccessful, partly because of the +competition of slave labour. Since the abolition of slavery immigration +has poured a large number of labourers into the coffee-producing states, +and with beneficial results. This strengthening of the white population +of the South with fresh European blood must eventually divide Brazil +into two distinct sections: the white states of the south, and the mixed +or coloured states of the north. The introduction of European immigrants +dates from 1818 when a Swiss colony was located at Nova Friburgo, near +Rio de Janeiro, and it was continued under the direction and with the +aid of the imperial government down to the creation of the republic. +Since then the state governments have assumed charge of immigration, and +some of them are spending large sums in the acquisition of labourers. +The old system of locating immigrants in colonies, or colonial nuclei, +which involved an enormous outlay of money with but slight benefit to +the country, has been superseded by a system of locating the immigrants +on the large plantations under formal contracts. In some of the coffee +districts these contracts have resulted very profitably to the Italian +labourers. The total number of colonists and immigrants entering Brazil +between 1804 and 1902, inclusive, according to official returns, was +2,208,353. The arrivals fluctuate greatly in number from year to year, +influenced by the prevailing economic conditions in the country. At +first the Portuguese outnumbered all other nationalities in the +immigration returns, but since the abolition of slavery the Italians +have passed all competitors and number more than one-half the total +arrivals. Of the 700,211 immigrants located in the state of Sao Paulo +from 1827 to the end of 1896, no less than 493,535 were Italians, and +their aggregate throughout the republic was estimated in 1906 at more +than 1,100,000. The German immigration, of which so much has been +written for political ends, has been greatly over-estimated; trustworthy +estimates in 1906 made the German contingent in the population vary from +350,000 to 500,000. They are settled chiefly in colonies in the southern +states, and form a most desirable body of settlers. + +_Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into twenty states and +one federal district, which are the same as the provinces and "municipio +neutro" of the empire. Their names also remain unchanged, except that of +the federalized district in which the national capital is located, which +is called the "districto federal." The republic has no territories, +although Amazonas, Matto Grosso, Para and Goyaz cover an immense region +of uninhabited and only partially explored territory. The states are +subdivided into _comarcas_, or judicial districts, and into +_municipios_, or townships, which is the smallest autonomous division. +The constitution provides for the autonomy of the municipalities in +order to safeguard the permanence of representative institutions. The +_parochia_, or parish, an ecclesiastical division, is often used for +administrative purposes, but it has no political organization. The +names, areas, and populations of the states, together with the names and +populations of their capitals, are as follows:-- + + +--------------------+---------+-----------------------+-----------------------+--------+ + | |Area,[1] | Population[2] | |Popula- | + | States. | Sq. +-----------+-----------+ State Capitals. |tion,[3]| + | | miles. | Census | Census | | Census | + | | | 1890. | 1900. | | 1890. | + +--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+ + | Alagoas | 22,584 | 511,440 | 649,273 | Maceio | 31,498 | + | Amazonas | 742,123 | 147,915 | 249,756 | Manaos | 38,720 | + | Bahia | 164,650 | 1,919,802 | 2,117,956 | Sao Salvador[4] |174,412 | + | Ceara | 40,253 | 805,687 | 849,127 | Fortaleza | 40,902 | + | Espirito Santo | 17,313 | 135,997 | 209,783 | Victoria | 16,887 | + | Federal District | 538 | 522,651 | 691,565 | Rio de Janeiro |522,651 | + | Goyaz | 288,549 | 227,572 | 255,284 | Goyaz[4] | 17,181 | + | Maranhao | 177,569 | 430,854 | 499,308 | S. Luiz do Maranhao[4]| 29,308 | + | Matto Grosso | 532,370 | 92,827 | 118,025 | Cuyaba | 17,815 | + | Minas Geraes | 221,961 | 3,184,099 | 3,594,471 | Ouro Preto[5] | 59,249 | + | Para | 443,922 | 328,455 | 445,356 | Belem[4] | 50,064 | + | Parahyba | 28,855 | 457,232 | 490,784 | Parahyba | 18,645 | + | Parana | 85,455 | 249,491 | 327,136 | Curityba | 24,553 | + | Pernambuco | 49,575 | 1,030,224 | 1,178,150 | Recife[4] |111,556 | + | Piauhy | 116,529 | 267,609 | 334,328 | Therezina | 31,523 | + | Rio de Janeiro | 26,635 | 276,884 | 274,317 | Nictheroy | 34,269 | + | Rio Grande do Norte| 22,196 | 268,273 | 1,149,070 | Natal | 13,725 | + | Rio Grande do Sul | 91,337 | 897,455 | 926,035 | Porto Alegre | 52,421 | + | Santa Catharina | 28,633 | 283,769 | 320,289 | Desterro[6] | 30,637 | + | Sao Paulo | 112,312 | 1,384,753 | 2,282,279 | Sao Paulo | 64,934 | + | Sergipe | 15,093 | 310,926 | 356,264 | Araraju | 16,336 | + | +---------+-----------+-----------+ | | + | Brazil |3,228,452|14,333,915 |17,318,556 | | | + +--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+ + + _Communications._--Railway construction in Brazil dates from 1852, + when work was initiated on the Maua railway running from the head of + the bay of Rio de Janeiro to the foot of the Serra where Petropolis is + situated. The road is 10 m. long, and its first section was opened to + traffic on April 30, 1854, and its second December 16, 1856. The + mountain section, 5-1/2 m. long, which uses the Riggenbach system from + the terminal to Petropolis, was constructed between 1881 and 1883. The + development of railway construction in Brazil has been impeded to a + great extent by two unfavourable conditions--by the chain of mountains + or plateau escarpments which follow the coast line and obstruct + communication with the interior, and by the detached positions of the + settlements along the Atlantic, which compel the building of lines + from many widely separated points on the coast into a sparsely + populated hinterland. A majority of the ports, from which these roads + are built, are small and difficult of access, and the coasting trade + is restricted to vessels carrying the Brazilian flag. The only ports + having a rich and well-populated country behind them are Rio de + Janeiro and Santos, and these are the terminals of long lines of + railway which are being slowly extended farther into the interior. + + The total mileage under traffic at the beginning of 1905 was 10,600 + m., divided into 94 separate lines. There were also 745 m. under + construction, 1740 m. under survey, and about 1600 m. projected. Of + the 94 lines under traffic, 45 were operating by virtue of national + and 49 by provincial and state concessions. They were grouped in the + official reports of 1905 as follows:-- + + Government lines (21):-- Miles. + Administered by the state (6) 2228 + Leased to private parties (15) 2174 + ----- 4402 + Private lines (24)-- + With national interest guarantees (12) 1290 + Without such guarantees (12) 815 + ----- 2105 + Private and state lines operated by + virtue of state concessions, with and + without interest guarantees (49) 4093 + ------ + 10,600 + ====== + + The policy of the national government has been gradually to lease all + its lines except the Estrada de Ferro Central do Brazil, which is + retained for sentimental reasons. This great railway runs from the + city of Rio de Janeiro westward to the city of Sao Paulo and northward + into the interior of Minas Geraes, with a total length at the + beginning of 1905 of 1002 m., and an extension of about 104 m. to + Pirapora, on the Sao Francisco river. It was formerly known as the "E. + de F. Dom Pedro II.," in honour of the sovereign who encouraged its + construction. The main line has a gauge of 63 in. (1.60 m.) and + affords an outlet for a number of inland metre-gauge lines. The first + two sections of this great railway, which carry it across the coast + range, were opened to traffic in 1858 and 1864. The series of trunk + lines terminating at the port of Santos are owned by private companies + and are formed by the Sao Paulo, Paulista and Mogyana lines, the first + owned by an English company, and the other two by Brazilian companies. + The Mogyana carries the system entirely across the state of Sao Paulo + into the western districts of Minas Geraes. The principal trunk lines + (the Sao Paulo and Paulista) have a broad gauge, while their + extensions and feeders have a narrow gauge. The comparatively short + lines extending inland from the ports of Sao Salvador (Bahia), + Pernambuco, Maceio, Victoria and Paranagua serve only a narrow zone + along the coast. To encourage the investment of private capital in the + construction of railways, the general railway law of 1853 authorized + the national government to grant guarantees of interest on the capital + invested. Under this law companies were organized in England for + building the Sao Paulo railway, and the lines running from Bahia and + Pernambuco toward the Sao Francisco river. Political considerations + also led to the construction of similar lines in the states of Rio + Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Espirito Santo, Parana, + Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul. The result was that the + national treasury became burdened with a heavy annual interest charge, + payable abroad in gold, which did not tend to diminish, and had a long + period to run before the expiration of the contracts. The government + finally determined to take over these guaranteed lines from the + foreign companies owning them, and a statement issued in October 1902 + showed that 1335 m. had been acquired at a cost of L14,605,000 in + bonds, the interest on which is L584,200 a year against an aggregate + of L831,750 in interest guarantees which the government had been + paying. In addition to this economy it was calculated that the lines + could be leased for L132,000 a year. The loan finally issued in London + to cover the purchase of these railways aggregated L16,619,320. All + but three of these lines had been leased in 1905. + + The use of tramways for the transportation of passengers in cities + dates from 1868, when the first section of the Botanical Garden line + of Rio de Janeiro was opened to traffic. The line was completed with + its surplus earnings and continued under the control of the American + company which built it until 1882, when it was sold to a Brazilian + company. Subsequently the tramways of the city have been mostly + concentrated in the hands of a single Canadian company. All the large + cities of Brazil are liberally provided with tramways, those of the + city of Sao Paulo, where electric traction is used, being noticeably + good. The substitution of electricity for animal traction was begun in + Sao Salvador in 1906. Mules are universally employed for animal + traction, and narrow gauge lines with single-mule trams are generally + used where the traffic is light. + + Brazil is lamentably deficient in steamship communication considering + its importance in a country where the centres of population are + separated by such distances of coasts and river. Previous to the + creation of the republic, the coastwise service was performed by two + national companies (now united), and partially by foreign lines + calling at two or more ports. A considerable number of foreign sailing + vessels also carried on an important coasting trade. The coastwise + service centres at Rio de Janeiro, from which port the Lloyd + Brazileiro sends steamers regularly south to Montevideo, and north to + Para and Manaos, calling at the more important intermediate ports. + From Montevideo river steamers are sent up the Parana and Paraguay + rivers to Corumba and Cuyaba, in the state of Matto Grosso. The + company receives a heavy subsidy from the national government. Parts + of this coastwise traffic are covered by other companies, two of which + receive subsidies. There were also six lines of river steamers + receiving subsidies from the national government in 1904, and the + aggregate paid to these and the coastwise lines was 2,830,061 milreis. + The largest of the river lines is the Amazon Steam Navigation Co. (an + English corporation), whose service covers the main river and several + of its principal tributaries. Two subsidized companies maintain + services on the Sao Francisco river--one below the Paulo Affonso + falls, and the other above, the latter covering 854 m. of navigable + channel between Joazeiro and Pirapora. Besides these there are other + companies engaged in the coasting and river traffic, either with + subsidies from the state governments, as feeders for railway lines, or + as private unsubsidized undertakings. + + The telegraph lines, which date from 1852, are owned and operated by + the national government, with the exception of the lines constructed + by private railway companies, and the cable lines of the Amazon and + the coast. The government lines extend from Para to the Argentine and + Uruguayan frontiers, where they connect with the telegraph systems of + those republics, and from Rio de Janeiro westward across country, in + great part unsettled, to the capitals of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. At + Para connexion is made with the cable laid in the bed of the Amazon to + Manaos, which is owned and operated by a subsidized English company. + At Vizeu, Para, connexion is made with a French cable to the West + Indies and the United States, and at Pernambuco with two cable lines + to Europe. A coastwise cable runs from Para to Montevideo with double + cables between Pernambuco and Montevideo. There were in 1903 a total + of 15,150 m. of land lines, with 29,310 m. of wire and 1102 telegraph + offices. The government maintains reciprocal rates with most of the + private railway lines. + + The Brazilian postal service is under the general supervision of the + minister of communications and public works, and is administered by a + director-general. Owing to the size of the country and the + sparsely-populated state of a large part of the interior, the + transportation of the mails is attended with much difficulty and + expense. Although the postal rates are high, the service is not + self-sustaining, the receipts for 1904 being 7,018,344 milreis, + against a total expenditure of 10,099,545 milreis. There were 2847 + post offices (_agencias_), of which 2166 were of the 4th or lowest + grade. Brazil is a member of the Postal Union, and like Argentina + exacts higher nominal rates of postage upon outgoing mail than those + agreed upon to cover the depreciation in her own currency. The letter + rate was at first 200 reis (nearly 5-1/2 d.), but it has been + increased to 300 reis, which is equivalent to 8 d. at par and 4-1/2 d. + at 15 d. exchange. An inland parcel post was in operation long before + the overthrow of the monarchy, and a similar service with Portugal has + been successfully maintained for a number of years, notwithstanding + the difficulties interposed by customs regulations. National and + international money order systems are also in operation. + + The constitution of Brazil provides that the coastwise trade shall be + carried on by national vessels, but this provision did not go into + effect until 1896. And even then, because of the insufficient number + of Brazilian vessels it was provided in the regulations that foreign + vessels could be enrolled in that trade by using the Brazilian flag + and employing a certain proportion of Brazilians on the crew. One of + the purposes of this restrictive provision was that of creating a + national merchant marine, but the disinclination of Brazilians for + maritime pursuits has been a serious obstacle to its realization. In + 1901 the merchant navy included 228 steamers of 91,465 tons net, and + 343 sailing vessels of 76,992 tons net. These vessels are all engaged + in the coasting and river trade of the country. Efforts have been + made, however, to engage in foreign trade, and subsidies were offered + for a passenger and freight service to the United States. On the 23rd + of February 1906 the government completed a new contract with the + Lloyd Brazileiro Company for its coastwise and river service, and + included clauses providing for a line to the United States. This + foreign service (monthly) began in August 1906. + + Although the coast of Brazil shows a large number of bays and + tide-water river channels which are apparently suitable for commercial + ports, a close examination of them reduces the number of good ports to + less than a dozen. The others are either difficult of access, or are + rendered practically useless by dangerous reefs, sand bars and shoals. + Important improvements have been undertaken in some of these ports. + Those at Santos and Manaos, for example, have produced good results. + In many cases, as at Rio de Janeiro, Santos and Manaos, the cost and + maintenance of the new port-works are met by an additional tax on + merchandise, though the immediate expenditures are met by advances + from the national treasury, and at Rio de Janeiro by a foreign loan. + + _Commerce._--The imports, exports and domestic trade of Brazil are + by reason of their magnitude and peculiar character the most important + in South America, though the _per capita_ aggregate is less than that + of Argentina. Although an agricultural country, Brazil does not + produce all its own bread and meat, and the imports of wheat, wheat + flour, rice, fish, jerked beef and preserved meats, lard, butter, + beans, potatoes, packed fruits and vegetables, Indian corn and other + food-stuffs, are surprisingly large. Since the creation of the + republic, extreme protective measures have caused the creation of a + large number of cotton factories and other manufactures, but these are + able to supply only a part of the consumption, and the importation of + cotton and woollen fabrics, silks, ready-made clothing, boots and + shoes, &c., is large. Modern industrial development in some of the + states has greatly increased the importation of machinery, electric + supplies, materials for construction, coal, &c. Kerosene oil also + figures among the principal imports, and beef cattle are imported for + consumption by some cities. The exports cover a wide range of + agricultural, pastoral and natural productions, including coffee, + rubber, sugar, cotton, cocoa, Brazil nuts, _mate_ (Paraguay tea), + hides, skins, fruits, gold, diamonds, manganese ore, cabinet woods and + medicinal leaves, roots and resins. Coffee and rubber, however, + represent from 80 to 90% of the official valuation of all exports. + High import duties are imposed by the national government and export + duties by the states. The exchange of domestic products between the + states is greatly restricted through lack of cheap transportation + facilities, and by the suicidal imposition of import and export duties + by the states, either for revenue or for the protection of home + industries. + + According to a summary for the six years 1901 to 1906, derived from + official sources and published in the annual _Retrospecto_ of the + _Jornal do Commercio_, of Rio de Janeiro, the values of the imports + and exports for those years (exclusive of coin), reduced to pounds + sterling at the average rate of exchange (or value of one milreis) for + each year, were as follows:-- + + +------+-----------+------------+-------------+ + | | Average | | | + | Year.| Value of | Imports in | Exports in | + | |the Milreis|Pounds Ster.| Pounds Ster.| + | | in Pence. | | | + +------+-----------+------------+-------------+ + | | | L | L | + | 1901 | 11.33 | 21,377,270 | 40,621,993 | + | 1902 | 11.93 | 23,279,418 | 36,437,456 | + | 1903 | 11.99 | 24,207,811 | 36,883,175 | + | 1904 | 12.22 | 25,915,423 | 39,430,136 | + | 1905 | 15.94 | 29,830,050 | 44,643,113 | + | 1906 | 16.17 | 33,204,041 | 53,059,480 | + +------+-----------+------------+-------------+ + + Nearly 76-1/2% of the exports of 1906 were of coffee and rubber, the + official valuations of these being: coffee 245,474,525 milreis gold + (L27,615,884), and rubber (including manicoba and mangabeira), + 124,941,433 milreis gold (L14,055,911). + + Brazil is essentially an agricultural country. No other country has + been able to equal Brazil in the production of coffee, and under + better labour conditions the country might compete with the foremost + in the production of cane sugar, cotton and tobacco. Besides these it + might easily excel in producing many of the tropical fruits for which + there is a commercial demand. During the colonial period sugar cane + was cultivated from Parahyba S. to the vicinity of Santos, and sugar + was the principal export of the colony. Before the middle of the 19th + century coffee became one of the leading exports, and its cultivation + in the states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes has been + so increased since that time that it represents over four-fifths in + value of the total export of agricultural produce. The principal + sugar-producing states are Alagoas, Sergipe, Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio + de Janeiro, and the production is between 200,000 and 300,000 tons, + the greater part of which is consumed in the country. Cotton has been + widely cultivated since early colonial days, principally in the + northern Atlantic states. Tobacco is also widely cultivated, and the + product of some states, such as Bahia, Minas Geraes and Goyaz, has a + high local reputation for its excellence. Cacau (cocoa) is cultivated + extensively in the Amazon Valley and along the coast as far south as + southern Bahia, and forms one of the leading exports. In 1906 Sao + Paulo offered premiums for its cultivation in the state. Rice has been + cultivated in places, but without much success, although the quality + produced compared favourably with the imported article. Indian corn + grows luxuriantly everywhere, but it does not mature well in the humid + regions of the Amazon region and the coast. The product of the + elevated inland regions is good, but the costs of transportation and + the small profits afforded have prevented its extensive cultivation, + and it is imported from the La Plata republics for consumption along + the coast. Much has been said in regard to the production of wheat, + and efforts have been made in various places to promote its + cultivation. It was once cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul with some + success, and it has been grown in Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo, but in + no case have the returns been sufficient to give it a permanent + standing among the productions of the country. The great majority of + the people are unused to wheaten bread, using the coarse flour of the + mandioca root instead, consequently the demand for wheat and flour is + confined to the large cities, which can obtain them from Argentina + more cheaply than they can be produced in the country. One of the most + common and important productions of Brazil is _mandioca_ (_Manihot_), + of which there are two well-known species, _M. utilissima_ and _M. + aipi_. The first named, which is poisonous in its native state, is the + _cassava_ of Spanish America. From it is made _farinha de mandioca_, + which is the bread of the common people of Brazil, and tapioca. The + poison is extracted by soaking the bruised or grated roots in water, + after which the coarse flour is roasted. Mandioca was cultivated by + the natives before the discovery of America, and the wide area over + which it has been distributed warrants the conclusion that the + discovery of its value as a food and the means of separating its + poisonous properties must have occurred at a very remote period. The + peanut, or ground-nut (_Arachis hypogaea_), is another + widely-cultivated plant, dating from pre-Columbian times. Very little + attention has thus far been given to the cultivation of fruit for + exportation, the exceptions being bananas for the Argentine and + Uruguayan markets, and oranges and pineapples for European markets. + The coast region from Ceara to Rio de Janeiro is adapted to the + cultivation of a great variety of fruits of a superior quality. Ceara, + Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro are celebrated for their oranges, and + Pernambuco for its delicious pineapples. Tangerines, lemons, limes, + grapes, guavas, figs, cashews or cajus (_Anacardium occidentale_), + mangabas (_Hancornia speciosa_), joboticabas (_Eugenia cauliflora_ and + _E. jaboticaba_, Mart.), cocoa-nuts, mangos, _fruitas de conde_ + (_Anona squamosa_), plantains, &c. are produced in abundance and with + little labour. In some parts of southern Brazil the fruits and + vegetables of the temperate zone do well, but within the tropics they + thrive well only at a considerable elevation above sea-level. Apples, + peaches, quinces, raspberries, strawberries, &c., are produced under + such conditions, but the flavour of their kind grown in colder + climates is usually wanting. The vegetable productions are less + numerous, but they include sweet potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower, + lettuce, beans, peas, onions, garlic, tomatoes, okra, radishes, + cucumbers, couve, chuchu (_Sechium edule_), and aipim (_Manihot + aipi_). The white potato, known as "batata inglez" (English potato), + is grown in elevated localities, but it deteriorates so greatly after + the first planting that fresh imported seed is necessary every second + or third year. + + The pastoral industries, which date from early colonial times, have + suffered many vicissitudes, and their development has failed to keep + pace with the country's growth in population. Horses are used to some + extent for riding, but very little for carriage and draught purposes, + consequently there has been no great incentive for their breeding. + They are largely used and raised in Rio Grande do Sul, but in the + warmer regions of the north only to a limited extent. The hardier + mules are generally employed for draught, carriage, and saddle + purposes in every part of the country, and their breeding is a + lucrative industry in the southern states. Cattle-raising is the + principal industry in Rio Grande do Sul, and receives considerable + attention in Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, Santa Catharina, Parana, + Piauhy and Rio Grande do Norte. It was estimated that there were + 30,000,000 head of cattle in the republic in 1904, but the estimate + was unquestionably too large. A very large part of the jerked beef + consumed in Brazil is imported from Argentina and Uruguay, and some + beef cattle also are imported. These importations at Rio de Janeiro in + 1906 were 12,464,170 kilograms of jerked beef and 12,575 head of + cattle. In the Rio Branco region of Amazonas and in Piauhy, where the + national government has long been the owner of extensive cattle + ranges, the industry is in a state of decadence. This is partly due to + such pests as the vampire bat and bush ticks (_carrapatos_), and + partly to the unprogressiveness of the cattlemen. Cattle-raising was + once a flourishing industry on the island of Marajo, at the mouth of + the Amazon, and it is followed to some extent at Alemquer and other + points along the Amazon, but the cattle are small, and commonly in bad + condition. In southern Bahia the industry has been nearly extinguished + through increasing aridity and droughts, but in the state of Rio de + Janeiro the planters are increasing their herds. Minas Geraes produces + cheese, butter and milk, as well as beef cattle for neighbouring + cities. Matto Grosso classifies cattle-raising as a principal + industry, but under present conditions the accessible markets are too + small for any large development. In Rio Grande do Sul, where it has + attained its greatest development, about 400,000 beeves are + slaughtered annually for the manufacture of jerked beef (_xarque_), + beef extract, &c. Little attention has been given to sheep in Brazil + except in the southern states, and even there the flocks are small. + They were to be found in Ceara and Piauhy in colonial times, and small + flocks are still to be seen in the latter state, but no use is made of + their wool, and the market for mutton is extremely limited because of + popular prejudices. Woollen manufactures have been established in Rio + de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. The exportation of wool + amounted to 1,130,160 lb. in 1906. Goats have been found highly + profitable in many of the middle Atlantic states, where the long dry + seasons render the campos unsuitable for cattle pasturage. The export + of goat skins from these states is large. Swine do well in all parts + of the country, especially in Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, + Parana and Rio Grande do Sul, and domestic pork and lard are slowly + supplanting the heavily-taxed foreign products. + + Although the coast and river fisheries of Brazil are numerous and + valuable, cured fish is one of the staple imports, and foreign + products are to be found even along the Amazon. In the Amazon valley + fish is a principal article of food, and large quantities of + _pirarucu_ (_Sudis gigas_) are caught during the season of low water + and prepared for storage or market by drying in the sun. This and the + collection of turtle eggs for their oil, or butter, are chiefly Indian + industries, and contribute largely to the support of the native + population of that region. Along the coast the best known fisheries + are among the Abrolhos islands and in the shallow waters of Espirito + Santo, where the garoupa, pargo and vermelho (species of _Serranus_) + abound in great numbers. + + The extractive or forest industries of Brazil were among the first to + engage the attention of Europeans, and have always been considered a + principal source of colonial and national wealth. The varied uses of + india-rubber in modern times, however, have given them a greatly + enhanced importance and value. Of the exports of 1905, 36% were of + this class, while those of the pastoral and mining industries combined + were not quite 6-1/2%. In 1906 the percentages were 31 and 6.67, + showing a considerable loss for the former and a slight gain for the + latter. The principal products of this class are india-rubber, mate, + Brazil nuts, vegetable wax, palm fibre, cabinet woods, and medicinal + leaves, roots, resins, &c. Before the discovery of the cheaper aniline + colours, dye-woods were among the most valuable products of the + country; in fact, Brazil derives her name from that of a dye-wood + (Brazil-wood--_Caesalpinia echinata_), known as _bresill, brasilly, + bresilji, braxilis_, or _brasile_ long before the discovery of America + (see Humboldt's _Geographic du nouveau continent_, tom. ii. p. 214), + which for many generations was the most highly prized of her natural + productions. Of the total exports of this group (1905) very nearly 90% + was of india-rubber, which percentage was reduced to 85 in the + following year. The exportation for 1906 was 69,761,123 lb. of Hevea, + 5,871,968 lb. of manicoba, and 1,440,131 lb. of mangabeira rubber, the + whole valued at 124,941,433 milreis gold. The dried leaves and smaller + twigs of mate (Paraguayan tea--_Ilex paraguayensis_) are exported to + the southern Spanish American republics, where (as in Rio Grande do + Sul) the beverage is exceedingly popular. The export in 1906 amounted + to 127,417,950 lb., officially valued at 16,502,881 milreis gold. The + collection of Brazil nuts along the Amazon and its tributaries is + essentially a poor man's industry, requiring no other plant than a + boat. The harvest comes in January and February, in the rainy season, + and the nut-gatherers often come one or two hundred miles in their + boats to the best forests. The nuts are the fruit of the _Bertholletia + excelsa_, one of the largest trees of the Amazon forest region, and + are enclosed, sixteen to eighteen in number, in a hard, thick + pericarp. Another nut-producing tree is the _sapucaia_ (_Lecythis + ollaria_), whose nuts are enclosed in a larger pericarp, and are + considered to be better flavoured than those first described. The crop + is a variable one, the export in 1905 having been 198,226 hectolitres, + while that of 1906 was 96,770 hectolitres. It could undoubtedly be + largely increased. Vegetable wax, which is an excellent substitute for + beeswax, is a product of the _carnahuba_ palm (_Copernicia cerifera_), + and is an important export from Ceara. Palm, or piassava fibre, + derived from the _piassava_ palm, is used in the manufacture of + brooms, brushes, &c. It is found as far south as southern Bahia, and + the export could be very largely increased. The export of cabinet + woods is not large, considering the forest area of Brazil and the + variety and quality of the woods. This is principally due to the cost + and difficulties of transporting timbers to the coast. The export is + confined principally to rosewood. Of the medicinal plants, the + best-known products are ipecacuanha, sarsaparilla, copaiba, jaborandi + and cinchona, but this is only a part of the list. Besides these, + tonka beans, anatto, vanilla, and castor-oil seeds form a part of the + exports. + + The mineral exports are surprisingly small. Gold was discovered by the + Portuguese soon after their settlement of the coast in the 16th + century, but the washings were poor and attracted little attention. + The richer deposits of Minas Geraes were discovered about 1693, and + those of Matto Grosso early in the following century. Abandoned placer + mines are to be found in every part of the unsettled interior, showing + how thoroughly it had been explored by gold-hunters in those early + days. Some good mines, like Morro Velho and the abandoned Gongo Soco, + have been developed in Minas Geraes, but the great majority are small + and not very productive. Diamonds were discovered in Minas Geraes, + near the town now called Diamantina, during the first half of the 18th + century, the dates given ranging from 1725 to 1746, but the + productiveness of the district has greatly decreased. Diamonds have + also been found in Bahia, Goyaz and Parana. Other precious stones + found in Brazil are the topaz, ruby aquamarine, tourmaline, + chrysoberyl, garnet and amethyst. Among the minerals are silver, + platinum, copper, iron, lead, manganese, chromium, quicksilver, + bismuth, arsenic and antimony, of which only iron and manganese have + been regularly mined. The copper deposits of Minas Geraes are said to + be promising. Manganese is mined in Minas Geraes for export. Iron ores + have been found in most of the states, and are especially abundant in + Minas Geraes. The Ypanema mine and ironworks, near Sorocaba, Sao + Paulo, which belong to the national government, have been in operation + since 1810 and small charcoal forges were in operation in colonial + times and supplied the mines with a considerable part of the iron + needed by them. Many of the richer deposits have never been developed + because of a lack of fuel and limestone. Bituminous coal of an + inferior quality is mined to a limited extent in Rio Grande do Sul, + and another mine has been opened in Santa Catharina. These coal + deposits extend from Rio Grande do Sul north into the state of Sao + Paulo. Salt, which does not figure in the list of exports, is produced + along the coast between Pernambuco and Cape St Roque. The annual + production is about 240,000 tons. + + To illustrate the comparative productiveness and relationship of these + sources of national wealth and industry, the following official + returns of export for the years 1905 and 1906 are arranged in the four + general classes previously discussed, the values being in Brazilian + gold milreis, worth 2s. 3d. or 54.6 cents to the milreis:-- + + _Agricultural._ + + 1905. 1906. + Milreis, gold. Milreis, gold. + + Coffee . . . . . 190,404,576 245,474,525 + Cotton . . . . . 10,290,790 14,726,492 + Cacau . . . . . 9,240,313 12,323,922 + Tobacco . . . . . 7,335,163 8,283,150 + Sugar . . . . . 3,608,476 5,388,596 + Bran[7] . . . . . 1,490,312 1,128,761 + Cottonseed . . . . 964,074 1,084,742 + Mandioca flour . . . 692,079 789,913 + Fruits . . . . . 606,678 714,332 + Castor-oil seeds . . . 214,016 333,250 + ----------- ----------- + 224,846,477 290,247,683 + + _Natural and Forest._ + + Rubber: + Mangabeira . . . 1,286,672 1,376,014 + Manicoba . . . . 7,418,559 7,335,870 + Hevea (Para) . . . 119,434,947 116,229,549 + Mate (Paraguay tea) . . 11,088,108 16,502,881 + Brazil nuts . . . . 2,064,049 1,190,177 + Palm wax (Carnahuba) . . 1,847,273 3,733,478 + Cabinet woods . . . 390,070 318,873 + Piassaya fibre . . . 336,668 347,323 + Medicinal leaves, roots, + resins, &c. . . . 191,534 263,137 + ----------- ----------- + 143,331,142 147,297,302 + + _Pastoral and Animal._ + + Salted hides . . . . 7,010,498 9,691,180 + Dry hides . . . . 5,330,440 7,675,715 + Skins. . . . . . 4,117,590 4,639,512 + Horse hair . . . . 307,505 403,541 + Horns . . . . . 276,172 277,488 + Wool . . . . . . 142,414 354,045 + Beef extract, &c . . . 81,607 110,925 + ---------- ---------- + 17,266,226 23,152,406 + + _Mineral Products._ + + Gold, in bars . . . 3,734,469 4,379,160 + Manganese ore . . . 2,958,462 1,594,486 + Monazite sand . . . 889,231 881,289 + Precious stones . . . 633,916 1,480,260 + --------- --------- + 8,216,078 8,335,195 + + _Miscellaneous._ + + Old metals[8]. . . . 263,506 382,073 + Sundry products . . . 2,177,512 2,225,163 + --------- --------- + 2,441,018 2,607,236 + ----------- ----------- + Total, all products . . 396,827,679 471,639,822 + + _Manufactures._--Before the establishment of the republic very little + attention had been given to manufacturing industries beyond what was + necessary to prepare certain crude products for market. Sugar and rum + were essentially plantation products down to the last ten years of the + empire, when central usines using improved machinery and methods were + introduced as a means of saving the sugar plantations from ruin. The + crude methods of preparing jerked beef were also modified to some + extent by better equipped abattoirs and establishments for preparing + beef extract, preserved meats, &c. There were also mills for crushing + the dried mate leaves, cigar and cigarette factories, small chocolate + factories, hat factories, brick and tile yards, potteries, tanneries, + saddleries, and many other small industries common to all large + communities. Considerable protection was afforded to many of these + industries by the customs tariff of that time, but protection did not + become an acknowledged national policy until after 1889. After that + time the duties on imports were repeatedly and largely increased, both + as a means of raising larger revenues and as an encouragement to + manufacturing enterprise. Although the protective tariffs thus imposed + have resulted in a large increase in manufacturing industries, some of + them have been antagonistic to the productive interests of the + country, as in the case of weaving mills which use imported yarns. + Other industries are carried on entirely with imported materials, and + are national only in name. Among these are flour mills, factories for + the cutting of wire nails and making hollow ware from sheet iron, and + factories for the manufacture of umbrellas, boots and shoes, &c. The + greatest progress has been made in the manufacture of cotton fabrics, + principally of the plainer and coarser grades used by the common + people. There were 155 of these factories in 1895, but in 1905 only + 108 were in operation, with 715,000 spindles, and about 37,000 + operatives. Nearly one-half of these were weaving mills, using + imported yarn. The factories are widely distributed, and some are + favoured by state legislation in addition to the national tariff. The + largest and best equipped of them are located in the federal states of + Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, though the greater part of the raw + cotton used comes from the northern states and pays high freight + rates. The manufacture of woollen blankets, cashmeres, flannels, &c., + had also undergone noteworthy development and is carried on in fifteen + factories, located principally in Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro + and Sao Paulo. Biscuit-making is represented by a large number of + factories, for the most part in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, and + there are a number of breweries of the most modern type in the same + two states. The manufacture of boots and shoes has also received much + attention, but the materials used are for the most part imported. + Among other manufactures are butter and cheese, canned fruits and + vegetables, glass and earthenware, printing and wrapping paper, + furniture, matches, hats, clothing, pharmaceutical products, soaps and + perfumery, ice, artificial drinks, cigars and cigarettes, fireworks + and candles. + +_Government._--The overthrow of the monarchy by a military revolt in Rio +de Janeiro on 15th November 1889, resulted in the creation of a federal +republic under the name of United States of Brazil (Estados Unidos do +Brazil). The constitution under which the republic is governed was +drafted by a constituent assembly convened on the 15th of November 1890, +and was adopted on the 24th of February 1891. The supreme powers of the +nation are vested in three partially independent branches of +government--executive, legislative, and judicial--represented by the +president and his cabinet, a national congress of two chambers, and a +supreme tribunal. The states forming the federation consist of the +twenty provinces and municipal district of the empire, but the number +may be increased or diminished by the states concerned with the approval +of the national congress. The states are self-governed, and have +exclusive control of the public lands, mines, industries, and all local +affairs. They have the sole right also to impose duties on exports and +taxes upon real estate, industries and professions, and transfers of +property. Among other things they are charged with the supervision and +support of primary education, with the maintenance of order, and with +the organization and support of a system of state courts. Both the +national and state governments exercise the right to impose stamp and +consumption taxes, and the municipalities likewise are permitted to +impose licence and consumption taxes. The national government reserves +for itself the exclusive right to direct the foreign affairs of the +republic, to maintain an army and navy, to impose duties on imports, to +regulate foreign commerce, to collect port dues, to issue money and +create banks of issue, and to maintain a postal and national telegraph +service. It also supervises secondary and superior education, issues +patents, and provides federal courts for the trial of cases amenable to +federal laws. The national government is forbidden to interfere in the +peculiar affairs of the states except to repel foreign invasion, to +maintain a republican form of government, to re-establish order at the +request of a state, or to enforce federal laws and sentences. The states +are forbidden, likewise, to tax federal property, to tax inter-state +commerce, to impose duties of their own on foreign imports, or to resist +the execution of judicial sentences originating in other states. The +separation of church and state is provided for by the constitution, and +both the nation and the states are forbidden to establish, subsidize or +restrict the exercise of any religious worship. Foreigners are eligible +to Brazilian citizenship, and the right of suffrage is conferred upon +all male citizens over twenty-one years of age, except beggars, +illiterates, the rank and file of the armed forces, members of monastic +orders, &c., bound by private vows, and all unregistered citizens. + +The executive power of the nation is vested in a president, elected for +a term of four years by a direct vote of the electors. He must be a +native Brazilian over thirty-five years of age, in the full enjoyment of +his political rights, and is ineligible for the next succeeding term. A +vice-president is elected at the same time and under the same +conditions, who is president of the senate _ex officio_, and succeeds to +the presidency in case the office becomes vacant during the last two +years of the presidential term. Should the vacancy occur during the +first two years of the term, a new election must be held. The president +receives a salary of 120,000 milreis and the vice-president of 36,000 +milreis. The president is advised and assisted by a cabinet of six +ministers, viz. foreign affairs; finance; agriculture, industry and +commerce;[9] communications (_Viacao_) and public works;[9] war; and +marine. The ministers are appointed and removed by the president, take +no part in the sessions of congress, and are responsible to the +president alone for their advisory acts. The president sanctions and +promulgates, or vetoes, or ignores the laws, and resolutions voted by +congress, and issues decrees and regulations for their execution. His +veto may be over-ridden by a two-thirds vote in each chamber, and +permitting ten days to pass without signing an act is considered as +acquiescence and it is promulgated by congress. The president is charged +with the duties (among others) of commanding the armed forces of the +republic, appointing the prefect of the national capital, designating +members of the supreme tribunal and diplomatic representatives for the +approval of the senate, to negotiate treaties, &c., _ad referendum_ to +congress, and maintain relations with foreign powers, to declare war in +case of invasion and to declare martial law in case of grave internal +disorder, and to advise congress at the opening of the annual session of +the progress and state of public affairs. He may be impeached before the +senate for his official acts and suspended from office, or tried by the +supreme tribunal for criminal offences. + +The legislative power is vested in a national congress of two chambers, +elected by direct suffrage, and convened on the 3rd of May each year. +The regular annual sessions are of four months' duration, but they may +be extended to complete necessary legislation. The senate consists of +sixty-three members (three from each state and the federal district) +elected for a period of nine years, one-third of each delegation being +renewed every three years. The senators must be not less than +thirty-five years of age, and are exempt from all legal processes not +previously authorized by the senate during their term of office, except +in cases of arrest _in flagrante delicto_ for a capital crime. The +chamber of deputies contains 212 members, the membership being +distributed among the states on a basis of one for each 70,000 of +population, but with a minimum representation of four for each state. +The deputies are elected by direct suffrage for the legislative session +of three years, and have the same immunities from legal process as the +senators. The chamber has the right of initiative in the organization of +the annual budget laws and those relative to the numerical strength of +the army and navy. The members of both houses receive a _per diem_ +subsidy. + +The judicial system of the republic consists of a supreme federal +tribunal of fifteen judges in the national capital, and a district +tribunal in the capital of each state, which forms a federal judicial +district. The judges are appointed for life and can be removed only by +judicial sentence and impeachment. One member of the supreme tribunal +holds the position of solicitor-general of the republic. The judges and +solicitor-general are appointed by the president with the approval of +the senate, but the tribunal chooses its own presiding officers and +secretaries and, nominally, is independent of executive control. The +supreme tribunal has original and appellate jurisdiction, but its power +to pass on the constitutionality of federal laws and executive acts +seems to fall short of that of the United States Supreme Court. It has +authority, however, to review the acts and laws of state governments and +to decide upon their constitutionality. The district federal court has +but one judge (_juiz de seccao_) and a solicitor of the republic, and +has original jurisdiction in federal causes. Each state has its own +local laws and courts, independent of federal control, but subject to +the review of the supreme tribunal, and with rights of appeal to that +tribunal in specified cases. The federal district, which has a municipal +council instead of a legislature, has a system of municipal and higher +courts peculiar to itself. Limited judicial powers are exercised by +chiefs of police, and by certain department commissions, or boards, of +an executive character. The members of the army and navy are governed by +special laws, enjoy immunities from civil process, and are subject to +the jurisdiction of military courts. The civil code of the republic is +based upon Roman law. + +_Army._--The nominal strength of the army in 1906 was 29,489, including +the officers of the general and subordinate staffs and the officers and +cadets of the military schools. This total represents the nominal +strength of the army in times of peace. Its actual strength, however, is +about 15,000 men, some of the regimental and battalion organizations +being skeletons. Its organization consists of 40 battalions of infantry +with one transport and one depot company, 14 regiments of cavalry of 4 +squadrons each, 6 regiments of field artillery with 24 batteries and 6 +battalions of heavy artillery with 24 batteries, and two battalions of +engineers. Efforts to organize a national guard have been unsuccessful, +although officers have been appointed and the organization perfected, on +paper. The police force, however, is organized on a military footing and +armed, and is available for service in case of necessity. It is credited +with 20,000 men. According to law military service is obligatory, but +the government has been unable to enforce it. Impressment is commonly +employed to fill the ranks, and in cases of emergency the prison +population is drawn upon for recruits. The president is nominally +commander-in-chief of the army, but the actual command is vested in a +general staff in the national capital, and in the general commanding +each of the seven military districts into which the republic is divided. +The most important of these districts is that of Rio Grande do Sul, +where a force of 11,226 men is stationed. The principal war arsenal is +in Rio de Janeiro. The rifle used by the infantry is a modified Mauser +of the German 1888 model. Military instruction is given at the Eschola +Militar of Rio de Janeiro. The military organization is provided with an +elaborate code and systems of military courts, which culminate in a +supreme military tribunal composed of 15 judges holding office for life, +of which 8 are general army officers, 4 general naval officers and 3 +civil judges. + +_Navy._--The naval strength of the republic consisted in 1906 of a +collection of armoured and wooden vessels of various ages and types of +construction, of which three armoured vessels (including the two +designed for coast defence), four protected cruisers, five destroyers +and torpedo-cruisers, and half a dozen torpedo boats represented what +may be termed the effective fighting force. The loss of the armoured +turret ship "Aquidaban" by a magazine explosion in the bay of +Jacarepagua, near Rio de Janeiro, in 1905, had left Brazil with but one +fighting vessel (the "Reachuelo") of any importance. Many of the wooden +and iron vessels listed in the Naval Annual, 1906, though obsolete and +of no value whatever as fighting machines, are used for river and +harbour service, and in the suppression of trifling insurrections. The +Annual describes 21 vessels of various types, and mentions 23 small +gunboats used for river and harbour service. Besides these there are a +number of practice boats (small school-ships), transports, dispatch +boats and launches. A considerable part of the armament is old, but the +more modern vessels are armed with Armstrong rifled guns. The naval +programme of the republic for 1905 provided for the prompt construction +of 3 battleships of the largest displacement, 3 armoured cruisers, 6 +destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and 3 submarine boats; and by 1909 the +reorganization of the navy was far advanced. The principal naval arsenal +is located at Rio de Janeiro. The government possesses dry docks at Rio +de Janeiro. The naval school, which has always enjoyed a high reputation +among Brazilians, is situated on the island of Enxadas in the bay of Rio +de Janeiro. There are smaller arsenals at Para, Pernambuco, Sao Salvador +and Ladario (Matto Grosso) and a shipbuilding yard of considerable +importance at the Rio de Janeiro arsenal. + +_Education._--Education is in a backward condition, and it is estimated +that 80% of the population can neither read nor write. The lowest rate +of illiteracy is to be found in the southern half of the republic. +Public instruction, is, by constitutional provision, under secular +control, but religious denominations are permitted to have their own +schools. Primary instruction is free but not compulsory, and the schools +are supported and supervised by the states. An incomplete return in 1891 +gave 8793 schools and 376,399 pupils. Secondary and higher education are +under both federal and state control, the former being represented by +lyceums in the state capitals, and by such institutions as the Gymnasio +Nacional (formerly Collegio Dom Pedro II.) in Rio de Janeiro. Many of +the states also maintain normal schools of an inferior type, that of Sao +Paulo being the best and most modern of the number. Higher, or superior, +instruction is confined almost exclusively to professional schools--the +medical schools of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, the law schools of Sao +Paulo and Pernambuco, the polytechnic of Rio de Janeiro, and the school +of mines of Ouro Preto. There are many private schools in all the large +cities, from the primary schools maintained by the church and various +corporations and religious associations to schools of secondary and +collegiate grades, such as the Protestant mission schools of Petropolis, +Piracicaba, Juiz de Fora, Sao Paulo and Parana, the Lyceu de Artes e +Ofiicios (night school) of Rio de Janeiro, and the Mackenzie College of +Sao Paulo. Perhaps the best educational work in Brazil is done in these +private schools. In addition to these there are a number of seminaries +for the education of priests, where special attention is given to the +classics and belles-lettres. + +_Religion._--The revolution of 1889 and the constitution adopted in 1891 +not only effected a radical change in the form of government, but also +brought about the separation of church and state. Before that time the +Roman Catholic Church had been recognized and supported by the state. +Not only are the national and state governments forbidden by the +constitution to establish or subsidize religious worship, but its +freedom is guaranteed by a prohibition against placing obstructions upon +its exercise. The relations of the state with the disestablished church +since 1889 have been somewhat anomalous, the government having decided +to continue during their lives the stipends of the church functionaries +at the time of disestablishment. The census of 1890 divided the +population into 14,179,615 Roman Catholics, 143,743 Protestants, 3300 of +all other faiths, 7257 of no religious profession, and 600,000 +unchristianized Indians. The increase of population through immigration +is overwhelmingly Catholic, and the nation must, therefore, continue +Roman Catholic whether the church is subsidized by the state or not. The +moral character of churchmen in Brazil has been severely criticized by +many observers, and the ease with which disestablishment was effected is +probably largely due to their failings. The church had exercised a +preponderating influence in all matters relating to education and the +social life of the people, and it was felt that no sweeping reforms +could be secured until its domination had been broken. The immediate +results of disestablishment were civil marriage, the civil registry of +births and deaths, and the secularization of cemeteries; but the church +retains its influence over all loyal churchmen through the confessional, +the last rites of the church, and their sentiment against the +profanation of holy ground. Formerly Brazil constituted an +ecclesiastical province under the metropolitan jurisdiction of an +archbishop residing at Bahia, with 11 suffragan bishops, 12 +vicars-general and about 2000 curates. In 1892 the diocese of Rio de +Janeiro was made an archbishopric, and four new dioceses were created. +Three more have been added since, making twenty dioceses in all. In 1905 +the archbishop of Rio de Janeiro was made a cardinal. The church has +eleven seminaries for the education of priests, and maintains a large +number of private schools, especially for girls, which are patronized by +the better classes. The church likewise exercises a far-reaching +influence over the people through the beneficent work of its lay orders, +and through the hospitals and asylums under its control in every part of +the country. A Misericordia hospital is to be found in almost every town +of importance, and _recolhimentos_ for orphan girls in all the large +cities. In no country have these charities received more generous +support than in Brazil. The Protestant contingent consists of a number +of small congregations scattered throughout the country, a few +Portuguese Protestants from the Azores, a part of the German colonists +settled in the central and southern states, and a large percentage of +the North Europeans and Americans temporarily resident in Brazil. The +Positivists are few in number, but their congregations are made up of +educated and influential people. + +_Art, Science and Literature._--The Brazilian people have the natural +taste for art, music and literature so common among the Latin nations of +the Old World. The emperor Dom Pedro II. did much to encourage these +pursuits, and many promising young men received their education in +Europe at his personal expense. Still earlier in the century (1815) the +regent Dom John VI. brought out a number of French artists to educate +his subjects in the fine arts, and the _Escola Real de Sciencias, Artes +e Officios_ was founded in the following year. From this beginning +resulted the _Academia de Bellas Artes_ of a later date, to which was +added a conservatory of music in 1841. The institution is now called the +_Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes_. Free instruction in the fine arts has +been given in this school. The higher results of artistic training, +however, are less marked than a widespread dilettantism. The Brazilian +composer Carlos Gomes (1839-1896) is the best known of those who have +adopted music as a profession, his opera _Il Guarani_ having been +produced at most of the European capitals. The most prominent among +Brazilian painters is Pedro Americo, and in sculpture Rodolpho +Bernardelli has done good work. In science Brazil has accomplished very +little, although many eminent foreign naturalists have spent years of +study within her borders. Joao Barbosa Rodrigues has done some good work +in botany, especially in the study of the palms of the Amazon, and Joao +Baptista de Lacerda has made important biological investigations at the +national museum of Rio de Janeiro. There are several scientific +societies and institutions in the country, but they rarely undertake +original work. The most active are the geographical societies, but very +little has been done in the direction of scientific exploration. Some +interesting results have been obtained from the boundary surveys, from +Dr E. Cruls's