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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:02:50 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:02:50 -0700 |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10 + "Echinoderma" to "Edward" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 17, 2011 [EBook #34992] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SL 10 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VIII SLICE X<br /><br /> +Echinoderma to Edward</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">ECHINODERMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">EDESSA</a> (Macedonia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">ECHINUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">EDESSA</a> (Mesopotamia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">ECHIUROIDEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">EDFU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">ECHMIADZIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">EDGAR</a> (king of the English)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">ECHO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">EDGAR</a> (son of Edward)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">ECHTERNACH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">EDGECUMBE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">ECHUCA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">EDGE HILL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">ÉCIJA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">EDGEWORTH, MARIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">ECK, JOHANN MAIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">ECKERNFÖRDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">EDHEM PASHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12a">ECKHART, JOHANNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">EDICT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">EDINBURGH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ECKMÜHL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">EDINBURGHSHIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">ECLECTICISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">EDISON, THOMAS ALVA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ECLIPSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">EDMONTON</a> (Alberta, Canada)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">ECLIPTIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">EDMONTON</a> (England)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ECLOGITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">EDMUND, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ECLOGUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">EDMUND</a> (king of East Anglia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">EDMUND I.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">ECONOMICS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">EDMUND</a> (Ironside)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">ECONOMY</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">EDMUND</a> (king of Sicily)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">ECONOMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">ECSTASY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">EDOM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ECTOSPORA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">EDRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ECUADOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">EDRIC, STREONA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ECZEMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">EDUCATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">EDAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">EDWARD</a> (The Elder)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">EDDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">EDWARD</a> (The Martyr)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">EDDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">EDWARD</a> (The Confessor)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">EDELINCK, GERARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">EDWARD I.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">EDELWEISS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">EDWARD II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">EDEN, SIR ASHLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">EDWARD III.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">EDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">EDWARD IV.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">EDENBRIDGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">EDWARD V.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">EDEN HALL, LUCK OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">EDWARD VI.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">EDENKOBEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">EDWARD VII.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">EDENTATA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">EDWARD</a> (prince of Wales)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">EDENTON</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">ECHINODERMA.