exploration of a section of the Goyaz plateau in 1892 in +search of a site for the future capital of the republic, and from some +of the river and railway surveys. In 1875 a geological commission was +organized under the direction of Professor Charles Frederick Hartt, but +it was disbanded two years later. In 1906 Congress resolved to undertake +a national geological survey under the direction of Mr Orville A. Derby, +one of Professor Hartt's assistants. The coal resources of the southern +states were investigated in 1904, under the auspices of the national +government, by Dr J.C. White, of the U.S. Geological Survey, who found +strata of fairly good coal at depths of 100 to 200 ft. extending from +Rio Grande do Sul north to Sao Paulo. The more important contributions +to our present knowledge of Brazil, however, have been obtained through +the labours of foreign naturalists. Beginning with the German +mineralogist W.L. von Eschwege, who spent nineteen years in Brazil +(1809-1828), the list includes A. de Saint-Hilaire (1816-1820 and +1830), J.B. von Spix and C.F. von Martins (1817-1820), Prince Max zu +Neuwied (1815-1817), P.W. Lund (1827-1830, and 1830 to 1880, the year of +his death), George Gardner (1836-1841), A.R. Wallace (1848-1852), H.W. +Bates (1848-1859), Hermann Burmeister (1850-1852), Louis Agassiz +(1865-1866), Charles Frederick Hartt (1865-1866, 1872 and 1875-1878) and +Karl von den Steinen (1884-1885 and 1887-1888). These explorations cover +every branch of natural science and resulted in publications of +inestimable scientific value. There should also be mentioned the +monumental work of C.F.P. von Martius on the _Flora Braziliensis_, and +the explorations of Agassiz and Lund. Among other scientists of a later +date who have published important works on Brazil are the American +geologists O.A. Derby and J.C. Branner, the Swiss naturalist E.A. +Goeldi, the German botanist J. Huber, the German ethnologist H. von +Ihring, and'the German geographer Fried. Katzer. The _Instituto +Historico e Geographico Brazileiro_, though devoted chiefly to +historical research, has rendered noteworthy service in its +encouragement of geographical exploration and by its publication of +various scientific memoirs. The Museu Nacional at Rio de Janeiro, which +has occupied the imperial palace of Sao Christovao since the overthrow +of the monarchy, contains large collections of much scientific value, +but defective organization and apathetic direction have rendered them of +comparatively slight service. The Observatorio Nacional at Rio de +Janeiro is another prominent public institution. The botanical gardens +of Brazil are developing into permanent exhibitions of the flora of the +regions in which they are located. That of Rio de Janeiro is widely +celebrated for its avenues of royal palms, but it has also rendered an +important service to the country in the dissemination of exotic plants. + +Brazilian literature has been seriously prejudiced by partisan politics +and dilettantism. The colonial period was one of strict repression, the +intellectual life of the people being jealously supervised by the church +to protect itself against heresy, and their progress being restricted by +the Portuguese crown to protect its monopoly of the natural resources of +the country. The arrival of Dom John VI. in 1808 broke down some of +these restrictions, and the first year of his residence in Rio de +Janeiro saw the establishment of the first printing press in Brazil and +the publication of an official gazette. There was no freedom of the +press, however, until 1821, when the abolition of the censorship and the +constitutional struggle in Portugal gave rise to a political discussion +that marked the opening of a new era in the development of the nation, +and aroused an intellectual activity that has been highly productive in +journalistic and polemical writings. In no country, perhaps, has the +press exercised a more direct and powerful influence upon government +than in Brazil, and in no other country can there be found so high a +percentage of journalists in official life. Some of the political +writers have played an important part in moulding public opinion on +certain questions, as in the case of A.C. Tavares Bastos, whose _Cartas +do Solitario_ were highly instrumental in causing the Amazon to be +thrown open to the world's commerce and also in preparing the way for +the abolition of slavery; and in that of Joaquim Saldanha Marinho, whose +discussions in 1874-1876 of the relations between church and state +prepared the way for their separation. The personal element is +conspicuous in the Brazilian journalism, and for a considerable period +of its history libellous attacks on persons, signed by professional +sponsors, popularly called _testas de ferro_ (iron heads), were admitted +at so much a line in the best newspapers. + +The singular adaptability of the Portuguese language to poetical +expression, coupled with the imaginative temperament of the people, has +led to an unusual production and appreciation of poetry. The percentage +of educated men who have written little volumes of lyrics is +surprisingly large, and this may be accounted for by the old Portuguese +custom of reciting poetry with musical accompaniment. The most popular +of the Brazilian poets are Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga, Antonio Goncalves +Dias and Bernardo Guimaraes. Among the dramatists and novelists may be +mentioned Joaquim Manoel de Macedo, Jose Martiniano de Alencar, Bernardo +Guimaraes, A. de Escrangnolle Taunay and J.M. Machado de Assis. Jose M. +de Alencar is usually described as the greatest of Brazilian novelists. +The most popular of his romances are _Iracema_ and _O Guarany_. In +historical literature Brazil has produced one writer of high +standing--Francisco Adolpho Varnhagen (Visconde de Porto Seguro), whose +_Historia Geral do Brazil_ is a standard authority on that subject. The +two English authorities, Robert Southey's _History of Brazil_, covering +the colonial period, and John Armitage's _History of Brazil_, covering +the period between the arrival of the Braganza family (1808) and the +abdication of Dom Pedro I. (1831), have been translated into Portuguese. +Another Brazilian historian of recognized merit is Joao Manoel Pereira +da Silva, whose historical writings cover the first years of the empire, +from its foundation to 1840. Among the later writers Joao Capistrano de +Abren has produced some short historical studies of great merit. In the +field of philosophic speculation, Auguste Comte has had many disciples +in Brazil. + + _Finance._--The national revenue is derived largely from the duties on + imports, the duties on exports having been surrendered to the states + when the republic was organized. Other sources of revenue are stamp + taxes on business transactions, domestic consumption taxes (usually + payable in stamps) on manufactured tobaccos, beverages, boots and + shoes, textiles, matches, salt, preserved foods, hats, pharmaceutical + preparations, perfumeries, candles, vinegar, walking sticks and + playing cards, and taxes on lotteries, passenger tickets, salaries and + dividends of joint-stock companies. Formerly import duties were + payable in currency, but in 1899 it was decided to collect 10% of them + in gold to provide the government with specie for its foreign + remittances. The revenues and expenditures have since then been + calculated in gold and currency together, to the complete + mystification of the average citizen, and the gold percentage of the + duties on imports has been increased to 35 and 50% (in 1907), the + higher rate to apply to specified articles and rule when exchange on + London is above 14 pence per milreis, and the lower when it is below. + The service of the national debt absorbs a very large part of the + expenditure, about 45% of the estimates for 1907 being assigned to the + department of finance. The department of industry, communications and + public works takes the next highest proportion, but about half its + expenditures are met by special taxes, as in the case of port works + and railway inspection, and by the revenues of the state railways, + telegraph lines and post office. The depreciation and unstable + character of the paper currency render it difficult to give a clear + statement of receipts and expenditures for a term of years, the + sterling equivalents often showing a decrease, through a fall in the + value of the milreis, where there has been an actual increase in + currency returns. This was most noticeable between 1889 and 1898, when + exchange, which represents the value of the milreis, fell from a + maximum of 27-3/4 pence (27d. being the par value of the milreis) to a + minimum of 5-5/8 pence. Since 1898 there has been an upward movement + of exchange, the average rate for 1905 having been very nearly 16 + pence. In this period the increase in the sterling equivalents would + be proportionately greater than that of the currency values. The gold + and currency receipts and expenditures for the six years 1900 to 1905, + inclusive, according to official returns, were as follows:-- + + +------+---------+---------------------------+--------------------------+ + | | Average | Revenue. | Expenditure. | + | Year.| Rate of +-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+ + | |Exchange.| Gold | Currency | Gold | Currency | + | | Pence. | Milreis. | Milreis. | Milreis. | Milreis. | + +------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+ + | 1900 | 9.50 | 49,955,522 | 263,687,253 | 41,892,150 | 372,753,986 | + | 1901 | 11.38 | 44,041,302 | 239,284,702 | 40,493,241 | 261,629,212 | + | 1902 | 11.97 | 42,904,844 | 266,584,912 | 34,574,643 | 236,458,862 | + | 1903 | 12 | 45,121,844 | 327,370,063 | 48,324,642 | 291,198,960 | + | 1904 | 12.28 | 50,566,572 | 342,782,191 | 48,476,413 | 352,292,147 | + | 1905 | 15.89 | 64,207,004 | 243,355,396 | 51,606,272 | 265,699,281 | + +------+---------+-------------+-------------+------------+-------------+ + + Reducing gold to a currency basis at 15d. per milreis (the official + valuation adopted in 1906), the budget for 1907 provided for a revenue + of 353,590,593 milreis and an expenditure of 409,482,284 milreis, + showing a deficit of 55,891,691 milreis. These deficits were common + enough under the monarchy, but they have become still more prominent + under the republic. According to the "Retrospecto Commercial" for 1906 + of the _Jornal do Commercio_ (Rio de Janeiro, March 5, 1907), the + aggregate deficits for the eleven years 1891 to 1904 were 692,000,000 + milreis, or, say, L43,250,000. + + The natural result of such a regime is increasing indebtedness. In + 1888, a year before the republic was proclaimed, the internal and + external national debts amounted to L74,000,000 sterling, with the + currency at par. Ten years later, when the currency had fallen to + 5-5/8 pence per milreis, the government found itself unable to meet + the interest obligations on its debt and railway guarantees, and an + arrangement was made with its creditors in London for the issue of a + 5% funding loan to an amount not to exceed L10,000,000, and the + suspension of all amortization for thirteen years. On the other hand + the government agreed to withdraw currency, which had reached a total + of 788,364,614 1/2-milreis, _pari passu_ with the issue of the loan, + the milreis being computed at 18 pence. The purpose of this condition + was in order to improve the value of the paper milreis in order to + increase the specie value of the revenues. The scheme came into + operation in June 1898, and not only was a complete suspension of + payments avoided but the financial situation was greatly improved. The + government even withdrew more of its currency issues than required by + the agreement, and the value of the milreis steadily improved. At the + same time the government carried out the forced conversion of the + national loans into lower interest-bearing issues, which greatly + reduced the annual interest charges. These measures would have put the + financial affairs of the nation on a solid footing in a very few years + had the government been able to keep its expenditure within its + income. The naval revolt of 1893-1894, however, had aroused the spirit + of militarism in the ruling classes, and the effort to perfect the + organization and equipment of the army, strengthen the fortifications + of Rio de Janeiro, and increase the navy, have kept expenditures in + excess of the revenues. The purchase of guaranteed railways owned by + foreign companies likewise added largely to the bonded indebtedness, + though the onus was in existence in another form. The result of these + measures was a large addition to the public debt, which on 31st + December 1906 was approximately as follows (_apolices_ being the name + given to bonds inscribed to the holder):-- + + External debt: L s. d. + Loans of 1883, 1888 and 1889. 26,478,500 + Oestede Minas R.R. loan 3,388,100 + Loan of 1898 7,331,600 + Funding loan of 1898 8,613,717 9 9 + Railway rescission loan of 1901 15,467,015 16 1 + Port works loan of 1903 8,500,000 + ------------------- + L69,778,933 5 10 + =================== + + Internal debt, funded: Milreis + 5 % apolices, Law of 1827 483,546,600 + 4-1/2% " " 1879 20,548,000 + 6 % " " 1897 37,082,000 + 5 % " " 1903 17,300,000 + ----------- + Total, funded 558,476,600 + (at 15d. L34,904,787) =========== + + Internal debt, not funded: Milreis + Paper money 664,792,960 + Savings bank and other deposits: + In paper 246,812,407 + In gold, 19,053,861 r (say) 34,296,950 + Floating indebtedness (a/cs current, bills, &c.) ? + ----------- + Total, not funded, approx. 945,902,317 + (at 15d. L59,118,895 stg.) =========== + + Approximate total indebtedness L163,802,675 + + In addition to these, the government was still responsible for + interest guarantees on fourteen railways, or sections of existing + lines, with an aggregate capital of about L4,900,000 held in Europe + and 12,055,440 milreis held in Brazil, on which the national treasury + paid in interest L191,324 and 1,398,493 milreis. + + The paper currency of Brazil consists of both treasury issues and + bank-notes, the latter issued under government supervision. Its + fluctuations in value have been not only a serious inconvenience in + commercial transactions, but also the cause of heavy loss to the + people. Under the provisions of the funding loan of 1898 a scheme for + the withdrawal of the paper money was carried into effect, and by the + end of December 1906 the amount in circulation had been reduced from + 788,364,614 1/2-milreis (the outstanding circulation 31st August 1898) + to 664,792,960 1/2-milreis. Two funds were created for the redemption + and guarantee of paper issues, the latter receiving 5% of the import + duties payable in gold. Up to 1906 the Caixa da Amortisacao + (redemption bureau), which has charge of the service of the internal + funded debt, superintended the redemption of the currency, but in that + year (December 6, 1906) a Caixa de Conversao (conversion bureau) was + created for this special service. It is modelled after the Argentine + Conversion office, and is authorized to issue notes to bearer against + deposits of gold at the rate of 15 pence per milreis although exchange + was above 17d. when the scheme was proposed. The notes are to be + redeemable in gold at sight, the Caixa de Conversao to keep the gold + paid in for that express purpose. The coffee producers of Sao Paulo + and other states found that the appreciation in value of the milreis + was reducing their profits, and they advocated this measure (at first + with a valuation of 12d.) to check the upward movement in exchange. + Metallic money is limited to nickel and bronze coins, but in 1906 the + government was authorized to purchase bar silver for the coinage of + pieces of the denomination of two milreis, one milreis and 500 reis + (1/2-milreis). Gold is the nominal standard of value, the monetary + unit being the gold milreis worth 2s. 2-1/2d. at par. The 10-milreis + gold piece weighs 8.9648 grammes, 916 fine, and contains 8.2178 + grammes of pure gold. There is no gold in circulation, however, and + gold duties are paid with gold cheques purchased at certain banks with + paper money. The banking facilities of the republic have undergone + many changes under the new regime. A fruitful cause of disaster has + been the practice of issuing agricultural and industrial loans under + government authorization. Commercial business at the principal ports + is largely transacted through foreign banks, of which there are a + large number. + + In addition to the indebtedness of the national government, the + individual states have also incurred funded debts of their own. The + aggregate of these debts in 1904 was L20,199,440, and the several + loans made during the next two years, including those of the + municipalities of Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia and Manaos, add fully + two and a half millions more to the total. (A. J. L.) + + +HISTORY + + The Portuguese in Brazil. + +Brazil was discovered in February 1499 (o.s.) by Vicente Yanez Pinzon, a +companion of Columbus. He descried the land near Cape St Augustine, and +sailed along the coast as far as the river Amazon, whence he proceeded +to the mouth of the Orinoco. He made no settlement, but took possession +of the country in the name of the Spanish government, and carried home, +as specimens of its natural productions, some drugs, gems and +Brazil-wood. Next year the Portuguese commander, Pedro Alvares Cabral, +appointed by his monarch to follow the course of Vasco da Gama in the +East, was driven by adverse winds so far from his track, that he reached +the Brazilian coast, April 24, and anchored in Porto Seguro (16 deg. S. +lat.) on Good Friday. On Easter day an altar was erected, mass +celebrated in presence of the natives, the country declared an apanage +of Portugal, and a stone cross erected in commemoration of the event. +Cabral despatched a small vessel to Lisbon to announce his discovery, +and, without forming any settlement, proceeded to India on the 3rd of +May. On the arrival of the news in Portugal, Emanuel invited Amerigo +Vespucci to enter his service, and despatched him with three vessels to +explore the country. The navigator's first voyage was unsuccessful; but, +according to his own account, in a second he discovered a safe port, to +which he gave the name of All-Saints and where he erected a small fort. +Vespucci's narrative is, however, suspected of being apocryphal (see +VESPUCCI, AMERIGO). + +The poor and barbarous tribes of Brazil, and their country, the mineral +riches of which were not immediately discovered, offered but few +attractions to a government into the coffers of which the wealth of +India and Africa was flowing. For nearly thirty years the kings of +Portugal paid no further attention to their newly-acquired territory +than what consisted, in combating the attempts of the Spaniards to +occupy it, and dispersing the private adventurers from France who sought +its shores for the purposes of commerce. The colonization of Brazil was +prosecuted, however, by subjects of the Portuguese monarchy, who traded +thither chiefly for Brazil-wood. The government also sought to make +criminals of some use to the state, by placing them in a situation where +they could do little harm to society, and might help to uphold the +dominion of their nation. + + + First organization in Brazil. + +The first attempt on the part of a Portuguese monarch to introduce an +organized government into his dominions was made by John III. He adopted +a plan which had been found to succeed well in Madeira and the +Azores,--dividing the country into hereditary captaincies, and granting +them to such persons as were willing to undertake their settlement, with +unlimited powers of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. Each +captaincy extended along fifty leagues of coast. The boundaries in the +interior were undefined. The first settlement made under this new system +was that of Sao Vicente Piratininga, in the present province of Sao +Paulo. Martim Affonso de Sousa, having obtained a grant, fitted out a +considerable armament and proceeded to explore the country in person. He +began to survey the coast about Rio de Janeiro, to which he gave that +name, because he discovered it on the 1st of January 1531. He proceeded +south as far as La Plata, naming the places he surveyed on the way from +the days on which the respective discoveries were made. He fixed upon an +island in 24-1/2 deg. S. lat., called by the natives Guaibe, for his +settlement. The Goagnazes, or prevailing tribe of Indians in that +neighbourhood, as soon as they discovered the intentions of the +new-comers to fix themselves permanently there, collected for the +purpose of expelling them. Fortunately, however, a shipwrecked +Portuguese, who had lived many years under the protection of the +principal chief, was successful in concluding a treaty of perpetual +alliance between his countrymen and the natives. Finding the spot chosen +for the new town inconvenient, the colonists removed to the adjoining +island of Sao Vicente, from which the captaincy derived its name. Cattle +and the sugar-cane were at an early period introduced from Madeira, and +here the other captaincies supplied themselves with both. + +Pero Lopes de Sousa received the grant of a captaincy, and set sail from +Portugal at the same time as his brother, the founder of Sao Vicente. He +chose to have his fifty leagues in two allotments. That to which he gave +the name of Santo Amaro adjoined Sao Vicente, the two towns being only +three leagues asunder. The other division lay much nearer to the line +between Parahyba and Pernambuco. He experienced considerable difficulty +in founding this second colony, from the strenuous opposition of a +neighbouring tribe, the Petiguares; at length he succeeded in clearing +his lands of them, but not long afterwards he perished by shipwreck. + +Rio de Janeiro was not settled till a later period; and for a +considerable time the nearest captaincy to Santo Amaro, sailing along +the coast northwards, was that of Espirito Santo. It was founded by +Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, who having acquired a large fortune in India, +sank it in this scheme of colonization. He carried with him no less than +sixty fidalgos. They named their town by anticipation, Our Lady of the +Victory (Victoria); but it cost them some hard fighting with the +Goagnazes to justify the title. + +Pedro de Campo Tourinho, a nobleman and excellent navigator, received a +grant of the adjoining captaincy of Porto Seguro. This, it will be +remembered, is the spot where Cabral first took possession of Brazil. +The Tupinoquins at first offered some opposition; but having made peace, +they observed it faithfully, notwithstanding that the oppression of the +Portuguese obliged them to forsake the country. Sugar-works were +established, and considerable quantities of the produce exported to the +mother country. + +Jorge de Figueiredo, _Escrivam da Fazenda_, was the first donatory of +the captaincy Ilheos, 140 m. south of Bahia. His office preventing him +from taking possession in person, he deputed the task to Francisco +Romeiro, a Castilian. The Tupinoquins, the most tractable of the +Brazilian tribes, made peace with the settlers, and the colony was +founded without a struggle. + +The coast from the Rio Sao Francisco to Bahia was granted to Francisco +Pereira Coutinho; the bay itself, with all its creeks, was afterwards +added to the grant. When Coutinho formed his establishment, where Villa +Velha now stands, he found a noble Portuguese living in the +neighbourhood who, having been shipwrecked, had, by means of his +fire-arms, raised himself to the rank of chief among the natives. He was +surrounded by a patriarchal establishment of wives and children; and to +him most of the distinguished families of Bahia still trace their +lineage. The regard entertained by the natives for Caramuru (signifying +_man of fire_) induced them to extend a hospitable welcome to his +countrymen, and for a time everything went on well. Coutinho had, +however, learned in India to be an oppressor, and the Tupinambas were +the fiercest and most powerful of the native tribes. The Portuguese were +obliged to abandon their settlement; but several of them returned at a +later period, with Caramuru, and thus a European community was +established in the district. + +Some time before the period at which these captaincies were established, +a factory had been planted at Pernambuco. A ship from Marseilles took +it, and left seventy men in it as a garrison; but she was captured on +her return, and carried into Lisbon, and immediate measures were taken +for reoccupying the place. The captaincy of Pernambuco was granted to +Don Duarte Coelho Pereira as the reward of his services in India. It +extended along the coast from the Rio Sao Francisco, northward to the +Rio de Juraza. Duarte sailed with his wife and children, and many of his +kinsmen, to take possession, of his new colony, and landed in the port +of Pernambuco. To the town which was there founded he gave the name of +Olinda. The Cabetes, who possessed the soil, were fierce and +pertinacious; and, assisted by the French, who traded to that coast, +Coelho had to gain by inches what was granted him by leagues. The +Portuguese managed, however, to beat off their enemies; and, having +entered into an alliance with the Tobayanes, followed up their success. + +Attempts were made about this time to establish two other captaincies, +but without success. Pedro de Goes obtained a grant of the captaincy of +Parahyba between those of Sao Vicente and Espirito Santo; but his means +were too feeble to enable him to make head against the aborigines, and +the colony was broken up after a painful struggle of seven years. Joao +de Barros, the historian, obtained the captaincy of Maranhao. For the +sake of increasing his capital, he divided his grant with Fernao Alvares +de Andrade and Aires da Cunha. They projected a scheme of conquest and +colonization upon a large scale. Nine hundred men, of whom one hundred +and thirteen were horsemen, embarked in ten ships under the command of +Aires da Cunha. But the vessels were wrecked upon some shoals about one +hundred leagues to the south of Maranhao; the few survivors, after +suffering immense hardships, escaped to the nearest settlements, and the +undertaking was abandoned. + +By these adventures the whole line of Brazilian coast, from the mouth of +La Plata to the mouth of the Amazon, had become studded at intervals +with Portuguese settlements, in all of which law and justice were +administered, however inadequately. It is worthy of observation, that +Brazil was the first colony founded in America upon an agricultural +principle, for until then the precious metals were the exclusive +attraction. Sufficient capital was attracted between the year 1531 (in +which De Sousa founded the first captaincy) and the year 1548 to render +these colonies an object of importance to the mother country. Their +organization, however, in regard to their means of defence against both +external aggression and internal violence, was extremely defective. +Their territories were surrounded and partly occupied by large tribes of +savages. Behind them the Spaniards, who had an establishment at +Asuncion, had penetrated almost to the sources of the waters of +Paraguay, and had succeeded in establishing communication with Peru. +Orellana, on the other hand, setting out from Peru, had crossed the +mountains and sailed down the Amazon. Nor had the French abandoned their +hopes of effecting an establishment on the coast. + +The obvious remedy for these evils was to concentrate the executive +power, to render the petty chiefs amenable to one tribunal, and to +confide the management of the defensive force to one hand. In order to +this the powers of the several captains were revoked, whilst their +property in their grants was reserved to them. A governor-general was +appointed, with full powers, civil and criminal. The judicial and +financial functions in each province were vested in the _Ouvidor_, whose +authority in the college of finance was second only to that of the +governor. Every colonist was enrolled either in the _Milicias_ or +_Ordenanzas_. The former were obliged to serve beyond the boundaries of +the province, the latter only at home. The chief cities received +municipal constitutions, as in Portugal. Thome de Sousa was the first +person nominated to the important post of governor-general. He was +instructed to build a strong city in Bahia and to establish there the +seat of his government. In pursuance of his commission he arrived at +Bahia in April 1549, with a fleet of six vessels, on board of which were +three hundred and twenty persons in the king's pay, four hundred +convicts and about three hundred free colonists. Care had been taken for +the spiritual wants of the provinces by associating six Jesuits with the +expedition. + + + First Jesuit missions. + +Old Caramuru, who still survived, rendered the governor essential +service by gaining for his countrymen the goodwill of the natives. The +new city, to which the name of Sao Salvador was given, was established +on the heights above the Bay of All Saints (Todos os Santos), from which +its later name of Bahia is taken. Within four months one hundred houses +were built, and surrounded by a mud wall. Sugar plantations were laid +out in the vicinity. During the four years of Sousa's government there +were sent out at different times supplies of all kinds. Female orphans +of noble families were given in marriage to the officers, and portioned +from the royal estates, and orphan boys were sent to be educated by the +Jesuits. The capital rose rapidly in importance, and the captaincies +learned to regard it as a common head and centre of wealth. Meanwhile +the Jesuits undertook the moral and religious culture of the natives, +and of the scarcely less savage colonists. Strong opposition was at +first experienced from the gross ignorance of the Indians, and the +depravity of the Portuguese, fostered by the licentious encouragement of +some abandoned priests who had found their way to Brazil. Over these +persons the Jesuits had no authority; and it was not until the arrival +of the first bishop of Brazil in 1552, that anything like an efficient +check was imposed upon them. Next year Sousa was succeeded by Duarte da +Costa, who brought with him a reinforcement of Jesuits, at the head of +whom was Luis de Gran, appointed, with Nobrega the chief of the first +mission, joint provincial of Brazil. + +Nobrega's first act was one which has exercised the most beneficial +influence over the social system of Brazil, namely, the establishment of +a college on the then unreclaimed plains of Piratininga. It was named +Sao Paulo, and has been at once the source whence knowledge and +civilization have been diffused through Brazil, and the nucleus of a +colony of its manliest and hardiest citizens, which sent out successive +swarms of hardy adventurers to people the interior. The good intentions +of the Jesuits were in part frustrated by the opposition of Costa the +governor; and it was not until 1558, when Mem de Sa was sent out to +supersede him, that their projects were allowed free scope. + + + Settlement of Rio de Janeiro. + +Rio de Janeiro was first occupied by French settlers. Nicholas Durand de +Villegagnon, a bold and skilful seaman, having visited Brazil, saw at +once the advantages which might accrue his country from a settlement +there. In order to secure the interest of Coligny, he gave out that his +projected colony was intended to serve as a place of refuge for the +persecuted Huguenots. Under the patronage of that admiral, he arrived at +Rio de Janeiro in 1558 with a train of numerous and respectable +colonists. As soon, however, as he thought his power secure, he threw +off the mask, and began to harass and oppress the Huguenots by every +means he could devise. Many of them were forced by his tyranny to return +to France; and ten thousand Protestants, ready to embark for the new +colony, were deterred by their representations. Villegagnon, finding his +force much diminished in consequence of his treachery, sailed for France +in quest of recruits; and during his absence the Portuguese governor, by +order of his court, attacked and dispersed the settlement. For some +years the French kept up a kind of bush warfare; but in 1567 the +Portuguese succeeded in establishing a settlement at Rio. + +Mem de Sa continued to hold the reins of government in Brazil upon terms +of the best understanding with the clergy, and to the great advantage of +the colonies, for fourteen years. On the expiration of his power, which +was nearly contemporary with that of his life, an attempt was made to +divide Brazil into two governments; but this having failed, the +territory was reunited in 1578, the year in which Diego Laurenco da +Veiga was appointed governor. At this time the colonies, although not +yet independent of supplies from the mother country, were in a +flourishing condition; but the usurpation of the crown of Portugal by +Philip II. changed the aspect of affairs. Brazil, believed to be +inferior to the Spanish possessions in mines, was consequently abandoned +in comparative neglect for the period intervening between 1578 and 1640, +during which it continued an apanage of Spain. + + + English and French aggressions. + +No sooner had Brazil passed under the Spanish crown, than English +adventurers directed their hostile enterprises against its shores. In +1586 Witherington plundered Bahia; in 1591 Cavendish made an abortive +attack on Santos; in 1595 Lancaster attacked Olinda. These exploits, +however, were transient in their effects. In 1612 the French attempted +to found a permanent colony in the island of Marajo, where they +succeeded in maintaining themselves till 1618. This attempt led to the +erection of Maranhao and Para into a separate _Estado_. But it was on +the part of the Dutch that the most skilful and pertinacious efforts +were made for securing a footing in Brazil; and they alone of all the +rivals of the Portuguese have left traces of their presence in the +national spirit and institutions of Brazil. + + + Struggle with the Dutch. + +The success of the Dutch East India Company led to the establishment of +a similar one for the West Indies, to which a monopoly of the trade to +America and Africa was granted. This body despatched in 1624 a fleet +against Bahia. The town yielded almost without a struggle. The fleet +soon after sailed, a squadron being detached against Angola, with the +intention of taking possession of that colony, in order to secure a +supply of slaves. The fall of Bahia for once roused the Spaniards and +Portuguese to joint action, and a great expedition speedily sailed from +Cadiz and Lisbon for Bahia. Once more, though strongly garrisoned, the +town was retaken without any serious fighting in May 1625. The honours +bestowed upon the Indian chiefs for their assistance in this war broke +down in a great measure the barrier between the two races; and there is +at this day a greater admixture of their blood among the better classes +in Bahia than is to be found elsewhere in Brazil. + + + Dutch settlement in Brazil. + +In 1630 the Dutch attempted again to effect a settlement; and Olinda, +with its port, the Recife-Olinda, was destroyed, but the Recife was +fortified and held, reinforcements and supplies being sent by sea from +Holland. The Dutch were unable, however, to extend their power beyond +the limits of the town, until the arrival of Count John Maurice of +Nassau-Siegen in 1636. His first step was to introduce a regular +government among his countrymen; his second, to send to the African +coast one of his officers, who took possession of a Portuguese +settlement, and thus secured a supply of slaves. In the course of eight +years, the limited period of his government, he succeeded in asserting +the Dutch supremacy along the coast of Brazil from the mouth of Sao +Francisco to Maranhao. The Recife was rebuilt and adorned with splendid +residences and gardens and received from its founder the name of +Mauritstad. He promoted the amalgamation of the different races, and +sought to conciliate the Portuguese by the confidence he reposed in +them. His object was to found a great empire; but this was a project at +variance with the wishes of his employers--an association of merchants, +who were dissatisfied because the wealth which they expected to see +flowing into their coffers was expended in promoting the permanent +interests of a distant country. Count Maurice resigned his post in 1644. +His successors possessed neither his political nor his military talents, +and had to contend with more difficult circumstances. + +In 1640 the revolution which placed the house of Braganza on the throne +of Portugal restored Brazil to masters more inclined to promote its +interests and assert its possession than the Spaniards. It was indeed +high time that some exertion should be made. The northern provinces had +fallen into the power of Holland; the southern, peopled in a great +measure by the hardy descendants of the successive colonists who had +issued on all sides from the central establishment of Sao Paulo, had +learned from their habits of unaided and successful enterprise to court +independence. They had ascended the waters of the Paraguay to their +sources. They had extended their limits southwards till they reached +the Spanish settlements of La Plata. They had reduced to slavery +numerous tribes of the natives. They were rich in cattle, and had +commenced the discovery of the mines. When, therefore, the inhabitants +of Sao Paulo saw themselves about to be transferred, as a dependency of +Portugal, from one master to another, they conceived the idea of +erecting their country into an independent state. Their attempt, +however, was frustrated by Amador Bueno, the person whom they had +selected for their king. When the people shouted "Long live King +Amador," he cried out "Long live John IV.," and took refuge in a +convent. The multitude, left without a leader, acquiesced, and this +important province was secured to the house of Braganza. + + + Revolt against the Dutch. + + French expedition to Brazil, 1710. + +Rio and Santos, although both evinced a desire of independence, followed +the example of the Paulistas. Bahia, as capital of the Brazilian states, +felt that its ascendancy depended upon the union with Portugal. The +government, thus left in quiet possession of the rest of Brazil, had +time to concentrate its attention upon the Dutch conquests. The crown of +Portugal was, however, much too weak to adopt energetic measures. But +the Brazilian colonists, now that the mother country had thrown off the +Spanish yoke, determined even without assistance from the homeland to +rise in revolt against foreign domination. The departure of Count +Maurice, moreover, had seriously weakened the position of the Dutch, for +his successors had neither his conciliatory manners nor his capacity. +Joao Fernandes Vieyra, a native of Madeira, organized the insurrection +which broke out in 1645. This insurrection gave birth to one of those +wars in which a whole nation, destitute of pecuniary resources, military +organization and skilful leaders, but familiar with the country, is +opposed to a handful of soldiers advantageously posted and well +officered. But home difficulties and financial necessities prevented the +West India Company from sending adequate reinforcements from Holland. In +1649 a rival company was started in Portugal known as the Brazil +Company, which sent out a fleet to help the colonists in Pernambuco. +Slowly the Dutch lost ground and the outbreak of war with England +sounded the knell of their dominion in Brazil. In 1654 their capital and +last stronghold fell into the hands of Vieyra. It was not, however, till +1662 that Holland signed a treaty with Portugal, by which all +territorial claims in Brazil were abandoned in exchange for a cash +indemnity and certain commercial privileges. After this, except some +inroads on the frontiers, the only foreign invasion which Brazil had to +suffer was from France. In 1710 a squadron, commanded by Duclerc, +disembarked 1000 men, and attacked Rio de Janeiro. After having lost +half of his men in a battle, Duclerc and all his surviving companions +were made prisoners. The governor treated them cruelly. A new squadron +with 6000 troops was entrusted to the famous admiral Duguay Trouin to +revenge this injury. They arrived at Rio on the 12th of September 1711. +After four days of hard fighting the town was taken. The governor +retreated to a position out of it, and was only awaiting reinforcements +from Minas to retake it; but, Duguay Trouin threatening to burn it, he +was obliged on the 10th of October to sign a capitulation, and pay to +the French admiral 610,000 crusados, 500 cases of sugar, and provisions +for the return of the fleet to Europe. Duguay Trouin departed to Bahia +to obtain fresh spoils; but having lost in a storm two of his best +ships, with an important part of the money received, he renounced this +plan and returned directly to France. + +After this the Portuguese governed their colony undisturbed. The +approach of foreign traders was prohibited, while the regalities +reserved by the crown drained the country of a great proportion of its +wealth. + +The important part which the inhabitants of Sao Paulo have played in the +history of Brazil has been already adverted to. The establishment of the +Jesuit college had attracted settlers to its neighbourhood, and frequent +marriages had taken place between the Indians of the district and the +colonists. A hardy and enterprising race of men had sprung from this +mixture, who, first searching whether their new country were rich in +metals, soon began adventurous raids into the interior, making +excursions also against the remote Indian tribes with a view to +obtaining slaves, and from the year 1629 onwards repeatedly attacked the +Indian reductions of the Jesuits in Paraguay, although both provinces +were then nominally subject to the crown of Spain. Other bands +penetrated into Minas and still farther north and westward, discovering +mines there and in Goyaz and Cuyaba. New colonies were thus formed round +those districts in which gold had been found, and in the beginning of +the 18th century five principal settlements in Minas Geraes had been +elevated by royal charter to the privileges of towns. In 1720 this +district was separated from Sao Paulo, to which it had previously been +dependent. As early as 1618 a code of laws for the regulation of the +mining industry had been drawn up by Philip III., the executive and +judicial functions in the mining districts being vested in a _provedor_, +and the fiscal in a treasurer, who received the royal fifths and +superintended the weighing of all the gold, rendering a yearly account +of all discoveries and produce. For many years, however, these laws were +little more than a dead letter. The same infatuated passion for mining +speculation which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South +America now began to actuate the Portuguese; labourers and capital were +drained off to the mining districts, and Brazil, which had hitherto in +great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank before the competition of +the English and French. A new source of wealth was now opened up; some +adventurers from Villa do Principe in Minas, going north to the Seria +Frio, made the discovery of diamonds about the year 1710, but it was not +till 1730 that the discovery was for the first time announced to the +government, which immediately declared them _regalia_. While the +population of Brazil continued to increase, the moral and intellectual +culture of its inhabitants was left in great measure to chance; they +grew up with those robust and healthy sentiments which are engendered by +the absence of false teachers, but with a repugnance to legal +ordinances, and encouraged in their ascendancy over the Indians to +habits of violence and oppression. The Jesuits from the first moment of +their landing in Brazil had constituted themselves the protectors of the +natives, and though strenuously opposed by the colonists and ordinary +clergy, had gathered the Indians together in many _aldeas_, over which +officials of their order exercised spiritual and temporal authority. A +more efficacious stop, however, was put to the persecution of the +Indians by the importation of large numbers of negroes from the +Portuguese possessions in Africa, these being found more active and +serviceable than the native tribes. + + + Reforms of Pombal. + +The Portuguese government, under the administration of Carvalho, +afterwards marquis of Pombal, attempted to extend to Brazil the bold +spirit of innovation which directed all his efforts. The proud minister +had been resisted in his plans of reform at home by the Jesuits, and, +determining to attack the power of the order, first deprived them of all +temporal power in the state of Maranhao and Para. These ordinances soon +spread to the whole of Brazil, and a pretext being found in the +suspicion of Jesuit influence in some partial revolts of the Indian +troops on the Rio Negro, the order was expelled from Brazil under +circumstances of great severity in 1760. The Brazilian Company founded +by Vieyra, which so materially contributed to preserve its South +American possessions to Portugal, had been abolished in 1721 by John V.; +but such an instrument being well suited to the bold spirit of Pombal, +he established a chartered company again in 1755, to trade exclusively +with Maranhao and Para; and in 1759, in spite of the remonstrance of the +British Factory at Lisbon, formed another company for Parahyba and +Pernambuco. Pombal's arrangements extended also to the interior of the +country, where he extinguished at once the now indefinite and oppressive +claims of the original donatories of the captaincies, and strengthened +and enforced the regulations of the mining districts. The policy of many +of Pombal's measures is more than questionable; but his admission of all +races to equal rights in the eye of the law, his abolition of feudal +privileges, and the firmer organization of the powers of the land which +he introduced, powerfully co-operated towards the development of the +capabilities of Brazil. Yet on the death of his king and patron in 1777, +when court intrigue forced him from his high station, he who had done so +much for his country's institutions was reviled on all hands. + +The most important feature in the history of Brazil during the first +thirty years following the retirement of Pombal was the conspiracy of +Minas in 1789. The successful issue of the recent revolution of the +English colonies in North America had filled the minds of some of the +more educated youth of that province; and in imitation, a project to +throw off the Portuguese yoke was formed,--a cavalry officer, Silva +Xavier, nicknamed Tira-dentes (tooth-drawer), being the chief +conspirator. But the plot being discovered during their inactivity, the +conspirators were banished to Africa, and Tira-dentes, the leader, was +hanged. Thenceforward affairs went on prosperously; the mining districts +continued to be enlarged; the trading companies of the littoral +provinces were abolished, but the impulse they had given to agriculture +remained. + + + Portuguese royal family in Brazil, 1807. + + Reorganization on Portuguese model. + +Removed from all communication with the rest of the world except through +the mother country, Brazil remained unaffected by the first years of the +great revolutionary war in Europe. Indirectly, however, the fate of this +isolated country was decided by the consequences of the French +Revolution. Brazil is the only instance of a colony becoming the seat of +the government of its own mother country, and this was the work of +Napoleon. When he resolved upon the invasion and conquest of Portugal, +the prince regent, afterwards Dom John VI., having no means of +resistance, decided to take refuge in Brazil. He created a regency in +Lisbon, and departed for Brazil on the 29th of November 1807, +accompanied by the queen Donna Maria I., the royal family, all the great +officers of state, a large part of the nobility and numerous retainers. +They arrived at Bahia on the 21st of January 1808, and were received +with enthusiasm. The regent was requested to establish there the seat of +his government, but a more secure asylum presented itself in Rio de +Janeiro, where the royal fugitives arrived on the 7th of March. Before +leaving Bahia, Dom John took the first step to emancipate Brazil, +opening its ports to foreign commerce, and permitting the export of all +Brazilian produce under any flag, the royal monopolies of diamonds and +Brazil-wood excepted. Once established in Rio de Janeiro, the government +of the regent was directed to the creation of an administrative +machinery for the dominions that remained to him as it existed in +Portugal. Besides the ministry which had come with the regent, the +council of state, and the departments of the four ministries of home, +finances, war and marine then existing, there were created in the course +of one year a supreme court of justice, a board of patronage and +administration of the property of the church and military orders, an +inferior court of appeal, the court of exchequer and royal treasury, the +royal mint, bank of Brazil, royal printing-office, powder-mills on a +large scale, and a supreme military court. The maintenance of the court, +and the salaries of so large a number of high officials, entailed the +imposition of new taxes to meet these expenses. Notwithstanding this the +expenses continued to augment, and the government had recourse to the +reprehensible measure of altering the money standard, and the whole +monetary system was soon thrown into the greatest confusion. The bank, +in addition to its private functions, farmed many of the _regalia_, and +was in the practice of advancing large sums to the state, transactions +which gave rise to extensive corruption, and terminated some years later +in the breaking of the bank. + +Thus the government of the prince regent began its career in the new +world with dangerous errors in the financial system; yet the increased +activity which a multitude of new customers and the increase of +circulating medium gave to the trade of Rio, added a new stimulus to the +industry of the whole nation. Numbers of English artisans and +shipbuilders, Swedish iron-founders, German engineers and French +manufacturers sought fortunes in the new country, and diffused industry +by their example. + +In the beginning of 1809, in retaliation for the occupation of Portugal, +an expedition was sent from Para to the French colony of Guiana, and +after some fighting this part of Guiana was incorporated with Brazil. +This conquest was, however, of short duration; for, by the treaty of +Vienna in 1815, the colony was restored to France. Its occupation +contributed to the improvement of agriculture in Brazil; it had been the +policy of Portugal up to this time to separate the productions of its +colonies, to reserve sugar for Brazil, and spices to the East Indies, +and to prohibit the cultivation of these in the African possessions. +Now, however, many plants were imported not only from Guiana but from +India and Africa, cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, and thence +distributed. The same principle which dictated the conquest of French +Guiana originated attempts to seize the Spanish colonies of Montevideo +and Buenos Aires, Portugal being also at war with Spain. The chiefs of +these colonies were invited to place them under the protection of the +Portuguese crown, but these at first affecting loyalty to Spain declined +the offer, then threw off the mask and declared themselves independent, +and the Spanish governor, Elio, was afterwards defeated by Artigas, the +leader of the independents. + + + Brazil declared an integral portion of the monarchy. + +The inroads made on the frontiers of Rio Grande and Sao Paulo decided +the court of Rio to take possession of Montevideo; a force of 5000 +troops was sent thither from Portugal, together with a Brazilian corps; +and the irregulars of Artigas, unable to withstand disciplined troops, +were forced, after a total defeat, to take refuge beyond the River +Uruguay. The Portuguese took possession of the city of Montevideo in +January 1817, and the territory of Misiones was afterwards occupied. The +importance which Brazil was acquiring decided the regent to give it the +title of kingdom, and by decree of the 16th January 1815, the Portuguese +sovereignty thenceforward took the title of the United Kingdom of +Portugal, Brazil and Algarves. Thus the old colonial government +disappeared even in name. In March 1816 the queen Donna Maria I. died, +and the prince regent became king under the title of Dom John VI. + + + Pedro proclaims the independence of Brazil, 1822. + +Although Brazil had now become in fact the head of its own mother +country, the government was not in the hands of Brazilians, but of the +Portuguese, who had followed the court. The discontent arising among +Brazilians from this cause was heightened by a decree assigning a heavy +tax on the chief Brazilian custom houses, to be in operation for forty +years, for the benefit of the Portuguese noblemen who had suffered +during the war with France. The amiable character of the king preserved +his own popularity, but the government was ignorant and profligate, +justice was ill administered, negligence and disorder reigned in all its +departments. Nor was the discontent less in Portugal on account of its +anomalous position. These causes and the fermentation of liberal +principles produced by the French Revolution originated a conspiracy in +Lisbon in 1817, which was, however, discovered in time to prevent its +success. A similar plot and rebellion took place in the province of +Pernambuco, where the inhabitants of the important commercial city of +Recife (Pernambuco) were jealous of Rio and the sacrifices they were +compelled to make for the support of the luxurious court there. Another +conspiracy to establish a republican government was promptly smothered +in Bahia, and the outbreak in Pernambuco was put down after a republic +had been formed there for ninety days. Still the progress of the +republican spirit in Brazil caused Dom Joao to send to Portugal for +bodies of picked troops, which were stationed throughout the provincial +capitals. In Portugal the popular discontent produced the revolution of +1820, when representative government was proclaimed--the Spanish +constitution of 1812 being provisionally adopted. In Rio, the Portuguese +troops with which the king had surrounded himself as the defence against +the liberal spirit of the Brazilians, took up arms on the 26th of +February 1821, to force him to accept the system proclaimed in +Portugal. The prince Dom Pedro, heir to the crown, who now for the first +time took part in public affairs, actively exerted himself as a +negotiator between the king and the troops, who were joined by bodies of +the people. After attempting a compromise the king finally submitted, +took the oath and named a new ministry. The idea of free government +filled the people with enthusiasm, and the principles of a +representative legislature were freely adopted, the first care being for +the election of deputies to the Cortes of Lisbon to take part in framing +the new constitution. As the king could not abandon Portugal to itself +he determined at first to send the prince thither as regent, but Dom +Pedro had acquired such popularity by his conduct in the revolution, and +had exhibited such a thirst for glory, that the king feared to trust his +adventurous spirit in Europe, and decided to go himself. The Brazilian +deputies on arriving in Lisbon expressed dissatisfaction with the Cortes +for having begun the framing of the constitution before their arrival, +for Brazil could not be treated as a secondary part of the monarchy. +Sharp discussions and angry words passed between the Brazilian and +Portuguese deputies, the news of which excited great discontent in +Brazil. An insulting decree was passed in the Cortes, ordering the +prince Dom Pedro to come to Europe, which filled the Brazilians with +alarm; they foresaw that without a central authority the country would +fall back to its former colonial state subject to Portugal. The +provisional government of Sao Paulo, influenced by the brothers Andrada, +began a movement for independence by asking the prince to disobey the +Cortes and remain in Brazil, and the council of Rio de Janeiro followed +with a similar representation, to which the prince assented. The +Portuguese troops of the capital at first assumed a coercive attitude, +but were forced to give way before the ardour and military preparations +of the Brazilians, and submitted to embark for Portugal. These scenes +were repeated in Pernambuco, where the Portuguese, after various +conflicts, were obliged to leave the country; in Bahia, however, as well +as in Maranhao and Para, the Portuguese prevailed. In the agitation for +independence continued. The two brothers Andrada were called to the +ministry; and the municipal council conferred upon the prince regent the +title of Perpetual Defender of Brazil. With great activity he set off to +the central provinces of Minas and Sao Paulo to suppress disaffected +movements and direct the revolution. In Sao Paulo, on the 7th of +September 1822, he proclaimed the independence of Brazil. On his return +to Rio de Janeiro on the l2th of October he was proclaimed +constitutional emperor with great enthusiasm. + +The Cortes at Lisbon chose Bahia as a centre for resisting the +independence, and large forces were sent thither. But the city was +vigorously besieged by the Brazilians by land, and finally the +Portuguese were obliged to re-embark on the 2nd of July 1823. A +Brazilian squadron, under command of Lord Cochrane, attacked the +Portuguese vessels, embarrassed with troops, and took several of them. +Taylor, another Englishman in Brazilian service, followed the vessels +across the Atlantic, and even captured some of the ships in sight of the +land of Portugal. The troops in Montevideo also embarked for Portugal, +and the Banda Oriental remained a part of Brazil with the title of the +_Provincia Cisplatina_. Before the end of 1823 the authority of the new +emperor and the independence of Brazil were undisputed throughout the +whole country. + + + Constitution of 1824. + +Republican movements now began to spread, to suppress which the +authorities made use of the Portuguese remaining in the country; and the +disposition of the emperor to consider these as his firmest supporters +much influenced the course of his government and his future destiny. The +two Andradas, who imagined they could govern the young emperor as a +sovereign of their own creation, encountered great opposition in the +constitutional assembly, which had been opened in Rio in May 1823, to +discuss the project of a new constitution. In July the emperor resolved +to dismiss them and form a new ministry, but against this the brothers +raised a violent opposition. In November the emperor put an end to the +angry debates which ensued in the assembly by dissolving it, exiling +the Andradas to France, and convoking a new assembly to deliberate on a +proposed constitution more liberal than the former project. The +proclamation of a republic in the provinces of Pernambuco and Ceara, +with the rebellion of the Cisplatina province, favoured by Buenos Aires +and its ultimate loss to Brazil, were the result of the _coup d'etat_ of +November 1823. The Brazilians were universally discontented--on one side +fearing absolutism if they supported the emperor, on the other anarchy +if he fell. Knowing the danger of an undefined position, the emperor +caused the councils to dispense with their deliberations, and adopt, as +the constitution of the empire, the project framed by the council of +state. Accordingly, on the 25th of March 1824, the emperor swore to the +constitution with great solemnity and public rejoicings. By this stroke +of policy he saved himself and Brazil. Negotiations were opened in +London between the Brazilian and Portuguese plenipotentiaries, treating +for the recognition of the independence of Brazil; and on the 25th of +August 1825 a treaty was signed by which the Portuguese king, Dom John +VI., assumed the title of emperor of Brazil, and immediately abdicated +in favour of his son, acknowledging Brazil as an independent empire, but +the treaty obliged Brazil to take upon herself the Portuguese debt, +amounting to nearly two millions sterling. + +The rebellion of the Banda Oriental was followed by a declaration of war +with Buenos Aires which had supported it, and operations by sea and land +were conducted against that republic in a feeble way. Meanwhile the +well-deserved popularity of the emperor began to decline. He had given +himself up to the influence of the Portuguese; the most popular men who +had worked for the independence were banished; and a continual change of +ministry showed a disposition on the part of the sovereign to prosecute +obstinately measures of which his advisers disapproved. His popularity +was regained, however, to some extent, when, on the death of his father, +he was unanimously acknowledged king of Portugal, and especially when he +abdicated that crown in favour of his daughter, Donna Maria; but his +line of policy was not altered, and commercial treaties entered into +with European states conceding them favours, which were popularly +considered to be injurious to Brazilian trade, met with bitter censure. + +During the year 1827 the public debt was consolidated, and a department +was created for the application of a sinking fund. + + + Abdication of Pedro I., 1831. + +The year 1828 was a calamitous one for Brazil. It began with the defeat +of the Brazilian army by the Argentine forces, and this entirely through +the incapacity of the commander-in-chief; and misunderstandings, +afterwards compensated by humbling money-payments on the part of Brazil, +arose with the United States, France and England on account of merchant +vessels captured by the Brazilian squadron blockading Buenos Aires. +Financial embarrassments increased to an alarming extent; the emperor +was compelled by the British government to make peace with Buenos Aires +and to renounce the Banda Oriental; and to fill the sum of disasters Dom +Miguel had treacherously usurped the crown of Portugal. It was under +these unlucky auspices that the elections of new deputies took place in +1829. As was expected the result was the election everywhere of +ultra-liberals opposed to the emperor, and in the succeeding year people +everywhere exhibited their disaffection. During the session of 1830 the +chambers adopted a criminal code in which punishment by death for +political offences was abolished. It was openly suggested in the +journals to reform the constitution by turning Brazil into independent +federal provinces, governed by authorities popularly elected, as in the +United States. Alarmed at length at the ground gained by this idea in +the provinces, the emperor set off to Minas to stir up the former +enthusiasm in his favour from recollections of the independence, but was +coldly received. On his return to Rio in March 1831 scenes of disorder +occurred, and great agitation among the Liberal party. Imagining himself +sure of a brilliant destiny in Europe if he lost his Brazilian crown, +the emperor attempted to risk a decisive attack against the Liberals, +and to form a new ministry composed of men favourable to absolutism. +This step caused excited public meetings in the capital, which were +joined in by the troops, and deputations went to ask the emperor to +dismiss the unpopular ministry. He replied by dissolving the ministry +without naming another, and by abdicating the crown in favour of the +heir apparent, then only five years of age. Dom Pedro immediately +embarked in an English ship, leaving the new emperor Dom Pedro II. and +the princesses Januaria, Francisca and Paula. The subsequent career of +this unfortunate prince belongs to the history of Portugal. + +A provisional and afterwards a permanent regency, composed of three +members, was now formed in Brazil, but scenes of disorder succeeded, and +discussions and struggles between the republican party and the +government, and a reactionary third party in favour of the restoration +of Dom Pedro, occupied the succeeding years. In 1834 a reform which was +well received consisted in the alteration of the regency, from that of +three members elected by the legislative chambers, to one regent chosen +by the whole of the electors in the same manner as the deputies; and the +councils of the provinces were replaced by legislative provincial +assemblies. Virtually, this was a republican government like that of the +United States, for no difference existed in the mode of election of the +regent from that of a president. The ex-minister Feijoo was chosen for +this office. With the exception of Para and Rio Grande the provinces +were at peace, but these were in open rebellion; the former was reduced +to obedience, but in the latter, though the imperial troops occupied the +town, the country was ravaged by its warlike inhabitants. The regent was +now accused of conniving at this rebellion, and the opposition of the +chamber of deputies became so violent as to necessitate his resignation. +Araujo Lima, minister of the home department, who strove to give his +government the character of a monarchical reaction against the +principles of democracy, was chosen by a large majority in his stead. +The experiment of republican government had proved so discreditable, and +had so wearied the country of cabals, that men hitherto known for their +sympathy with democratic principles became more monarchical than the +regent himself; and under this influence a movement to give the regency +into the hands of the princess Donna Januaria, now in her 18th year, was +set on foot. It was soon perceived, however, that if the empire could be +governed by a princess of eighteen it could be managed better by the +emperor himself, who was then fourteen. + + + Majority of Pedro II., 1840. + +A bill was accordingly presented to the legislature dispensing with the +age of the emperor and declaring his majority, which after a noisy +discussion was carried. The majority of the emperor Dom Pedro II. was +proclaimed on the 23rd of July 1840. Several ministries, in which +various parties predominated for a time, now governed the country till +1848, during which period the rebellious province of Rio Grande was +pacified, more by negotiation than force of arms. In 1848 hostilities +were roused with the British government through the neglect shown by the +Brazilians in putting in force a treaty for the abolition of the slave +trade, which had been concluded as far back as 1826; on the other hand +the governor of Buenos Aires, General Rosas, was endeavouring to stir up +revolution again in Rio Grande. The appearance of yellow fever in 1849, +until then unknown in Brazil, was attributed to the importation of +slaves. Public opinion declared against the traffic; severe laws were +passed against it, and were so firmly enforced that in 1853 not a single +disembarkation took place. The ministry of the Visconde de Olinda in +1849 entered into alliances with the governors of Montevideo, Paraguay +and the states of Entre Rios and Corrientes, for the purpose of +maintaining the integrity of the republics of Uruguay and Paraguay, +which Rosas intended to reunite to Buenos Aires, and the troops of +Rosa's which besieged Montevideo were forced to capitulate. Rosas then +declared war formally against Brazil. An army of Correntine, Uruguayan +and Brazilian troops, under General Urquiza, assisted by a Brazilian +naval squadron, advanced on Buenos Aires, completely routed the forces +of Rosas, and crushed for ever the power of that dictator. From 1844 +Brazil was free from intestine commotions, and had resumed its activity. +Public works and education were advanced, and the finances rose to a +degree of prosperity previously unknown. + + + War with Paraguay. + +In 1855 the emperor of Brazil sent a squadron of eleven men-of-war and +as many transports up the Parana to adjust several questions pending +between the empire and the republic of Paraguay, the most important of +which was that of the right of way by the Paraguay river to the interior +Brazilian province of Matto Grosso. This right had been in dispute for +several years. The expedition was not permitted to ascend the river +Paraguay, and returned completely foiled in its main purpose. Though the +discord resulting between the states on account of this failure was +subsequently allayed for a time by a treaty granting to Brazil the right +to navigate the river, every obstacle was thrown in the way by the +Paraguayan government, and indignities of all kinds were offered not +only to Brazil but to the representatives of the Argentine and the +United States. In 1864 the ambitious dictator of Paraguay, Francisco +Solano Lopez, without previous declaration of war, captured a Brazilian +vessel in the Paraguay, and rapidly followed up this outrage by an armed +invasion of the provinces of Matto Grosso and Rio Grande in Brazil, and +that of Corrientes in the Argentine Republic. A triple alliance of the +invaded states with Uruguay ensued, and the tide of war was soon turned +from being an offensive one on the part of Paraguay to a defensive +struggle within that republic against the superior number of the allies. +So strong was the natural position of Paraguay, however, and so complete +the subjection of its inhabitants to the will of the dictator, that it +was not until the year 1870, after the republic had been completely +drained of its manhood and resources, that the long war was terminated +by the capture and death of Lopez with his last handful of men by the +pursuing Brazilians. From its duration and frequent battles and sieges +this war involved an immense sacrifice of life to Brazil, the army in +the field having been constantly maintained at between 20,000 and 30,000 +men, and the expenditure in maintaining it was very great, having been +calculated at upwards of fifty millions sterling. Large deficits in the +financial budgets of the state resulted, involving increased taxation +and the contracting of loans from foreign countries. + +Notwithstanding this the sources of public wealth in Brazil were +unaffected, and commerce continued steadily to increase. A grand social +reform was effected in the law passed in September 1871, which enacted +that from that date every child born of slave parents should be free, +and also declared all the slaves belonging to the state or to the +imperial household free from that time. The same law provided an +emancipation fund, to be annually applied to the ransom of a certain +number of slaves owned by private individuals. + + + Character of Pedro II.'s reign. + +Under the long reign of Dom Pedro II. progress and material prosperity +made steady advancement in Brazil. Occasional political outbreaks +occurred, but none of very serious nature except in Rio Grande do Sul, +where a long guerrilla warfare was carried on against the imperial +authority. The emperor occupied himself to a far greater extent with the +economic development of his people and country than with active +political life. Unostentatious in his habits, Dom Pedro always had at +heart the true interests of the Brazilians. Himself a highly-educated +man, he sincerely desired to further the cause of education, and devoted +a large portion of his time to the study of this question. His extreme +liberalism prevented his opposing the spread of Socialist doctrines +preached far and wide by Benjamin Constant. Begun about 1880, this +propaganda took deep root in the educated classes, creating a desire for +change and culminating in the military conspiracy of November 1889, by +which monarchy was replaced by a republican form of government. + +At first the revolutionary propaganda produced no personal animosity +against the emperor, who continued to be treated by his people with +every mark of respect and affection, but this state of things gradually +changed. In 1864 the princess Isabella, the eldest daughter of the +emperor and empress, had married the Comte d'Eu, a member of the Orleans +family. The marriage was never popular in the country, owing partly to +the fact that the Comte d'Eu was a reserved man who made few intimate +friends and never attempted to become a favourite. Princess Isabella was +charitable in many ways, always ready to take her full share of the +duties falling upon her as the future empress, and thoroughly realizing +the responsibilities of her position; but she was greatly influenced by +the clerical party and the priesthood, and she thereby incurred the +hostility of the Progressives. When Dom Pedro left Brazil for the +purpose of making a tour through Europe and the United States he +appointed Princess Isabella to act as regent, and she showed herself so +swayed in political questions by Church influence that Liberal feeling +became more and more anti-dynastic. Another incident which gave strength +to the opposition was the sudden abolition of slavery without any +compensation to slave-owners. The planters, the principal possessors of +wealth, regarded the measure as unnecessary in view of the act which had +been passed in 1885 providing for the gradual freeing of all slaves. The +arguments used were, however, of no avail with the regent, and the +decree was promulgated on the 13th of May 1888. No active opposition was +offered to this measure, but the feelings of unrest and discontent +spread rapidly. + + + Establishment of the Republic, 1889. + +Towards the close of 1888 the emperor returned and was received by the +populace with every demonstration of affection and esteem. Even among +the advocates of republicanism there was no intention of dethroning Dom +Pedro, excepting a few extreme members of the party, now gained the +upper hand. They argued that it would be much more difficult to carry +out a successful coup _d'etat_ when the good-natured, confiding emperor +had been succeeded by his more suspicious and energetic daughter. +Discontented officers in the army and navy rallied to this idea, and a +conspiracy was organized to depose the emperor and declare a republic. +On the 14th of November 1889 the palace was quietly surrounded, and on +the following morning the emperor and his family were placed on board +ship and sent off to Portugal. A provisional government was then formed +and a proclamation issued to the effect that the country would +henceforth be known as the United States of Brazil, and that in due time +a republican constitution would be framed. The only voice raised in +protest was that of the minister of war, and he was shot at and severely +wounded as a consequence. Dom Pedro, completely broken down by the +ingratitude of the people whom he had loved so much and laboured for so +strenuously, made no attempt at resistance. The republican government +offered to compensate him for the property he had held in Brazil as +emperor, but this proposal was declined. His private possessions were +respected, and were afterwards still held by Princess Isabella. + +The citizen named as president of the provisional government, was +General Deodoro da Fonseca, who owed his advancement to the personal +friendship and assistance of Dom Pedro. Second in authority was placed +General Floriano Peixoto, an officer also under heavy obligations to the +deposed monarch, as indeed were nearly all of those who took active part +in the conspiracy. + + + Brazil under the Republic. + +Though the overthrow of the imperial dynasty was totally unexpected +throughout, the new regime was accepted without any disturbances. Under +the leadership of General Deodoro da Fonseca a praetorian system of +government, in which the military element was all-powerful, came into +existence, and continued till February 1891, when a national congress +assembled and formulated the constitution for the United States of +Brazil. The former provinces were converted into states, the only right +of the federal government to interfere in their administration being for +the purposes of national defence, the maintenance of public order or the +enforcement of the federal laws. The constitution of the United States +of America was taken as a model for drawing up that of Brazil, and the +general terms were as far as possible adhered to (see above, section +_Government_). + +General da Fonseca and General Floriano Peixoto were elected to fill the +offices of president and vice-president until the 15th of November 1894. +This implied the continuance of praetorian methods of administration. +The older class of more conservative Brazilians, who had formerly taken +part in the administration under the emperor, withdrew altogether from +public life. Many left Brazil and went into voluntary exile, while +others retired to their estates. In the absence of these more +respectable elements, the government fell into the hands of a gang of +military adventurers and unscrupulous politicians, whose only object was +to exploit the national resources for their own benefit. As a +consequence, deep-rooted discontent rapidly arose. A conspiracy, of +which Admiral Wandenkolk was the prime instigator, was discovered, and +those who had taken part in it were banished to the distant state of +Amazonas. Disturbances then broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, in +consequence of disputes between the official party and the people living +in the country districts. Under the leadership of Gumercindo Saraiva the +country people broke into open revolt in September 1891. This outbreak +was partially suppressed, but afterwards it again burst into flame with +great vigour. In view of the discontent, conspiracies and revolutionary +movements, President da Fonseca declared himself dictator. This act, +however, met with such strong opposition that he resigned office on the +23rd of November 1891, and Vice-President Floriano Peixoto assumed the +presidency. + +Floriano Peixoto had been accustomed all his life to use harsh measures. +For the first year of his term of office he kept seditious attempts in +check, but discontent grew apace. Nor was this surprising to those who +knew the corruption in the administration. Concessions and subsidies +were given broadcast for worthless undertakings in order to benefit the +friends of the president. Brazilian credit gave way under the strain, +and evidences were not wanting at the beginning of 1893 that an outburst +of public opinion was not far distant. Nevertheless President Peixoto +made no effort to reform the methods of administration. Meanwhile, the +revolution in Rio Grande do Sul had revived; and in July 1893 the +federal government was forced to send most of the available regular +troops to that state to hold the insurgents in check. + + + Naval revolt and civil war, 1893. + +On the 6th of September prevailing discontent took definite shape in the +form of a naval revolt in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Admiral Custodio de +Mello took command of the naval forces, and demanded the resignation of +the president. General Peixoto replied by organizing a defence against +any attack from the squadron. Admiral Mello, finding that his demands +were not complied with, began a bombardment of the city, but did not +effect his purpose of compelling Peixoto to resign. The foreign +ministers then arranged a compromise between the contending parties, +according to which President Peixoto was to place no artillery in the +city, while Admiral Mello was to refrain from bombarding the town, which +was thus saved from destruction. Shortly afterwards the cruiser +"Republica" and a transport ran the gauntlet of the government forts at +the entrance of the bay, and proceeded south to the province of Santa +Catharina, taking possession of Desterro, its capital. A provisional +government was proclaimed by the insurgents, with headquarters at +Desterro, and communication was opened with Gumercindo Saraiva, the +leader of the insurrection in Rio Grande do Sul. It was proposed that +the army of some 10,000 men under his command should advance northwards +towards Rio de Janeiro, while the insurgent squadron threatened the city +of Rio. In November Admiral Mello left Rio de Janeiro in the armoured +cruiser "Aquidaban" and went to Desterro, the naval forces in Rio Bay +being left in charge of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, an ardent monarchist, +who had thrown in his lot with the insurgent cause. All was, apparently, +going well with the revolt, Saraiva having invaded the states of Santa +Catharina and Parana, and defeated the government troops in several +encounters. Meanwhile, President Peixoto had fortified the approaches +to the city of Rio de Janeiro, bought vessels of war in Europe and the +United States and organized the National Guard. + +Early in 1894 dissensions occurred between Saraiva and Mello, which +prevented any advance of the insurgent forces, and allowed Peixoto to +perfect his plans. Admiral da Gama, unable to leave the Bay of Rio de +Janeiro on account of lack of transport for the sick and wounded and the +civilians claiming his protection, could do no more than wait for +Admiral Mello to return from Desterro. In the meantime the ships bought +by President Peixoto arrived off Rio de Janeiro and prevented da Gama +from escaping. On the 15th of March 1894 the rebel forces evacuated +their positions on the islands of Villegaignon, Cobras and Enxadas, +abandoned their vessels, and were received on board two Portuguese +warships then in the harbour, whence they were conveyed to Montevideo. +The action of the Portuguese commander was prompted by a desire to save +life, for had the rebels fallen into the hands of Peixoto, they would +assuredly have been executed. + +When the news of the surrender of Saldanha da Gama reached Gumercindo +Saraiva, then at Curitiba in Parana, he proceeded to retire to Rio +Grande do Sul. Government troops were despatched to intercept his +retreat, and in one of the skirmishes which followed Saraiva was killed. +The rebel army then dispersed. Admiral Mello made an unsuccessful attack +on the town of Rio Grande, and then sailed to Buenos Aires, there +surrendering the rebel squadron to the Argentine authorities, by whom it +was immediately delivered to the Brazilian government. After six months +of civil war peace was once more established, but there still remained +some small rebel groups in Rio Grande do Sul. These were joined by +Admiral da Gama and a number of the naval officers, who had escaped from +Rio de Janeiro; but in June 1895 the admiral was killed in a fight with +the government troops. After the cessation of hostilities, the greatest +barbarities were practised upon those who, although they had taken no +part in the insurrection, were known to have desired the overthrow of +President Peixoto. The baron Cerro Azul was shot down without trial; +Marshal de Gama Eza, an old imperial soldier of eighty years of age, was +murdered in cold blood, and numerous executions of men of lesser note +took place, among these being two Frenchmen for whose death the +Brazilian government was subsequently called upon to pay heavy +compensation. + +General Peixoto was succeeded as president on the 15th of November 1894 +by Dr Prudente de Moraes Barros. It was a moot question whether Peixoto, +after the revolt was crushed, would not declare himself dictator; +certainly many of his friends were anxious that he should follow this +course, but he was broken down by the strain which had been imposed upon +him and was glad to surrender his duties. He did not recover his health +and died shortly afterwards. + +From the first day that he assumed office, President Moraes showed that +he intended to suppress praetorian systems and reduce militarism to a +minimum. This policy received the approval and sympathy of the majority +of Brazilians, but naturally met with bitter opposition from the +military element. The president gradually drew to him some members of +the better conservative class to assist in his administration, and felt +confident that he had the support of public opinion. Early in 1895 +murmurings and disorderly conduct against the authorities began to take +place in the military school at Rio de Janeiro, which had always been a +hotbed of intrigue. Some of the officers and students were promptly +expelled, and the president closed the school for several months. This +salutary lesson had due effect, and no more discontent was fomented from +that quarter. Two great difficulties stood in the way of steering the +country to prosperity. The first was the chaotic confusion of the +finances resulting from the maladministration of the national resources +since the deposition of Dom Pedro II., and the corruption that had crept +into every branch of the public service. Much was done by President +Moraes to correct abuses, but the task was of too herculean a nature to +allow of accomplishment within the four years during which he was at +the head of affairs. The second difficulty was the war waged by +religious fanatics under the leadership of Antonio Maciel, known as +"Conselheiro," against the constituted authorities of Brazil. + +The story of Conselheiro is a remarkable one. A native of Pernambuco, +when a young man he married against the wishes of his mother, who took a +violent dislike to the bride. Shortly after the marriage the mother +assured her son that his wife held clandestine meetings with a lover, +and stated that if he would go to a certain spot not far from the house +that evening he would himself see that her assertion was true. The +mother invented some plea to send the wife to the trysting-place, and +then, dressing herself in male clothing, prepared to come suddenly on +the scene as the lover, trusting to be able to make her escape before +she was recognized. The three met almost simultaneously. Conselheiro, +deeming his worst suspicions confirmed, shot and killed his wife and his +mother before explanations could be offered. He was tried and allowed to +go at liberty after some detention in prison. From that time Conselheiro +was a victim of remorse, and to expiate his sin became a missionary in +the _sertao_ or interior of Brazil among the wild Jagunco people. He +built places of worship in many different districts, and at length +became the recognized chief of the people among whom he had thus +strangely cast his lot. Eventually he formed a settlement near Canudos, +situated about 400 m. inland from Bahia. Difficulty arose between the +governor of Bahia and this fanatical missionary, with the result that +Conselheiro was ordered to leave the settlement and take away his +people. This order was met with a sturdy refusal to move. Early in 1897 +a police force was sent to eject the settlers, but encountered strong +resistance, and suffered heavy loss without being able to effect the +purpose intended. In March 1897 a body of 1500 troops, with four guns, +was despatched to bring the Jaguncoes to reason, but was totally +defeated. An army comprising some 5000 officers and men was then sent to +crush Conselheiro and his people at all costs. Little progress was made, +the country being difficult of access and the Jaguncoes laying +ambuscades at every available place. Finally strong reinforcements were +sent forward, the minister of war himself proceeding to take command of +the army, now numbering nearly 13,000 men. Canudos was besieged and +captured in September 1897, Conselheiro being killed in the final +assault. The expense of these expeditions was very heavy, and prevented +President Moraes from carrying out many of the retrenchments he had +planned. + +Soon after the Canudos affair a conspiracy was hatched to assassinate +the president. He was watching the disembarkation of some troops when a +shot was fired which narrowly missed him, and killed General Bitencourt, +the minister of war. The actual perpetrator of the deed, a soldier, was +tried and executed, but he was apparently ignorant of the persons who +procured his services. Three other men implicated in the conspiracy were +subsequently sentenced to imprisonment for a term of thirty years. The +remainder of the presidency of Dr Moraes was uneventful; and on the 15th +of November 1898 he was succeeded by Dr Campos Salles, who had +previously been governor of the state of Sao Paulo. President Salles +publicly promised political reform, economy in the administration, and +absolute respect for civil rights, and speedily made efforts to fulfil +these pledges. + + + Reform under President Campos Salles. + +The difficulties in the reorganization of the finances of the state, +which Dr Campos Salles had to face on his accession to power, were very +great. The heavy cost involved in the suppression of internal disorders, +maladministration, and the hindrances placed in the way of economical +development by the semi-independence of the federal states had seriously +depreciated the national credit. The president-elect accordingly +undertook with the full approval of Dr Moraes, who was still in office, +the task of visiting Europe with the object of endeavouring to make an +arrangement with the creditors of the state for a temporary suspension +of payments. He was successful in his object, and an agreement was made +by which bonds should be issued instead of interest payments from the +1st of July 1898, the promise being given that every effort should be +made for the resumption of cash payments in 1901. President Campos +Salles entered upon his tenure of office on the 15th of November 1898, +and at once proceeded to initiate fiscal legislation for the purpose of +reducing expenditure and increasing the revenue. He had to face +opposition from sectional interests and from the jealousy of +interference with their rights on the part of provincial +administrations, but he was able to achieve a considerable measure of +success and to lay the foundation of a sounder system under which the +financial position of the republic has made steady progress. The chief +feature of the administration of Dr Campos Salles was the statesmanlike +ability with which various disputes with foreign powers on boundary +questions were seriously taken in hand and brought to a satisfactory and +pacific settlement. There had for a long period been difficulties with +France with regard to the territory which lay between the mouth of the +Amazon and Cayenne or French Guiana. The language of various treatises +was doubtful and ambiguous, largely owing to the ignorance of the +diplomatists who drew up the articles of the exact geography of the +territory in question. Napoleon had forced the Portuguese government to +cede to him the northernmost arm of the mouth of the Amazon as the +southern boundary of French Guiana with a large slice of the unexplored +interior westwards. A few years later the Portuguese had in their turn +conquered French Guiana, but had been compelled to restore it at the +peace of Paris. The old ambiguity attaching to the interpretation of +earlier treaties, however, remained, and in April 1899 the question by +an agreement between the two states was referred to the arbitration of +the president of the Swiss confederation. The decision was given in +December 1900 and was entirely in favour of the Brazilian contention. A +still more interesting boundary dispute was that between Great Britain +and Brazil, as to the southern frontier line of British Guiana. The +dispute was of very old standing, and the settlement by arbitration in +1899 of the acute misunderstanding between Great Britain and Venezuela +regarding the western boundary of British Guiana, and the reference to +arbitration in that same year of the Franco-Brazilian dispute, led to an +agreement being made in 1901 between Brazil and Great Britain for the +submission of their differences to the arbitration of the king of Italy. +The district in dispute was the site of the fabled Lake of Parima and +the Golden City of Manoa, the search for which in the early days of +European settlement attracted so many adventurous expeditions, and which +fascinated the imagination of Raleigh and drew him to his doom. The +question was a complicated one involving the historical survey of Dutch +and Portuguese exploration and control in the far interior of Guiana +during two centuries; and it was not until 1904 that the king of Italy +gave his award, which was largely in favour of the British claim, and +grants to British Guiana access to the northern affluents of the Amazon. +Before this decision was given Senhor Rodrigues Alves had been elected +president in 1902. Dr Campos Salles had signalized his administration, +not only by the settlement of disputes with European powers, but by +efforts to arrive at a good understanding with the neighbouring South +American republics. In July 1899 President Roca had visited Rio de +Janeiro accompanied by an Argentine squadron, this being the first +official visit that any South American president had ever paid to one of +the adjoining states. In October 1900 Dr Campos Salles returned the +visit and met with an excellent reception at Buenos Aires. The result +was of importance, as it was known that Brazil was on friendly terms +with Chile, and this interchange of courtesies had some effect in +bringing about a settlement of the controversy between Chile and +Argentina over the Andean frontier question without recourse to +hostilities. This was indeed a time when questions concerning boundaries +were springing up on every side, for it was only through the moderation +with which the high-handed action of Bolivia in regard to the Acre +rubber-producing territory was met by the Brazilian government that war +was avoided. Negotiations were set on foot, and finally by treating the +matter in a give-and-take spirit a settlement was reached and a treaty +for an amicable exchange of territories in the district in question, +accompanied by a pecuniary indemnity, was signed by President Alves at +Petropolis on the 17th of November 1903. During the remainder of the +term of this president internal and financial progress were undisturbed +save by an outbreak in 1904 in the Cunani district, the very portion of +disputed territory which had been assigned to Brazil by the arbitration +with France. This province, being difficult of access, was able for a +time to assert a practical independence. In 1906 Dr Affonso Penna, three +times minister under Pedro II., and at that time governor of the state +of Minas-Geraes, of which he had founded the new capital, Bello +Horizonte, was elected president, a choice due to a coalition of the +other states against Sao Paulo, to which all the recent presidents had +belonged. Penna's presidency was distinguished by his successful efforts +to place the finances on a sound basis. He died in office on the 14th of +June 1909. (K. J.; C. E. A.; G. E.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--History: Capistrano de Abreu, _Descobrimento do Brazil + e seu desenvolvimento no seculo xix_. (Rio de Janeiro, 1883); John + Armitage, _History of Brazil from 1808 to 1831_ (2 vols., London, + 1836); Moreira de Azevedo, _Historia do Brazil de 1831 a 1840_ (Rio de + Janeiro, 1841); V.L. Basil, _L'Empire du Bresil_ (Paris, 1862); Caspar + Barlaeus, _Rerun per octennium in Brasilia ... sub praefectura + Mauritii Nassovii... historia_ (Amsterdam, 1647); F.S. Constancio, + _Historia do Brazil_ (Pernambuco, 1843); Anfonso Fialho, _Historia + d'estabelecimento da republica "Estados Unidos do Brazil"_ (Rio de + Janeiro 1890); P. Gaffarel, _Histoire du Bresil francais_ (Paris, + 1878); E. Grosse, _Dom Pedro I._ (Leipzig, 1836); E. Levasseur, + _L'Abolition de I'esclavage en Bresil_ (Paris, 1888); J.M. de Macedo, + _Anno biographico brazileiro_ (3 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1876); A.J. + Mello Moraes, _Brazil historico_ (4 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1839); + _Chorographia historica, chronographica genealogica, nobiliaria e + politica do Brazil_ (5 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1858-1863); _A + Independencia e o imperio do Brazil_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); B. Mosse, + _Dom Pedro II., empereur du Bresil_ (Paris, 1889); P. Netscher, _Les + Hollandais au Bresil_ (Hague, 1853); J.M. Pereira da Silva, _Varoes + illustres do Brazil_ (2 vols., Paris, 1888); _Historia da fundacao do + imperio brazileiro_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1877); _Segundo Periodo do + reinado de D. Pedro I._ (Paris, 1875); _Historia do Brazil de 1831 a + 1840_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1888); J.P. Oliveira Martins, _O Brazil e as + colonias Portuguezas_ (Lisbon, 1888); S. da Rocha Pitta, _Historia da + America Portugueza_ (Lisbon, 1730); C. da Silva. _L'Oyapock et + I'Amazone_ (2 vols., Paris, 1861); R. Southey, _History of Brazil_ (3 + vols., London, 1810-1819); J.B. Spix and C.F. von Martius, _Reise in + Brasilien_, 1817-1820 (3 parts, Munich, 1823-1831); F.A. de Varnhagen, + _Historia geral do Brazil_ (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877); _Historia + das luctas com os Hollandeses_ (Vienna, 187:); C.E. Akers, _Hist. of + South America, 1854-1904_ (1904); the _Revista trimensal do Instituto + Historico e Geographico do Brazil_ (1839-1908), one or two volumes + annually, is a storehouse of papers, studies and original documents + bearing on the history of Brazil. + + Geography, &c.: Elisee Reclus, _Universal Geography_ (1875-1894), vol. + xix. pp. 77-291; J.E. Wappaus, _Geographica physica do Brazil_ (Rio de + Janeiro, 1884); A. Moreira Pinto, _Chorographia do Brazil_ (5th ed., + Rip de Janeiro, 1895); Therese Prinzessin von Bayern, _Meine Reise + indenbrasilianischen Tropen_ (Berlin, 1897); M. Lamberg, _Brasilien, + Land und Leute_ (Leipzig, 1899); L. Hutchinson, _Report_ on Trade in + Brazil (Washington, 1906); F. Katzer, _Grundzuge der Geologie des + unteren Amazonegebietes_ (Leipzig, 1903); J.C. Branner, _A + Bibliography of the Geology, Mineralogy and Paleontology of Brazil_ + (Rio de Janeiro, 1903); J.W. Evans, "The Rocks of the Cataracts of the + River Madeira and the adjoining Portions of the Beni and Mamore," + _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, London, vol. lxii., 1906, pp. 88-124, pl. + v. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The areas are reduced from the planimetrical calculations made at + Gotha and used by A. Supan in _Die Bevolkerung der Erde_ (1904). They + are corrected to cover all boundary changes to 1906. + + [2] The census of 1890 is the last one of which complete returns are + published. That of 1900 was notoriously inaccurate in many instances. + + [3] The census returns are for municipalities, and not for cities + proper. As a municipality covers a large extent of country, the + population given is larger than that of the urban parishes, and is + therefore not strictly correct according to European practice. + + [4] The Brazilian official titles are given for the state capitals: + Belem for Para; Sao Luiz for Maranhao; Sao Salvador for Bahia; and + Recife for Pernambuco. + + [5] The capital of Minas Geraes in 1890 was Ouro Preto; it has since + been transferred to Bello Horizonte, or Cidade de Minas, which has an + estimated population of 25,000. + + [6] Since the naval revolt of 1893-1894 the name of the capital of + Santa Catharina has been changed from Desterro to Florianopolis in + honour of President Floriano Peixoto. + + [7] The "bran" exported is from imported wheat and cannot be + considered a national product. + + [8] The "old metals" consist of old iron, brass, &c., derived from + railway material, machinery, &c., all imported, and should not be + considered a Brazilian product. + + The "sundry products" would probably be included in the four general + classes were the items given. + + [9] Previous to 1907 these two departments were united in one under + the designation of "Industry, Communications and Public Works." The + division was decreed December 29, 1906. + + + + +BRAZIL, a city and the county-seat of Clay county, Indiana, U.S.A., +situated in the west central part of the state, about 16 m. E. of Terre +Haute and about 57 m. W.S.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 5905; (1900) +7786 (723 foreign-born); (1910) 9340. It is served by the Central +Indiana, the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, the Evansville & Indianapolis +and the Vandalia railways, and is connected with Indianapolis, Terre +Haute and other cities by an interurban electric line. The principal +business thoroughfare is part of the old National Road. Brazil's chief +industrial importance is due to its situation in the heart of the +"Brazil block" coal (so named because it naturally breaks into almost +perfect rectangular blocks) and clay and shale region; among its +manufactures are mining machinery and tools, boilers, paving and +enamelled building bricks, hollow bricks, tiles, conduits, sewer-pipe +and pottery. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. The +first settlement here was in 1844; and Brazil was incorporated as a town +in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1873. + + + + +BRAZIL NUTS, the seeds of _Bertholletia excelsa_, a gigantic tree +belonging to the natural order Lecythidaceae, which grows in the valleys +of the Amazons and generally throughout tropical America. The tree +attains an average height of 130 ft., having a smooth cylindrical trunk, +with a diameter of 14 ft. 50 ft. from the ground, and branching at a +height of about 100 ft. The lower portion of the trunk presents a +buttressed aspect, owing to the upward extension of the roots in the +form of thin prop-like walls surrounding the stem. The fruit of the tree +is globular, with a diameter of 5 or 6 in., and consists of a thick hard +woody shell, within which are closely packed the seeds which constitute +the so-called nuts of commerce. The seeds are triangular in form, having +a hard woody testa enclosing the "kernel"; and of these each fruit +contains from eighteen to twenty-five. The fruits as they ripen fall +from their lofty position, and they are at the proper season annually +collected and broken open by the Indians. Brazil nuts are largely eaten; +they also yield in the proportion of about 9 oz. to each lb. of kernels +a fine bland fluid oil, highly valued for use in cookery, and used by +watchmakers and artists. + + + + +BRAZIL WOOD, a dye wood of commercial importance, obtained from the West +Indies and South America, belonging to the genera _Caesalpinia_ and +_Peltophorum_ of the natural order Leguminosae. There are several woods +of the kind, commercially distinguished as Brazil wood, Nicaragua or +Peach wood, Pernambuco wood and Lima wood, each of which has a different +commercial value, although the tinctorial principle they yield is +similar. Commercial Brazil wood is imported for the use of dyers in +billets of large size, and is a dense compact wood of a reddish brown +colour, rather bright when freshly cut, but becoming dull on exposure. +The colouring-matter of Brazil wood, brazilin, C16H14O5, crystallizes +with 1-1/2 H2O, and is freely soluble in water; it is extracted for use by +simple infusion or decoction of the coarsely-powdered wood. When freshly +prepared the extract is of a yellowish tint; but by contact with the +air, or the addition of an alkaline solution, it develops a brick-red +colour. This is due to the formation of brazilein, C16H12O5.H2O, which +is the colouring matter used by the dyer. Brazilin crystallizes in +hexagonal amber yellow crystals, which are soluble in water and alcohol. +The solution when free of oxygen is colourless, but on the access of air +it assumes first a yellow and thereafter a reddish yellow colour. With +soda-ley it takes a brilliant deep carmine tint, which colour may be +discharged by heating in a closed vessel with zinc dust, in which +condition, the solution is excessively sensitive to oxygen, the +slightest exposure to air immediately giving a deep carmine. With tin +mordants Brazil wood gives brilliant but fugitive steam reds in +calico-printing; but on account of the loose nature of its dyes it is +seldom used except as an adjunct to other colours. It is used to form +lakes which are employed in tinting papers, staining paper-hangings, and +for various other decorative purposes. + + + + +BRAZING AND SOLDERING, in metal work, termed respectively hard and soft +soldering, are processes which correspond with soldering done at high +and at low temperatures. The first embraces jointing effected with +soldering mixtures into which copper, brass, or silver largely enter, +the second those in which lead and tin are the only, or the principal, +constituents. Some metals, as aluminium and cast iron, are less easily +soldered than others. Aluminium, owing to its high conductivity, removes +the heat from the solder rapidly. Aluminium enters into the composition +of most of the solders for these metals, and the "soldering bit" is of +pure nickel. + +The hard solders are the spelter and the silver solders. Soft spelter +solder is composed of equal parts of copper and zinc, melted and +granulated and passed through a sieve. As some of the zinc volatilizes +the ultimate proportions are not quite equal. The proportion of zinc is +increased if the solder is required to be softer or more fusible. A +valuable property of the zinc is that its volatilization indicates the +fusing of the solder. Silver solder is used for jewelry and other fine +metal work, arid has the advantage of high fusing points. The hardest +contains from 4 parts of silver to 1 of copper; the softest 2 of silver +to 1 of brass wire. Borax is the flux used, with silver solder as with +spelter. + +The soft solders are composed mainly of tin and lead. They occur in a +large range. Common tinner's solder is composed of equal parts of tin +and lead, and melts at 370 deg. Fah. Plumber's solder has 2 of lead to 1 +of tin. Excess of lead in plumber's solder renders the solder difficult +to work, excess of tin allows it to melt too easily. Pewterers add +bismuth to render the solder more fusible, e.g. lead 4, tin 3, bismuth +2; or lead 1, tin 2, bismuth 1. Unless these are cooled quickly the +bismuth separates out. + +The essentials of a soldered joint are the contact of absolutely clean +surfaces, free from oxide and dirt. The surfaces are therefore scraped, +filed and otherwise treated, and then, in order to cleanse and preserve +them from any trace of oxide which might form during subsequent +manipulation, a fluxing material is used. The soldering material is +compelled to follow the areas prepared for it by the flux, and it will +not adhere anywhere else. There is much similarity between soldering and +welding in this respect. A weld joint must as a rule be fluxed, or metal +will not adhere to metal. There is not, however, the absolute need for +fluxing that there is in soldered joints, and many welds in good fibrous +iron are made without a flux. But the explanation here is that the metal +is brought to a temperature of semifusion, and the shapes of joints are +generally such that particles of scale are squeezed out from between the +joint in the act of closing the weld. But in brazing and soldering the +parts to be united are generally nearly cold, and only the soldering +material is fused, so that the conditions are less favourable to the +removal of oxide than in welding processes. + +Fluxes are either liquid or solid, but the latter are not efficient +until they fuse and cover the surfaces to be united. Hydrochloric acid +(spirits of salts) is the one used chiefly for soft soldering. It is +"killed" by the addition of a little zinc, the resulting chloride of +zinc rendering its action quiet. Common fluxes are powdered resin, and +tallow (used chiefly by plumbers for wiped joints). These, with others, +are employed for soft solder joints, the temperature of which rarely +exceeds about 600 deg. Fah. The best flux for zinc is chloride of zinc. +For brazed joints, spelter or powdered brass is employed, and the flux +is usually borax. The borax will not cover the joint until it has been +deprived of its water of crystallization, and this is effected by +raising it to a full red heat, when it swells in bulk, "boils," and +afterwards sinks quietly and spreads over, or into the joint. There are +differences in details of working. The borax is generally powdered and +mixed with the spelter, and both with water. But sometimes they are +applied separately, the borax first and over this the particles of +spelter. Another flux used for copper is sal ammoniac, either alone or +mixed with powdered resin. + +As brazed joints often have to be very strong, other precautions are +frequently taken beyond that of the mere overlapping of the joint edges. +In pipes subjected to high steam pressures, and articles subjected to +severe stresses, the joints are "cramped" before the solder is applied. +That is, the edges are notched in a manner having somewhat the +appearance of the dovetails of the carpenter; the notched portions +overlap the opposite edges, and on alternate sides. Such joints when +brazed are stronger than plain overlapping joints would be. Steam dome +coverings are jointed thus longitudinally as cylinders, and the crown is +jointed thereto, also by cramping. Another common method of union is +that of flanges to copper pipes. In these the pipe passes freely within +a hole bored right through the flange, and the solder is run between. +The pipe is suspended vertically, flange downwards, and the spelter run +in from the back of the flange. The fused borax works its way in by +capillary action, and the spelter follows. + +The "copper bit" is used in soft soldering. Its end is a prismatic +pyramid of copper, riveted to an iron shank in a wooden handle. It is +made hot, and the contained heat is sufficient to melt the solder. It +has to be "tinned," by being heated to a dull red, filed, rubbed with +sal ammoniac, and then rubbed upon the solder. It is wiped with tow +before use. For small brazed work the blow-pipe is commonly employed; +large works are done on the brazier's hearth, or in any clear coke fire. +If coal is used it must be kept away from the joint. + +In "sweating on," a variation in soldering, the surfaces to be united +are cleaned, and solder melted and spread over them. They are then +brought together, and the temperature raised sufficiently to melt the +solder. + +A detail of first importance is the essential difference between the +melting points of the objects to be brazed or soldered, and that of the +solder used. The latter must always be lower than the former. This +explains why soldering materials are used in a large range of +temperatures. A few will melt at the temperature of boiling water. At +the other extreme 2000 deg. Fah. is required to melt a solder for +brazing. If this point is neglected, it will often happen that the +object to be soldered will fuse before the solder melts. This accident +may occur in the soft Britannia and white metals at the one extreme, and +in the softer brasses at the other. It would not do, for example, to use +flanges of common brass, or even ordinary gun-metal, to be brazed to +copper pipe, for they would begin to fuse before the joint was made. +Such flanges must be made of nearly pure copper, to withstand the +temperature, usually 98 of copper to 2 of tin (brazing metal). A most +valuable feature in solder is that by varying the proportions of the +metals used a great range in hardness and fusibility is obtainable. The +useful solders therefore number many scores. This is also a source of +danger, unless regard be had to the relative fusing points of solders, +and of the parts they unite. (J. G. H.) + + + + +BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL FRANCOIS CAMILLE SAVORGNAN DE, COUNT (1852-1905), +French explorer and administrator, founder of French Congo, was born on +board ship in the harbour of Rio de Janeiro on the 26th of January 1852. +He was of Italian parentage, the family name being de Brazza Savorgnani. +Through the instrumentality of the astronomer Secchi he was sent to the +Jesuit college in Paris, and in 1868 obtained authorization to enter as +a foreigner the marine college at Brest. In the Franco-Prussian War of +1870-71 he took part in the operations of the French fleet. In 1874 when +the warship on which he was serving was in the Gabun, Alfred Marche and +the marquis de Compiegne arrived at Libreville from an expedition in the +lower Ogowe district. Interested in the reports of these travellers, de +Brazza conceived the idea of exploring the Ogowe, which he thought might +prove to be the lower course of the Lualaba, a river then recently +discovered by David Livingstone. Having meantime been naturalized as a +Frenchman, de Brazza in 1875 obtained permission to undertake his +African scheme, and with the naval doctor, Noel Ballay, he explored the +Ogowe river. Penetrating beyond the basin of that river, he discovered +the Alima and Likona, but did not descend either stream. Thence turning +northwards the travellers eventually regained the coast at the end of +November 1878, having left Paris in August 1875. On arrival in Paris, de +Brazza learned of the navigation of the Congo by H.M. Stanley, and +recognized that the rivers he had discovered were affluents of that +stream. + +De Brazza was anxious to obtain for France some part of the Congo. The +French ministry, however, determined to utilize his energies in another +quarter of Africa. Their attention had been drawn to the Niger through +the formation of the United African Company by Sir George Goldie (then +Mr Goldie Taubman) in July 1879, Goldie's object being to secure Nigeria +for Great Britain. A new expedition was fitted out, and de Brazza left +Paris at the end of 1879 with orders to go to the Niger, make treaties, +and plant French flags. When on the point of sailing; from Lisbon he +received a telegram cancelling these instructions, and altering his +destination to the Congo. This was a decision of great moment. Had the +Nigerian policy of France been maintained the International African +Association (afterwards the Congo Free State) would have had a clear +field on the Congo, while the young British Company would have been +crushed out by French opposition; so that the two great basins of the +Niger and the Congo would have had a vastly different history. + +Acting on his new instructions, de Brazza, who was again accompanied by +Ballay, reached the Gabun early in 1880. Rapidly ascending the Ogowe he +founded the station of Franceville on the upper waters of that river and +pushed on to the Congo at Stanley Pool, where Brazzaville was +subsequently founded. With Makoko, chief of the Bateke tribe, de Brazza +concluded treaties in September and October 1880, placing the country +under French protection. With these treaties in his possession Brazza +proceeded down the Congo, and at Isangila on the 7th of November met +Stanley, who was working his way up stream concluding treaties with the +chiefs on behalf of the International African Association. De Brazza +spent the next eighteen months exploring the hinterland of the Gabun, +and returned to France in June 1882. The ratification by the French +chambers in the following November of the treaties with Makoko +(described by Stanley as worthless pieces of paper) committed France to +the action of her agent. + +Furnished with funds by the French government, de Brazza returned in +1883 to the Congo to open up the new colony, of which he was named +commissioner-general in 1886. This post he held until January 1898, when +he was recalled. During his period of office the work of exploration was +systematically carried out by numerous expeditions which he organized. +The incessant demands on the resources of the infant colony for these +and other expeditions to the far interior greatly retarded its progress. +De Brazza's administration was severely criticized; but that its +comparative failure was largely due to inadequate support from the home +authorities was recognized in the grant to him in 1902 of a pension by +the chambers. Both as explorer and administrator his dealings with the +natives were marked by consideration, kindness and patience, and he +earned the title of "Father of the Slaves." His efforts to connect the +upper Congo with the Atlantic by a railway through French territory +showed that he understood the chief economic needs of the colony. After +seven years of retirement in France de Brazza accepted, in February +1905, a mission to investigate charges of cruelty to natives brought +against officials of the Congo colony. Having concluded his inquiry he +sailed for France, but died at Dakar, Senegal, on the 4th of September +1905. His body was taken to Paris for burial, but in 1908 was reinterred +at Algiers. + + See D. Neuville et Ch. Breard, _Les Voyages de Savorgnan de Brazza, + Ogooue et Congo, 1875-1882_ (Paris, 1884), and _Conferences et lettres + de P. Savorgnan de Brazza sur ses trois explorations dans l'ouest + africain de 1875 a 1886_ (Paris, 1887); A.J. Wauters, "Savorgnan de + Brazza et la conquete du Congo francais," in _Le Mouvement + geographique_, vol. xxii., No. 39 (Brussels, 1905). Giacomo or Jacques + de Brazza (1859-1883), a younger brother of Savorgnan, and one of the + men he employed in the work of exploration, published in collaboration + with his companion A. Pecile, _Tre Anni e mezzo nella regione del + Congo e dell' Ogowe_ (Rome, 1887). (G. T. G.) + + + + +BRAZZA (Serbo-Croatian, _Brac;_ Lat. _Brattia_), an island in the +Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) 24,408. +With an area of 170 sq. m. Brazza is the largest of the Dalmatian +Islands; it is also the most thickly populated, and one of the most +fertile. Its closely cultivated surface though ragged and mountainous +yields an abundance of olives, figs, almonds and saffron, while its +wines are of good quality. The corn-crop, however, barely suffices for +three months' food. Other local industries are fishing and +silkworm-rearing. The most important among twenty small villages on the +island is Milna (pop. 2579), a steamship station, provided with +shipwrights' wharves. The early history of Brazza is obscure. In the +first years of the 13th century it was ruled by the piratical counts of +Almissa; but after a successful revolt and a brief period of liberty it +came under the dominion of Hungary. From 1413 to 1416 it was subject to +Ragusa; and in 1420 it passed, with the greater part of Dalmatia, under +Venetian sovereignty. + + + + +BREACH (Mid. Eng. _breche_, derived from the common Teutonic root +_brec_, which appears in "break," Ger. _brechen_, &c.), in general, a +breaking, or an opening made by breaking; in law, the infringement of a +right or the violation of an obligation or duty. The word is used in +various phrases: _breach of close_, the unlawful entry upon another +person's land (see TRESPASS); _breach of covenant or contract_, the +non-fulfilment of an agreement either to do or not to do some act (see +DAMAGES); _breach of the peace_, a disturbance of the public order (see +PEACE, BREACH OF); _breach of pound_, the taking by force out of a pound +things lawfully impounded (see POUND); _breach of promise of marriage_, +the non-fulfilment of a contract mutually entered into by a man and a +woman that they will marry each other (see MARRIAGE); _breach of trust_, +any deviation by a trustee from the duty imposed upon him by the +instrument creating the trust (_q.v_.). + + + + +BREAD, the name given to the staple food-product prepared by the baking +of flour. The word itself, O. Eng. _bread_, is common in various forms +to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Brot_, Dutch, _brood_, and Swed. +and Dan. _brot_; it has been