<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The <span class="grk" title="echinoderma">ἐχινόδερμα</span>, or “urchin-skinned” +animals, have long been a favourite subject of study with the +collectors of sea-animals or of fossils, since the lime deposited in +their skins forms hard tests or shells readily preserved in the +cabinet. These were described during the 18th and first half of +the 19th centuries by many eminent naturalists, such as J.T. +Klein, J.H. Linck, C. Linnaeus, N.G. Leske, J.S. Miller, L. v. +Buch, E. Desor and L. Agassiz; but it was the researches of +Johannes Müller (1840-1850) that formed the groundwork of +scientific conceptions of the group, proving it one of the great +phyla of the animal kingdom. The anatomists and embryologists +of the next quarter of a century confirmed rather than +expanded the views of Müller. Thus, about 1875, the distinction +of Echinoderms from such radiate animals as jelly-fish and +corals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coelentera</a></span>), by their possession of a body-cavity +(“coelom”) distinct from the gut, was fully realized; while +their severance from the worms (especially Gephyrea), with +which some Echinoderrns were long confused, had been necessitated +by the recognition in all of a radial symmetry, impressed on +the original bilateral symmetry of the larva through the growth +of a special division of the coelom, known as the “hydrocoel,” +and giving rise to a set of water-bearing canals—the water-vascular +or ambulacral system. There was also sufficient comprehension +of the differences between the main classes of +Echinoderms—the sea-urchins or Echinoidea, the starfish or +Asteroidea, the brittle-stars and their allies known as Ophiuroidea, +the worm-like Holothurians, the feather-stars and sea-lilies +called Crinoidea, with their extinct relatives the sac-like Cystidea, +the bud-formed Blastoidea, and the flattened Edrioasteroidea—while +within the larger of these classes, such as Echinoidea and +Crinoidea, fair working classifications had been established. +But the study that should elucidate the fundamental similarities +or homologies between the several classes, and should suggest +the relations of the Echinoderma to other phyla, had scarcely +begun. Indeed, the time was not ripe for such discussions, +still less for the tracing of lines of descent and their embodiment +in a genealogical classification. Since then exploring expeditions +have made known a host of new genera, often exhibiting unfamiliar +types of structure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among these the abyssal starfish and holothurians described by +W.P. Sladen and H. Théel respectively, in the Report of the +“Challenger” Expedition, are most notable. The sea-urchins, +ophiuroids and crinoids also have yielded many important novelties +to A. Agassiz (“Challenger,” “Blake,” and “Albatross” Expeditions), +T. Lyman (“Challenger”), Sladen (“Astrophiura,” <i>Ann. +Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>, 1879), F.J. Bell (numerous papers in <i>Ann. Mag. +Nat. Hist.</i> and in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>), E. Perrier (“Travailleur” and +“Talisman,” Cape Horn and Monaco Expeditions), P.H. Carpenter +“Challenger” Reports), and others. The anatomical researches +of these authors, as well as those of S. Lovén (“On Pourtalesia” +and “Echinologica,” published by the Swedish Academy of Science), +H. Ludwig (<i>Morphologische Studien</i>, Leipzig, 1877-1882), O. Hamann +(<i>Histologie der Echinodermen</i>, Jena, 1883-1889), L. Cuénot (“Études +morphologiques,” <i>Arch. Biol.</i>, 1891, and papers therein referred to), +P.M. Duncan (“Revision of the Echinoidea,” <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.</i>, +1890), H. Prouho (“Sur Dorocidaris,” <i>Arch. Zool. Exper.</i>, 1888), +and many more, need only be mentioned to recall the great advance +that has been made. In physiology may be instanced W.B. Carpenter’s +proof of the nervous nature of the chambered organ and +axial cords of crinoids (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1884), the researches of +H. Durham (<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1891) and others into the +wandering cells of the body-cavity, and the study of the deposition +of the skeletal substance (“stereom”) by Théel (in <i>Festskrift för +Lilljeborg</i>, 1896). Knowledge of the development has been enormously +extended by numerous embryologists, <i>e.g.</i> Ludwig (<i>op. cit.</i>), +E.W. MacBride (“Asterina gibbosa,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, +1896), H. Bury (<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1889, 1895), Seeliger (on +“Antedon,” <i>Zool. Jahrb.</i>, 1893), S. Goto (“Asterias pallida,” <i>Journ. +Coll. Sci. Japan</i>, 1896), C. Grave (“Ophiura,” <i>Mem. Johns Hopkins Univ.</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span> +1899), Théel (“Echinocyamus,” <i>Nov. Act. Soc. Sci. Upsala</i>, +1892), R. Semon (“Synapta,” <i>Jena. Zeitschr.</i>, 1888), and Lovén +(<i>opp. citt.</i>); and though the theories based thereon may have been +fantastic and contradictory, we are now near the time when the +results can be co-ordinated and some agreement reached. But the +scattered details of comparative anatomy are capable of manifold +arrangement, while the palimpsest of individual development is not +merely fragmentary, but often has the fragments misplaced. The +morphologist may propose classifications, and the embryologist +may erect genealogical trees, but all schemes which do not agree +with the direct evidence of fossils must be abandoned; and it is +this evidence, above all, that gained enormously in volume and +in value during the last quarter of the 19th century. The Silurian +crinoids and cystids of Sweden have been illustrated in N.P. Angelin’s +<i>Iconographia crinoideorum</i> (1878); the Palaeozoic crinoids and +cystids of Bohemia are dealt with in J. Barrande’s <i>Système silurien</i> +(1887 and 1899); P.H. Carpenter published important papers on +fossil crinoids in the <i>Journal</i> of the Geological Society, on Cystidea +in that of the Linnean Society, 1891, and, together with R. Etheridge, +jun., compiled the large <i>Catalogue of Blastoidea in the British Museum</i>, +1886; O. Jaekel, in addition to valuable studies on crinoids and +cystids appearing in the <i>Zeitschrift</i> of the German Geological Society, +has published the first volume of <i>Die Stammesgeschichte der Pelmatozoen</i> +(Berlin, 1899), a richly suggestive work; the Mesozoic Echinoderms +of France, Switzerland and Portugal have been made known +by P. de Loriol, G.H. Cotteau, J. Lambert, V. Gauthier and others +(see <i>Paléontologie française</i>, <i>Mém. Soc. paléontol. de la Suisse</i>, +<i>Trabalhos Comm. Geol. Portugal</i>, &c.); a beautiful and interesting +Devonian fauna from Bundenbach has been described by O. Follmann, +Jaekel, and especially B. Stürtz (see <i>Verhandl. nat. Vereins +preuss. Rheinlande, Paläont. Abhandl.