derived from the root of "brew," but more +probably is connected with the root of "break," for its early uses are +confined to "broken pieces, or bits" of bread, the Lat. _frustum_, and +it was not till the 12th century that it took the place, as the generic +name of bread, of _hlaf_, "loaf," which appears to be the oldest +Teutonic name, cf. Old High Ger. _hleib_, and modern Ger. _Laib_. + +_History._--Bread-baking, or at any rate the preparation of cakes from +flour or parched grain by means of heat, is one of the most ancient of +human arts. At Wangen and Robenhausen have been found the calcined +remains of cakes made from coarsely-ground grain in Swiss lake-dwellings +that date back to the Stone Age. The cakes were made of different kinds +of grain, barley and one-grained wheat (_Triticum monococcum_) being +among the ingredients. This bread was made, not from fine meal, but from +grain crushed between some hard surfaces, and in these lake-dwellings +many round-shaped stones have been found, which were evidently used for +pounding or crushing grain against the surface, more or less concave, of +another stone (see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE). Perhaps the earliest +form of bread, if that word may be used, was prepared from acorns and +beech nuts. To this day a sort of cake prepared from crushed acorns is +eaten by the Indians of the Pacific slopes. The flour extracted from +acorns is bitter and unfit to eat till it has been thoroughly soaked in +boiling water. The saturated flour is squeezed into a kind of cake and +dried in the sun. Pliny speaks of a similar crude process in connexion +with wheat; the grain was evidently pounded, and the crushed remnant, +soaked into a sort of pulp, then made into a cake and dried in the sun. +Virgil (_Georgics_, i. 267) refers to the husbandman first torrefying +and then crushing his grain between stones:--"_Nunc torrete igni fruges, +nunc frangite saxo._" + +The question naturally arises, how did the lake-dwellers bake their +cakes of bruised grain? Probably the dough was laid on a flat or +convex-shaped stone, which was heated, while the cake was covered with +hot ashes. Stones have been found among prehistoric remains which were +apparently used for this purpose. In ancient Egyptian tombs cakes of +durra have been found, of concave shape, suggesting the use of such +baking-slabs; here the cake was evidently prepared from coarsely-cracked +grain. In primitive times milling and baking were twin arts. The +housewife, and the daughters or handmaids, crushed or ground the grain +and prepared the bread or cakes. When Abraham entertained the angels +unawares (Genesis xviii.) he bade his wife Sarah "make ready quickly +three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth." +Professor Maspero says that an oven for baking bread was to be found in +the courtyard of every house in Chaldaea; close by were kept the +grinding stones. That bread prepared by means of leaven was known in the +days of the patriarchs may be fairly inferred from the passage in +Genesis ML, where it is said of Lot that he "made a feast, and did bake +unleavened bread." Whether the shew-bread of the Jewish tabernacle was +leavened is an open question, but it is significant that the Passover +cakes eaten by Jews to-day, known as Matzos, are innocent of leaven. +Made from flour and water only, they are about 12 in. in diameter, and +have somewhat the look of water biscuits. + +The ancient Egyptians carried the art of baking to high perfection. +Herodotus remarks of them, "dough they knead with their feet, but clay +with their hands." The practice of using the feet for dough kneading, +however repulsive, long persisted in Scotland, if indeed it is yet +defunct. The Egyptians used for their bread, wheat, spelt, barley and +durra (sorghum). In the opinion of Dr Wallis Budge, barley was in Egypt +the grain of most primitive culture. However that may be, it is certain +that even in ancient Egypt white bread made from wheat was used by the +rich. The form of the bread is revealed by ancient monuments. A common +shape was a small, round loaf, something like the muffin of to-day. +Other loaves were elongated rolls, and curiously enough were sprinkled +on the top with seeds like modern Vienna bread. + +The history of baking in classical Greece and Italy can be clearly +traced. Athenaeus in his _Deipnosophists_ minutely describes many +different kinds of bread, which may be assumed to have been currently +used in Greece. According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist_, xviii. II. S 28) Rome +had no public bakers till after the war with Perseus (171-168 B.C.). +That long after public bakehouses came into use the Romans and other +urban dwellers in Italy continued to make a great deal of bread at home +is certain. In Pompeii several private houses had their own mill and +bakehouse. That city must also have possessed bakers by trade, as loaves +of bread have been found, round in form, and stamped with the maker's +name, possibly to fix responsibility for weight and purity. In the time +of the Republic, public bakehouses were under the control of the +aediles. Grain was delivered to the public granaries by the _Saccarii_, +while another body called _Catabolenses_ distributed the grain to the +bakers. The latter were known as _Pistores_ or "pounders," a +reminiscence no doubt of the primitive time when grain was pounded by a +pestle in a mortar. Slaves were largely employed in the irksome work of +grinding, and when Constantine abolished slavery the staff of the +_pistrinae_ was largely recruited from criminals. The emperor Trajan +incorporated about A.D. 100 the college of _Pistores_ (millers and +bakers), but its members were employers, not operatives. The work of a +bakery is depicted in a set of bas-reliefs on the tomb of a master +Pistor named Eurysaces, who flourished about a century before the +foundation of the college. Here the grain is being brought and paid for; +mills driven by horse and ass (or mule) power are busy; men are sieving +out the bran from the flour by hand (bolters); bakers are moulding +loaves on a board; an oven of domelike shape is being charged by means +of a shovel (peel); and baskets of bread are being weighed on the one +hand and carried off on men's backs on the other. + +_Regulation of Sale._--In the middle ages bakers were subjected to +special regulations in all European lands. These regulations were +supposed to be conceived in the interests of bread consumers, and no +doubt were intended to secure fair dealing on the part of bread vendors. +The legislators appear, however, to have been unduly biased against the +baker, who was often beset by harassing restrictions. Bakers were formed +into gilds, which were under the control, not only of their own +officials, but of the municipality. In London the bakers formed a +brotherhood as early as 1155, and were incorporated in 1307. There were +two distinct corporate bodies concerned with bread-making, the Company +of White Bakers and the Company of Brown Bakers; these were nominally +united in 1509, but the union did not become complete till the middle of +the 17th century. In Austria, bakers who offended against police +regulations respecting the sale of bread were liable, until +comparatively recent times, to fine, imprisonment and even corporal +punishment. In Turkey the lot of the baker was very hard. Baron de Tott, +writing of Constantinople in the 18th century, says that it was usual, +when bread went to famine prices, to hang a baker or two. He would have +us believe that it was the custom of master bakers to keep a second +hand, who, in consideration of a small increase of his weekly wage, was +willing to appear before the cadi in case a victim were wanted. A +barbarous punishment, inflicted in Turkey and in Egypt on bakers who +sold light or adulterated bread, consisted in nailing the culprit by his +ear to the door-post of his shop. In France a decree of 1863 relieved +bakers from many of the restrictions under which they previously +suffered, but it did not touch the powers of the municipalities to +regulate the quality and sale of bread. It left them the right conferred +in 1791, to enforce the _taxe du pain_, the object of which was to +prevent bakers from increasing the price of bread beyond a point +justified by the price of the raw materials; but the right was exercised +on their own responsibility, subject to appeal to higher authorities, +and by a circular issued in 1863 they were invited to abolish this _taxe +officielle_. In places where it exists it is fixed every week or +fortnight, according to the average price of grain in the local markets. + +In England an act of parliament was passed in 1266 for regulating the +price of bread by a public assize, and that system continued in +operation till 1822 in the case of the city of London, and till 1836 for +the rest of the country. The price of bread was determined by adding a +certain sum to the price of every quarter of flour, to cover the baker's +expenses and profit; and for the sum so arrived at tradesmen were +required to bake and sell eighty quartern loaves or a like proportion of +other sizes, which it was reckoned each quarter of flour ought to yield. +The acts now regulating the manufacture and sale of bread in Great +Britain are one of 1822 (Sale of Bread in the City of London and within +10 m. of the Royal Exchange), and the Bread Act of 1836, as to sale of +bread beyond 10 m. of the Royal Exchange. The acts require that bread +shall be sold by weight, and in no other manner, under a penalty not +exceeding forty shillings. This does not, however, mean that a seller is +bound to sell at any particular weight; the words quartern and +half-quartern, though commonly used and taken to indicate a 4-lb. and +2-lb. loaf respectively, have no legal sanction. That is to say, a baker +is not bound to sell a loaf weighing either 4 lb. or 2; all he has to +do, when a customer asks for a loaf, is to put one on the scale, weigh +it, and declare the weight. When bread is sold over the counter it is +usual for the vendor to cut off and tender a piece of bread to make up +any deficiency in the loaf. This is known as the "overweight." There is +little doubt the somewhat misty wording of the bread acts lends itself +to a good deal of fraudulent dealing. For instance, when bread is sold +over the counter, two loaves may be 5 or 6 oz. short, while the piece of +makeweight may not reach an ounce. The customer sees the bread put on +the scale, but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred does not trouble to +verify the weight, and unless he expressly asks for 2 lb. or some +specific weight of bread, it is very doubtful whether the seller, having +satisfied the letter of the law by placing the bread on the scales, +could be convicted of fraud. The provision as to selling by weight does +not apply to fancy bread and rolls. No exact definition of "fancy bread" +has ever been laid down, and it must be largely a question of fact in +each particular case. All bakers or sellers of bread must use +avoirdupois weight, and must provide, in a conspicuous place in the +shop, beams, scales and weights, in order that all bread there sold may +from time to time be weighed in the presence of the purchaser. The +penalty for using any other weight than avoirdupois is a sum not +exceeding L5 nor less than forty shillings, and for failing to provide +beams and scales a sum not exceeding L5. Also every baker and seller of +bread, delivering by cart or other conveyance, must be provided with +scales and weights for weighing bread; but since the Weights and +Measures Act 1889, no penalty is incurred by omission to weigh, unless +there has been a request on the part of the purchaser. The acts also +define precisely what ingredients may be employed in the manufacture of +bread, and impose a penalty not exceeding L10 nor less than L5 for the +adulteration of bread. (See further under ADULTERATION.) + +Although the act of 1836 extends to the whole of the United Kingdom +(Ireland excepted) out of the city of London and beyond 10 m. of the +Royal Exchange, yet in many Scottish burghs this act is replaced by +local acts on the sale of bread. These are in all cases of a much more +stringent nature, requiring all batch or household bread to be stamped +with the reputed weight. Any deficiency within a certain time from the +withdrawal of the bread from the oven is an offence. The London County +Council desired to introduce a similar system into the area under their +jurisdiction, and promoted a bill to that effect in 1905, but it fell +through. The bill was opposed not only by the National Association of +Master Bakers, the London Master Bakers' Protection Society, and by the +West End metropolitan bakers in a body, but also by the Home Office, +which objected to what it termed exceptional legislation. + +It may be noted that the acts of 1822 and 1836 define precisely what may +and may not be sold as bread. It is laid down in section 2 that "it +shall and may be lawful ... to make and sell ... bread made of flour or +meal of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, Indian corn, peas, beans, +rice or potatoes, or any of them, and with any (common) salt, pure +water, eggs, milk, barm, leaven, potato or other yeast, and mixed in +such proportions as they shall think fit, and with no other ingredients +or matter whatsoever." + +_Sanitation of Bakehouses._--The sanitary arrangements of bakehouses in +England were first regulated by the Bakehouse Regulation Act 1863, which +was repealed and replaced by the Factory and Workshop Act 1878; this +act, with various amending acts, was in turn repealed and replaced by +the Factory and Workshop Act 1901. By the act of 1901 a bakehouse is +defined as a place in which are baked bread, biscuits or confectionery, +from the baking or selling of which a profit is derived. The act of 1863 +placed the sanitary supervision of bakehouses in the hands of local +authorities; from 1878 to 1883 supervision was in the hands of +inspectors of factories, but in 1883 the supervision of retail +bakehouses was placed in the hands of local authorities. Under the act +of 1901 the supervision of bakehouses which are "workshops" is carried +out by local authorities, and for the purposes of the act every +bakehouse is a workshop unless within it, or its close or curtilage or +precincts, steam, water or other mechanical power is used in aid of the +manufacturing process carried on there, in which case it is treated as a +non-textile factory, and is under the supervision of factory inspectors. + + The more important regulations laid down by the act are: (1) No + water-closet, &c., must be within or communicate directly with the + bakehouse; every cistern for supplying water to the bakehouse must be + separate and distinct from any cistern supplying a water-closet; no + drain or pipe for carrying off sewage matter shall have an opening + within the bakehouse. (2) The interior of all bakehouses must be + limewashed, painted or varnished at stated periods. (3) No place on + the same level with a bakehouse or forming part of the same building + may be used as a sleeping place, unless specially constructed to meet + the requirements of the act. (4) No underground bakehouse (one of + which the floor is more than 3 ft. below the surface of the footway of + the adjoining street) shall be used unless certified by the district + council as suitable for the purpose (see Redgrave, _Factory Acts_; + Evans Austin, _Factory Acts_). + +_Bread Sluffs._--As compared with wheat-flour, all other materials used +for making bread are of secondary importance. Rye bread is largely +consumed in some of the northern parts of Europe, and cakes of maize +meal are eaten in the United States. In southern Europe the meal of +various species of millet is used, and in India and China durra and +other cereal grains are baked for food. Of non-cereal flour, the +principal used for bread-making is buckwheat (_Fagopyrum esculentum_), +extensively employed in Russia, Holland and the United States. The flour +of pease, beans and other leguminous seeds is also baked into cakes, and +in South America the meal of the tapioca plant, _Jatropha Manihot_, is +employed. But, excepting rye, none of these substances is used for +making vesiculated or fermented bread. + + + Quality of flour. + +A normal sample of wheat-flour consists roughly of 10 parts of moisture, +72 of starch, 14 of nitrogenous matter, 2.25 of fatty matters, and 1.75% +of mineral matter. Starch is thus the predominating component; it is +not, however, the dough-forming ingredient. By itself, starch, when +saturated with water, forms a putty-like mass devoid of coherence, and +it is the gluten of the nitrogenous matter which is the binding +constituent in dough-making, because when wetted it forms a more or less +elastic body. The proportion of gluten in wheat-flour varies from 7 to +15%, but the mere quantity of gluten is by no means the only standard of +the commercial value of the flour, the quality also counting for much. +One of the functions of gluten is to produce a high or well-piled loaf, +and its value for this purpose depends largely on its quality. This is +turn depends largely on the variety of wheat; certain races of wheat are +much richer in nitrogenous elements than others, but such wheats +usually only flourish in certain countries. Soil and climate are +undoubtedly factors in modifying the character of wheat, and necessarily +therefore of the flour. The same wheat grown in the same soil will show +very varying degrees of strength (i.e. of gluten) in different seasons. +For instance, the north-western districts of America grow a hard spring +wheat which in a normal season is of almost unequalled strength. In 1904 +an excess of moisture and deficiency in sun in the Red River Valley +during the critical months of June and July caused a serious attack of +red and black rust in these wheat fields, the disease being more +virulent in the American than the Canadian side of the valley. The +result was that the quality of the gluten of that season's American +spring wheat was most seriously affected, its famed strength being +almost gone. Wheat from the Canadian side was also affected, but not +nearly to so great an extent. Flour milled from hard winter wheat in the +American winter districts is sometimes nearly as strong as the spring +wheat of the North-west. Hungarian flour milled from Theis wheat is also +very strong, and so is the flour milled from some south Russian spring +wheats. But here again the degree of strength will vary from season to +season in a remarkable manner. In the main each land has its own clearly +marked type of wheat. While the United States, Canada, Hungary and +Russia are each capable of growing strong wheat, Great Britain, France +and Germany produce wheat more or less weak. It follows that the bread +baked from flour milled from wheat from British, French or German wheat +alone would not make a loaf of sufficient volume, judged by present +British standards. As a matter of fact, except in some country +districts, British bakers either use strong foreign flour to blend with +English country flour, or, more frequently, they are supplied with flour +by British millers milled from a blend in which very often English wheat +has a small, or no place at all. If the baker's trade calls for the +making of household bread, especially of the London type, he must use a +strong flour, with plenty of staple gluten in it, because it is this +element which supplies the driving or lifting force, without which a +high, bold loaf cannot be produced. If the demand is for tin or (as it +is called in many parts of the north of England) pan bread, a weaker +flour will suffice, as the tin will keep it up. A Vienna loaf should be +made with at least a certain proportion of Hungarian patent flour, which +is normally the highest-priced flour in the market, though probably the +bulk of the Vienna rolls made in London contain no Hungarian flour. A +cake of flat shape can be very well made with a rather weak flour, but +any cake that is required to present a domed top cannot be prepared +without a flour of some strength. + + + Flavour of flour. + +It is a general opinion, though contested by some authorities, that +soft, weak flours contain more flavour than strong, harsh flours. The +strong wheats of the American and Canadian North-West make less flavoury +flour than soft red winter from the American South-West. It would not, +however, be correct to say that all strong wheats are necessarily less +full of flavour than weak wheats. Hungarian wheat, for instance, is one +of the strongest wheats of the world, but has a characteristic and +pleasant flavour of its own. Indian wheats, on the other hand, are not +particularly strong, but are liable to give a rather harsh flavour to +the bread. English, French and German wheats, when harvested in good +condition, produce flour of more or less agreeable flavour. None of +these wheats could be classified as strong, though from each of those +lands wheat of fair strength may be obtained under favourable +meteorological conditions. The Australasian continent raises white wheat +of fine quality which has much affinity with British wheat--it is the +descendant in many cases of seed wheats imported from England--but it is +occasionally stronger. The resultant flour is noted for its sweetness. +Both millers and bakers who are concerned with the supply of high-class +bread and flour make free use of what may be termed flavoury wheats. The +proportion of English wheat used in London mills is very small, but +millers who supply West-End bakeries with what is known as top-price +flour are careful to use a certain amount of English wheat, if it is to +be had in prime condition. They term this ingredient of their mixture +"sugar." London bakers again, with customers who appreciate nicely +flavoured bread, will "pitch" into their trough a certain proportion of +English country flour, that is, flour milled entirely or chiefly from +English wheat, which under such conditions is strengthened by a blend of +strong flour, a patent flour for choice. It has been objected that as +English wheat contains a large proportion of starch, and as starch is +admittedly destitute of flavour, there is no reason why flour milled +from English wheat should possess a sweeter flavour than any other +starchy wheat flour. Experience, however, has amply proved that +well-ripened English wheat produces bread with an agreeable flavour, +though it does not follow that all English wheat is under all conditions +capable of baking bread of the highest quality. But it would be as +fallacious to hold that weak flour is necessarily flavoury, as that all +strong flour is insipid and harsh. Different wheats are undoubtedly +possessed of different flavours, but not all these flavours are of a +pleasing character. In some cases the very reverse is true. Californian +and Australian wheats have occasionally aromatic odours, due to the +presence of certain seeds, that will impart an objectionable flavour to +the resultant bread. + +While the essential character of particular wheats will account for a +good deal of the flavour that may be detected in the bread made from +them, the baking process must also be responsible to some extent for +flavour. The temperature of the oven and the degree of fermentation must +be factors in the question. It has been asserted that the same flour +will bake into bread of very different flavour according as the +fermentation is carried out slowly or quickly, or as the oven is hot or +the reverse. A high temperature seems to have the effect of quickly +drawing out the subtle essences which go to give flavour to the bread, +but it is a question whether they are not subsequently rapidly +volatilized and partially or wholly lost. The rapid formation of a solid +crust is no doubt likely to retain some of these flavouring essences. A +moist, or "slack," sponge, or dough, appears distinctly favourable to +the retention of flavour, the theory being that under such conditions +the yeast, having more room to "breathe," works more easily, and is +therefore less likely to convert into food those soluble constituents of +the flour which give flavour. + + + Colour of flour. + +The colour of flour is a valuable, though not an infallible, index to +its baking qualities. Thus, a flour of good colour, by which bakers mean +a flour of bright appearance, white, but not a dull dead white, will +usually bake into a loaf of good appearance. At the same time, a flour +of pronounced white tint may bake into a dirty grey loaf. This has been +particularly noted in the case of flours milled in Argentina. The colour +of flour will vary from a rich, creamy white to a dull grey, according +to its quality. The different shades are many and various, but the +prevailing tints are comparatively few. Perhaps Blandy's classification +of the colours as white, yellow, red, brown and grey is as serviceable +as any. Each of these tints is directly caused by the presence of +certain substances. White denotes the presence of a considerable +proportion of starch, while a pronounced yellow tint proclaims gluten of +more or less good quality. Red and brown are tints only found in flours +of low grade, because they are sure proofs of an undue proportion of +branny or fibrous particles. A greyish flour invariably contains +impurities, such as crease dirt, from the wheat, the intensity of the +tint varying in proportion to their amount. With regard to a yellow +tint, though this always denotes the presence of gluten, it is difficult +to estimate the baking quality of the flour by the shade of yellow. In +the best Hungarian patent flour the whole sample will be suffused by an +amber tint, known to Budapest and Vienna bakers as _gelblicher Stich_. +Rolls baked from the best Hungarian flour will not infrequently cut +yellow as if eggs had been used in making them up, though nothing more +than flour, yeast and water has been employed. Strong flour milled from +American or Canadian spring wheat is also yellowish in colour, but the +tint is not so deep as with Hungarian flour. On the other hand, there +are flours of no great strength, such as those from some Australian +wheats, which are apt to look yellow. When the colour of flour is not +maintained in the bread, the reason is generally to be found in the +baking process employed. Colour is a fairly trustworthy, but not an +absolute guide to the chemical composition of flour. + + + Damp and flour. + +Unfortunately not all flour of good colour is sound for bread-making +purposes. Wheat which has been harvested in a damp condition, or has +been thoroughly soaked, by drenching showers previous to cutting, or has +got wet in the stook, is liable, unless carefully handled, to produce +flour that will only bake flat, sodden loaves. Wheat which has received +too much rain as it is approaching maturity, and has then been exposed +to strong sunlight, is peculiarly liable to sprout. This seems to happen +not infrequently to La Plata wheat, and though wheat shippers in that +country are usually careful to clean off the little green spikes, this +outward cleansing does not remedy the mischief wrought to the internal +constitution of the berry. Such wheat makes flour lacking in strength +and stability. Its gluten is immature and low in percentage, while the +soluble albuminoids are in high percentage and in a more or less active +diastasic state. The starch granules are liable to have weakened or +fissured walls, and the proportion of moisture and of soluble extract +will be high. With regard to the beneficial action of kiln or other +drying on damp flour, William Jago was convinced by a series of +experiments that the gentle artificial drying of flour increases its +water-absorbing capacity to about three times the amount of water lost +by evaporation. On the other hand, a damp flour dried too quickly and at +too great a heat is liable to be made more instead of less susceptible +to diastasic changes. + + _Alum._--Strictly speaking, when employed with weak and unstable + flours alum is a remedial agent. The popular idea that it acts as a + kind of bleacher of flour, having the faculty of converting flour that + is dark-coloured through containing a sensible proportion of branny + particles and woody fibre, into white-coloured loaves, is erroneous. + Its action as a producer of white bread is indirect, not direct, + though it is none the less effective. It seems to act as a brace to or + steadier of unstable gluten. If from the same wheat a certain + proportion of gluten be extracted and divided into two parts, of which + one is placed in a glass of water containing a strong solution of + alum, and the other in a glass of plain water, the gluten in the + latter case will become spent days and perhaps weeks before the sample + in the alumed water is disintegrated. The place of alum in the process + of fermentation is well marked. By holding together unstable gluten, + it checks the diastasic action, and the proportion of starch converted + into glucose (grape sugar) is reduced, with the result that a whiter + and more porous loaf is produced. It is generally admitted that by the + use of alum more or less eatable bread may be baked from flour which + otherwise could hardly be made into bread at all. Strictly, therefore, + this substance is not an adulterant, inasmuch as it is not a + substitute in any sense for flour. But it is admittedly unwholesome, + and therefore its legal interdiction for alimentary purposes is quite + justifiable. Another aspect of the use of alum is that it is employed + for the purpose of enabling bakers to use poor flour. + + A fairly satisfactory test for alum in bread (or flour) is afforded by + an alkaline solution of logwood and a saturated solution of ammonium + carbonate. The presence of alum is shown by a lavender or full blue + colour. The depth of the tint is said to be a rough guide to the + quantity of alum present. According to Jago this test is so sensitive + that it has resulted in the detection of 7 grains of alum in a 4-lb + loaf. + + Besides alum, small quantities of copper sulphate have been used for + checking diastasis and retarding fermentation. This substance has the + same effect as alum, but as all copper salts are active poisons, the + employment of copper sulphate is most strongly to be condemned. + + _Lime-water._--The object of using either alum or copper sulphate is + to check over-rapid diastasis during fermentation. Baron Liebig + pointed out a much less objectionable means of attaining the same end + by means of lime-water, about 1-1/2 oz. of fresh quicklime being + dissolved in the water used for doughing one sack of flour. Bread made + in this way is said to be spongy in texture, of agreeable flavour, and + perfectly free from acidity. In the baked loaf the lime is transformed + into calcium carbonate (chalk) by the carbon dioxide resulting from + the panary fermentation. It is said that an increased yield of bread + may be obtained by the use of lime-water; the explanation may be that + lime-water, by retarding the degradation of the gluten and the + diastasis of the starch, increases the water-retaining power of the + flour, so that the same weight of flour yields a greater volume of + bread. + +_Unvesiculated and Vesiculated Bread._--Wheaten bread may be divided +into two main divisions, unvesiculated and vesiculated. The term +vesiculated simply means provided with vesicles, or small membranous +cavities, such as are found in all bread that has been treated by yeast, +leaven or any other agent for rendering it spongiform in structure by +the action of carbonic acid gas. Nearly all bread eaten by civilized +folk is vesiculated, though there are different methods and processes +for attaining this result. Into the category of unvesiculated bread +enter such products as the Australian damper, a flat cake prepared from +flour, water and salt, and baked in the hot ashes of a wood fire. The +dough is spread on a flat stone and covered with a tin plate, while the +hot ashes are heaped around and over it; the heat should not be much in +excess of 212 deg. Fahr. The scone, the bannock and other similar cakes, +still much appreciated in Scotland and the north of England, are also +examples of unvesiculated bread. They are baked on hot plates or +"griddles," on hearths, and sometimes in ovens. Biscuits differ from +these cakes in the fact that they are baked by a high instead of a +moderate heat. But they enter so far into the class of unvesiculated +bread that they are generally prepared without the aid of any such +aerating agent as carbon dioxide. (See BISCUIT.) + +Vesiculated bread is now the only article of diet made from flour to +which the term bread is applied, and there are various ways of producing +the spongiform texture by which it is characterized. The ordinary and +doubtless the most satisfactory way is by developing the carbon dioxide +within the dough itself by the use of yeast (q.v.) or leaven, which sets +up alcoholic fermentation, splitting up the saccharine matters in the +flour into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The latter is retained by the +dough and distends it, causing the bread to "rise." Or the carbon +dioxide may be artificially introduced, as in the so-called "aerated" +bread (see below), or it may be produced by the agency of certain +chemicals, as for instance of baking powders. + + + Baking powders. + +Such powders are mixtures which, under the influence of either water or +heat, evolve carbon dioxide. These powders have been divided by Jago +into three groups:--(1) _Tartrate_ powders, in which the acid +constituent is either free or partly combined tartaric acid; (2) +_Phosphate_ powders, in which the acid is some form of phosphoric acid; +(3) _Alum_ powders. All these powders have a more or less aperient +action on the human system. Tartrate powders have the disadvantage that +both commercial tartaric acid and cream of tartar frequently contain +lead, a poisonous substance. Phosphate powders are less open to +objection, as they are more easy to obtain free from lead and other +metallic impurities. Alum powders contain potassium bisulphate and alum. +It is somewhat remarkable that while the presence of alum in bread is +regarded by the law of England as adulteration, its use in baking powder +was pronounced legal in _James_ v. _Jones_, 1894, 1, Q.B. 304, on the +ground that baking powder is not food within the meaning of the Sale of +Food and Drugs Act 1875. In making wholemeal bread, hydrochloric acid +and sodium bicarbonate are often used in such proportions that they +neutralize each other. Carbon dioxide is evolved and raises the dough. +In preparing wholemeal bread the use of this combination has the +advantage that the acid acting rapidly on the sodium bicarbonate soon +produces enough carbon dioxide to aerate the dough, and thus hasten its +entry into the oven. Wholemeal flour contains so large a proportion of +cerealin that diastasis is apt to proceed rapidly, the result being a +clammy, sodden loaf. For this reason, perhaps the so-called aerated +process is even more suitable for making wholemeal than white bread. + + + Methods of making dough. + +Methods of dough-making differ in different countries, and even in +different parts of the same land. In the _off hand_ method the dough is +made right off, without any preliminary stages of ferment or sponge. +This plan is sometimes adopted for making tin bread, and occasionally +for crusty loaves. For tin bread a strong flour would be used and made +into a slack dough, and about 1-1/2 lb. to 2 lb. of distillers' yeast +would be used for the sack (280 lb.) of flour, occasionally with the +addition of a little brewers' yeast. Salt is used in the proportion of 3 +lb. to 3-1/2 lb. per sack. Formerly also it was the custom to add 10-14 +lb. of boiled potatoes, but the use of potatoes has greatly decreased. A +tin-bread dough would be made slack, with about 70 quarts of water to +the sack, and after being mixed, would be fermented at a temperature of +76-80 deg. Fahr. It should lie for about ten hours. A dough for crusty +bread such as cottage loaves, would be made much tighter, not more than +60 quarts of water being allowed to the sack. It would be fermented at a +higher temperature, and would not lie more than about six hours. A slack +dough is much less laborious to work (when the dough is hand-made) than +a tight dough, for which a mechanical kneader is very suitable, but as a +matter of fact the use of machinery (see below) is still the exception, +not the rule. When a stiff dough is made by hand, it is usually made +somewhat slack to begin with, and then "cut back" and "dusted" at +regular intervals, that is to say, more and more flour is added till a +dough of the required consistency has been obtained. (In the British +baker's vocabulary "dust" means flour, and good dust stands for good +flour.) This system, on the one hand, saves the labour involved for +"sponging" and other operations, and the bread is produced in less time; +but on the other hand more yeast is used, and bakers generally hold that +the system sacrifices the colour and texture of the loaf to convenience +of working and yield. The high porportion of yeast enables the dough to +carry a large quantity of water, and about 104 4-lb. loaves to the sack +is said by Jago to be a not unusual yield in the case of slack doughs. +But such a result would only be possible with very strong flour. In an +ordinary way 96 loaves to the sack is a very high yield, unattainable +except with strong flour, and probably the average yield is not more +than 90 loaves to the sack. In London the manager of a "tied" shop is +usually held to account for 92 loaves to the sack. + +In the _ferment and dough_ system, the ferment usually consists of 10 to +14 lb. of potatoes to the sack of flour, boiled or steamed, and mashed +with water, so as to yield about 3 gallons of liquor. There are several +substitutes for potatoes, including raw and scalded flour, malt, malt +extracts, &c.; brewers' or distillers' yeast may also be used. A ferment +should contain saccharine matters and yeast stimulants in such a form as +to favour the growth and reproduction of yeast in a vigorous condition. +Hence it should not be too concentrated. About six hours are required +for its preparation. It is added, together with 2 to 3 lb. of salt, to +the dough, which is prepared with about 56 quarts of water to the sack, +and worked at a temperature of 80-84 deg. Fahr. The dough is allowed to +lie from two to five hours according to the flour used, the character of +the ferment, and the working temperature. In this system the proportion +of strong flour is usually reduced to 40% of the dough, and no doubt in +some cases only soft or weak flours are used. Naturally the yield of +bread is not so high as in the case of an off hand dough made entirely +from strong flour, and it will probably not exceed 90 loaves to the +sack. This method has many advantages. After the ferment is made the +labour required is not much greater than with the off hand doughs, and +less yeast is required, while potatoes, which are somewhat troublesome, +from the necessary cleaning, can be replaced by the substitutes already +mentioned. The method produces good-looking and palatable bread, though +the loaves should be eaten within some twelve hours of leaving the oven. + +The _sponge and dough_ system, which is probably in widest use in +England, is adapted to almost every kind of bread, and has the advantage +that any kind of flour can be employed. The stronger flours which need +long fermentation can be and usually are used in the "sponge" stage, +while soft flours are utilized in the dough. (The sponge is a certain +proportion, varying from a quarter to one-half, of the flour necessary +for making the batch.) In London the baker often uses for the sponge a +bag (140 lb) of American spring wheat flour, and for the dough a sack +(280 lb) of British milled flour, which, whether it be country flour +milled largely from English wheat or London milled, is always softer and +weaker than that used for the sponge. The sponge is made very slack, 26 +to 32 quarts of water being used to say 100 lb. of flour. Yeast, either +distillers' or brewers', must be added, in proportions varying according +to its character and strength. Of distillers' yeast 6 to 10 oz. may be +used for 280 lb. of flour (including sponge and dough). Salt is added to +the sponge sparingly, at the rate of about 1/2 lb. to the sack of 280 lb. +The object of making the sponge so slack is to quicken the fermentation. +When set the sponge is allowed to ferment from six to ten hours, +according to temperature and other conditions. Sometimes all the water +it is intended to use is put into the sponge, which is then known as a +"batter" sponge. The sponge, when ready, is incorporated with the rest +of the flour to which the necessary amount of water and salt is added. +The whole mass is then doughed up into the requisite consistency, the +dough being allowed to lie for about two hours. Bread made by this +method, always assuming that over-fermentation has been avoided, is of +good appearance, presenting a bold loaf, with even texture and a nice +sheen. Owing to the use of soft flours, the flavour should be agreeable, +and the loaves ought to keep much longer than bread made by ferment and +dough. The yield may rise as high as 96 loaves per sack, if strong flour +has been used in the sponge. + +A combination of the above two methods, known as the _ferment, sponge +and dough_ system, is often used with brewers' yeast. In this case the +yeast is not added to the sponge direct, but goes into the ferment. This +method is rather in favour with bakers who make their own yeast. + +The system of bread-making generally used in Scotland is known as the +_flour barm, sponge and dough_. The barm is a combination of a malt and +hop yeast, with a slow, scalded flour ferment. To make the so-called +"virgin" barm a Scottish baker would use a 30-gallon tub; a smaller +vessel for malt-mashing; 10 lb. malt; 3 oz. hops and a jar for infusing +them; 40 lb flour; 2 to 3 oz. malt; 8 to 12 oz. sugar, and 18 gallons of +boiling water. With these materials a powerful ferment is produced, +which it is considered best to use in the sponge the fourth or fifth day +after brewing. The sponges used in Scotland are "half" or "quarter." +About 6 lb. of malt go to the sack, one-sixth going into the sponge. As +in England, strong flours are used for the sponge, but rather stronger +flours are used for the dough than is usual in England. Scottish loaves +are largely of the "brick" type, high and narrow. Such bread has an +attractive appearance and keeps well. It has a rather sharp flavour, +approaching acidity but avoiding sourness, while the large quantity of +malt used adds a characteristic taste. The yield rises in some Glasgow +bread factories to 100 loaves to the sack. + + + Leavened bread. + +In many parts of Europe bread is still made from leaven, which, properly +speaking, consists of a portion of dough held over from the previous +baking. This substance, known to French bakers as _levain_, is called in +Germany _Sauerteig_ (_anglice_ "sour dough"). The lump of old dough, +placed aside in a uniform temperature for some eight hours, swells and +acquires an alcoholic odour, becoming the _levain de chef_ of the French +bakers. It is then worked up with flour and water to a firm paste double +its original volume, when it becomes the _levain de premiere_. Six hours +later, by the addition of more flour and water its amount is again +doubled, though its consistency is made rather softer, and it becomes +the _levain de seconde_. Finally, by another addition of flour and +water, the amount is again doubled, and the _levain de tous points_ is +obtained. This mass is divided into two parts; one is baked yielding +rather dark sour bread, while the other is mixed with more flour and +water. This second portion is in turn halved, part is baked, and part +again mixed with more flour, this last batch yielding the best and +whitest bread. In North Germany leaven is generally used for making rye +bread, and loaves baked from a mixture of wheat and rye flour. In the +bakery of the Krupp works at Essen, each batch of the so-called +Paderborn bread is prepared entirely with leaven from 270 kilos of rye +flour (patent quality), 100 of wheat flour (seconds), 2 of buckwheat +meal, 6 of salt, 5 of leaven, and one litre of oil. In Vienna leaven is +never used for making the rolls and small goods for which that city is +famous. Viennese bakers use either brewers' yeast or a ferment, prepared +by themselves, of which the basis is an infusion of hops. Brewers' yeast +is added to the ferment, which takes the form of a very slack dough. +With 100 kilos (220.46 lb.) of flour about 17 litres or nearly 2 gallons +of ferment are used. + + + Aerated bread. + +In the original Dauglish process for the manufacture of aerated bread, +which was brought into operation in Great Britain in 1859, carbonic acid +gas was evolved in a generating vessel by the action of sulphuric acid +on chalk, and after purification was forced at high pressure into water, +which was then used for doughing the flour. In this process the flour +that had to be made into bread was submitted to the action of the +super-aerated water by direct transference. It was found, however, in +practice that much difficulty occurred in making the gas admix readily +with the flour and water, great pressure being required, and to lessen +the difficulties a new process, called the "wine whey," was introduced. +To carry this out, a vat placed on the upper storey of the factory is +charged with a portion of malt and flour, which is mashed and allowed to +ferment until a weak and slightly acid thin wine is produced; this after +passing through the coolers is stored until it is transformed into a +vinous whey. This whey is then introduced into a strong cylinder partly +filled with water, and is aerated by letting in the gas (now stored in a +highly compressed form in bottles), the pressure required being only a +quarter of that necessary with the original method. The flour having +been placed in the mixers, which are of globular form containing +revolving arms, the aerated fluid is admitted, and in a short period the +flour and fluid are completely incorporated. By means of an ingenious +appliance termed a dough cock, the exact amount of dough for a single +loaf of bread is forced out under the pressure of the gas, and by +reversing the lever the dough, which expands as it falls into a baking +tin, is cut off. Two sacks of flour can be converted with ease into 400 +2-lb. loaves in forty minutes, whereas the ordinary baker's process +would require about ten hours. At first a difficulty was encountered in +the fact that the dough became discoloured by the action of the "wine +whey" on the iron, but it was overcome by Killingworth Hedges, who +discovered a non-poisonous vitreous enamel for coating the interior of +the mixers, &c. It has been claimed for the Dauglish process that it +saves the baker risks attendant on the production of carbon dioxide by +the ordinary process of fermentation, in that he is no longer liable to +have his dough spoilt by variations of temperature and other +incalculable factors, the results being certain and uniform. A further +claim is the saving of the proportion of starch consumed by conversion +into glucose during the process of fermentation. The original objection, +that, by the absence of fermentation, those subtle changes which help to +produce flavour are lost, is annulled by the use of the wine whey +process. The Dauglish process is well suited for producing small goods, +such as cakes and scones, where flavour can be artificially imparted by +means of currants, flavouring essences, &c. An undoubted advantage of +the aerating process of bread-making is adaptability for utilizing flour +with unstable gluten, which can thus be made into an excellent quality +of bread. For wholemeal bread, too, there is probably no more suitable +process than the Dauglish. The strong diastasic action of the cerealin, +inevitable in fermentation, is entirely avoided. The Aerated Bread +Company have about a hundred depots in London, which are supplied from a +central factory. + + + Apostolov process. + +The essence of the bread-making process recently invented by Serge +Apostolov is the combination of a flour mill and bakery. The wheat, +after a preliminary cleaning, is ground into flour by a mill composed of +metal disks dressed, that is furrowed, very much like the surfaces of a +pair of mill-stones. The disks are not set to grind very close, because +it is desired, by minimizing friction, to keep the meal cool. From the +middlings obtained by this milling process about 10% of bran is +separated, and the remainder of the middlings is treated by a peculiar +process, akin to mashing, termed "lixiviation." The middlings are +saturated with tepid water containing a small proportion of yeast, which +causes a certain amount of fermentation. It is claimed that by this +process a solution is obtained of the floury constituents of the +middlings. From the vats the solution is poured on an inclined sieve +which has a gentle reciprocating motion. The floury particles pass +through the meshes, while the bran tails over the sieve; the proportion +of the wheat berry thus rejected is given as about 2-1/2%. On the other +hand, the milky-looking solution, called "lactus," is caught in a +special vessel, and delivered by a shoot into a trough, which may be +either a mechanical kneader of an ordinary trough. This lactus takes +the place of the ordinary sponge. The flour is added in the proportion +necessary to make the required batch and the whole mass is doughed, +either by hand or power. The resultant dough is moulded in the ordinary +way into loaves, which are baked in due course. The advantages claimed +for the process are that it permits of the utilization in bread-making +of about 87-1/2% of the wheat berry, that the resultant bread is fairly +white in colour and is agreeable in flavour, and that it is extremely +simple and provides a ready and cheap means of flour-making. + + _Machine Bakeries._--Bread-baking, though one of the most important of + human industries, was long carried out in a most primitive manner, and + machinery is still practically unknown in the bulk of British + bakehouses. The reasons for this apparently anomalous condition of + things are not very far to seek. Bread, unlike biscuits, is a food + quite unfitted for long storage, and must be consumed within a + comparatively short time of being drawn from the oven. Hence the + bread-baker's output is necessarily limited to a greater or lesser + degree. This will be the more apparent when it is considered that the + cost of distributing bread is high relatively to the profits to be + realized. A baker's bread trade is therefore usually limited to local + requirements, and trading on a small scale he has less inducement to + lay out capital on the installation of machinery than other classes of + manufacturers. But there are now many machine bakeries (known in + Scotland as bread factories), both in London and in other parts of + Great Britain, where the manufacture of bread is carried out more or + less on a large scale. The evolution of the machine bakery has been + slow, and the mechanical operations of the bakehouse were long limited + to the mixing of the sponge and the kneading of the dough, but now the + work of the bakery engineer extends over almost every operation of + bread-making. + + A bread-baking plant should be installed in a building of at least two + storeys. The ground floor may be used for the shop, with possibly a + bread-cooling and delivery room at the rear. The flour may be hoisted + to an attic at the top of the building, or to the top floor; in any + case there must be sufficient floor space to accommodate the flour + sacks and bags. Underneath the floor of the flour store should be + installed a flour sifter, a simple apparatus consisting essentially of + a hopper through which the flour enters a cylinder with a spiral + brush, by which it is thoroughly agitated previously to passing + through one or more sieves placed under the brush. A sack of flour may + be passed through this sifter in a couple of minutes, the operation + freeing the flour from lumps and pieces of string or other foreign + substances which may have found their way into the sack. The sifter + may also be combined with a blender or mixer, so that the baker may by + its means thoroughly blend different flours in any desired proportion. + The operation of blending is usually effected by a revolving blade of + suitable design or by a worm conveyor placed underneath the sieve or + sleeve. From the sifter and blender the flour descends by a sleeve + into the dough kneading machine on the floor below. But in cases where + it is desired merely to sift and blend flour ready for future use, it + may be received in a worm and elevated again to the storage floor by + an ordinary belt and bucket elevator. The water required for doughing + purposes is contained in an iron tank, fixed to the wall in convenient + proximity to the dough kneader. This tank, known as a water + attemperating and measuring tank, is provided with a gauge and + thermometer, and from it the exact quantity of water needed for + doughing can be rapidly drawn off at the desired temperature. The cold + water supply may be let into the tank at the top, and the hot water + supply at the bottom, the idea being that each supply shall permeate + the whole mass by gravity, the hot water ascending and the cold + descending. The chief types of dough kneader will be described + subsequently, but here it should be noted that not only have machines + been devised for cutting out the exact sizes of dough required for + small goods, such as buns and tartlets, but that the operations of + weighing and dividing dough for quartern and half-quartern loaves can + also be neatly and economically effected by machinery. Further, at + least two machines have been built which successfully mould loaves (of + simple shape), and the problem of moulding household bread by + machinery has certainly been solved, but whether delicate twists and + other fancy shapes could be equally well moulded mechanically is less + certain. + + The machine bakery, however complete, is not likely ever to be quite + automatic and continuous like a modern flour mill, where the plant is + connected throughout and virtually forms one machine (see FLOUR AND + FLOUR MANUFACTURE), and though the engineer has at least managed to + effect every operation of the bakehouse by mechanical means, it is not + yet possible to shoot a sack of flour into the hopper of the sifter on + the top floor, and to turn it into bread, without any human + intervention whatever, though as things are, the moulded dough can be + put into the oven without undergoing actual contact with human hands. + In practice, some of the machines mentioned above are often dispensed + with, even in so-called machine bakeries. The flour sifter and blender + is indeed found in many bakeries where mechanical kneaders are + unknown, while not in all machine bakeries would be found dough + weighers and dividers, still less moulding machines. The economical + side of the argument on behalf of machinery is presented in the + familiar shape that a properly equipped machine bakery can turn out + better work at a lower cost (by dispensing with labour), or at any + rate can carry on a bigger trade with the same staff. There is + plausibility in this argument, but it must be admitted that + innumerable bakeries of capacities varying from 10 to 20 sacks per + week are carried on more or less successfully without machinery of any + kind, beyond perhaps a sifter or blender. Moreover, some of these + bakehouses produce bread which can hardly be improved on. + + One advantage claimed for flour sifters, besides removing the + impurities, is that by thoroughly aerating flour they cause it to + become more "lively," in which condition it kneads more readily. It is + also quite possible that the air which is thus incorporated with the + dough has a stimulating effect on the yeast, causing a more energetic + fermentation. A strong argument in favour of dough kneaders is their + hygienic aspect. It is agreed that the operation of dough stirring by + hand, since it involves severe labour conducted in a heated + atmosphere, must be liable to cause contamination of the dough through + emanations from the bodies of the operatives. In well-managed bakeries + the utmost personal cleanliness on the part of the staff is exacted, + but the unpleasant contingency alluded to is certainly possible. It is + also contended that the use of machinery for dough kneading and batter + whisking will ensure better work, in the sense that the mass under + treatment will be more thoroughly worked by mechanically driven arms + of iron or steel than by human limbs, liable to weariness and fatigue. + The better worked the dough, the greater its power of expansion, and + consequently the greater its bread-making value. + + + Dough kneaders. + + The most widely known machine used in connexion with bread-baking, + next to the sifter, is the dough kneadcr. The dough kneader is no new + invention. As far back as 1760, a kind of dough kneader was + constructed in France by one Salignac. It is described as consisting + of a trough, inside which the dough was agitated by arms shaped + somewhat like harrows. This machine is said to have been tested before + a committee of the Academy of Sciences, who reported that in their + presence dough had been prepared in fourteen to fifteen minutes. The + bread baked from this dough is said to have been most satisfactory, + but for some reason the machine never came into general use. For one + thing, the power problem would have been almost insuperable to a baker + in the France of those days. In general design this kneader + approximated to the machines which have since done good work in + bakeries all the world over. Salignac was quickly followed by another + inventor, Cousin, also a Frenchman, who brought out in 1761, or + thereabouts, a dough-kneading machine, which, however, had no better + success than its predecessor. The first kneading machine which appears + to have been in actual use in a bakery was constructed by a Paris + baker of the name of Lembert, after whom it was called the Lembertine. + Lembert is said to have been experimenting with this apparatus as + early as 1796. Be that as it may, it was not brought out till 1810, + when a prize of 1500 francs (L60) was offered by the Societe + d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale. This reward was won by + Lembert, and his machine thereupon came into a certain amount of use + in France. It is remarkable that France long remained the only country + in which dough kneaders were employed, but even there their use was + limited. + + The Fontaine, another French kneader, called after its inventor, was + first made in 1835. It had a certain success, but has long passed out + of use. It appears to have been a copy to a great extent of the + Lembertine. The objection against both these machines was that their + blades, while exercising a mixing action, were deficient in kneading + effect. Probably the first machine which achieved the task of + efficiently replacing the work of human arms in sponge breaking and + dough kneading was the Boland kneader. This was also a French machine, + and dates back to about the middle of the 19th century. It is believed + to have been first used in the Scipion bakery in Paris. It consists + essentially of a trough, inside which revolve a pair of blades so + arranged as to work somewhat like alternate screws: it is claimed for + these blades that their action has the effect of tossing the dough + backwards and forwards when it is slack, and of drawing it out when it + happens to be stiff. It is