</i>, and <i>Palaeontographica</i>); +while the multitude of North American palaeozoic crinoids has been +attacked by C. Wachsmuth and F. Springer in the <i>Proceedings</i> +(1879, 1881, 1885, 1886), of the Philadelphia Academy and the +<i>Memoirs</i> (1897) of the Harvard Museum.</p> +</div> + +<p>The vast mass of material made known by these and many +other distinguished writers has to be included in our classification, +and that classification itself must be controlled by the story it +reveals. Thus it is that a change, characteristic of modern +systematic zoology, is affecting the subdivisions of the classes. +It is not long since the main lines of division corresponded +roughly to gaps in geological history: the orders were Palaeocrinoidea +and Neocrinoidea, Palechinoidea and Euechinoidea, +Palaeasteroidea and Euasteroidea, and so forth. Or divisions +were based upon certain modifications of structure which, +as we now see, affected assemblages of diverse affinity: thus +both Blastoidea and Euechinoidea were divided into Regularia +and Irregularia; the Holothuroidea into Pneumophora and +Apneumona; and Crinoids were discussed under the heads +“stalked” and “unstalked.” The barriers between these groups +may be regarded as horizontal planes cutting across the branches +of the ascending tree of life at levels determined chiefly by our +ignorance; as knowledge increases, and as the conception of a +genealogical classification gains acceptance, they are being +replaced by vertical partitions which separate branch from +branch. The changes may be appreciated by comparing the +systematic synopses at the end of this article with the classification +adopted in 1877 in the 9th edition of the <i>Ency. Brit.</i> (vol. vii.), +or in any zoological text-book contemporary therewith. In the +present stage of our knowledge these minor divisions are the really +important ones. For, whereas to one brilliant suggestion of +far-reaching homology another can always be opposed, by the +detailed comparison of individual growth-stages in carefully +selected series of fossils, and by the minute application to these +of the principle that individual history repeats race history, +it actually is possible to unfold lines of descent that do not admit +of doubt. The gradual linking up of these will manifest the true +genealogy of each class, and reconstruct its ancestral forms by +proof instead of conjecture. The problem of the interrelations +of the classes will thus be reduced to its simplest terms, and even +questions as to the nature of the primitive Echinoderm and its +affinity to the ancestors of other phyla may become more than +exercises for the ingenuity of youth. Work has been and is being +done by the laborious methods here alluded to, and though the +diversity of opinion as to the broader groupings of classification +is still restricted only by the number of writers, we can point +to an ever-increasing body of assured knowledge on which all +are agreed. Unfortunately such allusion to these disconnected +certainties as alone might be introduced here would be too brief +for comprehension, and we are forced to select a few of the +broader hypotheses for a treatment that may seem dogmatic and +prejudiced.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:468px; height:459px" src="images/img872a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Diagram of a simple form of Crinoid, with five arms, +each forking once; the one nearest the observer is removed to expose +the tegmen of five orals. This crinoid has only two circlets of plates +in the cup, but the cup analysed in the adjoining diagram has in +addition infrabasals and a centrale <i>C.</i></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:126px; height:222px" src="images/img872b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—An early stage in the development +of <i>Antedon</i>, showing the foot-plate or +“dorso-central” <i>fp</i> at the end of the stem +<i>col.</i> Some of the thecal plates, infrabasals +<i>I B</i>, basals <i>B</i>, and orals <i>O</i> are forming +around the body-cavities <i>r.pc</i> and <i>l.pc</i>; +<i>p</i> is the water-pore. (After Seeliger.)</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><i>Calycinal Theory.</i>—The theory which had most influence on the +conceptions of Echinoderms in the two concluding decades of the +19th century was that of Lovén, elaborated by P.H. Carpenter, +Sladen and others. This, which may be called the <i>calycinal</i> theory, +will be appreciated by comparing the structure of a simple crinoid +with that of some other types. A crinoid reduced to its simplest +elements consists of three principal portions—(i.) a theca or test +enclosing the viscera; (ii.) five arms stretching upwards or outwards +from the theca, sometimes single, sometimes branching; (iii.) a +stem stretching downwards from the theca and attaching it to the +sea-floor (see fig. 1). That part of the theca below the origins of the +free arms is called the “dorsal cup”; the ventral part above the +origins of the arms, serving as cover to the cup, is known as the +“tegmen.” All these parts are supported by plates or ossicles of +crystalline carbonate of lime. The cup, in +its simplest form, consists of two circlets of +five plates. Each plate of the upper circlet +supports an arm, and is called a “radial”; +the plates of the lower circlet, the “basals,” +rest on the stem and alternate with those +of the upper circlet, <i>i.e.