further claimed that the blades are so + shaped that their revolution has the effect of moving the dough from + right to left and left to right in the trough. The machine is geared + to give two speeds, the faster being suitable for sponge setting, + while the slow and most powerful speed is intended for the doughing. + The Boland machine has been widely adopted in other countries than + France, and was certainly one of the first dough kneaders to be used + in the United Kingdom. It was installed in the great Boland bakery in + Dublin, where it proved a great success. The proprietor of this + bakery, with which was also connected a flour mill, is said to have + had his attention first drawn to this machine by the fact that its + inventor was his namesake, though no relative. + + The Deliry-Desboves dough kneader, also of French origin, and in + general use in France, consists essentially of a cast iron trough, + shaped somewhat like a basin, and turning on a vertical axis. The + kneading arms inside the trough are shaped after the pattern of a + lyre, and have the effect of first working up and then dividing the + dough right through the kneading process. Two helical blades, which + also form part of the mechanism, serve to draw out and aerate the + dough, as effectively, it is claimed, as can be done by the most + skilled operative. The force of the kneading operations can be + regulated without stopping the machine. A thoroughly kneaded dough + can, it is said, be made in this machine in twelve to fifteen minutes. + + In Great Britain the type of machine that used to be most in favour + was the trough within which the kneading arms worked on horizontal + axis. The trough was either open or provided with a lid. The kneading + blades were variously shaped, but generally were more or less + straight, and were designed to both mix and aerate the dough. In some + cases the kneading blades were worked on a single axis, in others two + different sets of arms worked on two axes running parallel to one + another. Generally the kneader was geared to two speeds, the fast + motion being most suitable for sponge setting, and the earlier stages + of dough-making, while the slower motion was intended to draw out and + thoroughly aerate the dough. To discharge the dough, the trough was + tilted by means of a worm and worm wheel, the latter being secured to + the trough. Several variations of this type of kneader are still in + use. The machine known as the "Universal" kneader consists of a trough + set horizontally, within which rotate on horizontal axes a pair of + blades lying in the same plane. These blades are curved and are geared + together by means of differential spur wheels, with the object of + running the two spindles at unequal speeds. The bottom of the trough + is divided into two semi-cylindrical cavities, separated by a ridge. + Each blade plunges into its own cavity, and the action of these arms + tends, while pressing the dough against the sides and base of the + trough, to bring it quickly back towards the centre. The differential + speed has the advantage of effecting a more thorough mixing of the + dough, as it brings together pieces of dough which have not yet been + mingled, the blades pushing the dough from one cavity to the other. To + hasten the kneading process it is desirable occasionally to reverse + the motion by a turn of a hand wheel on the same shaft as the two + pulleys. This wheel governs all the motions of the blades. The trough, + which is set low, is tilted over, when the dough is ready, by an + endless chain operated by a hand winch. The effort required for this + operation is very slight, as the trough is balanced by two weights. + The action of tilting does not interfere with the blades, which + continue rotating until stopped by the hand wheel. The Universal + kneader was designed to imitate as closely as possible the action of a + pair of skilled human arms and hands, but of course works at a much + greater speed. + + Another form of dough mixer which is extensively used consists simply + of a drum made of sheet steel supported by two A-shaped standards at a + sufficient height from the floor to allow a trough to be run + underneath to receive the dough when ready for the moulding board. In + this drum are two tight-fitting doors. The interior is fitted with no + blades or knives, but presents a free cylindrical space, with the sole + exception that, set not very far from the circumference, there are + several fixed rods passing from one side of the drum to the other. + These act as mixers of the dough. The door is opened and the flour and + water poured in, whereupon the door is again fastened and the drum is + made to rotate. As the rotation proceeds, the dough begins to form, + and being lifted up by the revolving drum falls by its own weight. In + this process, which is repeated again and again, the dough is caught + by and tumbled over by the rods, which act as mixers and take the + place of the revolving arms of the trough kneader. The kneading action + of the rotating arms is absent, but the steady tumbling over these + rods appears to have a thorough mixing effect, and the dough is + discharged from the drum in good condition for moulding. The time + occupied for making a dough by this apparatus varies from four to six + minutes. The advantages claimed for this machine are that it consumes + comparatively little power, and that there is not so much danger of + "felling" or over-kneading dough as in some of the machines with + revolving blades. The compactness of this rotating drum mixer, often + known as the Rotary mixer, recommends it on shipboard and in other + places where space is limited. + + + Dough dividers and moulders. + + In the earlier days of machine bakeries the accurate dividing of + dough, and still more the moulding of loaves by mechanical means, was + considered an unattainable ideal. The first step in this direction was + made by the Lewis-Pointon dough divider and weigher, which was + intended for dividing and weighing out dough ready for the moulding + table. In an ordinary way a baker who wishes to bake a batch of + half-quartern or 2-lb. loaves scales off 2 lb. 2 oz. of dough for each + loaf. The 2 oz. are a sort of insurance against light weight. The + evaporation of moisture from dough in the oven is bound to reduce to + some extent the weight of the baked loaf, but with normally baked + bread, 2 lb. 2 oz. in the case of half-quarterns, and 4 lb. 4 oz. in + the case of quartern loaves, is sufficient to ensure full weight. As + the accurate scaling of dough requires some pains and trouble, it + would be surprising if hand scaling were always accurate. The + Lewis-Pointon machine can, it is claimed, be set to turn out lumps of + dough of the exact weight required either for 1-lb., 2-lb., or 4-lb. + loaves. The apparatus does not measure the dough by weight but by + volume by an ingenious piston arrangement. The machine when first put + on the market was a little complicated, but its mechanism has since + been simplified. It has been successfully worked on doughs of all + descriptions, ranging from the tightest to those made with 20 gallons + of water to the sack. The same firm which brought out this dough + divider has also produced a dough-moulding machine, which has a wide + range of work. In this apparatus the dough is introduced between a + trough and a revolving table at a point on the outer periphery of the + latter. The order of things observed in hand moulding is here + reversed, as the trough, unlike the hand, is fixed, while the table + revolves around a vertical axis. This table is sharply coned, and can + be made to work the dough as much or as little as may be required. In + working dough for tin or Coburg loaves only one trough is used, but + for cottage loaves two parallel troughs are fitted, one taking the + lower and the other the upper half of the loaf. In the latter case, a + single piece of dough is fed into the machine and passed through an + automatic splitter, the two portions being automatically carried into + the troughs and simultaneously delivered at the other side of the + machine ready to be put together. With doughs which require + "handing-up," two machines may be used for moulding, the dough being + automatically fed from the divider to the handing-up machine, and + after a short proof passed through the finisher. But the moulding + machine may also be used as a "hander-up." + + Another ingenious dough moulder, known as the Baker-Callow, works on a + rather different principle. Here the pieces of dough coming from the + divider are fed into the moulder by a canvas band, and are worked + between a large cylindrical roller and a vertically running canvas and + leather belt. To prevent pieces from dropping through, and to assist + the moulding process, a smaller roller is placed under and between the + cylindrical roller and canvas belt. A wooden puncher also assists in + working the loaves, which are finished by being rolled between a band + and a special shaped wooden moulding. This machine delivers the dough + in spherical shaped pieces. If intended for cottage bread they are at + once placed on the dough table at the side, and one piece is put on + the top of the other ready for the oven. It is claimed the machine + will deal equally well with large and small pieces at the same time, + so that the tops and bottoms can be made together. Should the machine + be intended for tinned bread, a special attachment is used, into which + the spherical pieces are delivered from the machine and rolled into + cylindrical shapes, ready to be dropped into the pan. A capacity of + sixty loaves per minute is claimed for this moulder. + + _Ovens._--The ordinary baker's oven is a vaulted chamber, about 10 ft. + in length, by 8 ft. in width and 30 in. in height; it is constructed + of brick or stone, and has a small door in front through which the + oven is charged (by means of a "peel" or long wooden shovel) and the + batch withdrawn. The furnace and fire-grate are often placed at the + side of the oven door, but with the oldest ovens, which were heated by + wood, there generally was only one door for the fuel and for the + bread. Whether the furnace is heated by coal, as is usual in England, + or by coke, as is often the case in Scotland, the oven mouth remains + in the bakehouse itself; hence the stoking and scuffling must be + carried out within the bakehouse. This is in many ways objectionable. + For one thing, the fuel must almost of necessity be kept in the + bakehouse itself, and it is obvious that the products of combustion + are liable to get into the oven. In the old type of oven a flue was + frequently placed on the other side of the furnace door, both furnace + and flue being on the front of the oven. After firing the furnace, the + oven is allowed to "lie down" for a certain time, and secure an even + distribution of heat. The furnace and flue are then shut, and the oven + charged, the batch being baked by the heat stored within the oven + chamber. With ovens of this type, each batch of bread requires a + separate firing. This kind of oven has undergone several improvements + of detail, but the principle of internal heating, that is, of firing + the furnace inside the bakehouse, has remained unchanged. + + A new era in bakers' ovens began about the middle of the 19th century + with the introduction of the "Perkins" oven, a system which, with + slight modifications, has persisted till to-day. In this oven the + baking chamber is heated by steam pipes. The latter consist of tubes + of iron or mild steel which are partly filled with water and are + hermetically sealed by welded ends. The pipes are arranged in two + parallel rows, the one at the crown and the other at the sole of the + oven. The pipes project at one end into the furnace, which is set at + the back of the oven and is usually outside the bakehouse. This is + termed an externally heated oven. As the ends of the pipes get red hot + the water is converted into superheated steam, which being under high + pressure soon raises the chamber to baking heat, say 450 deg. to 500 + deg. F. In an oven of this description the heat can be continuously + maintained, and batch after batch can be baked without refiring. The + only drawback is that a flash heat cannot be raised. In another type + of externally fired oven the heat is conveyed by flues placed at the + bottom and top of the oven, which discharge into a chimney. Excellent + results have been attained with ovens of this kind. The distribution + of the heat can be well regulated; for instance, it is quite possible + to build ovens to be cooler at the back than front, an arrangement + which is useful when the bread is withdrawn by means of a hand peel. + As the baker has to withdraw each loaf one at a time, it is clear that + the withdrawal of the batch through the oven door must take time, + probably not less than half-an-hour. Hence the bread drawn from near + the oven's mouth may be underbaked as compared with that at the back + of the chamber. The latter, on the other hand, may be overbaked and + deficient in weight. + + By means of a draw-plate, however, an oven can be expeditiously + charged. This appliance consists of a sliding plate or tray, mounted + on wheels running on rails, which is drawn out of the oven loaded with + bread, and then returned. The plate itself is often made of iron, but + one well-known oven is fitted with a withdrawable iron frame, in which + are laid, edge to edge, tiles of a special make, which are cemented in + place, and form a continuous baking surface. This seems an excellent + arrangement, as the baker has all the advantages of a brick oven, that + is to say, his bread is baked both on top and bottom by heat evolved + from tiled surfaces, and the undoubted drawbacks incidental to baking + bread on an iron surface are avoided. A draw-plate fitted to an oven + capable of baking a batch made from a sack (280 lb) of flour can be + run out, charged and run in again, in about two minutes. The + draw-plate has the incidental advantage, by expediting the loading and + discharge of the oven, of ensuring a more uniform baking of the batch, + and therefore of minimizing the loss of weight. Some bakers have gone + so far as to estimate the saving in this respect from the use of a + draw-plate at half an ounce per 2-lb. loaf. With decker ovens a double + draw-plate may be used, the feet of the pedestal supporting the upper + draw-plate running on a rail outside, but parallel to the rail on + which the lower draw-plate runs. This arrangement, however, is more + applicable to small than large ovens. Or the lower oven may be fitted + with a draw-plate while the upper oven is served with a peel. The + draw-plate being at a lower level than the sole of an ordinary oven, + the upper deck may be worked with a peel without much difficulty. + + The _decker_ oven is, as its name implies, an oven built over another + oven: in fact, sometimes a tier of three ovens is employed, placed one + above the other. The object is to secure a double or treble baking + surface without a very much larger outlay on fuel than would be + necessary for one oven. It is easy to understand that a double or + three decker oven might be constructed under conditions where it would + be impossible to place two or three ordinary ovens side by side. + Practical bakers are somewhat divided as to the actual economy of the + decker system; possibly it is a question of management. The upper oven + is heated by the gases which have passed under the oven beneath. A + double-decker oven on the flue principle could be heated by three + flues, one beneath the lower oven, another passing between the crown + of the lower and the sole of the top oven, and the third over the + crown of the upper oven. If a third oven were built over the second, + then a fourth flue would pass over the crown of the third and top + oven. In such an arrangement of flues the distribution of heat to the + ovens would be fairly equal, but no doubt the lower oven would be the + hottest. In addition to the flues, which should be straight and + accessible for cleaning, there ought also to be auxiliary flues by + which heat may be allowed to pass dampers to the upper portions of the + series of ovens. In this way the heat of the upper oven or ovens can + be regulated independently to a great extent of the bottom oven. The + power of regulating the heat of the ovens is very necessary, because a + baker doing what is called a mixed trade, that is to say, producing + cakes and pastry in addition to bread, must work his ovens at varying + temperatures. Cakes cannot be baked at the heat (about 450 deg. F.) + required by a batch of household bread. The richest fancy goods, such + as wedding and Christmas cakes, require the coolest ovens. Flue ovens + are best worked with coke, as coal is apt to choke the flues; retort + coke is recommended in place of oven coke. An oven should be fitted + with some kind of thermal register, and both high-temperature + thermometers and pyrometers are used for this purpose. (G. F. Z.) + + + + +BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1636-1717), son of Sir John +Campbell of Glenorchy, Bart., and of the Lady Mary Graham, daughter of +William, earl of Airth and Menteith, was born about 1636. He took part +in the abortive royalist rising under Glencairn in 1654, and was one of +those who urged Monk to declare a free parliament in England to +facilitate the restoration. He sat in the Scottish parliament as member +for Argyllshire from 1669 to 1674. As principal creditor he obtained in +October 1672, from George, 6th earl of Caithness, a conveyance of his +dignities, lands and heritable jurisdictions; and after the latter's +death he was created on the 28th of June 1677 earl of Caithness and +viscount of Breadalbane. In 1678 he married the widowed countess of +Caithness, an economical step which saved him the alimentary provision +of 12,000 merks a year he had covenanted to pay. In 1680 he invaded +Caithness with a band of 700 men and defeated and dispossessed the +earl's heir male. The latter, however, was subsequently confirmed in his +lands and titles, and Campbell on the 13th of August 1681 obtained a new +patent with the precedency of the former one, creating him earl of +Breadalbane and Holland, viscount of Tay and Paintland, Lord Glenorchy, +Benederaloch, Ormelie and Weick in the peerage of Scotland, with special +power to nominate his successor from among the sons of his first wife. +In 1685 he was a member of the Scottish privy council. Though nominally +a Presbyterian he had assisted the intolerant and despotic government +of Lauderdale in 1678 with 1700 men. He is described as having "neither +honour nor religion but where they are mixed with interest," as of "fair +complexion, of the gravity of the Spaniard, cunning as a Fox, wise as a +Serpent and supple as an Eel."[1] He was reputed the best headpiece in +Scotland.[2] His influence, owing to his position and abilities, was +greater than that of any man in Scotland after Argyll, and it was of +high moment to King William to gain him and obtain his services in +conciliating the Highlanders. Breadalbane at first carried on +communications with Dundee and was implicated in the royalist intrigue +called the "Montgomery plot," but after the battle of Killiecrankie in +July 1689 he made overtures to the government, subsequently took the +oath of allegiance, and was entrusted with a large sum of money by the +government to secure the submission of the clans. On the 30th of June +1691 he met the Jacobite chiefs and concluded with them secret articles +by which they undertook to refrain from acts of hostility till October, +gaining their consent by threats and promises rather than by the +distribution of the money entrusted to him, the greater part of which, +it was believed, he retained himself. When asked to give an account of +the expenditure he replied: "The money is spent, the Highlands are +quiet, and this is the only way of accounting between friends."[3] + +On the 27th of August a proclamation was issued offering indemnity to +all those who should submit and take the oath of allegiance before the +1st of January 1692, and threatening all those who should refuse with a +military execution and the penalties of treason. All the chiefs took the +oath except MacIan, the chief of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, who +postponed his submission till the 31st of December, and was then +prevented from taking the oath till the 6th of January 1692 through the +absence of a magistrate at Fort William, whither he had repaired for the +purpose. This irregularity gave Breadalbane an immediate opportunity of +destroying the clan of thieves which had for generations lived by +plundering his lands and those of his neighbours. Accordingly, together +with Argyll and Sir John Dalrymple (afterwards Lord Stair), Breadalbane +organized the atrocious crime known as the "Massacre of Glencoe," when +the unfortunate MacDonalds, deceived by assurances of friendship, and at +the moment when they were lavishing their hospitality upon their +murderers, were butchered in cold blood on the 13th of February 1692. +Breadalbane's astuteness, however, prevented the disclosure of any +evidence against him in the inquiry afterwards instituted in 1695, +beyond the deposition of a person who professed to have been sent on +Breadalbane's behalf to obtain a declaration of his innocence from +MacIan's sons, who had escaped. The discovery of his former negotiations +with the Jacobite chiefs caused his imprisonment in Edinburgh Castle in +September, but he was released when it was known that he had been acting +with William's knowledge. + +Breadalbane did not vote for the Union in 1707, but was chosen a +representative peer in the parliament of Great Britain of 1713-1715. His +co-operation with the English government in securing the temporary +submission of the Highlands was inspired by no real loyalty or +allegiance, and he encouraged the attempted French descent in 1708, +refusing, however, to commit himself to paper. On the occasion of the +Jacobite rising in 1715 he excused himself on the 19th of September from +obeying the summons to appear at Edinburgh on the ground of his age and +infirmities; but nevertheless the next day visited Mar's camp at +Logierait and afterwards the camp at Perth, his real business being, +according to the Master of Sinclair, "to trick others, not to be +trickt," and to obtain a share of the French subsidies. He had taken +money for the whole 1200 men he had promised and only sent 300. His 300 +men were withdrawn after the battle of Sheriffmuir, and his death, which +took place on the 19th of March 1717, rendered unnecessary any inquiry +into his conduct. He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry Rich, 1st earl +of Holland, by whom he had two sons, Duncan, styled Lord Ormelie, who +was passed over in the succession, and John, and earl of Breadalbane; +(2) Mary, daughter of Archibald, marquis of Argyll, and widow of George, +6th earl of Caithness, by whom he had one son, Colin. By Mrs Mildred +Littler, who has sometimes but probably in error been named as his third +wife, he had a daughter, Mary. + +JOHN CAMPBELL, 2nd earl of Breadalbane (1662-1752), an eccentric +nobleman, who was known as "Old Rag," was succeeded by his only son, +John (c. 1696-1782). This earl was a diplomatist, being British +ambassador to Denmark and to Russia, and a politician, being for a long +time a member of the House of Commons and a supporter of Sir Robert +Walpole, in addition to holding several official positions. All his sons +having predeceased their father, the title passed on his death, on the +26th of January 1782, to a cousin, John (1762-1834), who became 4th earl +and was created a British peer as marquess of Breadalbane in 1831. His +son John, the 2nd marquess (1796-1862), a prominent leader of the Free +Church during the ecclesiastical disputes in Scotland, died without sons +in November 1862. The marquessate now became extinct, but the Scottish +earldom passed to a cousin John Alexander (1824-1871), whose son and +successor, Gavin (b. 1851), was created marquess of Breadalbane in 1885. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Memoirs_ of John Macky (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 121. + + [2] _Corr. of Col. N. Hooke_ (Roxburghe, Club, 1870), i. 49. + + [3] Note by Sir W. Scott in Sinclair's _Mem. of Insurrection in + Scotland_ (Abbotsford Club, 1858), 185. + + + + +BREADALBANE, a large district of Perthshire, Scotland, bordered N. by +Atholl, E. by Strathtay, S. by Strathearn and W. by the districts of +Argyll and Lorne, and occupying some 1020 sq. m. Most of the surface is +mountainous, Ben Lawers (3984 ft.), Ben More (3843), and Ben Lui (3708), +being the principal hills. Loch Tay is the chief lake, and among the +rivers are the Orchy, Dochart, Lochay, Lyon, Almond and the Tay (during +the early part of its course). Population mostly centres in Aberfeldy, +Fortingal, Kenmore and Killin. The soil is not cultivable excepting in +some of the glens and straths. Game is plentiful, the lakes and rivers +afford good sport, and the deer forests and shootings are valuable. The +district has given the titles of earl and marquess to the Campbells of +Glenorchy. + + + + +BREAD-FRUIT. This most important food staple of the tropical islands in +the Pacific Ocean is the fruit of _Artocarpus incisa_ (nat. ord. +Moraceae). The tree attains a moderate height, has very large, acutely +lobed, glossy leaves, the male flowers in spikes, and the female flowers +in a dense head, which by consolidation of their fleshy carpels and +receptacles form the fruit. The fruit is globular in shape, about the +size of a melon, with a tuberculated or (in some varieties) nearly +smooth surface. Many varieties of the tree are cultivated, the fruits of +some ripening numerous seeds, which are eaten as chestnuts; but in the +best kinds the seeds are aborted, and it is only these that are highly +prized as vegetables. The tree is a native of the South Sea Islands, +where its fruit occupies the important position that is held by cereals +in temperate latitudes. The fruit, which on distinct varieties ripens at +different periods, affording a nearly constant supply throughout the +year, is gathered for use just before it ripens, when it is found to be +gorged with starchy matter, to which its esculent value is due. It may +be cooked and prepared for use in a great variety of ways, the common +practice in the South Sea Islands being to bake it entire in hot embers, +and scoop out the interior, which when properly cooked should have a +soft smooth consistence, fibrous only towards the heart, with a taste +which has been compared to that of boiled potatoes and sweet milk. Of +this fruit A.R. Wallace, in his _Malay Archipelago_, says: "With meat +and gravy it is a vegetable superior to anything I know either in +temperate or tropical countries. With sugar, milk, butter or treacle it +is a delicious pudding, having a very slight and delicate but +characteristic flavour, which, like that of good bread and potatoes, one +never gets tired of." In the Pacific Islands the fruit is preserved for +use by storing in pits, where the fruits ferment and resolve themselves +into a mass similar in consistency to new cheese, in which state they +emit an offensive odour; but after baking under hot stones they yield a +pleasant and nutritious food. Another and more common method of +preserving the fruit for use consists in cutting it into thin slices, +which are dried in the sun. From such dried slices a flour is prepared +which is useful for the preparation of puddings, bread and biscuits, or +the slices are baked and eaten without grinding. The tree yields other +products of economic value, such as native cloth from the fibrous inner +bark of young trees; the wood is used for canoes and articles of +furniture; and a kind of glue and caulking material are obtained from +the viscid milky juice which exudes from incisions made in the stem. + +[Illustration: _Artocarpus incisa_, the Bread-fruit tree. + + Fig. 1. Branch reduced about a 6th natural size, with cuneate-ovate + pinnatifid leaves, male flowers in a club-shaped deciduous catkin, + and female flowers in rounded clusters. + Fig. 2. Transverse section of the male spike with numerous flowers. + Fig. 3. Male flowers. + Fig. 4. Single male flower separated, with a perianth in 2 segments + and a single stamen. + Fig. 5. Female flowers. + Fig. 6. Single female flower separated, with ovary, style and bifid + stigma. + Fig. 7. Ovary. + Fig. 8. Ovary laid open to show the ovule. + Fig. 9. A variety of the ovary with 2 loculaments. + Fig. 10. Transverse section of a bilocular ovary.] + +The bread-fruit is found throughout the tropical regions of both +hemispheres, and its first introduction into the West Indies is +connected with the famous mutiny of the "Bounty," and the remarkable +history of a small company of the mutineers at Pitcairn Island. +Attention was directed to the fruit in 1688 by Captain Dampier, and +later by Captain Cook, who recommended its transplantation to the West +Indian colonies. In 1787 the "Bounty" was fitted out under command of +Lieutenant William Bligh (q.v.) to proceed to Tahiti to carry plants +thence to the West Indian Islands; and it was after the cargo had been +secured and the vessel was on her way that the mutiny broke out, and +Lieutenant Bligh and some of his crew were turned adrift in a small boat +in the open sea. The mutineers returned with the vessel to Tahiti, +whence a number of them, with a few native men and women, sailed to the +desolate and lone islet of Pitcairn. Lieutenant Bligh ultimately reached +England, and was again commissioned to undertake the work of +transplanting the plants, which in the year 1792-1793 he successfully +accomplished. + +A somewhat similar but inferior fruit is produced by an allied species, +the Jack or Jak, _Artocarpus integrifolia_, growing in India, Ceylon and +the Eastern Archipelago. The large fruit is from 12 to 18 in. long by 6 +to 8 in. in diameter, and is much eaten by the natives in India. This +tree is chiefly valuable on account of its timber, which has a grain +very similar to mahogany, and although at first light-coloured it +gradually assumes much of the appearance of that wood. + + + + +BREAKING BULK, a nautical term for the taking out of a portion of the +cargo of a ship, or the beginning to unload; and used in a legal sense +for taking anything out of a package or parcel, or in any way destroying +its entirety. It was thus important in connexion with the subject of +bailment, involving as it did the curious distinction that where a +bailee received possession of goods in a box or package, and then sold +them as a whole, he was guilty only of a breach of trust, but if he +"broke bulk" or caused a separation of the goods, and sold a part or +all, he was guilty of felony. This distinction was abolished by the +Larceny Act 1861, which enacted that whoever, being a bailee of any +chattel, money or valuable security, should fraudulently take or convert +the same to his own use, or the use of any person other than the owner, +although he should not break bulk or otherwise determine the bailment, +should be guilty of larceny (s. 3). + + + + +BREAKWATER. When a harbour (q.v.) is proposed to be established on an +exposed coast, whether for naval or commercial purposes, to provide a +protected approach to a port or river, or to serve as a refuge for +vessels from storms, the necessary shelter, so far as it is not +naturally furnished by a bay or projecting headlands, has to be secured +by the construction of one or more "breakwaters." These breakwaters, +having to prevent the waves that beat upon the coast from reaching the +site which they are designed to protect, must be made sufficiently +strong to withstand the shocks of the waves during the worst storms to +which they are exposed. It is therefore essential, before constructing a +breakwater, to investigate most carefully the force, periods and +duration of the winds from the quarters to which the work will be +exposed, the distance of any sheltering land from the site in the most +stormy direction, the slope of the beach and the depth of the sea in the +neighbourhood of the shore, and the protection, if any, afforded by +outlying shoals or sandbanks. In a tidal sea, the height required for a +breakwater is affected by the amount of tidal range; and the extent of +breakwater exposed to breaking waves depends upon the difference in +level between low and high water. The existence, also, of any drift of +sand or shingle along the shore must be ascertained, and its extent; for +the projection of a solid breakwater out from the shore is certain to +affect this littoral drift, which, if large in amount, may necessitate +important modifications in the design for the harbour. + + + Winds. + +Observations of the force and prevalence of the winds from the different +quarters at the various periods of the year, and the instruments by +which they are recorded, belong to the science of meteorology; but such +records are very valuable to the maritime engineer in indicating from +which directions, open to the sea, the worst storms, and, consequently, +the greatest waves, may be expected, and against which the most +efficient shelter has to be provided. Moreover, it is necessary, for +constructing or repairing a breakwater, to know the period of the year +when the calmest weather may be safely anticipated, and also the stormy +season during which no work should be attempted, and in preparation for +which unfinished works have to be guarded by protective measures. In the +parts of the world subject to periodical winds, such as the monsoons, +the direction and force of the winds vary with remarkable regularity +according to the seasons; and even such uncertain occurrences as +hurricanes and cyclones generally visit the regions in their track at +definite periods of the year, according to the locality. Even in western +Europe, where the winds are extremely variable, violent gales are much +more liable to beat upon the western and northern coasts in the winter +months than at any other period of the year; whilst the calmest weather +may be expected between May and August. + + + Waves. + +The size of waves depends upon the force of the wind, and the distance +along which it blows continuously, in approximately the same direction, +over a large expanse of ocean. The greatest waves are, accordingly, +encountered where the maximum distance in a certain direction from the +nearest land, or, as it is termed, the "fetch," coincides with the line +travelled by the strongest gales. The dimensions, indeed, of waves in +the worst storms depend primarily on the extent of the sea in which they +are raised; though in certain seas they are occasionally greatly +increased by the exceptional velocities attained by hurricanes and +typhoons, which, however, are fortunately restricted to fairly well +defined and limited regions. Waves have been found to attain a maximum +height of about 10 ft. in the Lake of Geneva, 17 ft. in the +Mediterranean Sea, 23 ft. in the Bay of Biscay, and 40 ft. in the +Atlantic Ocean; whilst waves of 50 to 60 ft. in height have been +observed in the Pacific Ocean off the Cape of Good Hope, where the +expanse of sea reaches a maximum, and the exposure to gales is complete. +The length of large waves bears no definite relation to their height, +and is apparently due, in the long waves often observed in exposed +situations, to the combination of several shorter waves in their onward +course, which is naturally dependent on the extent of the exposure. Thus +waves about 560 ft. in length have been met with during severe gales in +the Atlantic Ocean; whilst waves from 600 to 1000 ft. long are regarded +as of common occurrence in the Pacific Ocean during storms. + +The rate of transmission of the undulation also varies with the +exposure; for the ordinary velocity of the apparent travel of waves in +storms has been found to amount to about 22 m. an hour in the Atlantic +Ocean, and to attain about 27 m. an hour off Cape Horn. The large waves, +however, observed in mid-ocean do not reach the coast, because their +progress is checked, and their height and length reduced, by +encountering the shelving sea-bottom, which diminishes the depth of +water on approaching the shore; and the actual waves which have to be +arrested by breakwaters depend on the exposure of the site, the +existence of continuous deep water close up to the shore, and the depth +in which the breakwater is situated. On the other hand, the height, and, +consequently, the destructive force of waves, is increased on running up +a funnel-shaped bay, by the increasing concentration of the waves in the +narrowing width, just as the tidal range of a moderate tidal current is +much augmented by its passage up the Bay of Fundy, or up the Bristol +Channel into the Severn estuary, or by filling the shallow enclosed bay +of St Malo. This effect is intensified when the bay faces the direction +of the strongest winds. Thus at Wick a mass of masonry weighing 1350 +tons, placed at the head of the breakwater projecting half-way across +the bay and facing the entrance, was moved by the waves during a violent +storm; and a portion of Peterhead breakwater, weighing 3300 tons, was +shifted 2 in. in 1898, indicating a wave-stroke of 2 tons per sq. ft. +Southwesterly gales, blowing up the Gulf of Genoa, cause large waves to +roll into the bay, reaching a height of about 21 ft. in the worst +storms. + +Where outlying sandbanks stretch in front of a coast, as for instance +the Stroombank in front of Ostend and the adjacent shore, and the +sandbanks opposite Yarmouth sheltering Yarmouth Roads, large waves +cannot approach the land, for they break on the sandbanks outside. +Waves, indeed, always break when, on running up a shoaling beach, they +reach a depth approximately equal to their height; and the largest waves +which can reach a shore protected by intervening sandbanks, are those +which are low enough to pass over the banks without breaking. + +The force of the wind, as transmitted by degrees to the sea, is +manifested as a series of progressing undulations without any material +displacement of the body of water, each undulation transmitting its +accumulated force to the next in the direction the wind is blowing, till +at last, on encountering an obstacle to its onward course, each wave, no +longer finding any water to which to communicate its energy, deals a +blow against the obstacle proportionate to its size and rate of +transmission; or on reaching shoal water near the shore, the undulation +is finally transformed into a breaking wave rushing up the sloping +beach. till, on its energy being spent, it recoils back to the sea down +the beach. A breaking wave concentrates its transmitted force on a +portion of the water forming the undulation, which, consequently, +strikes a more powerful blow over a limited area against any structure +than the more distributed shock of a simple undulation beating against a +vertical wall. Moreover, the recoil of broken waves down a sloping beach +or rubble mound produces a greater scour than the simple reflection of +an undulation from a vertical wall, especially where the depth is +sufficient to provide a cushion of water below the undulation, +protecting the toe of the wall from the wash of recoil. + +_Types of Breakwaters_.--There are three distinct types of +breakwaters:--(1) A simple rubble or concrete-block mound; (2) a mound +for the bottom portion, surmounted on the top by a solid superstructure +of masonry or concrete; and (3) an upright-wall breakwater, built up +solid from the sea-bottom to the top. The second type forms a sort of +combination of the first and third types; and each type presents several +varieties. In a few harbours, two different types have been adopted for +different situations at the same place; but generally the choice of type +is determined by the materials available at the site for the +construction of the breakwater, the nature of the sea-bottom and the +depth into which the breakwater has to be carried. + + + Rubble mound. + + 1. _Rubble and Concrete-Block Mound Breakwaters._--A rubble mound + consists merely of a mass of rubble stone, just as it is obtained from + a neighbouring quarry, tipped into the sea along a predetermined line, + till the mound emerges out of water. The rubble stone is deposited, + either from barges, as adopted for the construction of the detached + breakwater sheltering Plymouth Bay, or from wagons, having hinged + opening flaps at the bottom for dropping their load, run out from the + shore along staging erected in the proposed line, according to the + method employed for the outer breakwater enclosing Portland Harbour, + and the north-east breakwater at Colombo Harbour. The mound thus + deposited is gradually consolidated under the action of the sea; and a + tolerably stable form is by degrees attained by continued deposits of + stone. This system of construction is very wasteful of materials, and + can only be resorted to where extensive quarries close at hand are + able to furnish readily and cheaply very large quantities of stone, + especially where, as at Portland and Table Bay, convict labour has + been advantageously utilized in quarrying. When the site is very + exposed, the large waves in storms, dashing over a rubble-mound + breakwater, carry the stones on the top, if unprotected, over on to + the harbour slope, and in recoiling down the outer slope, draw down + the stones on the face, so that the top and sea slope of the mound + need replenishing with a fresh deposit of stones after severe storms. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Table Bay Breakwater] + + Under the action of the breaking and recoiling waves, the mound + assumes a very flat slope on the sea side, from a few feet above + high-water down to several feet below low-wafer level (fig. 1). The + flatness of the sea slope depends on the exposure of the site, and the + limited size of the stones covering the outer portion of the mound; + and its extent increases with the range of tide, as a large tidal rise + exposes a greater length of slope to the action of the waves. This + flattening of the sea slope greatly increases the amount of stone + required for a rubble-mound breakwater, in proportion to the exposure + and the range of tide; and the amount is also affected, but in a + proportionately minor degree, by the depth in which the breakwater is + situated. In order to avoid the injuries to which an ordinary rubble + mound is subjected by waves, certain methods have been devised for + protecting the top and sea slope of the mound. For instance, the upper + portion of Plymouth breakwater has been covered over by granite paving + set in cement, to diminish the displacement of the stones by the + waves. Frequently, on the continent of Europe, rubble mounds have been + formed of materials so sorted that the smallest stones are placed in + the centre of the lower part of the mound, and covered over along the + slopes and top by layers of larger stones, increasing in size towards + the outer part of the mound, so that the largest stones obtainable are + deposited on the outside, and especially on the top and sea slope of + the mound. This is, no doubt, theoretically the correct method of + construction of rubble mounds exposed to the sea; but it involves a + considerable amount of trouble and expense. + + + Concrete blocks with rubble mound. + + Practically the chief point of importance is to cover the outer slope + and the top of the mound with the largest stones that can be procured, + and where large stones are not readily obtainable concrete blocks + furnish a very convenient substitute. These blocks are generally + deposited as the outer covering on the top and sea slope of a rubble + mound, as for example at the mound breakwaters in deep water + sheltering Algiers harbour, and at the French parts of Cette and Bona + on the Mediterranean; whilst they furnish the protection of the top + and upper part of the sea slope of the rubble-mound extension of + Marseilles breakwater down to 20 ft. below sea-level. At Alexandria, + concrete blocks compose the outer half of the mound, sheltering the + inner half consisting of small rubble (fig. 2); at Biarritz the mound + breakwater is formed mainly of concrete blocks, with rubble stone + filling the interstices and on the top; whereas at the outer end of + the western breakwater at Port Said, protecting the entrance to the + Suez Canal, a bottom layer of rubble is surmounted by concrete blocks. + These blocks are generally deposited at random; but at Cette (fig. 3), + and at the breakwater in deep water at Civita Vecchia, the concrete + blocks covering the rubble have been laid in stepped, horizontal + courses. This arrangement necessitates more care and better appliances + in construction; but, in compensation, the blocks so placed are less + exposed to disturbance and injury by the waves. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Alexandria Breakwater.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Cette Breakwater.] + + Concrete blocks possess the great advantages for breakwaters that they + can be made wherever sand and shingle can be procured, and of a size + only limited by the appliances which are available for handling them. + In fact, in places where stone of any kind is difficult to procure at + a reasonable cost, as for instance at Port Said, concrete blocks are + indispensable for the construction of breakwaters. Large concrete + blocks, moreover, by enabling a comparatively steep slope to be formed + with them on the sea side of a mound breakwater, reduce considerably + the amount of materials required, especially at exposed sites, and + also for breakwaters extended into deep water, such as those of + Algiers and Marseilles. + + [Illustration: FIG.4.--Port Said Western Breakwater.] + + + Concrete block mound. + + Occasionally, in the absence of suitable rubble stone, a mound + breakwater has been formed entirely with concrete blocks; and of this + the main portion of the western breakwater at Port Said furnishes a + notable example (fig. 4). Sometimes, in exposed situations, the mounds + of the composite type of breakwaters have been constructed exclusively + with concrete blocks, such, for instance, as in the curved breakwater + protecting the outer harbour at Leghorn, and in the central breakwater + in deep water sheltering the harbour of St Jean de Luz, and directly + facing the Bay of Biscay. These large concrete blocks are deposited by + cranes from staging, tipped into the sea from a sloping platform on + barges, or floated out between pontoons, or slung out from floating + derricks. This last method proved so expeditious for the upper blocks + at Alexandria, that, in conjunction with the tipping of the lower + blocks from the inclined planes on the decks of barges and the deposit + of the rubble from hopper barges, provided also with side flaps for + the higher portions, the detached breakwater, nearly 2 m. long, + sheltering a very spacious harbour, was constructed in two years + (1870-1872). Sometimes, when a mound breakwater has been raised out of + water, advantage is taken of a calm period of the year and a low tide + to form large blocks of concrete within timber framing on the top of + the mound, so as to provide a very efficient protection. + + The large masses composing mound breakwaters give them great stability + against the attacks of the sea; and, moreover, the wide base of the + mounds enables them to be deposited on a sandy or silty sea-bottom, + without any fear of settlement or undermining. A mound breakwater, + however, has the disadvantages of requiring a large amount of + material, and of occupying a wide space on the bed of the sea, more + especially where the mound consists of rubble stone and is in deep + water, so that the system, though simple, is costly, and is unsuited + for harbours where the available space to be sheltered is limited. + Nevertheless, a mound breakwater can be rapidly constructed by the + employment of a large number of barges; and by the adoption of large + concrete blocks, the quantity of materials and the space occupied by + the mound can be considerably reduced. This form of breakwater, with + its long outer slope exposed to breaking waves, particularly where the + tidal range is considerable, is, indeed, more subject to frequent + small injuries than the other types, but they are readily repaired; + and a mound is not generally liable to the serious breaches which + occasionally are formed in solid superstructures and upright walls in + exceptional storms. + + 2. _Breakwaters formed of a Mound surmounted by a Superstructure._--The + second type of breakwater consists of a mound, composed of rubble or + concrete blocks, or generally a combination of the two, carried up from + the sea-bottom, on the top of which some form of solid superstructure + is erected. This superstructure reduces considerably the amount of + materials required (which, on account of the slopes of the mound, + increases rapidly with the height) in proportion to the depth at which + the superstructure is founded; and the solid capping on the mound + serves also to protect the top of the mound from the action of the + waves. In the case, however, of a mound breakwater, portions of the + highest waves generally pass over the top of the mound, and also to + some extent expend their force in passing through the interstices + between the blocks; whereas a superstructure presents a solid face to + the impact of the waves. A superstructure, accordingly, must be very + strongly built in proportion to the exposure, and also to the size of + the waves liable to reach it, which depends upon the height and + flatness of the slope of the mound just in front of it on the sea side. + Special care, moreover, has to be taken to prevent the superstructure + from being undermined; for the waves in storms, dashing up against this + nearly vertical, solid obstacle, tend in their recoil down the face to + scour out the materials of the mound at the outer toe of the + superstructure, and thereby undermine it, especially where the + superstructure is founded on the mound near low-water level, and there + is, therefore, no adequate cushion of water above the mound to diminish + the effect of the recoil on the foundation. + + The mound constituting the lower portion of the composite type of + breakwater has been formed in the same varied way as simple mound + breakwaters, namely, of rubble, sorted rubble, rubble protected by + concrete blocks, and wholly of concrete blocks. The only differences + introduced in the mound in this case are, that it is not carried up so + high, that the top portion covered by the superstructure needs no + further protection, and that special protection has to be provided on + the slope of the mound adjacent to the outer toe of the + superstructure. + + + Superstructures. + + The forms of the superstructures exhibit considerable variations, + ranging from a few concrete blocks laid in courses on the top of the + mound, or a paving furnishing a quay protected by a narrow parapet + wall on the sea side, up to a large, solid structure, only differing + from an upright-wall breakwater in being founded upon a mound, instead + of on the sea-bottom. Notwithstanding, however, this great variety in + design, these breakwaters may be divided into two distinct classes, + namely, breakwaters having their superstructures founded at or near + low-water level, and breakwaters with superstructures founded some + depth below low water. The object in the first case is to lay the + foundations of the superstructure on the mound at the lowest level + consistent with building a solid structure with blocks set in mortar, + out of water, in the ordinary manner; and, in the second case, to stop + the raising of the mound at such a depth under water as to secure it + from displacement by the waves. In fact, the solidity and facility of + construction of the superstructure were the primary considerations in + the older form of breakwater; whereas the stability of the mound and + the avoidance of the undermining of the superstructure have been + regarded as the most important provisions in the more modern form. + + + Superstructures at low-water level. + + Well-known examples of breakwaters formed of a rubble mound surmounted + by a superstructure founded at or near low water or sea-level, are + furnished by Cherbourg and Holyhead breakwaters, the inner breakwater + at Portland, and the breakwaters at Marseilles, Genoa, Civita Vecchia, + Naples, Trieste and other Mediterranean ports. The very exposed + breakwater at Alderney was commenced on this principle about the + middle of the 19th century; and the outer breakwaters at Leghorn and + St Jean de Luz have superstructures founded at low water on + concrete-block mounds. + + The long, detached breakwater sheltering the series of basins formed + by wide projecting jetties along the sea coast at Marseilles (see + DOCK), is a typical instance of a breakwater where a quay has been + formed on the top of a sorted rubble mound, sheltered on the sea side + by a high wall, or narrow superstructure, founded at sea-level, and + protected on the sea slope of the mound from undermining by large + concrete blocks deposited at random (fig. 5). In this case the quay + has been rendered accessible for vessels on the harbour side by a quay + wall, formed of concrete blocks deposited one above the other, + providing a vertical face to a depth of about 22-3/4 ft. below + sea-level; and a similar arrangement has been adopted at Trieste, and + in a less effective manner at Civita Vecchia and Naples. At + Marseilles, however, when the breakwater reached great depths, the + quay was abandoned on account of the increased exposure, and the + extension made of a simple rubble mound, protected on the sea side, + from the top down to 20 ft. below sea-level, by large concrete blocks + deposited at random. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Marseilles Breakwater, central portion.] + + The superstructures at Holyhead and Portland, being built on the old + weak system of a sea wall and a harbour wall, with rubble filling + between, are protected on the sea side by raising the rubble against + them from low water up to high water of spring tides; whereas the + superstructure of Cherbourg breakwater, being built solid and less + exposed, is only protected on the sea side by large rubble and some + concrete blocks, forming an apron raised slightly above low water. + These three breakwaters are provided with a quay sheltered by a raised + wall or promenade on the sea side; but as the mound on the harbour + side is raised up to, or a little above low water, the quay is only + accessible for vessels near high water. This, however, is of + comparatively little importance, since these quays, though very useful + for access to the end of the breakwater in fairly calm weather, are + inaccessible in exposed situations with a rough sea; and quays for the + accommodation of vessels are better provided well within the sheltered + harbour. + + The outer portions of the main breakwaters at Genoa and at Naples + (fig. 6), extending into depths of about 75 ft. and 110 ft. + respectively, have been provided with superstructures, similar in + type, but more solid than the superstructure at Marseilles; and the + sorted rubble mounds upon which the superstructures rest are protected + on the sea slope by stepped courses of concrete blocks from a depth of + 26 ft. below sea-level, covered over at the top by a masonry apron + forming a prolongation of the superstructure. The outer extension of + the main breakwater at Civita Vecchia furnishes an interesting example + of a composite form of breakwater, in which the rubble mound has been + protected, and greatly reduced in volume and extent in deep water, by + stepped courses of concrete blocks carried up from near the bottom of + the mound (fig. 7). + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--San Vincenzo Breakwater, Naples.] + + The breakwaters in front of Havre, constructed in 1896-1907, for + sheltering the altered entrance to the port, were formed of a sorted + rubble mound, protected on the sea slope by concrete blocks, and + raised a little above low water of spring tides, upon which large + blocks of masonry, built on land, were deposited with their upper + surfaces about 18 in. above low water of neap tides. As soon as + settlement of the mound under the action of the sea appeared to have + ceased, these masonry blocks were connected together by filling the + spaces between them with masonry; and a solid masonry superstructure + was built during low tide on this foundation layer, as shown in fig. + 8. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Civita Vecchia Outer Breakwater.] + + The breakwaters constructed for forming harbours on the sea coast of + the United States are almost all rubble-mound breakwaters. The two old + detached breakwaters sheltering Delaware Harbour near the + south-eastern extremity of Delaware Bay, were formed of simple rubble + mounds raised about 13 ft. above low water; but in closing the gap + between them towards the close of the 19th century, the rubble mound + was stopped at low water, and a sort of superstructure, consisting of + stepped courses of large rectangular blocks of stone on the sea and + harbour sides, with tightly packed rubble between them and capped + across the top for a width of 20 ft. with a course of large blocks, + was raised to 14 ft. above low water, resembling, on a small scale, + the upper part of the Civita Vecchia mound (fig. 7). A similar + construction was adopted for the new breakwater formed in 1897-1901 + for providing a harbour of refuge at the mouth of Delaware Bay; but in + this instance the mound was made considerably wider at the top, and + had to be protected along the toe of the superstructure on the sea + side by large stones. The same form of superstructure, also, on a + narrower base, was resorted to for a breakwater in deeper water at San + Pedro in California with satisfactory results. When, however, a + breakwater of the Delaware type was in progress for forming a harbour + of refuge in Sandy Bay, Massachusetts, in front of Rockport to the + north of Boston, the upper 13 ft. of the 600 ft. of completed + superstructure were carried away during a severe storm in 1898 leaving + only a portion about 5 ft. in height above low water, the average rise + of tide there being 8-3/5 ft. The design was, accordingly, modified in + 1902, by commencing the stepped courses of large stones at 12 ft. + below mean low water on each slope, instead of at low water raising + this kind of superstructure to 22 ft. above low water in place of 18 + ft., and capping the stepped courses at the top by large blocks of + stone, 20 ft. long and 5 ft. deep, laid across the breakwater, which + thus presented a marked resemblance to the upper section of the mound + at Civita Vecchia. + + + Superstructure below low-water level. + + The breakwater at Sandy Bay just referred to, and the one at Civita + Vecchia, which it somewhat resembles, approximate to that class of + breakwater which has a superstructure founded below low-water level, + so far as stepped courses of blocks can be regarded as forming part of + a superstructure; but as the protection afforded by these courses + differs only in the arrangement of the blocks from that obtained by + blocks deposited at random, it appears expedient to restrict this + class to the more solid structures, resembling upright-wall + breakwaters, founded on a mound at some depth below low water As the + main object of this class of breakwater is to keep the mound below the + zone of disturbance by waves in severe storms, it is evident that the + depth at which the superstructure is founded should vary directly with + the exposure of the site, and inversely with the size of the materials + forming the mound. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Havre Breakwater.] + + The depth at which waves striking against a superstructure may affect + a rubble mound near its toe by the recoil, has been only very + gradually realized. Thus, in 1847, the Alderney breakwater, though + fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, was begun with a superstructure + founded at low water of spring tides upon a rubble mound; but within + two years the foundations had to be carried down 12 it. below low + water, and this was adhered to till close to the head, though the + breakwater, completed in 1864, extended 4700 ft. from the shore into a + depth of 130 ft. at low tide, the rise of springs being 17 ft. The + great recoil of the waves in storms from the promenade wall on the sea + side of the superstructure, raised 33 ft. above low water, disturbed + the sea slope of the mound along the outer portion, situated in depths + of 80 to 130 ft. at low water, out to a distance of 90 ft. from the + superstructure and to a depth of 20 ft.; whilst the outer toe of the + superstructure was only preserved from being undermined by frequent + deposits of stone along the sea face. + + The south-west breakwater at Colombo Harbour, constructed in + 1876-1884, facing the seas raised by the south-west monsoon, extends + into a depth of 39 ft. at low water, where the rise of tide is only 2 + ft. at springs, and was built with a superstructure founded upon a + rubble mound at a depth of 20 ft. below low water, but raised only 12 + ft. above this level without any parapet, and protected along its sea + face by an apron of concrete in bags. In this case, not only was the + depth of the sea much less than at Alderney, but the small elevation + of the superstructure above low water enabled a portion of the waves + in storms to pass over it without materially impairing the shelter + inside. These circumstances reduced the shock and recoil of the waves; + and the greater depth of the foundations and the protection of the toe + of the superstructure greatly diminished the danger of undermining. + Consequently, the Colombo breakwater has been preserved from the + injuries to which the outer part of the Alderney breakwater succumbed. + Nevertheless, in subsequently constructing the north-west detached + breakwater, less exposed to the south-west monsoon, but in somewhat + deeper water (see COLOMBO), the experience of the action of the sea on + the south-west breakwater led to the laying of the foundations of the + superstructure on the rubble mound at 30-3/4 ft. below low water (fig. + 9). + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Colombo North-West Breakwater.] + + The breakwater for sheltering Peterhead Bay, where the rise of springs + is 11-1/4 ft., was begun in 1888, and designed to extend into a depth + of 9-1/2 fathoms at low water (see HARBOUR). It was built as an + upright wall upon the rocky bottom for 1000 ft. from the shore; but + owing to the increase in depth it was decided to construct the outer + portion with a rubble base, surmounted by a superstructure originally + designed to be founded 30 ft. below low water. As, however, during a + storm in October 1898, the recoil of the waves from the breakwater, + which is provided with a promenade wall rising about 35 ft. above low + water, disturbed rubble to a depth of 36-1/2 ft., the superstructure + has been founded 43 ft. below low water on the rubble base; and its + outer toe is protected from being undermined by two rows of concrete + blocks on the rubble mound. + + + Construction of the superstructure. + + Formerly, in constructing a large superstructure upon a rubble mound, + it was a common practice to build a sea wall and a harbour wall + several feet apart, and to fill up the intermediate,. space between + them with rubble, so as economically to form a wide structure on the + top of the mound, and provide an adequate width for a quay along the + top. A sheltering wall was also generally erected on the sea side. + This, for instance, was the system of construction adopted for the + superstructures, founded at low water, of Holyhead breakwater, + Portland inner breakwater, and St Catherine's, Jersey, breakwater. + Alderney breakwater, the Tyne breakwaters and Colombo south-west + breakwater were also commenced with a precisely similar method of + construction. The system, however, possesses a Very serious defect for + exposed situations, namely, that if once the sea can force a small + opening through the sea wall, the scooping out of the rubble filling, + and the overthrow of the thinner harbour wall are rapidly accomplished + if the storm continues or recurs before repairs can be effected. + Experience soon proved at Alderney and Tynemouth the unsuitability of + the system for very exposed situations; and the intermediate rubble + filling was replaced by solid hearting down to a certain depth. At + Colombo, after the first 1326 ft. of the south-west breakwater had + been built with two walls and intermediate rubble for the + superstructure, as the exposure proved greater than had been + anticipated, and a slight displacement of part of the sea wall, 24 ft. + wide, had occurred, the rubble filling was discontinued, and the two + walls were united into a solid superstructure 34 ft. in width. + + + sloping block system. + + A difficulty experienced in constructing a solid superstructure on the + top of a rubble mound consists in the settlement of the mound which + takes place when the weight of the superstructure comes on it, in + spite of the consolidation of the rubble under the action of the sea + for one or two years before the erection of the superstructure on it + is undertaken. When the superstructure is carried out in long + stepped-forward courses, irregular settlement is particularly liable + to occur, as the weight is progressively imposed in an uneven manner + on the yielding rubble, in proportion to the height of the rubble base + and its deficiency in compactness. The open joints between the blocks + laid below low water enable the air to penetrate, on the recoil of the + waves at low tide, into any internal fissures resulting from + settlement; and the following wave, on striking the superstructure, + compresses the air inside, which, on its expansion when the wave + recedes, forces out any unconnected face stones. The hole thus formed + is rapidly enlarged by the sea if the storm continues; and a breach is + eventually formed. The sloping-block system was, accordingly devised + to provide against the dislocation of superstructures by the + inevitable irregular settlement, by forming them of a series of + sloping sections, composed of concrete blocks laid at an angle, free + to settle independently on the mound, as shown in fig. 10. In the + first superstructure thus constructed, in 1869-1874, at the entrance + to Karachi harbour, founded 15 ft. below low water on a rubble mound + and 24 ft. high, the blocks in each section, consisting of two rows of + three superposed blocks laid at an inclination of 76 deg. shorewards, + were entirely unconnected; and, consequently, though the + superstructure offered as little opposition as practicable to the + waves by having its top slightly below high water, the waves in a + storm forcing their way into the vertical joint between the two rows, + threw some of the top 27-ton blocks of the inner row down on the + harbour slope of the mound. This cause of damage was obviated in + effecting the repairs, by connecting the top blocks with the next ones + by stone dowels. The superstructures of the breakwaters forming Madras + harbour, commenced in 1876, were similarly constructed in sloping, + independent sections, 4-1/2 ft. thick, composed of two distinct rows + of four tiers of blocks founded upon a rubble mound 22 ft. below low + water (the rise of tide at springs being 3-1/3 ft.), and raised 3-1/2 + ft. above high water. The blocks in each row were connected by a + tenon, projecting at the top of each block, fitting into a mortise in + the block above it. The retention of the vertical joint however, + between the two rows led to the overthrow of the greater part of the + superstructures of the outer arms at Madras, situated in a depth of 45 + ft. and facing the Indian Ocean, during a cyclone of 1881. In the + reconstruction of these superstructures, bond was introduced in the + successive tiers of each sloping section; and the blocks of the two + upper tiers were cramped together. Alter settlement on the mound had + ceased, a thick capping of mass concrete was laid all along the top of + the superstructure; and, finally, a mound of concrete blocks was + deposited at random on the mound in front of the sea face of the + superstructure to break the force of the waves and prevent + undermining. A similar wave-breaker, with blocks somewhat specially + arranged, was deposited in front of the sloping concrete-block + superstructure of the breakwater sheltering the Portuguese harbour of + Marmagao on the west coast of India, more particularly with the object + of preventing the undermining of the superstructure founded only 18 + ft. below low water of spring tides, on a layer of rubble spread on + the muddy sea-bottom, the settlement in this case being occasioned by + the yielding of the soft clay bed. This breakwater having been + commenced in 1884, subsequently to the failure at Madras, the + superstructure, formed of concrete blocks weighing 28-1/2 to 37-1/2 + tons was built in accordance with the design adopted for the + reconstructed outer arms at Madras, with the exceptions that the + separate sections were given a slope of 70 deg. instead of 76 deg. + shorewards to ensure greater stability, that the superstructure was + made 30 ft in width instead of 24 ft., that the top tier of blocks in + each section was secured to the next tier by two dowels, each formed + of a bundle of four rails, penetrating 3-1/2 ft. into each tier, so as + to enable the top courses to be more correctly aligned than with + tenons and mortises, and that the outer side of the continuous + concrete-in-mass capping was raised about 22 ft. above low water (fig. + 11). The rise of spring tides at Marmagao is 6 ft. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Colombo North-West Breakwater with Titan + Crane.] + + At Colombo the superstructures of both the south-west and north-west + breakwaters were built on the sloping-block system in sections 5-1/2 + ft. thick, and built at an angle of 68 deg. shorewards (fig. 10); and + the blocks, from 16-1/2 to 31 tons in weight, were laid in bonded + courses across each section, with four tiers of blocks in the + south-west breakwater founded 20 ft. below low water on the rubble + mound, and six tiers of blocks in the north-west breakwater, founded + 30-3/4 ft below low water. Five oblong grooves, moreover, were formed + in moulding the blocks, in the adjacent faces of each sloping section, + extending from top to bottom of the sections. These, when settlement + on the mound had ceased, were filled with concrete in bags which not + only connected the tiers of blocks in each section together, but also + joined the several sections to one another, and effectually closed + the transverse joints between the successive sections, which were + further connected together by a continuous capping of concrete-in-mass + along the whole length of the breakwater. + + These sloping blocks are laid by powerful overhanging, block-setting + cranes, called Titans (see CRANES), which travel along the completed + portion of the breakwater, and lay the blocks in advance on the mound + levelled by divers, as shown in fig. 10. The earlier Titans, employed + for the sloping-block superstructures at Karachi and Madras, were + constructed to travel only backwards and forwards on the completed + work, with sufficient sideways movement of the little trolley + travelling along the overhanging arm, from which the block is + suspended at the proper angle, to lay the blocks for each side of the + superstructure. In later forms, however, such for instance as the + Titan laying the 14-ton blocks at Peterhead breakwater in horizontal + courses, the overhanging arm is supported centrally on a ring of + rollers, placed on the top of the truck on which the Titan travels, so + that it can revolve and deposit blocks at the side of the + superstructure for protecting the mound, as well as in advance of the + finished work. These Titans possess the important advantage over the + timber staging formerly employed for such breakwaters, that, in + exposed situations, they can be moved back into shelter on the + approach of a storm, or for the winter or stormy months, instead of, + as in the case of staging, remaining out exposed to the danger of + being carried away during stormy weather, or necessitating loss of + time in erection at the beginning of the working season. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Marmagao Breakwater.] + + Though composite breakwaters are still occasionally constructed with a + superstructure founded on a rubble mound at, or above, low-water + level, these breakwaters are now almost always constructed with the + superstructure founded at some depth below low water, even at harbours + on the continent of Europe, where formerly broad quays founded at + sea-level, protected by a parapet wall and outer concrete blocks, were + the regular form of superstructure adopted. The breakwater for the + extension of the harbour at Naples provides an interesting example of + this change of design. A solid superstructure, formed of large + concrete blocks capped with masonry, about 50 ft. wide at the base, is + laid on a high rubble mound at a depth of 31 ft. below mean sea-level, + and provides a quay on the top, 24-1/2 ft. wide, protected on the sea + side by a promenade wall, 10 ft. high and 12-1/2 ft. wide at the top, + raised 19-2/3 ft. above sea-level (fig. 12). In view of the increased + depth at which superstructures are now founded upon rubble mounds, + causing the breakwaters to approximate more and more to the + upright-wall type, it might seem at first sight that the rubble base + might be dispensed with, and the superstructure founded directly on + the bed of the sea. Two circumstances, however, still render the + composite form of breakwater indispensable in certain cases: (1) the + great depth into which breakwaters have sometimes to extend, reaching + about 56 ft. below low water at Peterhead, and 102 ft. below mean + sea-level at Naples; and (2) the necessity, where the sea-bottom is + soft or liable: to be eroded by scour, of interposing a wide base + between the upright superstructure and the bed of the sea. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Naples Harbor Extension Breakwater.] + + The injuries to which composite breakwaters appear to have been + specially subject must be attributed to the greater exposure and depth + of the sites in which they have been frequently constructed, as + compared with rubble mounds or upright walls. The latter types, + indeed, are not well suited for erection in deep water, in the first + case, on account of the very large quantity of materials required for + a high mound with flat slopes, and in the second, owing to the + increased pressure of air under which divers have to work in laying + blocks for an upright wall in deep water. The ample depth in which + superstructures are founded, the due protection afforded to their + outer toe, the adoption of the sloping-block system for their + construction, and the dispensing in most cases with a high sheltering + wall on the sea side of the superstructure, render modern + superstructures as stable as upright-wall breakwaters of similar + height. Nevertheless, superstructures require to be given a greater + thickness than similar upright walls, because the greater depth of + water in which such composite breakwaters are built causes them to be + exposed to larger waves under similar conditions. + + The superstructures of composite breakwaters erected by the United + States for harbours on the shores of Lake Superior were formerly in + some cases composed of timber cribs floated into position and sunk by + filling them with rubble stone. On account of the cheapness of timber + several years ago in those regions, this simple mode of construction + was also economical, even though the rapid decay of the timber in the + portions of the cribs where it was alternately wet and dry involved + its renewal about every fifteen years on the average. Owing, however, + to the fact that the price of timber has increased considerably, + whilst that of Portland cement has been reduced, durable concrete + superstructures are beginning to be substituted for the rapidly + decaying cribwork structures. + + With the exception perhaps of the Alderney breakwater, which, owing to + its exceptional exposure and the unparalleled depth into which it + extended, had its superstructure so often breached by the sea that, + owing to the cost of maintenance, the inner portion only has been kept + in repair, the composite breakwater of Bilbao harbour has probably + proved the most difficult to construct on account of its great + exposure. The original design consisted of a wide rubble mound up to + about 16-1/2 ft. below low water, a mound of large concrete blocks up + to low water of equinoctial spring tides, and a solid masonry + superstructure well protected at its outer toe by a projection of + masonry, and raised several feet above high water, forming a quay + sheltered by a promenade wall. The rise of equinoctial spring tides at + the mouth of the river Nervion is 14-3/4 ft. In carrying out the work, + however, the superstructure built in the summer months was for the + most part destroyed by the following winter storms; and, accordingly, + the superstructure was eventually constructed on a widened rubble + base, so as to be sheltered to some extent by the outlying + concrete-block mound already deposited, a system subsequently adopted + in rebuilding the damaged portion of the North Pier at Tynemouth under + shelter of the ruins of the previous work. The modified superstructure + of the Bilbao breakwater was founded on the extended rubble mound at a + depth of 16-1/4 ft. below low water, and formed of iron caissons + partially filled with concrete and floated out, sunk in position, and + filled up with concrete blocks and concrete. It thus consists of a + continuous row of concrete blocks, each of them being 42-2/3 ft. in + width across the breakwater, 23 ft. in length along the line of the + breakwater, 23 ft. high, and weighing 1400 tons. These caisson blocks, + raised 6-3/4 ft. above low water, form the base of the superstructure, + upon which the upper part was built of concrete blocks on each face + with mass concrete filling between them, forming a continuous quay, 24 + ft. wide, raised 8 ft. above high tide, and slightly sheltered by a + curved parapet block only 5 ft. high. The outer toe of the caisson + blocks is protected from being undermined by two tiers of large + concrete blocks laid flat on the rubble mound. This superstructure has + successfully resisted the attacks of the Atlantic waves rolling into + the bay. At this breakwater and at Tynemouth advantage has been taken + of the protection unintentionally provided by previous failures, by + which the waves are broken before reaching the superstructure and pier + respectively; but instead of introducing a wave-breaker of concrete + blocks, for a protection to the superstructure, as arranged at + Marmagao (fig. 11) and the outer arms at Madras, it would appear + preferable to increase the width of the solid superstructure, if + necessary, as carried out at Naples (fig. 12). and to dispense with a + parapet and keep the superstructure low, as being unsuitable for a + quay in exposed situations, according to the plan adopted at Colombo + (fig. 9). + + 3. _Upright-Wall Breakwaters._--The third type of breakwater consists + of a solid structure founded directly on the sea-bottom, in the form + of an upright wall, with only a moderate batter on each face. This + form of breakwater is strictly limited to sites where the bed of the + sea consists of rock, chalk, boulders, or other hard bottom not + subject to erosion by scour, and where the depth does not exceed about + 40 to 50 ft. If a solid breakwater were erected on a soft yielding + bottom, it would be exposed to dislocation from irregular settlement; + and such a structure, by obstructing or diverting the existing + currents, tends to create a scour along its base; whilst the waves in + recoiling from its sea face are very liable to produce erosion of the + sea-bottom along its outer toe. Moreover, when the foundations for an + upright-wall breakwater have to be levelled by divers, and the blocks + laid under water by their help, the extension of such a breakwater + into a considerable depth is undesirable on account of the increased + pressure imposed upon diving operations. + + The Admiralty pier at Dover was begun about the middle of the 19th + century, and furnishes an early and notable example of an upright-wall + breakwater resting upon a hard chalk bottom; and it was subsequently + extended to a depth of about 42 ft. at low tide, in connexion with + the works for forming a closed naval harbour at Dover. This + breakwater, the Prince of Wales pier of the commercial harbour, and + the eastern breakwater and detached south breakwater for the naval + harbour, were all founded on a levelled bottom, carried down to the + hard chalk underlying the surface layer, by means of men in + diving-bells. The extension of the Admiralty pier and the other + breakwaters of Dover harbour consist of bonded courses of concrete + blocks, from 26 to 40 tons in weight, as shown in figs. 13 and 14, the + outer blocks above low water being formed on their exposed side with a + facing of granite rubble. The blocks, composed of six parts of sand + and stones to one part of Portland cement, moulded in frames, and left + to set thoroughly in the block-yard before being used, are all joggled + together, and above low-water level are bedded in cement and the + joints filled with cement grout. The blocks were laid by Goliath + travelling cranes running on temporary staging supported at intervals + of 50-1/4 ft. by clusters of iron piles carried down into the chalk + bottom. On each line of staging there were four Goliaths, preceded by + a stage-erecting machine. The front Goliath was used for working a + grab for excavating the surface layer of chalk, which was finally + levelled by divers, the second for carrying the diving-bell, the third + for laying the blocks below low water, and the fourth for setting the + blocks above low water. This succession of Goliaths enabled more rapid + progress to be made than with a single Titan at the end of a + breakwater; but it involved a considerable increase in the cost of the + plant, owing to the temporary staging required. The foundations were + carried down from 4 to 6 ft. into the chalk bottom, the deepest being + 53 ft. below low water of spring tides, and the average 47 ft. With a + rise of tide at springs of 18-3/4 ft., the average depth is thus + approximately 66 ft. at high tide, necessitating a pressure of 29 lb. + on the square inch, which is the limit at which men can work without + inconvenience in the diving-bells. The breakwaters are raised about 11 + ft. above high water of springs. The detached southern breakwater was + finished off at this level; but the extended western breakwater, or + Admiralty pier, is provided with a promenade parapet on its exposed + side, rising 13 ft. above the quay; and the eastern breakwater also + has a parapet on its exposed eastern side, raised, however, only 9 ft. + above its quay. The breakwaters are protected from scour along their + outer toe by an apron of concrete blocks, extending 25 ft. out from + their sea face. + + [Illustration: Dover Breakwater. + + FIG. 13. South Breakwater. + + FIG. 14. Admiralty Pier Extension.] + + + Concrete bag foundations. + + The levelling of the foundations for laying the courses of an + upright-wall breakwater is costly and tedious, even in chalk; and the + expense and delay are considerably enhanced where the bottom is hard + rock. Accordingly, in constructing two breakwaters at the entrance to + Aberdeen harbour on a bottom of granite in 1870-1877, concrete bags + were laid on the sea-bed; and these bags, by adapting themselves to + the rocky irregularities, obviated levelling the bottom. They formed + the foundation for the concrete blocks in the south breakwater; and by + the deposit of successive layers of 50-ton concrete bags till they + rose above low water, they constituted the whole of the submerged + portion of the north breakwater. The 50-ton bags were deposited from + hopper barges towed out to the site; and the portions of both + breakwaters above low water were carried up with mass concrete. + Subsequently, the breakwater at Newhaven was constructed on a + foundation of chalk, with lop-ton concrete bags up to low water, and + mass concrete above. Still later, the two breakwaters sheltering the + approach to the river Wear (see HARBOUR) and the Sunderland docks were + built with a foundation mound of concrete in bags, 56 to 116 tons in + weight, on the uneven sea-bottom, raised slightly above low water of + spring tides, on which a solid upright wall was erected, formed of + concrete blocks on each side faced with granite, filled in the centre + and capped on the top with mass concrete. The most exposed northern + Roker breakwater, raised about 11 ft. above high water of springs + where the rise is 14 ft. 5 in., is devoid of a parapet; but a subway + formed near the top in each breakwater gives access to the light on + the pierhead in stormy weather (fig. 15). These concrete bags are made + by lining the hopper of the barge with jute canvas, which receives the + concrete and is sewn up to form a bag whilst the barge is being towed + to the site. The concrete is thus deposited unset, and readily + accommodates itself to the irregularities of the bottom or of the + mound of bags; and sufficient liquid grout oozes out of the canvas + when the bag is compressed, to unite the bags into a solid mass, so + that with the mass concrete on the top, the breakwater forms a + monolith. This system has been extended to the portion of the + superstructure of the eastern, little-exposed breakwater of Bilbao + harbour below low water, where the rubble mound is of moderate height; + but this application of the system appears less satisfactory, as + settlement of the superstructure on the mound would produce cracks in + the set concrete in the bags. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Sunderland Southern Breakwater.] + + + Foundations with large blocks. + + Foundation blocks of 2500 to 3000 tons have been deposited for raising + the walls on each side of the wide portion of the Zeebrugge breakwater + (fig. 16) from the sea-bottom to above low water, and also 4400-ton + blocks along the narrow outer portion (see HARBOUR), by building iron + caissons, open at the top, in the dry bed of the Bruges ship-canal, + lining them with concrete, and after the canal was filled with water, + floating them out one by one in calm weather, sinking them in position + by admitting water, and then filling them with concrete under water + from closed skips which open at the bottom directly they begin to be + raised. The firm sea-bed is levelled by small rubble for receiving the + large blocks, whose outer toe is protected from undermining by a layer + of big blocks of stone extending out for a width of 50 ft.; and then + the breakwater walls are raised above high water by 55-ton concrete + blocks, set in cement at low tide; and the upper portions are + completed by concrete-in-mass within framing. + + + Concrete monoliths. + + Sometimes funds are not available for a large plant; and in such cases + small upright-wall breakwaters may be constructed in a moderate depth + of water on a hard bottom of rock, chalk or boulders, by erecting + timber framing in suitable lengths, lining it inside with jute cloth, + and then depositing concrete below low water in closed hopper skips + lowered to the bottom before releasing the concrete, which must be + effected with great care to avoid allowing the concrete to fall + through the water. The portion of the breakwater above low water is + then raised by tide-work with mass concrete within frames, in which + large blocks of stone may be bedded, provided they do not touch one + another and are kept away from the face, which should be formed with + concrete containing a larger proportion of cement. As long continuous + lengths of concrete crack across under variations in temperature, it + is advisable to form fine straight divisions across the upper part of + a concrete breakwater in construction, as substitutes for irregular + cracks. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Zeebrugge Harbour Breakwater with Quay.] + + Upright-wall breakwaters should not be formed with two narrow walls + and intermediate filling, as the safety of such a breakwater depends + entirely on the sea-wall being maintained intact. A warning of the + danger of this system of construction, combined with a high parapet, + was furnished by the south breakwater of Newcastle harbour in Dundrum + Bay, Ireland, which was breached by a storm in 1868, and eventually + almost wholly destroyed; whilst its ruins for many years filled up the + harbour which it had been erected to protect. In designing its + reconstruction in 1897, it was found possible to provide a solid + upright wall of suitable strength with the materials scattered over + the harbour, together with an extension needed for providing proper + protection at the entrance. This work was completed in 1906. + + Upright-wall breakwaters and superstructures are generally made of the + same thickness throughout, irrespective of the differences in depth + and exposure which are often met with in different parts of the same + breakwater. This may be accounted for by the general custom of + regarding the top of an upright wall or superstructure as a quay, + which should naturally be given a uniform width; and this view has + also led to the very general practice of sheltering the top of these + structures with a parapet. Generally the width is proportioned to the + most exposed part, so that the only result is an excess of + expenditure in the inner portion to secure uniformity. When, however, + as at Madras, the width of the structure is reduced to a minimum, the + action of the sea demonstrates that the strength of the structure must + be proportioned to the depth and exposure. In small fishery piers, + where great economy is essential to obtain the maximum shelter at + limited expense, it appears expedient to make the width of the + breakwater proportionate to the depth. This was done in Babbacombe + Bay; and in reconstructing the southern breakwater at Newcastle, + Ireland, advantage was taken of a change in direction of the outer + half to introduce an addition to the width, so as to make the strength + of the breakwater proportionate to the increase in depth and exposure. + In large structures, however, uniformity of design may be desirable + for each straight length of breakwater; though where two or more + breakwaters or outer arms enclose a harbour, the design should + obviously be modified to suit the depth and exposure. At Colombo + harbour, the superstructure of the less exposed north-west breakwater + has been made slightly narrower than that of the south-west + breakwater; and a simple rubble mound shelters the harbour from the + moderate north-east monsoon. In special cases, where a breakwater has + to serve as a quay, like the Admiralty pier at Dover, a high parapet + wall is essential; but in most cases, where a parapet merely enables + the breakwater to be more readily accessible in moderate weather, it + would be advisable to keep it very low, or to dispense with it + altogether, as at the southern Dover breakwater, the northern + breakwater at Sunderland, and the Colombo western breakwaters. This + course is particularly expedient in very exposed sites, as a high + parapet intensifies the shock of the waves against a breakwater and + their erosive recoil. Moreover, when a light has to be attended to at + the end of a breakwater, sheltered access can be provided by a subway, + as at Sunderland. + + Structures in the sea almost always require works of maintenance; and + when a severe storm has caused any injury, it is most important to + carry out the repairs at the earliest available moment, as the waves + rapidly enlarge any holes that they may have formed in weak places. + (L. F. V.-H.) + + + + +BREAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED (1832- ), French philologist, was born on +the 26th of March 1832, at Landau in Rhenish Bavaria, of French parents. +After studying at Weissenburg, Metz and Paris, he entered the Ecole +Normale in 1852. In 1857 he went to Berlin, where he studied Sanskrit +under Bopp and Weber. On his return to France he obtained an appointment +in the department of oriental MSS. at the Bibliotheque Imperiale. In +1864 he became professor of comparative grammar at the College de +France, in 1875 member of the Academie des Inscriptions et +Belles-lettres, in 1879 _inspecteur-general_ of public instruction for +higher schools until the abolition of the office in 1888. In 1890 he was +made commander of the Legion of Honour. Among his works, which deal +mainly with mythological and philological subjects, may be mentioned: +_L'Etude des origines de la religion Zoroastrienne_ (1862), for which a +prize was awarded him by the Academie des Inscriptions; _Hercule et +Cacus_ (1863), in which he disputes the principles of the symbolic +school in the interpretation of myths; _Le Mythe d'Oedipe_ (1864); _Les +Tables Eugubines_ (1875); _Melanges de mythologie et de linguistique_ +(2nd. ed., 1882); _Lecons de mots_ (1882,1886), _Dictionnaire +etymologique latin_ (1885) and _Grammaire latine_ (1890). His _Essai de +Semantique_ (1897), on the signification of words, has been translated +into English by Mrs H. Cust with preface by J.P. Postgate. His +translation of Bopp's _Comparative Grammar_ (1866-1874), with +introductions, is highly valued. He has also written pamphlets on +education in France, the teaching of ancient languages, and the reform +of French orthography. In 1906 he published _Pour mieux connaitre +Homere_. + + + + +BREAM (_Abramis_), a fish of the Cyprinid family, characterized by a +deep, strongly compressed body, with short dorsal and long anal fins, +the latter with more than sixteen branched rays, and the small inferior +mouth. There are two species in the British Isles, the common bream, _A. +brama_, reaching a length of 2 ft. and a weight of 12 lb., and the white +bream or bream flat, _A. blicca_, a smaller and, in most places, rarer +species. Both occur in slow-running rivers, canals, ponds and +reservoirs. Bream are usually despised for the table in England, but +fish from large lakes, if well prepared, are by no means deserving of +ostracism. In the days of medieval abbeys, when the provident Cistercian +monks attached great importance to pond culture, they gave the first +place to the tench and bream, the carp still being unknown in the +greater part of Europe. At the present day, the poorer Jews in large +English cities make a great consumption of bream--and other Cyprinids, +most of them being imported alive from Holland and sold in the Jewish +fish markets. In America the name bream is commonly given to the golden +shiner minnow (_Abramis chrysoleucus_), to the pumpkin-seed sunfish +(_Eupomotis gibbosus_), and to some kinds of porgy (_Sparidae_). + + + + +BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, of the Ger. _Brust_, +possibly connected with an O. Sax. _brustian_, to bud), the term +properly confined to the external projecting parts of the thorax in +females, which contain the mammary glands (for anatomy, and diseases, +see MAMMARY GLAND); more generally it is used of the external part of +the thorax in animals, including man, lying between the neck and the +abdomen. + + + + +BREAUTE, FALKES DE (d. 1226), one of the foreign mercenaries of King +John of England, from whom he received in marriage the heiress of the +earldom of Devon. On the outbreak of the Barons' War (1215) the king +gave him the sheriffdoms of six midland shires and the custody of many +castles. He fulfilled his military duties with as much skill as cruelty. +The royalists owed to his daring the decisive victory of Lincoln (1217). +But after the death of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, Falkes joined +the feudal opposition in conspiring against Hubert de Burgh. Deprived in +1223 of most of his honours, he was drawn into a rebellion by the +imprudence of his brother, who captured a royal justice and threw him +into prison (1224). Falkes was allowed to go into exile after his +submission, and endeavoured to obtain a pardon through the mediation of +Pope Honorius III. But this was refused, and Falkes died at St Cyriac in +1226. + + See Shirley, _Royal Letters_, vol. i.; the _Patent_ and _Close Rolls_; + Pauli, _Geschichte von England_, vol. i. pp. 540-545. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +BRECCIA, in petrology, the name given to rocks consisting of angular +fragments embedded in a matrix. They may be composed of volcanic rocks, +limestones, siliceous charts, sandstones, in fact of any kind of +material, and the matrix, which usually corresponds to some extent to +the fragments it encloses, may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous, +&c. The distinctive character of the group is the sharp-edged and unworn +shapes of the fragments; in conglomerates the pebbles are rounded and +water-worn, having been transported by waves and currents from some +distance. There are many ways in which breccias may originate. Some are +formed by ordinary processes of atmospheric erosion; frost, rain and +gravity break up exposed surfaces of rock and detach pieces of all +sizes; in this way screes are formed at the bases of cliffs, and barren +mountain-tops are covered with broken debris. If such accumulations +gather and are changed into hard rock by pressure and other indurating +agencies they make typical breccias. Conglomerates often pass into rocks +of this type, the difference being merely that the fragments are of +purely local origin, and are unworn because they have not been +transported. In caves breccias of limestone are produced by the collapse +of part of the roof, covering the floor with broken masses. Coral reefs +often contain extensive areas of limestone breccia, formed of detached +pieces of rock which have been dislodged from the surface and have been +carried down the steep external slopes of the reef. Volcanic breccias +are very common near active or extinct craters, as sudden outbursts of +steam bear fragments from the older rocks and scatter them over the +ground. + +Another group of breccias is due to crushing; these are produced in +fissures, faults and veins, below the surface, and maybe described as +"crush-breccias" and "friction-breccias." Very important and well-known +examples of this class occur as veinstones, which may be metalliferous +or not. A fissure is formed, probably by slight crustal movements, and +is subsequently filled with material deposited from solution (quartz, +calcite, barytes, &c.). Very often displacement of the walls again takes +place, and the infilling or "veinstone" is torn apart and brecciated. It +may then be cemented together by a further introduction of mineral +matter, which may be the same as that first deposited or quite +different. In important veins this process is often repeated several +times: detached pieces of the country rock are mingled with the +shattered veinstone, and generally experience alteration by the +percolating mineral solutions. Other crush-breccias occurring on a much +larger scale are due to the folding of strata which have unequal +plasticities. If, for example, shales and sandstones are bent into a +series of arches, the sandstones being harder and more resistant will +tend to crack, while the shales, which are soft and flow under great +pressures, are injected into the crevices and separate the broken pieces +from one another. Continued movement will give the brecciated fragments +of sandstone a rounded form by rubbing them against one another, and, in +this way, a crush-conglomerate is produced. Great masses of limestone in +the Alps, Scottish Highlands, and all regions of intense folding are +thus converted into breccias. Cherts frequently also show this +structure; igneous rocks less commonly do so; but it is perhaps most +common where there have been thin bedded alternations of rocks of +different character, such as limestone and dolerite, limestone and +quartzite, shale or phyllite and sandstone. Fault-breccias closely +resemble vein-breccias, except that usually their fragments consist +principally of the rocks which adjoin the fault and not of mineral +deposits introduced in solution; but many veins occupy faults, and hence +no hard and fast line can be drawn between these types of breccia. + +A third group of breccias is due to movement in a partly consolidated +igneous rock, and may be called "fluxion-breccias." Lava streams, +especially when they consist of rhyolite, dacite and some kinds of +andesite, may rapidly solidify, and then become exceedingly brittle. If +any part of the mass is still liquid, it may break up the solid crust by +pressure from within and the angular fragments are enveloped by the +fluid lava. When the whole comes to rest and cools, it forms a typical +"volcanic-fluxion-breccia." The same phenomena are sometimes exemplified +in intrusive sills and sheets. The fissures which are occupied by +igneous dikes may be the seat of repeated injections following one +another at longer or shorter intervals; and the latter may shatter the +earlier dike rocks, catching up the fragments. Among the older +formations, especially when decomposition has gone on extensively, these +fluxion and injection-breccias are often very hard to distinguish from +the commoner volcanic-breccias and ash-beds, which have been produced by +weathering, or by the explosive power of superheated steam. + (J. S. F.) + + + + +BRECHIN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 8941. It lies on the left bank of the South Esk, 7-3/4 m. +west of Montrose, and has a station on the loop line of the Caledonian +railway from Forfar to Bridge of Dun. Brechin is a prosperous town, of +great antiquity, having been the site of a Culdee abbey. The Danes are +said to have burned the town in 1012. David I. erected it into a +bishopric in 1150, and it is still a see of the Episcopal Church of +Scotland. In 1452 the earl of Huntly crushed the insurrection led by the +earl of Crawford at the battle of Brechin Muir, and in 1645 the town and +castle were harried by the marquis of Montrose. James VI. gave a grant +for founding a hospital in the burgh, which yet supplies the council +with funds for charity. No trace remains of the old walls and gates of +the town, but the river is crossed by a two-arched stone bridge of very +early date. The cathedral church of the Holy Trinity belongs to the 13th +century. It is in the Pointed style, but suffered maltreatment in 1806 +at the hands of restorers, whose work, however, disappeared during the +restoration completed in 1902. The western gable with its flamboyant +window and Gothic door and the massive square tower are all that is left +of the original edifice. The modern stained glass in the chancel is +reckoned amongst the finest in Scotland. Immediately adjoining the +cathedral to the south-west stands the Round Tower, built about 1000. It +is 86-3/4 ft. high, has at the base a circumference of 50 ft. and a +diameter of 16 ft., and is capped with a hexagonal spire of 18 ft., +which was added in the 15th century. This type of structure is somewhat +common in Ireland, but the only Scottish examples are those at Brechin, +Abernethy in Perthshire, and Egilshay in the Orkneys. Brechin Castle +played a prominent part in the Scottish War of Independence. In 1303 it +withstood for twenty days a siege in force by the English under Edward +I., surrendering only when its governor, Sir Thomas Maule, had been +slain. From the Maule family it descended to the Dalhousies. Its library +contains many important MSS., among them Burns's correspondence with +George Thomson, and several cartularies including those of St Andrews +and Brechin. In the Vennel (alley or small street) some ruins remain of +the _maison dieu_, or _hospitium_, founded in 1256 by William of +Brechin. Besides these historical buildings the principal public +structures include Smith's school, the municipal buildings, the free +library, the episcopal library (founded by Bishop Forbes, who, as well +as Bishop Abernethy-Drummond, presented a large number of volumes). The +principal industries include manufactures of linen and sailcloth, +bleaching, rope-making, brewing, distilling, paper-making, in addition +to nurseries and freestone quarries. Brechin--which is controlled by a +provost, bailies and council--unites with Arbroath, Forfar, Inverbervie +and Montrose to return one member to parliament. + +Edzell (pronounced Edyell, and, locally, Aigle) lies about 6 m. north of +Brechin, with which it is connected by rail. It is situated on the North +Esk and near the West Water, which falls into the Esk 2 m. south-west. +Edzell is on the threshold of romantic Highland scenery. The picturesque +ruins of Edzell Castle lie a mile to the west of the town. Once the seat +of the Lindsays the estate now belongs to the earl of Dalhousie. The +church of the parish of Farnell, 3-1/2 m. south-east of Brechin, was +erected in 1806 after the model, so it is stated, of the famous Holy +House (Casa Santa) of Loreto in Italy. It was here that the old +sculptured stone giving a version of the Fall was found. Between Farnell +and Brechin lies Kinnaird Castle, the seat of the earl of Southesk. + + + + +BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL (1821-1875), American soldier and political +leader, was born near Lexington, Kentucky, on the 21st of January 1821. +He was a member of a family prominent in the public life of Kentucky and +the nation. His grandfather, John Breckinridge (1760-1806), who revised +Jefferson's draft of the "Kentucky Resolutions" of 1798, was a United +States senator from Kentucky in 1801-1805 and attorney-general in +President Jefferson's cabinet in 1805-1806. His uncles, John +Breckinridge (1797-1841), professor of pastoral theology in the +Princeton Theological Seminary in 1836-1838 and for many years after +secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, and Robert +Jefferson Breckinridge (1800-1871), for several years superintendent of +public instruction in Kentucky, an important factor in the organization +of the public school system of the state, a professor from 1853 to 1871 +in the Danville Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Danville, Kentucky, +and the temporary chairman of the national Republican convention of +1864, were both prominent clergymen of the Presbyterian Church. His +cousin, William Campbell Preston Breckinridge (1837-1904), was a +Democratic representative in Congress from 1885 to 1893. Another cousin, +Joseph Cabell Breckinridge (1842- ), served on the Union side in the +Civil War, was a major-general of volunteers during the Spanish-American +War (1898), became a major-general in the regular United States army in +1903, and was inspector-general of the United States army from 1899 +until his retirement from active service in 1904. + +John Cabell Breckinridge graduated in 1838 at Centre College, Danville, +Kentucky, continued his studies at Princeton, and then studied law at +Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky. He practised law in +Frankfort, Kentucky, in 1840-1841 and in Burlington, Iowa, from 1841 to +1843, and then returned to Kentucky and followed his profession at +Lexington. In 1847 he went to Mexico as major in a volunteer regiment, +but arrived too late for service in the field. In 1849 he was elected a +Democratic member of the Kentucky legislature, and in 1851-1855 he +served in the national House of Representatives. President Pierce +offered him the position of minister to Spain, but he declined it. In +1856 he was chosen vice-president of the United States on the Buchanan +ticket, and although a strong pro-slavery and states rights man, he +presided over the Senate with conspicuous fairness and impartiality +during the trying years before the Civil War. In 1860 he was nominated +for the presidency by the pro-slavery seceders from the Democratic +national convention, and received a total of 72 electoral votes, +including those of every Southern state except Virginia, Kentucky, +Tennessee and Missouri. As vice-president and presiding officer of the +Senate, it was his duty to make the official announcement of the +election of his opponent, Lincoln. He succeeded John J. Crittenden as +United States senator from Kentucky in March 1861, but having +subsequently entered the Confederate service he was expelled from the +Senate in December 1861. As brigadier-general he commanded the +Confederate reserve at Shiloh, and in August 1862 he became +major-general. On the 5th of this month he was repulsed in his attack on +Baton Rouge, but he won distinction at Stone River (December 31, +1862-January 2, 1863), where his division lost nearly a third of its +number. He took part in the battle of Chickamauga, defeated General +Franz Sigel at Newmarket, Virginia, on the 15th of May 1864, and then, +joined Lee and took part in the battles of Cold Harbor on the 1st and on +the 3rd of June. In the autumn he operated in the Shenandoah Valley, and +with Early was defeated by Sheridan at Winchester on the 19th of +September. Being transferred to the department of South-west Virginia, +he fought a number of minor engagements in eastern Tennessee, and in +January 1865 became secretary of war for the Confederate States. At the +close of the war he escaped to Cuba, and from there went to Europe. In +1868 he returned to the United States and resumed the practice of law at +Lexington, Kentucky, where he died on the 17th of May 1875. + + + + +BRECON, or BRECKNOCK, a market town and municipal borough, the capital +of Breconshire, Wales, 183 m. from London by rail, picturesquely +situated nearly in the centre of the county, at the confluence of the +Honddu with the Usk. Half a mile higher up the Tarell also falls into +the Usk from the south. The ecclesiastical parish of Brecon consists of +the two civil parishes of St John the Evangelist and St Mary, both on +the left bank of the Usk, while St David's in Llanfaes is on the other +side of the river, and was wholly outside the town walls. Pop. (1901) +5875. There is only one line of railway, over which several companies, +however, have running powers, so that the town may be reached by the +Brecon & Merthyr railway from Merthyr, Cardiff and Newport, by the +Cambrian from Builth Wells, or by the Midland from Hereford and Swansea +respectively. The Great Western railway has also a service of road +motors between Abergavenny and Brecon. A canal running past Abergavenny +connects Brecon with Merthyr. + +The Priory church of St John, a massive cruciform building, originally +Norman with Early English and Decorated additions, is the finest parish +church in Wales, and even taking into account the cathedrals it is +according to E.A. Freeman "indisputably the third church not in a state +of ruin in the principality," its choir furnishing "one of the choicest +examples of the Early English style." Previous to the dissolution, a +rood-screen bearing a gigantic rood, the object of many pilgrimages, +stood to the west of the tower. The church was restored under Sir +Gilbert Scott between 1861 and 1875. St Mary's, in the centre of the +town, and St David's, beyond the Usk, are now mainly modern, though the +former has some of the Norman arches of the original church. There is +also a Roman Catholic church (St Michael's) opened in 1851, and chapels +belonging to the Baptists, Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists, and to +the Congregationalists. In Llanfaes there was formerly a Dominican +priory, but in 1542 Henry VIII. granted it with all its possessions to a +collegiate church, which was transferred thither from Abergwili, and was +given the name of Christ College. Many of the bishops of St David's +during the 17th century occasionally resided here, and several are also +buried here. A small part of the revenues went to the maintenance of a +grammar-school, but in 1841 the collegiate body was dissolved, and its +revenues, then amounting to about L8000 a year, were transferred to the +ecclesiastical commissioners. In 1853 Henry VIII.'s charter was +repealed, and under a chancery scheme adopted two years later, L1200 a +year was appropriated for the school. New school buildings were erected +at a cost of about L10,000 in 1862, and these were enlarged at a cost of +about L5000 in 1880. The chancel of the old Dominican chapel, dating +from the 13th century, was restored in 1864, and is now the school +chapel. There is also a Congregationalist theological college, built in +1869 at a cost of L12,000, and now affiliated with the university of +Wales. The other chief buildings of the town are the shire hall built in +1842 in the Doric style from designs by T.H. Wyatt; the Guildhall; the +barracks, which are the headquarters of two battalions of the South +Wales Borderers; the county infirmary founded in 1832; and the prison +(in Llanfaes) for the counties of Brecon and Radnor. There is a bronze +statue of the duke of Wellington (erected in 1854) by John Evan Thomas, +a native of the town. The town commands a magnificent view of the +Brecknock Beacons, and is noted for its promenades on the banks of the +Usk, and in the priory groves. Brecon is favourably known as a fishing +centre, and there is also boating on the Usk and the canal. There are +several houses of interest, notably the Priory and Dr Awbrey's residence +(now called Buckingham House), both built about the middle of the 16th +century, but the finest specimen is Newton (about a mile out, near +Llanfaes) built in 1582 by Sir John Games (a descendant of Sir David +Gam), but now a farmhouse. The "Shoulder of Mutton" Inn, now known as +the "Siddons Wine Vaults," was the birthplace in 1755 of Mrs Siddons. + +The name Brecknock is an anglicized form of Brycheiniog, the Welsh name +of the territory of Brychan (whence the alternative form of Brecon), a +Goidelic chieftain, who gained possession of the Usk valley in the 5th +century. The Welsh name of the town, on the other hand, has always been +Aber-Honddu (the estuary of the Honddu). There is no evidence of any +settlement on the site of the present town prior to about 1092, when +Bernard Newmarch, after defeating Bleddin ab Maenarch, built here a +castle which he made his residence and the chief stronghold of his new +lordship. For this purpose he utilized what remained of the materials of +the Roman fort, 3 m. to the west, at Y Gaer, which some identify as +Bannium. He subsequently founded, near the castle, the Benedictine +priory of St John, which he endowed and constituted a cell of Battle +Abbey. In time a town grew up outside the castle, and its inhabitants +received a series of charters from the de Bohuns, into which family the +castle and lordship passed, the earliest recorded charter being granted +by Humphrey, 3rd earl of Hereford. Under the patronage of his +great-grandson, the last earl of Hereford (who lived in great splendour +at the castle), the town became one of the chief centres of trade in +South Wales, and a sixteen days' fair, which he granted, still survives +as a hiring fair held in November. Further charters were granted by +Henry IV. (who married Hereford's co-heiress), by Henry V., who gave the +town two more fairs, and by the Stafford family, to which the castle and +lordship were allotted on the partition of the Bohun estates in 1421. +Henry Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham, resided a good deal at the +castle, and Morton, bishop of Ely, whose custody as a prisoner was +entrusted to him, plotted with him there for the dethronement of Richard +III., for which Stafford was executed in 1483. His son, Edward, the 3rd +duke, who was born in the castle in 1478, had the estates restored to +him, but, in 1521, suffered a like fate with his father, and the +lordship and castle then vested in the crown. Both were acquired in the +next century by the ancestors of Viscount Tredegar, to whom they now +belong. By a statute of 1535 Brecon was made the county town of the new +shire of Brecknock, and was granted the right of electing one burgess to +represent it in parliament, a right which it retained till it was merged +in the county representation in 1885. A chancery and exchequer for the +counties of Brecknock and Radnor were also established at Brecon Castle, +and from 1542 till 1830 the great sessions, and since then the assizes, +and at all times the quarter sessions for the county, have been held at +Brecon. The borough had also a separate court of quarter sessions till +1835. The town was incorporated by a charter granted by Philip and Mary +in 1556 and confirmed by Elizabeth in the nineteenth year of her reign. +A charter granted by James II. was never acted upon. The borough was +placed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and until then the +town of Llywel, which is 10 m. off, formed a ward of the borough. There +were formerly five trade gilds in the town, the chief industries being +cloth and leather manufactures. There are five ancient fairs for stock, +and formerly each of them was preceded by a leather fair. The fairs held +in May and November were also for hiring, much of the hiring being now +done at the Guildhall, and not in the streets as used to be the case. + +During the Civil War the greater part of the castle and of the town +walls (which with their four gates were until then well preserved) were +demolished by the inhabitants in order to prevent the town being either +garrisoned or besieged. Charles I., however, stayed a night at the +priory house shortly after the battle of Naseby. The chief ruins of the +castle are now enclosed in the grounds of the Castle Hotel, the +principal object being Ely tower, where Bishop Morton was imprisoned. + +Besides those already mentioned the persons of note born in the town +include Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham; Dr Hugh Price, founder of +Jesus College, Oxford; Dr Thomas Coke, the first Wesleyan missionary +bishop in America; and Theophilus Jones, the historian of the county. +Henry Vaughan, the Silurist, at one time practised here as a doctor of +medicine. (D. Ll. T.) + + + + +BRECONSHIRE, or BRECKNOCKSHIRE, an inland county in South Wales, and the +fourth largest in all Wales, bounded N.W. by Cardigan, N. and N.E. by +Radnor, E. and S.E. by Monmouth, S. by Glamorgan and W. by Carmarthen. +The general aspect of the county is mountainous, and the scenery is +marked by beauty and grandeur. The climate is moist but temperate and +healthy, and the soil of the valleys, often consisting of rich alluvial +deposits, is very fertile. The loftiest mountains in South Wales, +extending from Herefordshire and Monmouthshire (where their eastern +spurs form the Hatteral Hills) in a south-easterly direction into +Carmarthenshire, completely encircle the county on the east and south +except for the break formed by the Vale of Usk at Crickhowell. Their +highest summit north of the Usk, on the eastern side, where they are +known as the Black Mountains, or sometimes the Black Forest Mountains, +is Pen y Gader (2624 ft.) between Talgarth and Llanthony, and on the +south-west the twin peaks of the Mynydd Du ("Black Mountain") or the +so-called Carmarthenshire Vans or Beacons, only the higher of which, Fan +Brycheiniog (2632 ft.), is, however, in Breconshire; while the centre of +the crescent is occupied by the masses of the Brecknockshire Beacons or +Vans (often called the Beacons simply), the highest point of which, Pen +y Fan, formerly also known as Cadair Arthur, or Arthur's Chair, attains +an altitude of 2910 ft. In the north, a range of barren hills, which +goes by the general designation of Mynydd Eppynt (a name more properly +limited to its central portion), stretches right across the county in a +north-easterly direction, beginning with Mynydd Bwlch-y-Groes on the +boundary to the east of Llandovery, and terminating near Builth. In the +dreary country still farther north there is a series of rounded hills +covered with peat and mosses, the chief feature being Drygarn Fawr (2115 +ft.) on the confines of Cardiganshire. + +Of the valleys, the most distinguished for beauty is that of the Usk, +stretching from east to west and dividing the county into two nearly +equal portions. The Wye is the chief river, and forms the boundary +between the county and Radnorshire on the north and north-east, from +Rhayader to Hay, a distance of upwards of 20 m.; its tributary, the +Elan, till it receives the Claerwen, and then the latter river, continue +the boundary between the two counties on the north, while the Towy +separates the county from Cardigan on the north-west. The hilly country +to the north of the Eppynt is mainly drained by the Irfon, which falls +into the Wye near Builth. The Usk rises in the Carmarthenshire Van on +the west, and flowing in a direction nearly due east through the centre +of the county, collects the water from the range of the Beacons in the +south, and from the Eppynt range in the north by means of numerous +smaller streams, of which the Tarell and the Honddu (which join it at +Brecon) are the most important, and it enters Monmouthshire near +Abergavenny. The Taff, the Nedd (with its tributaries the Hepste and +the Mellte) and the Tawe, all rise on the south of the Beacon range and +passing through Glamorganshire, flow into the Bristol Channel, the upper +reaches of the Nedd and its tributaries in the Vale of Neath being +deservedly famous for its scenery. The mountains of the county +constitute one of the best water-producing areas in Wales. Recognizing +this, the corporation of Birmingham, under an act of 1892, acquired the +watershed of the Elan and Claerwen, and constructed on the Elan three +impounding reservoirs whence the water is conducted through an aqueduct +to Birmingham (q.v.). Swansea obtains its chief supply from a reservoir +of one thousand million gallons constructed in 1898-1906 on the Cray, a +tributary of the Usk. A large industrial area around Neath is supplied +from Ystradfellte. Merthyr Tydfil draws its supply from the lesser Taff, +while Cardiff's main supply comes from the Great Taff valley, where, +under acts of 1884 and 1894, two reservoirs with a capacity of 668 +million gallons have been constructed and a third authorized. + +In the east of the county, at the foot of the Black Forest Mountains, is +Llyn Safaddan, or Brecknock Mere, now more generally known as Llangorse +Lake (from being partly situated in the parish of that name). It is +about 3 m. long by 1 m. broad, being the largest lake in South Wales. +Upon an artificial island in the lake traces of lake-dwellings were +discovered in 1869, together with the bones of red deer, wild boar and +_Bos longifrons_. + + _Geology._--The oldest rocks in Brecknockshire are the Llandeilo + shales and intrusive diabases of pre-Llandovery age which near Builth + extend across the Wye from Radnorshire; another patch with volcanic + outflows comes up at Llanwrtyd, and at both places they give rise to + mineral springs. Next follow the Bala Beds, which, with the succeeding + Lower and Upper Llandovery shales, sandstones and conglomerates, form + the sparsely populated sheepwalks and valleys which occupy most of the + north-western part of the county. These rocks are much folded and the + shales are locally cleaved into slates, while the sandstones and + conglomerates form scarps and ridges. To the south-east of this region + a narrow outcrop of Upper Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow sandstones + and mudstones follows, uncomformably overlying the Llandeilo and Bala + rocks, and dipping conformably under the Old Red Sandstone; they + extend from Newbridge-on-Wye and Builth through Llangammarch (where + there are mineral springs) towards Llandovery, while a tongue of + Ludlow rocks brought up by faulting extends from Erwood on the Wye for + 8 m. south-westwards into the Old Red Sandstone. The remainder and + greater part of the county is occupied chiefly by the gently inclined + Old Red Sandstone; in the dissected plateau of the Black Mountains + north of Crickhowell the lower marls and cornstones are laid open, + while south of Brecon the conglomeratic upper beds form the escarpment + and plateaus of the Beacons. The southern edge of the county is formed + by the scarps and moorlands of the Carboniferous Limestone and + Millstone Grit (both of which form also the outlier of Pen-ceryg-calch + north of Crickhowell), while the lowest beds of the Coal Measures of + the South Wales coalfield are reached in the Tawe and Neath valleys + (where the beds are much folded) and near Tredegar and Brynmawr. + Glacial deposits spread over the lower grounds and striae occur at + great heights on the Black Mountains. + +_Industries._--Agriculture is the chief industry, and the Agricultural +Society of the county, dating from 1755, is the oldest in Wales. About +one-fourth only of the area of the county is under cultivation, and the +chief crops grown are wheat and barley, but above all, turnips and oats. +The acreage devoted to any other crop is practically infinitesimal, +though in the eastern part more attention is paid to fruit-growing than +perhaps in any other part of South Wales. The farming is, however, +chiefly pastoral, nearly one-third of the county is common or waste +land, and its number of sheep (mainly of the Radnor Forest breed) far +exceeds that of any other county in Wales. The breeding of cobs and +ponies comes next in importance, and thirdly that of cattle, now mostly +Herefords, though Speed mentions a native breed, long since extinct, all +white with red ears. These, together with pigs, wool, butter, and (in +small quantities) cheese, form the staple of a considerable trade with +the Midlands and the industrial districts to the south and southwest. +The farms are of comparatively small size, the average cultivated area +of the holdings in 1894 being 63 acres, and the hired labour averages +about two men for each farm. A large share of the work, especially on +the highland farms, is done by the occupiers and members of their own +families, with the aid, where required, of an indoor servant or two. +Few hands are employed in manufactures, but the mining industry is more +important, coal being extensively worked--chiefly anthracite in the +upper reaches of the Swansea and Neath valleys, and bituminous in the +south-eastern corner of the county. There are also limestone and +fireclay, firebrick and cement works, chiefly on the northern outcrop of +the carboniferous limestone, as at Abernant in the Vale of Neath and at +Penwyllt. + +The Central Wales section of the London & North-Western railway from +Craven Arms to Swansea crosses the north-west corner of the county, and +is intersected at Builth Road by a branch of the Cambrian, which, +running for the most part on the Radnorshire side of the Wye, follows +that river from Rhayader to Three Cocks; the Midland railway from +Hereford to Swansea runs through the centre of the county, effecting +junctions at Three Cocks with the Cambrian, at Talyllyn with the Brecon +& Merthyr railway (which connects the county with the industrial areas +of East Glamorgan and West Monmouthshire), and at Capel Colbren with the +Neath and Brecon line. The North-Western and Rhymney joint line skirts +the south-eastern boundary of the county. Brecon is also connected with +Newport by means of the Brecknock and Abergavenny Canal, which was +completed in 1801 and is 35 m. in length. The Swansea Canal and that of +the Vale of Neath have also their northern terminal within the county, +at Ystradgynlais and Abernant respectively. The main roads of the county +are probably the best in South Wales. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +475,224 acres, with a population in 1891 of 57,031 and in 1901 of +59,907. The area of the administrative county is 469,301 acres. The only +municipal borough is Brecon, which is the county town, and had in 1901 a +population of 5741. The other urban districts are Brynmawr, Builth Wells +and Hay, with populations of 6833, of 1805 and of 1680 respectively in +1901. Crickhowell and Talgarth are market towns, while Llanwrtyd Wells +is a rapidly developing health resort. The county forms part of the +South Wales circuit, and the assizes are held at Brecon. It had one +court of quarter sessions, and is divided into ten petty sessional +divisions. The borough of Brecon has a separate commission of the peace, +but no separate court of quarter sessions. There are 94 civil parishes, +while the ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within +the county number 70, of which 67 are in the diocese of St David's and +the archdeaconry of Brecon, the remaining 3 being in the diocese of +Llandaff. The county is not divided for parliamentary purposes, and +returns one member to parliament. It contains a small part of the +parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil. + +In the eastern parts and along the Wye valley, English has become the +predominant language, but in the rest of the county, especially north of +the Eppynt range, Welsh occupies that position. In 1901 about 51% of the +population above three years could speak both English and Welsh, 38% +could speak English only and 11% Welsh only. The majority of the +population is Nonconformist in religion, the chief denominations being +the Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists and Congregationalists. Besides an +endowed grammar-school (Christ College) at Brecon, there are in the +county four secondary schools, established under the Welsh Intermediate +Education Act 1899, viz. separate schools for boys and girls at Brecon, +and dual schools at Builth and Brynmawr. Most of the county institutions +are in the town of Brecon, but the joint asylum for the counties of +Brecon and Radnor is at Talgarth. It was opened in February 1903. At +Trevecca, near the same town, was a theological college for ministerial +students attached to the Calvinistic Methodist body, but in October 1906 +the institution was removed to Aberystwyth, and the buildings have since +been utilized for a preparatory school belonging to the same body. + +_History._--There are no traces or record of Breconshire being inhabited +before the Neolithic period, but to that period may be ascribed a number +of cairns, menhirs and one cromlech (near Glanusk). In Roman times the +eastern half of the county formed part of the territory of the Silures, +a pre-Celtic race, whose governing class at that time probably consisted +of Brythonic Celts. But an earlier wave of Celtic invasion represented +by the Goidels had passed westwards along the valleys of the Usk and +Wye, leaving traces in place-names (_e.g. llwch_, lake), and in the +Ogham inscribed stones found at Glanusk, Trallwng and Trecastle, and +probably surviving into historic times around the Beacon range and +farther south even to Gower and Kidwelly. The conquest of the district +by the Romans was effected between about A.D. 75 and 80, and they +established a frontier fort (which some have called Caer Bannau, +identifying it as Bannium) some 3 m. out of the present town of Brecon, +with smaller stations on roads leading thereto at Y Gaer near +Crickhowell, and at Capel Colbren in the direction of Neath. On the +departure of the Romans, the Goidelic hill-tribes, probably with help +from Gower and Ireland, seem to have regained possession of the Usk +valley under the leadership of a chieftain of their own race, Brychan, +who became the ancestor of one of the three chief tribes of hereditary +Welsh saints. His territory (named after him Brycheiniog, whence +Brecknock) lay wholly east of the Eppynt range, for the lordship of +Buallt, corresponding to the modern hundred of Builth, to the west, +remained independent, probably till the Norman invasion. Most of the +older churches of central Brecknockshire and east Carmarthenshire were +founded by or dedicated to members of Brychan's family. + +From the middle of the 8th century to the 10th, Brycheiniog proper often +bore the brunt of Mercian attacks, and many of the castles on its +eastern border had their origin in that period. Subsequently, when +Bernard de Newmarch and his Norman followers obtained possession of the +country in the last quarter of the 11th century, these were converted +into regular fortresses. Bernard himself initiated this policy by +building a castle at Talgarth on the Upper Wye, but in 1091 he moved +southwards, defeated the regulus of Brycheiniog, Bleddyn ab Maenarch, +and his brother-in-law Rhys ap Tewdwr, the prince of south-west Wales, +and with materials obtained from the Roman fort of Caer Bannau, built a +castle at Brecon, which he made his _caput baroniae_. Brycheiniog was +then converted into a lordship marcher and passed to the Fitzwalter, de +Breos, the Bohun and the Stafford families in succession, remaining +unaffected by the Statute of Rhuddlan (1282), as it formed part of the +marches, and not of the principality of Wales. + +The Irfon valley, near Builth, was, however, the scene of the last +struggle between the English and Llewelyn, who in 1282 fell in a petty +skirmish in that district. The old spirit of independence flickered once +again when Owen Glendower marched to Brecon in 1403. Upon the attainder +of Edward, duke of Buckingham, in 1521, the lordship of Brecon with its +dependencies became vested in the crown. In 1536 it was grouped with a +whole series of petty lordships marcher and the lordship of Builth to +form the county of Brecknock with Brecon as the county town, and the +place for holding the county court. The county returns one member to +parliament, and has done so since 1536; the borough of Brecon, with the +town of Llywel, had also a separate representative from the same date +till 1885, when it became merged in the county. + + + + +BREDA, a fortified town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, at +the confluence of the canalized rivers Merk and Aa, 15 m. by rail E.N.E. +of Roozendaal. Pop. (1900) 26,296. It is connected by steam tramway with +Antwerp (30 m. S.S.W.), and with Geertruidenberg in the north, and the +island of Duiveland on the west. The fortress of Breda, which was once +considered impregnable, has been dismantled, but the town is still +protected by extensive lines of fortification and lies in the midst of a +district which can be readily laid under water. It has a fine quay, +town-hall and park. There are several Roman Catholic and Protestant +churches. The principal Protestant church is a Gothic building dating +from the end of the 13th century, with a fine tower, and a choir of +later date (1410). Among the many interesting monuments is the imposing +tomb of the stadtholder Count Engelbert II. of Nassau and his wife. This +is the work of Tomasino Vincenz of Bologna, who, though a pupil of +Raphael in painting, in sculpture followed Michelangelo, to whom the +work is sometimes ascribed. Since 1828 Breda has been the seat of a +royal military academy for all arms of the service. It also possesses a +Latin school, an arsenal, and a modern prison built on the isolated-cell +principle. The prison is in the form of a rotunda, 58 yds. in diameter, +and covered by a high dome. In the middle is the office of the +administration, and on the top of this a small watch-tower. Round the +walls of the rotunda are the cells, 208 in number, and arranged in four +tiers with balconies reached by iron staircases. Each cell measures 35 +cub. yds., is provided with an electric bell communicating with the +warder in the tower, heated by hot-air pipes, and lighted by day through +a window on the outer wall of the rotunda, and from sunset till ten +o'clock by electric light. The industries of Breda comprise the +manufacture of linen and woollen goods, carpets, hats, beer and musical +instruments. In the neighbourhood of the town are the villages of +Ginneken and Prinsenhage, situated in the midst of pretty pine woods. +They form favourite places of excursion, and in the woods at Ginneken is +a Kneipp sanatorium. + +_History._--Breda was in the 11th century a direct fief of the Holy +Roman Empire, its earliest known lord being Henry I. (1098-1125), in +whose family it continued, though, from the latter part of the 13th +century, in the female line, until Alix, heiress of Philip (d. 1323), +sold it to Brabant. In 1350 the fief was resold to John (Jan) of Polanen +(d. 1377), the heiress of whose line, Joanna (d. 1445), married +Engelbert of Nassau-Dillenburg (d. 1442). Henceforth it remained in the +house of Nassau, passing ultimately to William I. (1533-1584), the first +stadtholder of the Netherlands. Breda obtained municipal rights in 1252, +but was first surrounded with walls in 1534 by Count Henry of Nassau, +who also restored the old castle, originally built by John of Polanen in +1350. From this period until late in the 19th century it remained the +most important of the line of fortresses along the Meuse. Breda was +captured by surprise by the Spaniards in 1581; but in 1590 it fell again +into the hands of Maurice of Nassau, 68 picked men contriving to get +into the town concealed under the turf in a peat-boat. The so-called +"Spaniard's Hole" still marks the spot where the peat-boat lay. Its +surrender in 1625, after a ten months' siege, to the Spaniards under +Spinola is the subject of the famous picture by Velasquez in the Museo +del Prado in Madrid. In 1637 Breda was recaptured by Frederick Henry of +Orange after a four months' siege, and in 1648 it was finally ceded to +Holland by the treaty of Westphalia. During the wars of the French +Revolution, it was taken by Dumouriez in 1793, evacuated soon after and +retaken by Pichegru in 1795, after the whole of Holland had already +succumbed to the French. In 1813, a sally being made by the French +garrison on an advance-guard of the Russians under Benckendorff, the +citizens of Breda again made themselves masters of the town. + +Breda was the residence, during his exile, of Charles II., who, by the +declaration of Breda (1660), made known the conditions of his acceptance +of the crown of England. In 1696 William, prince of Orange and king of +England, built the new castle, one of the finest buildings of the +period, which now serves as the military academy. Breda also derives +some celebrity from the various political congresses of which it has +been the scene. In 1575 a conference was held here between the +ambassadors of Spain and those of the United Provinces; in 1667 a peace +was signed between England, Holland, France and Denmark; and in +1746-1747 the representatives of the same powers met in the town to +discuss the terms of another treaty. + + + + +BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN (1683-1750), Flemish painter, son of Alexander +van Bredael (d. 1720), who was also an artist, was born in Antwerp. He +imitated the style of Wouverman and Breughel with such dexterity that +even connoisseurs are often unable to distinguish his copies of their +pictures from the originals. He visited England, where he was so well +employed that in a few years he was able to retire to his native country +with a competency. The earl of Derwentwater was one of his chief +patrons. There were several other van Bredaels, who won honour as +artists--notably PIETER (1622-1719), Alexander's father, and JOZEF +(1688-1739). They were formerly known as "Breda," but this apparently is +incorrect, though it occurs as a signature on a picture by Jan Frans in +the Amsterdam gallery. + + + + +BREDERODE, HENRY, COUNT OF (1531-1568), was born at Brussels in 1531. He +was the descendant of an ancient race, which had for some centuries been +settled in Holland, and had taken an active part in the affairs of war +and peace. Count Henry became a convert to the Reformed faith and placed +himself at the side of the prince of Orange and Count Egmont in +resisting the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition and Spanish +despotism into the Netherlands. In 1566 he was one of the founders of +the confederacy of nobles who bound themselves to maintain the rights +and liberties of the country by signing a document known as "the +Compromise." On the 5th of April of that year Brederode accompanied to +the palace a body of 250 confederates, of whom he acted as the +spokesman, to present to the regent, Margaret of Parma, a petition +setting forth their grievances, called "the Request." It was at a +banquet at the Hotel Culemburg on the 8th of April, presided over by +Brederode, that the sobriquet of _les Gueux_, or "the Beggars," was +first given to the opponents of Spanish rule. Brederode was banished +from the Netherlands by Alva, and died in exile shortly afterwards at +the early age of thirty-six. + + + + +BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL (1773-1814), German historian, was born at +Berlin on the 14th of December 1773, and became successively professor +at the universities of Helmstadt, Frankfort-on-Oder and Breslau. He died +at Breslau on the 5th of September 1814. Bredow's principal works are +_Handbuch der alien Geschichte, Geographic und Chronologie_ (Eutin, +1799; English trans., London, 1827); _Chronik des 19. Jahrhunderts_ +(Altona, 1801); _Entwurf der Weltkunde der Alten_ (Altona, 1816); +_Weltgeschichte in Tabellen_ (Altona, 1801; English trans, by J. Bell, +London, 1820); _Grundriss einer Geschichte der merkwurdigsten Welthandel +von 1796-1810_ (Hamburg, 1810). + + Bredow's posthumous writings were edited by J.G. Kunisch (Breslau, + 1823), who added a biography of the author. + + + + +BREDOW, a village of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, immediately +north of Stettin, of which it forms a suburb. Here are the Vulcan +iron-works and shipbuilding yards, where the liners "Deutschland" +(1900), the "Kaiserin Augusta Victoria" (1906), and the "George +Washington" (1908), the largest vessel (722 ft. long, 27,000 tons) in +the German mercantile marine, were built; and also sugar, cement and +other factories. + + + + +BREECH (common in early forms to Teutonic languages), a covering for the +lower part of the body and legs. The Latin _braca_ or _bracca_ is a +Celtic word, probably cognate with the Teutonic. The word in its proper +meaning is used in the plural, and, strictly, is confined to a garment +reaching to the knees only. The meaning of "the hinder part of the body" +is later than, and derived from, its first meaning; this sense appears +in the "breech" or hinder part of a gun. The word is also found in +"breeches buoy," a sling life-saving apparatus, consisting of a support +of canvas breeches. The "Breeches Bible," a name for the Geneva Bible of +1560, is so called because "breeches" is used for the aprons of +fig-leaves made by Adam and Eve. On the stage the phrase a "breeches" +part is used when a woman plays in male costume. "Breeching" is a strap +passed round the breech of a harnessed horse and joined to the shafts to +allow a vehicle to be backed. + + + + +BREEDS AND BREEDING. Breeds may be defined as domestic varieties of +animals or plants which man has been able to bring into existence and to +maintain in existence. The process of breeding includes all the +modifying influences which man may bring to bear on a wild stock for the +purpose, conscious or unconscious, of establishing and maintaining +breeds. Charles Darwin's _Variation of Animals and Plants under +Domestication_ (1868) was the starting-point of exact knowledge on this +subject; when it appeared, it contained not only the best collection of +empirical facts, but the only rational theory of the facts. The first +relations between man and domesticated animals and plants were due to +unconscious or accidental selection of wild stocks that tolerated the +vicinity of man and that were useful or attractive to him. The new +conditions must have produced modifications in these stocks, whether +these were caused by a survival in each generation of individuals with +the power of response to the new environment, or were due to a +conscious selection of individuals capable of such favourable response. +The essence of the process, however, came to be a conscious selection in +each generation of the best individuals, that is to say, of those +individuals that seemed to man to be most adapted to his wants. The +possibility of establishing a breed depended, therefore, in the first +place on the natural variability of wild animals and plants, then on the +variations induced in animals and plants under subjection to the new +conditions brought about by man's interference, next on the extent to +which these variations, natural or artificial, persisted through the +series of generations, and finally on man's intelligence in altering or +maintaining the conditions of the environment, and in selective mating. +The theory of breeds and breeding depends, in fact, on knowledge of +variation, of modification by the environment, and of heredity. Any +attempt to give an account of what actually has been done by man in +establishing breeds would be little more than an imperfect summary of +Darwin's work. The articles HEREDITY, MENDELISM and VARIATION AND +SELECTION show that what may be called the theoretical and experimental +knowledge of variation and heredity is far in advance of the practical +art of breeding. Even horticulturists, who have been much more +successful than those who deal with animals, are still far from being +able to predict the result of their selections and crossings. None the +less it may be stated definitely that such prediction is already so +nearly within the power of the practical breeder that it would be a +waste of time to give a summary of the existing rule-of-thumb methods. +The art of breeding is so immediately destined to become a science of +breeding that existing knowledge and conceptions must be dismissed as of +no more than historical interest. (P. C. M.) + + + + +BREEZE, (1) A current of air generally taken as somewhat less than a +"wind," which in turn is less than a "gale." The term is particularly +applied to the light wind blowing landwards by day, "sea-breeze," and +the counter wind, blowing off the land at night, "land-breeze." The word +appears in Fr. _brise_ (admitted by the Academy in 1762). The Span, +_brisa_, Port. _briza_, and Ital. _brezza_ are used for a wind blowing +from the north or north-east. According to Cotgrave, Rabelais uses +_brize_ in the sense of _bise_, the name of a dry north or north-east +wind prevalent in Switzerland and the bordering parts of France, Italy +and Germany. The word is first used in English as applied to the cool +sea-breeze blowing usually from the east or north-east in the West +Indies and Atlantic sea-coast of Central America. It was then applied to +sea-breezes from any quarter, and also to the land-breeze, and so to any +light wind or current of air. (2) Fine ashes or cinders, the refuse of +coal, coke and charcoal burning. This is probably from the O. Fr. +_brese_, modern _braise_, a word connected with _braser_, whence Eng. +_brazier_, a pan for burning coals, charcoal, &c. + + + + +BREGENZ (anc. _Brigantium_), the capital of the Austrian, province of +Vorarlberg, as well as of the administrative district of Bregenz. In +1900 its population was 7595, German-speaking and Roman Catholic. It is +situated at the south-east angle of the Lake of Constance, and, besides +communications by water with the other towns on the shores of that lake, +is connected by: rail with Feldkirch on the Arlberg line (24 m.) and +with Munich. The old town is on a hillock, crowned by the ancient +castle, while the new town is built on the level ground at the foot of +the hill. The fine parish church (dedicated to St Gall) stands on +another mound more to the south. In the local museum are collections of +various kinds, especially of the Roman antiquities which have been dug +up on the site of the old town. The position of the town on the lake has +always made it an important port and commercial centre. Nowadays the +main trade is in grain, but much is done also in cattle and in the +products of the cotton-spinning factories of Vorarlberg. + +We hear of counts of Bregenz as early as the 10th century, their heirs +in the early 13th century being the counts of Montfort (a castle north +of Feldkirch), who gradually acquired most of the surrounding country +(including Feldkirch and Bludenz). But little by little the Habsburgers, +counts of Tirol since 1363 bought from them most of their +domains--first Feldkirch in 1375, next Bludenz and the Montafon valley +in 1394, finally the county of Bregenz in two parts, acquired in 1451 +and 1523. In 1408 the Appenzellers were defeated before Bregenz, while +in 1647, during the Thirty Years' War, the town was sacked by the Swedes +under Wrangel. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BREHON LAWS, the English but incorrect appellation of the ancient laws +of Ireland, the proper name for which is _Feineachas_, meaning the laws +of the Feine or Feini (fainyeh), who were the free Gaelic farmers. +_Dlighthe Feine_ is another name for the laws, with the same meaning. +Laws of universal application which could be administered only by duly +qualified judges were called _Cain_ law, while minor laws administered +by nobles and magistrates were called _Urradhus_ law. Regular courts and +judges existed in Ireland from prehistoric times. The Anglo-Irish word +"Brehon" is derived from the Gaelic word _Brethem_ (= judge). + +The extant remains of these laws are manuscript transcripts from earlier +copies made on vellum from the 8th to the 13th century, now preserved +with other Gaelic manuscripts in Trinity College and the Royal Irish +Academy, Dublin, the British Museum, Oxford University, some private +collections and several libraries on the continent of Europe. The +largest and most important of these documents is the _Senchus Mor_ or +"Great Old Law Book." No copy of it now existing is complete, and some +portions are missing from all. What remains of it occupies the first, +second, and a portion of the third of the volumes produced by the Brehon +Law Commission, which was appointed in 1852. + +In the _Annals of the Four Masters_ it is said: "The age of Christ 438, +the tenth year of King Laeghaire (Lairy), the _Senchus Mor_ and +_Feineachas_ of Ireland were purified and written." This entry has ample +historical corroboration. Of many separate treatises dealing with +special branches of the law, the _Book of Aicill_, composed of opinions +or placita of King Cormac Mac Art, otherwise Cormac ua Quim, Ard-Rig of +Erinn from A.D. 227 until 266, and Cennfaeladh the Learned, who lived in +the first part of the 7th century, is the most important. + +The text and earlier commentaries are in the _Bearla Feini_--the most +archaic form of the Celtic or Gaelic language. From gradual changes in +the living tongue through a long expanse of time many words, phrases and +idioms in the _Bearla Feini_ became obsolete, and are so difficult to +translate that the official translations are to some extent confessedly +conjectural. In many cases only opening words of the original text +remain. Wherever the text is whole, it is curt, elliptical, and yet +rhythmical to a degree attainable only through long use. The rigorously +authentic character of these laws, relating to, and dealing with, the +actual realities of life, and with institutions and a state of society +nowhere else revealed to the same extent, the extreme antiquity both of +the provisions and of the language, and the meagreness of continental +material illustrative of the same things, endow them with exceptional +archaic, archaeological and philological interest. + +In the earliest times all learned men, whether specially learned in law +or not, appear to have acted as judges. Gradually as literature and +learning increased, judgments delivered by men without special legal +training fell into disfavour. In the 1st century of the Christian era, +when Conchobhar or Conor Mac Nessa was king of Ulster, a crisis was +reached, the result of which was that no man was allowed to act as +Brehon until he had studied the full law course, which occupied twenty +years, and had passed a rigorous public examination. The course of study +for Brehon and Ollamh, advocate and law-agent respectively, is carefully +laid down in the law itself. The Brehonship was not an office of state +like that of the modern judge, but a profession in which success +depended upon ability and judgment. The Brehon was an arbitrator, +umpire, and expounder of the law, rather than a judge in the modern +acceptation. It appears, without being expressly stated, that the facts +of a case were investigated and ascertained by laymen, probably by the +_Aireachtas_--a local assembly or jury--before submission to a Breton +for legal decision. A Brehon whose decision was reversed upon appeal +was liable to damages, loss of position and of free lands, if any, +disgrace, and a consequent loss of his profession. No Brehon had any +fixed territorial jurisdiction. A party initiating proceedings could +select any Brehon he pleased, if there were more than one in his +district. Every king or chief of sufficient territory retained an +official Brehon, who was provided with free land for his maintenance. In +ordinary cases the Brehon's fee was said to have been one-twelfth of the +amount at stake. + +Assemblies, national, provincial and local, were a marked characteristic +of ancient Irish life. They all, without exception, discharged some +legal functions, legislative or administrative, and even in those in +which amusement predominated, the _Cain_ law was publicly rehearsed. +Most of the assemblies were annual, some triennial, some lasted only a +day or two, others a week and occasionally longer. All originated in +pagan funeral or commemorative rites, and continued to be held, even in +Christian times, in very ancient cemeteries. They were called by +different names--_Feis, Aenach, Aireachtas, Dal, &c._ + +The Feis of Tara, in Meath, was from its origin seven centuries before +Christ down to A.D. 560, mainly national and political, being convened +by the Ard-Rig, held at his residence, presided over by him, and +consisting of the provincial kings, tanists, flaiths, Brehons, warriors, +historians, poets and other distinguished men from the whole of Ireland. +It was due to be held every third year for the purpose of "preserving +the laws and rules," and it might be called specially on any urgent +occasion. After the statesmen had consulted, the laws were proclaimed, +with any modifications agreed upon. Then the proceedings became festive, +queens and great ladies taking part. The Feis of A.D. 560 was the last +regular one held at Tara because the monarch ceased to reside there. One +national assembly of an exceptional character was held at Tara in A.D. +697, by a decree of which women were emancipated from liability to +military service. + +The Aenach held annually at Tailltenn, also in Meath, was a general +assembly of the people without restriction of rank, clan or country, and +became the most celebrated for athletic sports, games and contests. Yet +even here the laws were read aloud, and it is not without significance +that the last national assembly held at Tailltenn under King Rhoderic +O'Connor in 1168 was a political one. + +The _Dal-Criche_ (= territorial assembly), held at Uisneach in +Westmeath, was a gathering for political and quasi-legislative purposes. +At one assembly there about a century before Christ, a uniform law of +distraint for the whole of Ireland was adopted on the motion of Sen, son +of Aige. This did not prevent the gatherings at Uisneach from being for +ages celebrated for gaiety and amusement. + +Each provincial kingdom and each tuath had assemblies of its own. Every +_flaith_ and _flaith-fine_ was a member of a local assembly, the clan +system conferring the qualification, and there being no other election. + +An assembly when convened by the _Bruigh-fer_ for the special purpose of +electing a tanist or successor to the king was called a _Tocomra_. + +Very careful provision is made for the preparation of the sites of great +assemblies, and the preservation of peace and order at them is +sanctioned by the severest penalties of the law. The operation of every +legal process calculated to occasion friction, such as seizure of +property, was suspended during the time the assemblies lasted. + +The term _Rig_ (reeh = _rex_, king) was applied to four classes or +grades of rulers, the lower grades being grouped, each group being +subject to one of their number, and all being subject to, and owing +tribute and allegiance to the Ard-Rig (= supreme king of Erinn). The +Ard-Rig had an official residence at Tara and the kingdom of Meath for +his special use. The provincial king, Rig Cuicidh, also had an official +residence and kingdom of his own, together with allegiance and tribute +from each Rig-mor-Tuatha in his province, who in his turn received +tribute and allegiance from each Rig-Tuatha under subjection to him. The +Rig-Tuatha received tribute and allegiance from the flaiths or nobles +in his tuath. The tuath was the political unit, and the ruler of it was +the lowest to whom the term "king" was applied. For each payment of +tribute a king always made some return. Every king was obliged, on his +inauguration, to swear that he would govern justly and according to law, +to which he remained always subject. The Ard-Rig was selected by the +sub-kings and other leading men who legally constituted the Feis of +Tara, the sub-kings by those under them in their respective spheres. No +person not of full age, imperfectly educated, stupid, blind, deaf, +deformed or otherwise defective in mind or body, or for any reason +whatsoever unfit to discharge the duties or unworthy to represent the +manhood of the nation, could be king, even though he were the eldest son +of the preceding king. "It is a forbidden thing for one with a blemish +to be king at Tara." + +_Tuath, Cinel_ and _Clann_ were synonyms meaning a small tribe or nation +descended from a common ancestor. A king and clan being able, subject to +certain limitations, to adopt new members or families, or amalgamate +with another clan, the theory of common origin was not rigidly adhered +to. Kinship with the clan was an essential qualification for holding any +office or property. The rules of kinship largely determined status with +its correlative rights and obligations, supplied the place of contract +and of laws affecting the ownership, disposition and devolution of +property, constituting the clan an organic, self-contained entity, a +political, social and mutual insurance co-partnership. The solidarity of +the clan was its most important and all-pervading characteristic. The +entire territory occupied by a clan was the common and absolute property +of that clan. Subject to this permanent and fundamental ownership, part +of the land was set apart for the maintenance of the king as such. +Warriors, statesmen, Brehons, Ollamhs, physicians, poets, and even +eminent workers in the more important arts, were, in different degrees, +rewarded with free lands for their respective public services. On the +death of any person so rewarded, the land in theory reverted to the +clan; but if like services continued to be rendered by the son or other +successor, and accepted by the clan, the land was not withdrawn. The +successors of statesmen, for whom the largest provision was made, became +a permanent nobility. Flaith (flah = noble chief) was a term applied to +a man of this rank. Rank, with the accompanying privileges, jurisdiction +and responsibility, was based upon a qualification of kinship and of +property, held by a family for a specified number of generations, +together with certain concurrent conditions; and it could be lost by +loss of property, crime, cowardice or other disgraceful conduct. The +flaiths in every tuath and all ranks of society were organized on the +same hierarchical pattern as royalty. A portion of land called the +_Cumhal Senorba_ was devoted to the support of widows, orphans and old +childless people. + +_Fine_ (finna), originally meaning family, came in course of time to be +applied to a group of kindred families or to a whole clan. From +differences between incidental accounts written in different ages, it +appears that the social system underwent some change. For the purpose of +conveying some idea, one theory may be taken, according to which the +_fine_ was made up of seventeen clansmen, with their families, viz. the +_Geilfine_ consisting of the flaith-fine and four others in the same or +nearest degree of kinship to the centre, and the _Deirbhfine, Tarfine_ +and _Innfine_, each consisting of four heads of families, forming +widening concentric circles of kinship to which the rights and +liabilities of the _fine_ extended with certainty, but in diminishing +degrees. + +In course of time a large and increasing proportion of the good land +became, under the titles so far described, limited private property. The +area of arable land available for the common use of the clansmen was +gradually diminished by these encroachments, but was still always +substantial. A share of this was the birthright of every law-abiding +member of the Feini who needed it. To satisfy this title and give a +start in life to some young men who would otherwise have got none, this +land was subject to _Gabhailcine_ (= clan-resumption), meaning that the +clan resumed the whole area at intervals of a few years for a fresh +distribution after some occupants had died, and young men by attaining +manhood had become entitled. Hence the Anglo-Irish word _gavelkind_. +Anciently this re-distribution extended throughout the clan at the same +time. Later it extended only to the land of a _fine_, each _fine_ making +its own distribution at its own time and in its own way as determined by +the seventeen men above specified. In this distribution men might or +might not receive again their former portions. In the latter case +compensation was made for unexhausted improvements. This land could not +be sold, nor even let except for a season in case of domestic necessity. +The Feini who used it had no landlord and no rent to pay for this land, +and could not be deprived of it except by the clan for a crime. They +were subject only to public tributes and the ordinary obligations of +free men. Presumably their homesteads were not on this land and were not +subject to _Gabhailcine_. Neither were the unfenced and unappropriated +common lands--waste, bog, forest and mountain--which all clansmen were +free to use promiscuously at will. + +There was hardly any selling and little letting of land in ancient +times. Flaiths and other persons holding large areas let to clansmen, +who then became _Ceiles_, not land, but the privilege of feeding upon +land a number of cattle specified by agreement. Flaiths and Bo-aires +also let cattle to a _ceile_ who had none or not enough, and this was +the most prevalent practice. There were two distinct methods of letting +and hiring--_saer_ (= free) and _daer_ (= base), the conditions being +fundamentally different. The conditions of _saer_-tenure were largely +settled by the law, were comparatively easy, did not require any +security to be given, left the _ceile_ free within the limits of justice +to end the connexion, left him competent in case of dispute to give +evidence against that of the flaith, and did not impose any liability on +the _fine_ of the _ceile_. By continued user of the same land for some +years and discharge of the public obligations in respect of it in +addition to the _ciss_ or payment as tenant, a _ceile_ became a +sub-owner or permanent tenant and could not be evicted. There is no +provision in these laws for evicting any one. For the hire of cattle a +usual payment was one beast in seven per annum for seven years; after +which the cattle that remained became the property of the hirer. A +_saer-ceile_ on growing wealthy might become a _bo-aire_. _Daer-tenure_, +whether of cattle or of the right to graze cattle upon land, was subject +to a _ciss-ninsciss_ (= wearisome tribute), for the payment of which +security had to be given. A man not in the enjoyment of full civil +rights, if able to find security, could become a _daer-ceile_. A free +clansman by becoming a _daer-ceile_ lowered his own status and that of +his _fine_, became incompetent to give evidence against that of a +flaith, and could not end the connexion until the end of the term except +by a large payment. The members of his _fine_ were liable, in the degree +of their relationship, to make good out of their own property any +default in the payments. Hence this tenure could not be legally entered +into by a free clansman without the permission of his fine. +_Daer-ceiles_ were also exposed to casual burdens, like that of lodging +and feeding soldiers when in their district. All payments were made in +kind. When the particular kind was not specified by the law or by +agreement, the payments were made according to convenience in horses, +cattle, sheep, pigs, wool, butter, bacon, corn, vegetables, yarn, +dye-plants, leather, cloth, articles of use or ornament, &c. As the clan +system relaxed, and the fine lost its legal power of fixing the amounts +of public tributes, which were similarly payable to the _flaith_, and +neglected its duty of seeing that those tributes were duly applied, the +_flaith_ became able to increase these tributes with little check, to +confuse them with rent, to confuse jurisdiction with ownership, and to +exalt himself at the expense of his fellow-clansmen. A _flaith_ by +arranging that his tenants should make their payments at different +periods of the year, secured a constant and copious supply without an +inconvenient surplus. + +People who did not belong to the clan and were not citizens were in a +base condition and incompetent to appear in court in suit or defence +except through a freeman. The _Bothach_ (= cottier) and the +_Sen-cleithe_ (= old dependent) were people who, though living for +successive generations attached to the families of flaiths, did not +belong to the clan and had no rights of citizenship. _Fuidhirs_, or +manual labourers without property, were the lowest section of the +population. Some were born in this condition, some clansmen were +depressed into it by crime, consequences of war or other misfortune; and +strangers of a low class coming into the territory found their level in +it. The _fuidhirs_ also were divided into _saer_ and _daer_; the former +being free by industry and thrift to acquire some property, after which +five of them could club together to acquire rights corresponding to +those of one freeman. The _daer-fuidhirs_ were tramps, fugitives, +captives, &c. + +Fosterage, the custom of sending children to be reared and educated in +the families of fellow-clansmen, was so prevalent, especially among the +wealthy classes, and the laws governing it are so elaborate and occupied +such a large space, that some mention of it here is inevitable. Beyond +mention, there is little to be said, owing to the absence of general +principles in an infinity of specific details, mostly domestic and +apparently trivial. A child in fosterage was reared and educated +suitably for the position it was destined to fill in life. There was +fosterage for affection, for payment and for a literary education. +Fosterage began when the child was a year old and ended when the +marriageable age was reached, unless previously terminated by death or +crime. Every fostered person was under an obligation to provide, if +necessary, for the old age of foster-parents. The affection arising from +this relationship was usually greater, and was regarded as more sacred +than that of blood relationship. + +The solidarity of clan and _fine_ in their respective spheres, the +provisions of the system, the simple rural life, and the prevalence of +barter and payments in kind, left comparatively little occasion for +contracts between individuals. Consequently the rules relating to +contract are not very numerous. They are, however, sufficiently solemn. +No contract affecting land was valid unless made with the consent of the +_fine_ and in the presence of the _Aire-Forgaill_. Contracts relating to +other kinds of property are more numerous. When important or involving a +considerable amount, they had to be made in the presence of a _flaith_ +or magistrate. The _Aire-Coisring_ presided over most of the contracts +of the common people. The parties to a contract should be free citizens, +of full age, sound mind, free to contract or not, and under no legal +disability. "The world would be in a state of confusion if express +contracts were not binding." From the repeated correlative dicta that +"nothing is due without deserving," and that a thing done "for God's +sake," i.e. gratis, imposed little obligation, it is clear that the +importance of valuable consideration was fully recognized. So also was +the importance of time. "To be asleep avails no one"; "Sloth takes away +a man's welfare." Contracts made by the following persons were invalid: +(1) a servant without his master's authority; (2) a monk without +authority from his abbot or manager of temporalities; (3) a son subject +to his father without the father's authority; (4) an infant, lunatic, or +"one who had not the full vigilance of reason"; (5) a wife in relation +to her husband's property without his authority. She was free to hold +and deal with property of her own and bind it by contract. If a son +living with his father entered into a contract with his father's +knowledge, the father was held to have ratified the contract unless he +promptly repudiated it. "One is held to adopt what he does not repudiate +after knowledge, having the power." Contract of sale or barter with +warranty could be dissolved for fraud, provided action was taken within +a limited time after the fraud had become known. Treaties and occasional +very important contracts were made "blood-covenants" and inviolable by +drawing a drop of blood from the little finger of each of the +contracting parties, blending this with water, and both drinking the +mixture out of the same cup. The forms of legal evidence were pledges, +documents, witnesses and oaths. In cases of special importance the +pledges were human beings, "hostage sureties." These were treated as in +their own homes according to the rank to which they belonged, and were +discharged on the performance of the contract. If the contract was +broken, they became prisoners and might be fettered or made to work as +slaves until the obligation was satisfied. Authentic documents were +considered good evidence. A witness was in all cases important, and in +some essential to the validity of a contract. His status affected the +force of the contract as well as the value of his evidence; and the laws +appear to imply that by becoming a witness, a man incurred liabilities +as a surety. The pre-Christian oath might be by one or more of the +elements, powers or phenomena of nature, as the sun, moon, water, night, +day, sea, land. The Christian oath might be on a copy of the Gospels, a +saint's crozier, relic or other holy thing. + +These laws recognized crime, but in the same calm and deliberate way in +which they recognized contract and other things seriously affecting the +people. Although we find in the poems of Dubhthach, written in the 5th +century and prefixed to the _Senchus Mor_, the sentences, "Let every one +die who kills a human being," and "Every living person that inflicts +death shall suffer death," capital punishment did not prevail in Ireland +before or after. The laws uniformly discountenanced revenge, +retaliation, the punishment of one crime by another, and permitted +capital punishment only in the last resort and in ultimate default of +every other form of redress. They contain elaborate provision for +dealing with crime, but the standpoint from which it is regarded and +treated is essentially different from ours. The state, for all its +elaborate structure, did not assume jurisdiction in relation to any +crimes except political ones, such as treason or the disturbance of a +large assembly. For these it inflicted the severest penalties known to +the law--banishment, confiscation of property, death or putting out of +eyes. A crime against the person, character or property of an individual +or family was regarded as a thing for which reparation should be made, +but the individual or family had to seek the reparation by a personal +action. This differed from a civil action only in the terms employed and +the elements used in calculating the amount of the reparation. The +function of a judge in a criminal as in a civil action was to see that +the facts, with modifying circumstances, were fully and truly submitted +to him, and then by applying the law to these facts to ascertain and +declare the amount of compensation that would make a legal adjustment. +For this amount the guilty person, and in his default his kindred, +became legally debtor, and the injured person or family became entitled +to recover the amount like a civil debt by distraint, if not paid +voluntarily. There were no police, sheriffs or public prisons. The +decisions of the law were executed by the persons concerned, supported +by a highly organized and disciplined public opinion springing from +honour and interest and inherent in the solidarity of the clan. There is +good reason to believe that the system was as effectual in the +prevention and punishment of crime and in the redress of wrongs as any +other human contrivance has ever been. + +In calculating the amount of compensation the most characteristic and +important element was _Einechlan_ (= honour-price, honour-value), a +value attaching to every free person, varying in amount from one cow to +thirty cows according to rank. It was the assessed value of _status_ or +_caput_. It was frequently of consequence in relation to contracts and +other clan affairs; but it emerges most clearly in connexion with crime. +By the commission of crime, breach of contract, or other disgraceful or +injurious conduct, Einechlan was diminished or destroyed, a _capitis +diminutio_ occurred, apart from any other punishment. Though existing +apart from fine, Einechlan was the first element in almost every fine. +_Dire_ was the commonest word for fine, whether great or small. _Eric_ +(= reparation, redemption) was the fine for "separating body from soul"; +but the term was used in lighter cases also. In capital cases the word +sometimes meant Einechlan, sometimes _coirp-dire_ (= body-fine), but +most correctly the sum of these two. It may be taken that, subject to +modifying circumstances, a person guilty of homicide had to pay (i) +_coirp-dire_ for the destruction of life, irrespective of rank; (2) the +honour-value of the victim; (3) his own honour-value if the deed was +unintentional; and (4) double his own honour-value if committed with +malice aforethought. The sum of these was in all cases heavy; heaviest +when the parties were wealthy. The amount was recoverable as a debt from +the criminal to the extent of his property, and in his default from the +members of his _fine_ in sums determined by the degree of relationship; +and it was distributable among the members of the _fine_ of a murdered +person in the same proportions, like a distribution among the next of +kin. The _fine_ of a murderer could free themselves from liability by +giving up the murderer and his goods, or if he escaped, by giving up any +goods he had left, depriving him of clanship, and lodging a pledge +against his future misdeeds. In these circumstances the law held the +criminal's life forfeit, and he might be slain or taken as a prisoner or +slave. He could escape only by becoming a _daer-fuidhir_ in some distant +territory. When the effect of a crime did not go beyond an individual, +if that individual's _fine_ did not make good their claim while the +criminal lived, it lapsed on his death. "The crime dies with the +criminal." If an unknown stranger or person without property caught +red-handed in the commission of a crime refused to submit to arrest, it +was lawful to maim or slay him according to the magnitude of the +attempted crime. "A person who came to inflict a wound on the body may +be safely killed when unknown and without a name, and when there is no +power to arrest him at the time of committing the trespass." For crimes +against property the usual penalty, as in breach of contract, was +generic restitution, the quantity, subject to modifying circumstances, +being twice the amount taken or destroyed. + +Distress of seizure of property being the universal mode of obtaining +satisfaction, whether for crime, breach of contract, non-payment of +debt, or any other cause, the law of distress came into operation as the +solvent of almost every dispute. Hence it is the most extensive and +important branch, if not more than a branch, of these ancient laws. Of +several words meaning distress, _athgabail_ was the most frequently +used. A person having a liquidated claim might either sue a debtor or +proceed at his peril to seize without this preliminary. In the latter +case the defendant could stop the progress of the seizure by paying the +debt, giving a pledge, or demanding a trial; and he then could choose a +Brehon. Distress was of two kinds--(1) _athgabal ar fut_ (= distress on +length, i.e. with time, with delays); and (2) _athgabail tulla_ (= +immediate distress). Which method was pursued depended partly upon the +facts of the case and partly upon the respective ranks of the parties. A +person entitled to seize property had to do it himself, accompanied, if +the amount was large, by a law agent and witnesses. No man was entitled +to seize unless he owned, or had a surety who owned, sufficient property +for indemnity or adjustment in case the seizure should be found to have +been wrongful. The formalities varied in different circumstances and +also at different times in the long ages in which these laws prevailed. +Some forms may, in the Irish as in other legal systems, have become +merely ceremonial and fictitious. + +_Tellach_ (= seizure of immovable property) was made in three periods or +delays of ten days each (= 30 days). The first step was a notice that +unless the debt was paid immediately seizure would be made. Ten days +later, the plaintiff crossed the fence in upon the land, with a law +agent, a witness and a pair of horses yoked or harnessed, and in a loud +voice stated the amount of the debt and called upon the defendant to pay +it according to law. On receiving no answer, or an unsatisfactory one, +he withdrew. After an interval of ten days more, the creditor entered +with his law agent, two witnesses and four horses, went farther in upon +the land, repeated his demand, and if refused withdrew. Finally, after a +further interval of ten days, he entered once more with his law agent, +three witnesses and eight horses, drove up to the debtor's house, +repeated his demand, and if not satisfied drove a herd of cattle or a +flock of sheep in upon the farm and left men to care for them. + +_Athgabail_ ordinarily meant the seizure of movable property. The +following technical terms will indicate the procedure in distress with +time:--_Aurfocre_ (= demand of payment, stating the amount in presence +of witnesses); _apad_ (= delay); _athgabail_ (= the actual seizure); +_anad_ (= delay after seizure, the thing remaining in the debtor's +possession); _toxal_ (= the taking away of the thing seized); _fasc_ (= +notice to the debtor of the amount due, the _mainder_ or pound in which +the thing seized is impounded, and the name of the law agent); _dithim_ +(= delay during which the thing is in pound); _lobad_ (= destruction or +forfeiture of the debtor's ownership and substitution of the creditor's +ownership). There was no sale, because sale for money was little known. +The property in the thing seized, to the amount of the debt and +expenses, became legally transferred from the debtor to the creditor, +not all at once but in stages fixed by law. A creditor was not at +liberty to seize household goods, farming utensils, or any goods the +loss of which would prevent the debtor recovering from embarrassment, so +long as there was other property which could be seized. A seizure could +be made only between sunrise and sunset. "If a man who is sued evades +justice, knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable +by him and a fine of five seds." When a large debt was clearly due, and +there was no property to seize, the debtor himself could be seized and +compelled to work as a prisoner or slave until the debt was paid. + +When a defendant was of rank superior to that of the plaintiff, distress +had to be preceded by _troscad_ (= fasting). This is a legal process +unknown elsewhere except in parts of India. The plaintiff having made +his demand and waited a certain time without result, went and sat +without food before the door of the defendant. To refuse to submit to +fasting was considered indelibly disgraceful, and was one of the things +which legally degraded a man by reducing or destroying his honour-value. +The law said "he who does not give a pledge to fasting is an evader of +all; he who disregards all things shall not be paid by God or man." If a +plaintiff having duly fasted did not receive within a certain time the +satisfaction of his claim, he was entitled to distrain as in the case of +an ordinary defendant, and to seize double the amount that would have +satisfied him in the first instance. If a person fasting in accordance +with law died during or in consequence of the fast, the person fasted +upon was held guilty of murder. Fasting could be stopped by paying the +debt, giving a pledge, or submitting to the decision of a Brehon. A +creditor fasting after a reasonable offer of settlement had been made to +him forfeited his claim. "He who fasts notwithstanding the offer of what +should be accorded to him, forfeits his legal right according to the +decision of the Feini." + + AUTHORITIES.--Since Sir Samuel Ferguson wrote his article on "Brehon + Laws" in the 9th edition of this _Encyclopaedia_, much research has + been done on the subject, and Ferguson's account is no longer accepted + by scholars, either as regards the language or the substance of the + laws. Pending the work of a second Brehon Law Commission, the Laws are + best studied in the six imperfect volumes (_Ancient Laws of Ireland_, + 1865-1901) produced by the first Commission (ignoring their long and + worthless introductions), together with, Dr. Whitley Stokes's + _Criticism_ (London, Nutt, 1903) of Atkinson's _Glossary_ (Dublin, + 1901). The following are important references (kindly supplied by Dr + Whitley Stokes) for detailed research:--R. Dareste, _Etudes d'histoire + de droit_, pp. 356-381 (Paris, 1889); Arbois de Jubainville and Paul + Collinet, _Etudes sur le droit celtique_ (2 vols., Paris, 1895); + Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, vol. i. pp. 168-214 (2 + vols., London, 1903); _Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_, iv. 221, + the Copenhagen fragments of the Laws (Halle, 1903); important letters + in _The Academy_, Nos. 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 706, 707 + (substantially covered by Stokes's _Criticism_); _Revue Celtique_, + xxv. 344; _Erin_, i. 209-315 (collation by Kuno Meyer of the Law-tract + Crith Gablach); Maine's _Early Hist, of Institutions_ (1875) and + _Early Law and Custom_, pp. 162, 180 (1883); Hearn's _Aryan Household_ + (1879), and Maclennan's _Studies in Ancient History_, pp. 453-507 + (1876), contain interesting general reference, but the writers were + not themselves original students of the laws. L. Ginnell's _Brehon + Laws_ (1894) may also be consulted. See further the article CELT, + sections _Language_ and _Literature_. (L. G.) + + + + +BREISACH, or ALTBREISACH, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of +Baden, on the left bank of the Rhine, standing on a basalt rock 250 ft. +above the river, 10 m. W. of Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and on the railway +connecting that city with Colmar. Pop. (1900) 3537. It has a fine +minster, partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, dating from the 10th to the +15th centuries; of its two principal towers one is 13th century Gothic, +the other Romanesque. The interior is remarkable for its rich +decorations, especially the wood-carving of the high altar, and for many +interesting tombs and pictures. There is little industry, but a +considerable trade is done in wines and other agricultural produce. On +the opposite bank of the Rhine, here crossed by a railway bridge, lies +the little town of Neubreisach and the fort Mortier. + +Breisach (_Brisiacum_), formerly an imperial city and until the middle +of the 18th century one of the chief fortresses of the Empire, is of +great antiquity. A stronghold of the _Sequani_ (a Gallic tribe, which +occupied the country of the Doubs and Burgundy), it was captured in the +time of Julius Caesar by Ariovistus and became known as the _Mons +Brisiacus_. Fortified by the emperor Valentian in 369 to defend the +Rhine against the Germans, it retained its position throughout the +middle ages as one of the chief bulwarks of Germany and was called the +"cushion and key (_Kissen und Schlussel_) of the German empire." Its +importance was such that it gave its name to the district Breisgau, in +which it is situated. In 939 it was taken by the emperor Otto I., and +after remaining in the exclusive possession of the emperors for two +centuries, was strengthened and shared for a while between them and the +bishops of Basel. In 1254 and 1262 the bishops obtained full control +over it; but in 1275 it was made an imperial city by King Rudolph I., +and at the beginning of the 14th century his son brought it definitively +into the possession of the Habsburg monarchs, leaving the bishops but +few privileges. In the Thirty Years' War Breisach successfully resisted +the Swedes, but after a memorable siege and a defence by General von +Reisach, one of the most famous in military annals, it was forced to +capitulate to Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar on the 18th of December 1638. +The endeavours of the emperor Ferdinand III. to retake it were +fruitless, and by the peace of Westphalia (1648) Breisach was annexed to +France. By the peace of Ryswick (1697) it was restored to Austria, when +Louis XIV. built the town and fortress of Neubreisach on the left bank +of the Rhine. Again in 1703 it fell into the hands of the French, owing +to treachery, but was ceded to Austria by the peace of Rastatt +(1714)--Yet again, in the War of the Austrian Succession, it was +captured (1744) by the French, who dismantled the fortifications. They +refortified it in 1796, and after passing, by the peace of Luneville +(1801), together with the Breisgau to the duke of Modena, Breisach was +by the peace of Pressburg (1805) finally incorporated with Baden, when +the fortifications were razed. During the Franco-German War (1870) +Breisach suffered severely from bombardment directed against it from +Neubreisach. + + + + +BREISGAU, a district of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden. It extends +along the right bank of the Rhine from Basel to Kehl, and includes the +principal peaks of the southern Black Forest and the Freiburg valley. +The Breisgau, originally a _pagus_ or _gau_ of the Frankish empire, was +ruled during the middle ages by hereditary counts. Of these the earliest +recorded is Birtilo (962-995), ancestor of the counts and dukes of +Zahringen. On the death of Berchthold V. of Zahringen in 1218, his +coheiresses brought parts of the Breisgau to the counts of Urach and +Kyburg, while part went to the margraves of Baden. At the close of the +13th century the Kyburg part of the Breisgau passed to the Habsburgs, +who in 1368 acquired also the town and countship of Freiburg, which had +been sold by the counts of Urach to the Freiburgers and given in pledge +by them to the house of Austria in exchange for a loan of the purchase +price, which they were unable to repay. The male Urach line becoming +extinct in 1457, an heiress carried what remained of their possessions +in the Breisgau to the house of Baden. In the struggle between France +and Austria from the 17th century onwards the Breisgau frequently +changed masters. In 1801 Austria was forced to cede it to Ercole III., +duke of Modena, in compensation for the duchy of which Napoleon had +deprived him. His successor Ferdinand took the title of duke of +Modena-Breisgau, but on his death in 1805 the Breisgau was divided +between Baden and Wurttemberg. The latter ceded its portion to Baden in +1810. + + See Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire, &c._ (Leiden, 1890-1893). + + + + +BREISLAK, SCIPIONE (1748-1826), Italian geologist of German parentage, +was born at Rome in 1748. He early distinguished himself as professor of +mathematical and mechanical philosophy in the college of Ragusa; but +after residing there for several years he returned to his native city, +where he became a professor in the Collegio Nazareno, and began to form +the fine mineralogical cabinet in that institution. His leisure was +dedicated to geological researches in the papal states. His account of +the aluminous district of Tolfa and adjacent hills, published in 1786, +gained for him the notice of the king of Naples, who invited him to +inspect the mines and similar works in that kingdom, and appointed him +professor of mineralogy to the royal artillery. The vast works for the +refining of sulphur in the volcanic district of Solfatara were erected +under his direction. He afterwards made many journeys through the +ancient Campania to illustrate its geology, and published in 1798 his +_Topografia fisica della Campania_, which contains the results of much +accurate observation. Breislak also published an essay on the physical +condition of the seven hills of Rome, which he regarded as the remains +of a local volcano,--an opinion shown to be erroneous by the later +researches of G.B. Brocchi. The political convulsions of Italy in 1799 +brought Breislak to Paris, where he remained until 1802, when, being +appointed inspector of the saltpetre and powder manufactories near +Milan, he removed to that city. The mineral Breislakite was named after +him. He died on the 15th of February 1826. His other publications +include:--_Introduzione alla geologia_ (1811, French ed. 1819); _Traite +sur la structure exterieure du globe_, 3 vols. and atlas (Milan, 1818, +1822); _Descrizione geologica della provincia di Milano_ (1822). + + + + +BREITENFELD, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, 5-1/2 m. +N.N.W. of Leipzig, noted in military history. The first battle of +Breitenfeld was fought on the 17th of September 1631, between the allied +Swedish and Saxon armies under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperial forces +under Count Tilly. The battlefield is a low ridge running east and west +between the villages of Gobschelwitz and Breitenfeld, the position of +the Imperialists lying along the crest from Gobschelwitz on the right to +a point about 1 m. short of Breitenfeld on the left; opposite this +position, and behind a group of villages on the Loberbach stream, lay +the Swedish forces, flanked on their left by the Saxon contingent under +the elector, who was assisted by Arnim. The villages formed the only +obstacle on the gentle slope lying between the Loberbach and Tilly's +line; through these villages the Swedes defiled slowly, and formed up on +the open ground beyond them. Tilly's army was drawn up in a continuous +line, the infantry ranged in heavy battalions in the centre, the cavalry +on the wings, and the heavy artillery in a mass in front of the +infantry. Gustavus arrayed the Swedes in two lines and a reserve, +infantry in the centre, cavalry on the flanks, and the Saxons were drawn +up in a similar formation on the left of the Swedish left-wing cavalry. +So far as can be gauged the respective numbers were at least 32,000 +Imperialists, 22,000 Swedes and 15,000 Saxons. The Swedish infantry was +drawn up on an entirely novel system; each brigade of infantry, composed +of several battalions, was formed in many small and handy corps of +pikemen and musketeers, and parties of musketeers were also detached to +support the cavalry. The guns were scattered along the front. The Saxons +were ranged, like Tilly's army, in heavy masses of foot and horse +preceded by a great battery of guns. At 2 P.M. Pappenheim, commanding +Tilly's left wing, led forward the whole of his cavalry in a furious +charge. Feeling the fire of the musketeers who were intercalated amongst +the Swedish horse, Pappenheim swung round to his left and charged the +Swedish right wing in flank. The Swedes of both lines promptly wheeled +up, and after a prolonged conflict the Imperial horse were driven +completely off the field. The attack of Tilly's right wing under +Furstenberg directed against the Saxons was more successful. The Saxons +were at once broken and routed, only a handful under Arnim maintaining +the ground. Furstenberg pursued the fugitives for many miles, and Tilly +with the centre of infantry (which, considering the depth of its +formations, must have possessed great manoeuvring power) rapidly +followed him and formed up opposite the now exposed left of the Swedes. +Thereupon the Swedes, in their light and handy formation, changed +position rapidly and easily to meet him. Tilly's attack was strenuously +opposed, and at this moment the decisive stroke of the battle was +delivered by the Swedish right wing, which, having disposed of +Pappenheim, swung round and occupied the ground originally held by the +Imperial infantry, seized Tilly's guns, and with them enfiladed the +enemy's new line. This put an end to the attack of the Imperial foot, +and before sunset Tilly was in full retreat, hotly pursued and losing +heavily in prisoners. His losses on the field have been estimated at +7000 killed and wounded and almost as many prisoners; the Swedes lost +about 2000 and the Saxons over 4000 men. + +The village of Breitenfeld also gives its name to another great battle +in the Thirty Years' War (November 2, 1642), in which the Swedes under +Torstensson defeated the Imperialists under the archduke Leopold and +Prince Piccolomini, who were seeking to relieve Leipzig. The Swedish +cavalry decided the day on this occasion also. + + + + +BREMEN, a free state in the German empire, bearing the title _Freie +Hansestadt Bremen_. It falls into three distinct parts: (1) the largest +portion, with the city of Bremen, lying on both banks, but chiefly on +the right, of the lower course of the Weser, surrounded by the Prussian +province of Hanover and the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, and consisting in +the main of lowland country intersected by canals and dykes; (2) the +town and district of Vegesack, lying separate from, but immediately +north of the main portion, on the right bank of the river; (3) the port +of Bremerhaven, 46 m. down the Weser, at its mouth. Of the whole +territory, which has an area of 99 sq. m., about one-half is meadow and +grazing land, one-quarter under tillage, and the remainder occupied by a +little woodland, some unprofitable sandy wastes, the bed of the Weser +and the towns. Market gardening, the rearing of cattle, for which the +district is widely famed, and fishing, form the chief occupations of the +rural population. The climate is mild, but the rainfall (26.9 in. +annually on the average) is relatively considerable. The population is +shown as follows:-- + + +-----------------+-----------+----------+ + | | 1900 | 1905 | + +-----------------+-----------+----------+ + | Bremen, city | 186,822 | 214,953 | + | Vegesack | 3,943 | 4,130 | + | Bremerhaven | 20,315 | 24,159 | + | Rural districts | 37,327 | 20,431 | + +-----------------+-----------+----------+ + | Total | 248,407 | 263,673 | + +-----------------+-----------+----------+ + +Of the inhabitants, who belong to the Lower Saxon (_Nieder-Sachsen_) +race and in daily intercourse mostly speak the Low German +(_Plattdeutsch_) dialect, about two-thirds are natives of the state and +one-third immigrants from other parts of Germany, chiefly from Hanover +and Oldenburg. About 93% are Protestants, 6% Roman Catholics, and only +1/2% Jews. The form of government is that of a republic, under a +constitution proclaimed on the 8th of March 1849, revised on the 21st of +February 1854, the 17th of November 1875, and the 1st of January 1894. +The sovereignty resides jointly in the senate and the Burgerschaft, or +Convent of Burgesses. The senate, which is the executive power, is +composed of sixteen life members, elected by the convent, on +presentation by the senate. Of these ten at least must be lawyers and +three merchants. Two of the number are nominated by their colleagues as +burgomasters, who preside in succession for a year at a time and hold +office four years, one retiring every two years. The Burgerschaft +consists of 150 (formerly 300) representatives, chosen by the citizens +for six years, and forms the legislative body. Fourteen members are +elected by such citizens of Bremen (city) as have enjoyed a university +education, forty by the merchants, twenty by the manufacturers and +artisans, and forty-eight by the other citizens. Of the remaining +representatives, twelve are furnished by Bremerhaven and Vegesack and +sixteen by the rural districts. As a member of the German empire, the +state of Bremen has one voice in the Bundesrat and returns one member to +the Imperial diet (Reichstag). Formerly Bremen was a free port, but from +the 1st of October 1888 the whole of the state, with the exception of +two small free districts in Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively, joined +the German customs union. The state has two Amtsgerichte (courts of +first instance) at Bremen and Bremerhaven respectively, and a superior +court, Landgericht, at Bremen, whence appeals lie to the +Oberlandesgericht for the Hanseatic towns in Hamburg. The judges of the +Bremen courts are appointed by a committee of members of the senate, the +Burgerschaft and the bench of judges. By the convention with Prussia of +the 27th of June 1867, the free state surrendered its right to furnish +its own contingent to the army, the recruits being after that time +drafted into the Hanseatic infantry regiment, forming a portion of the +Prussian IX. army corps. + + + + +BREMEN, a city of Germany, capital of the free state of Bremen, and one +of the Hanseatic towns. It lies on a sandy plain on both banks of the +Weser, 46 m. from the North Sea and 71 m. S.W. from Hamburg by rail, on +the mainline to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 214,953. It has also direct railway +communication with Berlin via Uelzen, Hanover and Bremerhaven. The city +consists of four quarters,--the old town (Altstadt) and its suburban +extensions (Vorstadt) being on the right bank of the river, and the new +town (Neustadt) with its southern suburb (Sudervorstadt) on the left +bank. The river is crossed by three bridges, the old, the new +(1872-1875) Kaiserbrucke, and the railway bridge, with a gangway for +foot passengers. The ramparts of the old town have long been converted +into beautiful promenades and gardens, the moats forming a chain of +lakes. + +The romantic old town, with its winding streets and lanes, flanked by +massive gabled houses, dates from the medieval days of Hanseatic +prosperity. On the market square stands the fine town hall (Rathaus), +dating from the 15th century, with a handsome Renaissance _facade_ of a +somewhat later date, and before it a stone statue of Roland, the emblem +of civic power. Its celebrated underground wine cellar has been +immortalized by Wilhelm Hauff in his _Phantasien im Bremer Ratskeller_. +The town hall is internally richly embellished and has a gallery of +interesting paintings. In an upper hall a model of an old Hanseatic +frigate, with the device _Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse_, +hangs from the ceiling. Among other ancient buildings, situated chiefly +in the old town, are the following:--the cathedral of St Peter (formerly +the archiepiscopal and now the Lutheran parish church), erected in the +12th century on the site of Charlemagne's wooden church, and famous for +its Bleikeller, or lead vault, in which bodies can be preserved for a +long time without suffering decomposition; the church of St Ansgarius, +built about 1243, with a spire 400 ft. high; the church of Our Lady, +dating from the 12th and 13th centuries; the 12th century Romanesque +church of St Stephen; the Schutting, or merchants' hall, originally +built in 1619 for the cloth-traders' gild; the Stadthaus (town house), +formerly the archiepiscopal palace, and converted to its present uses +only in 1819. The most important and imposing among the more modern +architectural additions to the city are the handsome Gothic exchange, +completed in 1867, the municipal theatre, the municipal library, the +post office (1878), the law courts (1891-1895), the wool exchange, the +German bank, the municipal museum for natural science, ethnology and +commerce, and the fine railway station (1888). The principal memorials +embrace, besides the Roland, the Willehad fountain (1883), the monument +of the Franco-German War (erected 1875), the centaur fountain (1891), an +equestrian statue of the emperor William I. (1893), and a statue of the +poet Theodor Korner. A beautiful park, Burgerpark, has been laid out in +the Burgerweide, or meadows, lying beyond the railway station to the +north-east of the city. It is a peculiarity of the domestic +accommodation of Bremen that the majority of the houses, unlike the +custom in most other German towns, where flats prevail, are occupied by +a single family only. + +The industries and manufactures of Bremen are of considerable variety +and extent, but are more particularly developed in such branches as are +closely allied to navigation, such as shipbuilding, founding, +engine-building and rope-making. Next in importance come those of +tobacco, snuff, cigars, the making of cigar boxes, jute-spinning, +distilling, sugar refining and the shelling of rice. Bremen owes its +fame almost exclusively to its transmaritime trade, mainly imports. By +the completion of the engineering works on the Weser in 1887-1899, +whereby, among other improvements, the river was straightened and +deepened, to 18 ft., large ocean-going vessels are able to steam right +up to the city itself. It has excellent railway connexions with the +chief industrial districts of Germany. Like Hamburg, it does +predominantly a transit trade; it is especially important as the +importer of raw products from America. In two articles, tobacco and +rice, Bremen is the greatest market in the world; in cotton and indigo +it takes the first place on the continent, and it is a serious rival of +Hamburg and Antwerp in the import of wool and petroleum. The value of +the total imports (both sea-borne and by river and rail) increased from +L22,721,700 in 1883 to about L60,000,000 in 1905; the imports from the +United States, from L9,755,000 in 1883 to about L25,000,000 in 1905. The +countries from which imports principally come are the United States, +England, Germany, Russia, the republics of South America, the Far East +and Australia. The exports rose from a total of L26,096,500 in 1883 to +L62,000,000 in 1905. The number of vessels which entered the ports of +the free state (i.e. Bremen city, Bremerhaven and Vegesack) increased +from 2869 of 1,258,529 aggregate tonnage in 1883, to 4024 of 2,716,633 +tons in 1900. Bremen is the centre for some of the more important of the +German shipping companies, especially of the North German Lloyd (founded +in 1856), which, on the 1st of January 1905, possessed a fleet of 382 +steamers of 693,892 tons, besides lighters and similar craft. Bremen +also shares with Hamburg the position of being one of the two chief +emigration ports of Germany. There are three docks, all to the +north-west of the city--namely, the free harbour (which was opened in +1888), the winter harbour, and the timber and industrial harbour. +Internal communication is served by an excellent system of electric +tramways, and there is also a local steamboat service with neighbouring +villages on the Weser. + +_History._--According to Brandes, quoting Martin Luther in the _Lexicon +Philologicum_, the name is derived from _Bram, Bram, i.e. hem_ = the +river-bank, or confine of the land on which it was built. In 787 Bremen +was chosen by St Willehad, whom Charlemagne had established as bishop in +the _pagi_ of the lower Weser, as his see. In 848 the destruction of +Hamburg by the Normans led to the transference of the archiepiscopal see +of Hamburg to Bremen, which became the seat of the archbishops of +Hamburg-Bremen. In 965 the emperor Otto I. granted to Archbishop Adaldag +"in the place called Bremen" (_in loco Bremun nuncupato_) the right to +establish a market, and the full administrative, fiscal and judicial +powers of a count, no one but the bishop or his _advocatus_ being +allowed to exercise authority in the city. This privilege, by which the +archbishop was lord of the city and his _Vogt_ its judge, was frequently +confirmed by subsequent emperors, ending under Frederick I. in 1158. +Though, however, there is no direct evidence of the existence of any +communal organization during this period, it is clear from the vigorous +part taken by the burghers in the struggle of the emperor Frederick with +Henry the Lion of Saxony that some such organization very early existed. +Yet in the _privilegium_ granted to the townspeople by Frederick I. in +1186 the emperor had done no more than guarantee them their personal +liberties. The earliest recognition of any civic organization they may +have possessed they owed to Archbishop Hartwig II. (1184-1207), who had +succeeded in uniting against him his chapter, the nobles and the +citizens; and the first mention of the city council occurs in a charter +of Archbishop Gerhard II. in 1225, though the _consules_ here named +doubtless represented a considerably older institution. In the 13th +century, however, whatever the civic organization of the townsfolk may +have been, it was still strictly subordinate to the archbishop and his +_Vogt_; the council could issue regulations only with the consent of the +former, while in the judicial work of the latter, save in small +questions of commercial dishonesty, its sole function was advisory. By +the middle of the 14th century this situation was exactly reversed; the +elected town council was the supreme legislative power in all criminal +and civil causes, and in the court of the _advocatus_ two _Ratsmanner_ +sat as assessors. The victory had been won over the archbishop; but a +fresh peril had developed in the course of the 13th century in the +growth of a patrician class, which, as in so many other cities, +threatened to absorb all power into the hands of a close oligarchy. In +1304 the commonalty rose against the patricians and drove them from the +city, and in the following year gained a victory over the exiles and +their allies, the knights, which was long celebrated by an annual +service of thanksgiving. This was the beginning of troubles that lasted +intermittently throughout the century. Bremen had been admitted to the +Hanseatic league in 1283, but was excluded in 1285, and not readmitted +until 1358. Owing to the continued civic unrest it was again excluded in +1427, and only readmitted in 1433 when the old aristocratic constitution +was definitively restored. But though in Bremen the efforts of the +craftsmen's "arts" to secure a share of power had been held in check and +the gilds never gained any importance, the city government did not, as +at Cologne and elsewhere, develop into a close patrician oligarchy. +Power was in the hands of the wealthy, but the avenues to power were +open to those who knew how to acquire the necessary qualification. There +was thus no artificial restraint put upon individual enterprise, and the +question of the government having been settled, Bremen rapidly developed +in wealth and influence. + +The Reformation was introduced into Bremen in 1522 by Heinrich von +Zutphen. Archbishop Christopher of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel (1487-1558), a +brutal libertine, hated for his lusts and avarice, looked on the +reforming movement as a revolt against himself. He succeeded in getting +the reformer burned; but found himself involved in a life and death +struggle with the city. In 1532 Bremen joined the league of +Schmalkalden, and twice endured a siege by the imperial forces. In 1547 +it was only saved by Mansfeld's victory at Drakenburg. Archbishop +Christopher was succeeded in 1558 by his brother Georg, bishop of Minden +(d. 1566), who, though he himself was instrumental in introducing the +reformed model into his other diocese of Verden, is reckoned as the last +Roman Catholic archbishop of Bremen. His successor, Henry III. +(1550-1585), a son of Duke Francis I. of Lauenburg, who had been bishop +of Osnabruck and Paderborn, was a Lutheran and married. Protestantism +was not, however, definitively proclaimed as the state religion in +Bremen until 1618. The last archbishop, Frederick II. (of Denmark), was +deposed by the Swedes in 1644. In 1646 Bremen received the privileges of +a free imperial city from the emperor Ferdinand III.; but Sweden, whose +possession of the archbishopric was recognized two years later, refused +to consent to this, and in 1666 attempted vainly to assert her claims +over the city by arms--in the so-called Bremen War. When, however, in +1720 the elector of Hanover (George I. of Great Britain) acquired the +archbishopric, he recognized Bremen as a free city. In 1803 this was +again recognized and the territory of the city was even extended. In +1806 it was taken by the French, was subsequently annexed by Napoleon to +his empire, and from 1810 to 1813 was the capital of the department of +the Mouths of the Weser. Restored to independence by the congress of +Vienna in 1815, it subsequently became a member of the German +Confederation, and in 1867 joined the new North German Confederation, +with which it was merged in the new German empire. + + See Buchenau, _Die freie Hansestadt Bremen_ (3rd ed., Bremen, 1900, 5 + vols.); _Bremisches Urkundenbuch_, edited by R. Ehmck and W. von + Bippen (1863, fol.); W. von Bippen, _Geschichte der Stadt Bremen_ + (Bremen, 1892-1898); F. Donandt, _Versuch einer Geschichte des + bremischen Stadtrechts_ (Bremen, 1830, 2 vols.); _Bremisches Jahrbuch_ + (historical, 19 vols., 1864-1900); and Karl Hegel, _Stadte und + Gilden_, vol. ii. p. 461 (Leipzig, 1891). + + + + +BREMER, FREDRIKA (1801-1865), Swedish novelist, was born near Abo, in +Finland, on the 17th of August 1801. Her father, a descendant of an old +German family, a wealthy iron master and merchant, left Finland when +Fredrika was three years old, and after a year's residence in Stockholm, +purchased an estate at Arsta, about 20 m. from the capital. There, with +occasional visits to Stockholm and to a neighbouring estate, which +belonged for a time to her father, Fredrika passed her time till 1820. +The education to which she and her sisters were subjected was unusually +strict; Fredrika's health began to give way; and in 1821 the family set +out for the south of France. They travelled slowly by way of Germany and +Switzerland, and returned by Paris and the Netherlands. It was shortly +after this time that Miss Bremer became acquainted with Schiller's +works, which made a very deep impression on her. She had begun to write +verses from the age of eight, and in 1828 she succeeded in finding a +publisher for the first volume of her _Teckningar ur hvardagslifvet_ +(1828), which at once attracted attention. The second volume (1831), +containing one of her best tales, _Familjen H._, gave decisive evidence +that a real novelist had been found in Sweden. The Swedish Academy +awarded her their smaller gold medal, and she increased her reputation +by _Presidentens dottrar_ (1834), _Grannarne_ (1837) and others. Her +father had died in 1830, and her life was thereafter regulated in +accordance with her own wishes and tastes. She lived for some years in +Norway with a friend, after whose death she travelled in the autumn of +1849 to America, and after spending nearly two years there returned +through England. The admirable translations (1846, &c.) of her works by +Mary Howitt, which had been received with even greater eagerness in +America and England than in Sweden, secured for her a warm and kindly +reception. Her impressions of America, _Hemmen i nya verlden_, were +published in 1853-1854, and at once translated into English. After her +return Miss Bremer devoted herself to her scheme for the advancement and +emancipation of women. Her views on these questions were expounded in +her later novels--_Hertha_ (1856) and _Far och dotter_ (1858). Miss +Bremer organized a society of ladies in Stockholm for the purpose of +visiting the prisons, and during the cholera started a society, the +object of which was the care of children left orphans by the epidemic. +She devoted herself to other philanthropic and social schemes, and +gradually abandoned her earlier simple and charming type of story for +novels directed to the furtherance of her views. In these she was less +successful. In 1856 she again travelled, and spent five years on the +continent and in Palestine. Her reminiscences of these countries have +all been translated into English. On her return she settled at Arsta, +where, with the exception of a visit to Germany, she spent the remaining +years of her life. She died on the 31st of December 1865. + + See _Life, Letters and Posthumous Works of F. Bremer_, by her sister, + Charlotte Bremer, translated by F. Milow, London, 1868. A selection of + her works in 6 vols. appeared at Orebro, 1868-1872. + + + + +BREMERHAVEN, a seaport town of Germany, in the free state of Bremen, on +the right bank and estuary of the Weser, at the confluence of the +Geeste, 38 m. N. of the city of Bremen by rail. Pop. (1895) 18,366; +(1905) 24,159. It is built on a tract of territory ceded to Bremen by +Hanover in 1826, and further increased by treaty with Prussia in 1869. +It forms practically a single town with Geestemunde (Prussia), which +lies across the Geeste and with which it is connected by a drawbridge. +The port was opened in 1830, and besides an excellent harbour, there are +three large wet docks, including the Kaiserhafen, enlarged in 1897-1899 +at a cost of L900,000. This, together with the north portion of the +Neuerhafen, constitutes the free harbour. Here are the workshops and dry +docks of the North German Lloyd steamship company. The whole internal +harbour system is furnished with powerful hydraulic cranes and lines of +railway running alongside the quays. The entrance to the port is free +from ice nearly all the year round, is excellently buoyed, and lighted +by two lightships and eight lighthouses, among the latter the remarkable +Rothesand Leuchtturm, erected 1884-1885. The Hanoverian fort and +batteries, which formerly protected the town, have been removed, and +their place is supplied by four modern forts, with revolving turtleback +turrets, lower down. The town possesses two Protestant and a Roman +Catholic church, a technical institute, a natural history museum, a +library, a theatre, a monument to the emperor William I. and one to +Johann Smidt (1773-1859), the burgomaster of Bremen to whose enterprise +the harbour of Bremerhaven is due. Shipbuilding and kindred industries +are carried on. + + + + +BRENDAN, BRANDON, or BRANDAN (c. 484-578), Irish saint and hero of a +legendary voyage in the Atlantic, is said to have been born at Tralee +in Kerry in A.D. 484. The Irish form of his name is _Brennain_, the +Latin _Brendanus_. Medieval historians usually call him Brendan of +Clonfert, or Brendan son of Finnloga, to distinguish him from his +contemporary, St Brendan of Birr (573). Little is known of the +historical Brendan, who died in 578 as abbot of a Benedictine monastery +which he had founded twenty years previously at Clonfert in eastern +Galway. The story of his voyage across the Atlantic to the "Promised +Land of the Saints," afterwards designated "St Brendan's Island,"[1] +ranks among the most celebrated of the medieval sagas of western Europe. +Its traditional date is 565-573. The legend is found, in prose or verse +and with many variations, in Latin, French, English, Saxon, Flemish, +Irish, Welsh, Breton and Scottish Gaelic. Although it does not occur in +the writings of any Arabian geographer, several of its incidents--such +as the landing on a whale in mistake for an island--belong also to +Arabic folk-literature. Many of Brendan's fabulous adventures seem to be +borrowed from the half-pagan Irish saga of Maelduin or Maeldune, and +others belong also to Scandinavian mythology. The oldest extant version +of the legend is the 11th century _Navigatio Brendani_. + +St Brendan's island was long accepted as a reality by geographers. In a +Venetian map dated 1367, in the anonymous Weimar map of 1424, and in B. +Beccario's map of 1435, it is identified with Madeira. Columbus, in his +journal for the 9th of August 1492, states that the inhabitants of +Hierro, Gomera and Madeira had seen the island in the west; and Martin +Behaim, in the globe he made at Nuremberg in the same year, places it +west of the Canaries and near the equator. During the 16th century the +progress of exploration in these latitudes compelled many cartographers +to locate the island elsewhere; and it was marked about 100 m. west of +Ireland, or afterwards among the West Indies. But in Spain and Portugal +the older belief as to its situation was maintained. In 1526 an +expedition under Fernando Alvarez left Grand Canary in search of St +Brendan's island, which had again been reported as seen by many +trustworthy witnesses. In 1570 an official inquiry was held, and a +second expedition undertaken, by Fernando de Villalobos, governor of +Palma. Similar voyages of discovery were made by the Canarians in 1604 +and 1721; and only in 1759 was the apparition of St Brendan's island +explained as an effect of mirage. + + Among the numerous books which deal with the legend, the following are + important: _Die altfranzosische Prosaubersetzung von Brendans + Meerfahrt_, by C. Wahlund (Upsala, 1900); _La "Navigatio Sancti + Brendani" in antico Veneziano_, by F. Novati (Bergamo, 1892); _Zur + Brendanus-Legende_, &c., by G. Schirmer (Leipzig, 1888); _Les Voyages + merveilleux de St. Brendan_, &c., by F. Michel (Paris, 1878); and + _Acta Sancti Brendani.... Original Latin Documents connected with the + Life of St Brendan_, by P.F. Moran (Dublin, 1872). + + + + +BRENHAM, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Texas, U.S.A., +situated in the S.E. part of the state, about 68 m. N.W. of Houston. +Pop. (1890) 5209; (1900) 5968, including 2701 negroes and 531 +foreign-born; (1910) 4718. Brenham is served by the Gulf, Colorado & +Santa Fe (controlled by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) and the Houston +& Texas Central railways. It is the seat of Blinn Memorial College +(German Methodist Episcopal), opened as "Mission Institute" in 1883, and +renamed in 1889 in honour of the Rev. Christian Blinn, of New York, a +liberal benefactor; of Brenham Evangelical Lutheran College, and of a +German-American institute (1898). The municipality owns and operates the +waterworks. The city is situated in an agricultural and cotton-raising +region, and has cotton compresses and gins, cotton mills, cotton-seed +oil refineries, foundries and machine shops, and furniture and wagon +factories. Brenham was settled about 1844, was incorporated in 1866, and +was chartered as a city in 1873. + + + + +BRENNER PASS, the lowest (4495 ft.) and one of the most frequented +passes across the Alps in all ages, though the name itself rarely occurs +in the middle ages, the route over it being said to lie through "the +valley of Trent." It may be described as the great gate of Italy, and by +it most of the Teutonic tribes made their way to Italy. One reason of +its importance is that many side passes in the end join this great +thoroughfare. It was crossed no fewer than 66 times by various emperors, +between 793 and 1402. A carriage road was constructed over it as far +back as 1772, while the railway over it was built in 1864-1867. From +Innsbruck to the summit of the pass is a distance by rail of 25 m. The +line then descends through the Eisack valley past Brixen (34 m.) to +Botzen (24 m.). Thence it follows the valley of the Adige to Trent (35 +m.) and on to Verona (56-1/2 m.)--in all 174-1/2 m. by rail from +Innsbruck to Verona. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BRENNUS, the name, or perhaps the official title, of two chiefs of the +Celtic Gauls. + +(1) The first Brennus crossed the Apennines in 391 B.C., ravaged +Etruria, and annihilated a Roman army of about 40,000 men on the Allia +some 12 m. from Clusium (July 16, 390). Rome thus lay at his mercy, but +he wasted time, and the Romans were able to occupy and provision the +Capitol (though they had not sufficient forces to defend their walls) +and to send their women and children to Veii. When on the third day the +Gauls took possession, they found the city occupied only by those aged +patricians who had held high office in the state. For a while the Gauls +withheld their hands out of awe and reverence, but the ruder passions +soon prevailed. The city was sacked and burnt; but the Capitol itself +withstood a siege of more than six months, saved from surprise on one +occasion only by the wakefulness of the sacred geese and the courage of +Marcus Manlius. At last the Gauls consented to accept a ransom of a +thousand pounds of gold. As it was being weighed out, the Roman tribune +complained of some unfairness. Brennus at once threw his heavy sword +into the scale; and when asked the meaning of the act, replied that it +meant _Vae victis_ ("woe to the conquered"). The Gauls returned home +with their plunder, leaving Rome in a condition from which she took long +to recover. A later legend, probably an invention, represents M. Furius +Camillus as suddenly appearing with an avenging army at the moment when +the gold was being weighed, and defeating Brennus and all his host. + + See null v. 33-49; Plutarch, _Camillus_, 17, 22, 28; Polybius i. 6, + ii. 18; Dion. Halic. xiii. 7. + +(2) The second Brennus is said to have been one of the leaders of an +inroad made by the Gauls from the east of the Adriatic into Thrace and +Macedonia (280), when they defeated and slew Ptolemy Ceraunus, then king +of Macedonia. Whether Brennus took part in this first invasion or not is +uncertain; but its success led him to urge his countrymen to a second +expedition, when he marched with a large army through Macedonia and +Thessaly until he reached Thermopylae. To this point the united forces +of the northern Greeks--Athenians, Phocians, Boeotians and +Aetolians--had fallen back; and here the Greeks a second time held their +foreign invaders in check for many days, and a second time had their +rear turned, owing to the treachery of some of the natives, by the same +path which had been discovered to the Persians two hundred years before. +Brennus and his Gauls marched on to Delphi, of whose sacred treasures +they had heard much. But the little force which the Delphians and their +neighbours had collected--about 4000 men--favoured by the strength of +their position, made a successful defence. They rolled down rocks upon +their enemies as they crowded into the defile, and showered missiles on +them from above. A thunderstorm, with hail and intense cold, increased +their confusion, and on Brennus himself being wounded they took to +flight, pursued by the Greeks all the way back to Thermopylae. Brennus +killed himself, "unable to endure the pain of his wounds," says Justin; +more probably determined not to return home defeated. + + See Justin xxiv. 6; Diod. Sic. xxii. 11; Pausanias x. 19-23; L. + Contzen, _Die Wanderungen der Kelten_ (Leipzig, 1861). + + + + +BRENTANO, KLEMENS (1778-1842), German poet and novelist, was born at +Ehrenbreitstein on the 8th of September 1778. His sister was the +well-known Bettina von Arnim (q.v.), Goethe's correspondent. He studied +at Jena, and afterwards resided at Heidelberg, Vienna and Berlin. In +1818, weary of his somewhat restless and unsettled life, he joined the +Roman Catholic Church and withdrew to the monastery of Dulmen where he +lived for some years in strict seclusion. The latter part of his life he +spent in Regensburg, Frankfort and Munich, actively engaged in Catholic +propaganda. He died at Aschaffenburg on the 28th of July 1842. Brentano, +whose early writings were published under the pseudonym Maria, belonged +to the Heidelberg group of German romantic writers, and his works are +marked by excess of fantastic imagery and by abrupt, bizarre modes of +expression. His first published writings were _Satiren und poetische +Spiele_ (1800), and a romance _Godwi_ (1801-1802); of his dramas the +best are _Ponce de Leon_ (1804), _Victoria_ (1817) and _Die Grundung +Prags_ (1815). On the whole his finest work is the collection of +_Romanzen vom Rosenkranz_ (published posthumously in 1852); his short +stories, and more especially the charming _Geschichte vom braven Kasperl +und dem schonen Annerl_ (1838), which has been translated into English, +are still popular. Brentano also assisted Ludwig Achim von Arnim, his +brother-in-law, in the collection of folk-songs forming _Des Knaben +Wunderhorn_ (1806-1808). + + Brentano's collected works, edited by his brother Christian, appeared + at Frankfort in 9 vols. (1851-1855). Selections have been edited by + J.B. Diel (1873), M. Koch (1892), and J. Dohmke (1893). See J.B. Diel + and W. Kreiten, _Klemens Brentano_ (2 vols., 1877-1878), the + introduction to Koch's edition, and R. Steig, _A. von Arnim und K. + Brentano_ (1894). + + + + +BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH [called LUJO] (1844- ), German economist, a +member of the same family as the preceding, was born at Aschaffenburg on +the 18th of December 1844. He received some of his academical education +in Dublin. In 1868 he made a thorough study of trade-unionism in +England, which resulted in his principal work, _Die Arbeitergilden der +Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1871-1872; Eng. trans, by L.T. Smith). The book was +assailed by Bamberger and other economists, but is important not only as +an authority on modern associations of workmen, but for having given an +impetus to the study of the gilds of the middle ages, and the +examination of the great stores of neglected information bearing upon +the condition of the people in olden days. Brentano's other works are of +a more theoretical character, and chiefly relate to political economy, +of which he was professor at Breslau from 1872 to 1882, at Strassburg +from 1882 to 1888, at Vienna 1888-1889, at Leipzig 1889-1891, and at +Munich since 1891. We may mention _Das Arbeitsverhaltnis gemass dem +heutigen Recht_ (1877); _Die christlich-soziale Bewegung in England_ +(1883); _Uber das Verhaltnis von Arbeitslohn und Arbeitszeit zur +Arbeitsleistung_ (1893); _Agrarpolitik_ (1897). + + + + +BRENTFORD, a market town in the Brentford parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, 10-1/2 m. W. of Waterloo terminus, London, by the +London & South-Western railway, at the junction of the river Brent with +the Thames. Pop. of urban district (1901) 15,171. The Grand Junction +Canal joins the Brent, affording ample water-communications to the town, +which has considerable industries in brewing, soap-making, saw-milling, +market-gardening, &c. The Grand Junction waterworks are situated here. +Brentford has been the county-town for elections since 1701. + +In 1016 Brentford, or, as it was often called Braynford, was the scene +of a great defeat inflicted on the Danes by Edmund Ironside. In 1280 a +toll was granted by Edward I., who granted the town a market, for the +construction of a bridge across the river, and in the reign of Henry VI. +a hospital of the Nine Orders of Angels was founded near its western +side. In 1642 a battle was fought here in which the royalists defeated +the parliamentary forces. For his services on this occasion the Scotsman +Ruthven, earl of Forth, was made earl of Brentford, a title afterwards +conferred by William III. on Marshal Schomberg. Brentford was during the +16th and 17th centuries a favourite resort of London citizens; and its +inn of the Three Pigeons, which was kept for a time by John Lowin, one +of the first actors of Shakespeare's plays, is frequently alluded to by +the dramatists of the period. Falstaff is disguised as the "Fat Woman of +Brentford" in Shakespeare's _Merry Wives of Windsor_, and numerous other +references to the town in literature point, in most cases, to its +reputation for excessive dirt. The "two kings of Brentford" mentioned in +Cowper's _Task_, and elsewhere, seem to owe their mythical existence to +the play, _The Rehearsal_, by George Villiers, second duke of +Buckingham, produced in 1671. + +South of Brentford, towards Isleworth, is Sion House, a mansion founded +by Lord Protector Somerset in 1547, and rebuilt and enlarged by the 10th +earl of Northumberland and Sir Hugh Smithson, afterwards duke of +Northumberland, the architects being Inigo Jones and Robert Adam. The +gardens are very beautiful. The site of Sion or Syon House was +previously occupied by a convent of Bridgetine nuns established at +Twickenham by Henry V. in 1415 and removed here in 1431. + + + + +BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL (1770-1844), British admiral, was born in Rhode +Island, U.S.A., on the 22nd of August 1770. He was the son of +Rear-Admiral Jahleel Brenton (1729-1802), who belonged to a loyalist +family which suffered the loss of most of its property in the +insurrection of the American colonies. He was a lieutenant in the +British navy when the war began, and emigrated with his family to the +mother country. Three of the sons entered the navy--Jahleel (the +eldest), Captain Edward Pelham Brenton (1774-1839), and James Wallace +Brenton, who was killed young in 1799 when attacking a Spanish privateer +near Barcelona in the boats of the "Petrel," of which he was lieutenant. +Jahleel went to sea first with his father in 1781, and on the return of +peace was sent to the "maritime school" at Chelsea. He served in the +peace before the beginning of the war in 1793, and passed his +examination as lieutenant, but seeing no chance of employment went with +other English naval officers to serve in the Swedish navy against the +Russians. In 1790 he received his commission and returned home. Till +1799 he served as lieutenant, or acting commander, mostly under Earl St +Vincent, and was present in the battle from which the admiral received +his title. As commander of the "Speedy" brig he won much distinction in +actions with Spanish gunboats in the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1800 he +reached the rank of post-captain, and had the good fortune to serve as +flag-captain to Sir James (afterwards Lord) Saumarez in the action at +Algeciras, and in the Straits in 1801. During the peace of Amiens he +married Miss Stewart, a lady belonging to a loyalist family of Nova +Scotia. After the renewal of the war he commanded a succession of +frigates. In 1803 he had the misfortune to be wrecked on the coast of +France, and remained for a time in prison, where his wife joined him. +Having been exchanged he was named to another ship. His most brilliant +action was fought with a flotilla of Franco-Neapolitan vessels outside +of Naples in May 1801. He was severely wounded, and Murat, then king of +Naples, praised him effusively. He was made a baronet in 1812 and K.C.B. +in 1815. After his recovery from his wound he was unable to bear sea +service, but was made commissioner of the dockyard at Port Mahon, and +then at the Cape, and was afterwards lieutenant-governor of Greenwich +hospital till 1840. He reached flag rank in 1830. In his later years he +took an active part in philanthropic work, in association with his +brother, Captain E.P. Brenton, who had seen much service but is best +remembered by his writings on naval and military history,--_Naval +History of Great Britain from the Year 1783 to 1822_ (1823), and _The +Life and Correspondence of John, Earl of St Vincent_ (1838). + + A _Memoir of the Life and Services of Vice-Admiral Sir Jahleel + Brenton_, based on his own papers, was published in 1846 by the Rev. + Henry Raikes, and reissued by the admiral's son, Sir L.C.L. Brenton, + in 1855. (D. H.) + + + + +BRENTWOOD, a market town in the mid or Chelmsford parliamentary division +of Essex, England; 18 m. E.N.E. of London by the Great Eastern railway +(Brentwood and Worley station). Pop. of urban district (1901) 4932. The +neighbouring country is pleasantly undulating and well wooded. The +church of St Thomas the Martyr, with several chapels, is modern. The old +assize house, an Elizabethan structure, remains. A free grammar school +was founded in 1557. The county asylum is in the vicinity. There are +breweries and brick works. To the south lies the fine upland of Worley +Common, with large barracks. Adjoining Brentwood to the north-east is +Shenfield, with the church of St Mary the Virgin, Early English and +later. Brentwood was formerly an important posting station on the main +road to the eastern counties, which follows the line of the railway to +Colchester. The name (_Burntwood_) is supposed to record an original +settlement made in a clearing of the forest. The district is largely +residential. + + + + +BRENZ, JOHANN (1499-1570), Lutheran divine, eldest son of Martin Brenz, +was born at Weil, Wurttemberg, on the 24th of June 1499. In 1514 he +entered the university of Heidelberg, where Oecolampadius was one of his +teachers, and where in 1518 he heard Luther discuss. Ordained priest in +1520, and appointed preacher (1522) at Hall in Swabia, he gave himself +to biblical exposition. He ceased to celebrate mass in 1523, and +reorganized his church in 1524. Successful in resisting the peasant +insurrection (1525), his fortunes were affected by the Schmalkaldic War. +From Hall, when taken by the imperial forces, he fled on his birthday in +1548. Protected by Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg, he was appointed (January +1553) provost of the collegiate church of Stuttgart. As organizer of the +reformation in Wurttemberg he did much fruitful work. A strong advocate +of Lutheran doctrine, and author of the _Syngramma Suevicum_ (October +21, 1525), which set forth Luther's doctrine of the Eucharist, he was +free from the persecuting tendencies of the age. He is praised and +quoted (as Joannes Witlingius) for his judgment against applying the +death penalty to anabaptists or other heretics in the _De Haereticis, an +sint persequendi_ (1554), issued by Sebastian Castellio under the +pseudonym of Martinus Bellius. An incomplete edition of his works +(largely expository) appeared at Tubingen, 1576-1590. Several of his +sermons were reproduced in contemporary English versions. A volume of +_Anecdota Brentiana_ was edited by Pressel in 1868. He died on the 11th +of September 1570, and was buried in his church at Stuttgart; his grave +was subsequently violated. He was twice married, and his eldest son, +Johann Brenz, was appointed (1562) professor of theology in Tubingen at +the early age of twenty-two. + + See Hartmann and Jager, _Johann Brenz_ (1840-1842); Bossert, in + Hauck's _Realencyklop_. (1897). (A. Go.*) + + + + +BREQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD FEUDRIX DE (1714-1795), French scholar, +was born at Gainneville near Havre, on the 22nd of February 1714, and +died at Paris on the 3rd of July 1795. His first publications were +anonymous: an _Histoire des revolutions de Genes jusqu'a la paix de +1748_ (1750), and a series of _Vies des orateurs grecs_ (1752). Elected +a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres in 1759, he +contributed an _Histoire de Posthume empereur des Gaules_ (vol. xxx., +1760) to the collected works of that illustrious society, and also a +_Memoire sur l'etablissement de la religion et de l'empire de Mahomet_ +(vol. xxxii., 1761-1763). After the close of the Seven Years' War he was +sent to search in the archives of England for documents bearing upon the +history of France, more particularly upon that of the French provinces +which once belonged to England. This mission (1764-1766) was very +fruitful in results; Brequigny brought back from it copies of about 7000 +documents, which are now in the Bibliotheque Nationale. A useful +selection of these documents was published (unfortunately without +adequate critical treatment) by Jean Jacques Champollion-Figeac, under +the title _Lettres de rois, reines et autres personnages des cours de +France et d'Angleterre, depuis Louis VII. jusqu'a Henri IV., tirees des +archives de Londres par Brequigny_ (collection of _Documents inedits +relatifs a l'histoire de France_, 2 vols., 1839, 1847). Brequigny +himself drew the material for many important studies from the rich mine +which he had thus exploited. These were included in the collection of +the Academie des Inscriptions: _Memoire sur les differends entre la +France et l'Angleterre sous le regne de Charles le Bel_ (vol. xli.); +_Memoire sur la vie de Marie, reine de France, soeur de Henri VIII., roi +d'Angleterre_ (vol. xlii.); four _Memoires pour senir a l'histoire de +Calais_ (vols. xliii. and l.); and _Memoire sur les negotiations +touchant les projets de mariage d'Elizabeth, reine d'Angleterre, d'abord +avec le duc d'Anjou, ensuite avec le due d'Alencon, tons deux freres de +Charles IX._ (vol. l.). This last was read to the Academy on the 22nd of +January 1793, the morrow of Louis XVI.'s execution. Meanwhile, Brequigny +had taken part in three great and erudite works. For the _Recueil des +ordonnances des rois de France_ he had prepared volumes x.-xiv., the +preface to vol. xi. containing important researches into the French +communes. To the _Table chronologique des diplomes, chartes, lettres, et +actes imprimes concernant l'histoire de France_ he contributed three +volumes in collaboration with Mouchet (1769-1783). Charged with the +supervision of a large collection of documents bearing on French +history, analogous to Rymer's _Foedera_, he published the first volume +(_Diplomatat. Chartae_, &c., 1791). The Revolution interrupted him in +his collection of _Memoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les +lettres, et les arts des Chinois_, begun in 1776 at the instance of the +minister Bertin, when fifteen volumes had appeared. + + See the note on Brequigny at the end of vol. i. of the _Memoires de + l'Academie des Inscriptions_ (1808); the Introduction to vol. iv. of + the _Table chronologique des diplomes_ (1836); Champollion-Figeac's + preface to the _Lettres des rois et reines_; the _Comite des travaux + historiques_, by X. Charmes, vol. i. _passim_; N. Oursel, _Nouvelle + biographie normande_ (1886); and the _Catalogue des manuscrits des + collections Duchesne et Brequigny_ (in the Bibliotheque Nationale), by + Rene Poupardin (1905). (C. B.*) + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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