</i> are interradial in +position. Some crinoids have yet another +circlet below these, the constituent plates +of which are called “infrabasals,” and are +situated radially. The tegmen in most +primitive forms, as well as in the embryonic +stages of the living <i>Antedon</i> (fig. 2), consists +of five large triangular plates, alternating +with the radials, and called “orals,” +because they roof over the mouth. In +addition to these three or four circlets of +plates, two other elements were once supposed +essential to the ideal crinoid: the +dorso-central and the oro-central. The +former term was applied to a flattened plate +observed in the embryonic stage of a single +genus (<i>Antedon</i>) at that end of the stem +attached to the sea-floor, and comparable to +the foot of a wine-glass (fig. 2). In some +crinoids which have no trace of a stem +(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Marsupites</i>) a pentagonal plate is +found at the bottom of the cup, where the +stem would naturally have arisen (“centrale” +in fig. 1); and since it was believed +that the stem always grew by addition +of ossicles immediately below the infrabasals, it was inferred +that this pentagonal plate was the centro-dorsal in its primitive +position, as though the wine-glass had been evolved from +a tumbler by pulling the bottom out to form the foot. The oro-central +was, it must be admitted, a theoretical conception due +to a desire for symmetry, and was not confirmed by anything +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span> +better than some erroneous observations on certain fossils, which +were supposed to show a plate at the oral pole between the five orals; +but this plate, so far as it exists at all, is now known to be nothing +but an oral shifted in position. The theory was that all the plates +just described, and more particularly those of the cup, which were +termed “the calycinal system,” could be traced, not merely in all +crinoids, but in all Echinoderms, whether fixed forms such as cystids +and blastoids, or free forms such as ophiuroids and echinoids, even—with +the eye of faith—in holothurians. It was admitted that these +elements might atrophy, or be displaced, or be otherwise obscured; +but their complete and symmetrical disposition was regarded as +typical and original. Thus the genera exhibiting it were regarded +as primitive, and those orders and classes in which it was least +obscured were supposed to approach most nearly the ancestral +Echinoderm. Every one knows that an “apical system,” composed +of two circlets known as “genitals” or basals and “oculars” or +radials, occurs round the aboral pole of echinoids (fig. 3, A), and +that a few genera (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Salenia</i>, fig. 3, B) possess a sub-central plate +(the “suranal”), which might be identified with the centro-dorsal. +It is also the case that many asterids (fig. 3, D) and ophiurids (fig. 3, +C) have a similar arrangement of plates on the dorsal (<i>i.e.</i> aboral) +surface of the disk. Accepting the homology of these apical systems +with the calycinal system, the theory would regard the aboral pole +of a sea-urchin or starfish as corresponding in everything, except its +relations to the sea-floor, with the aboral pole of a fixed echinoderm.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:467px; height:546px" src="images/img873a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>-Supposed calycinal systems of free-moving Echinoderms. +A, regular sea-urchin (<i>Cidaris</i>); B, sea-urchin with a suranal plate +(<i>Salenia</i>); C, developing ophiurid (<i>Amphiura</i>); D, young starfish +(<i>Zoroaster</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The theory has been vigorously opposed, notably by Semon +(<i>op. cit.</i>), who saw in the holothurians a nearer approach to the +ancestral form than was furnished by any calyculate echinoderm, +and by the Sarasins, who derived the echinoids from the holothurians +through forms with flexible tests (<i>Echinothuridae</i>, which, however, +are now known to be specialized in this respect). The support that +appeared to be given to the theory by the presence of supposed +calycinal plates in the embryo of echinoids and asteroids has been, +in the opinion of many, undermined by E.W. MacBride (<i>op. cit.</i>), +who has insisted that in the fixed stage of the developing starfish, +<i>Asterina</i>, the relations of these plates to the stem are quite different +from those which they bear in the developing and adult crinoid. +But, however correct the observations and the homologies of +MacBride may be, they do not, as Bury (<i>op. cit.</i>) has well pointed +out, afford sufficient grounds for his inference that the abactinal +(<i>i.e.</i> aboral) poles of starfish and crinoids are not comparable with +one another, and that all conclusions based on the supposed homology +of the dorso-central of echinoids and asteroids with that of +crinoids are incorrect. Bury himself, however, has inflicted a +severe blow on the theory by his proof that the so-called oculars of +Echinoidea, which were supposed to represent the radials, are +homologous with the “terminals” (<i>i.e.</i> the plates at the tips of +the rays) in Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea, and therefore not homologous +with the radially disposed plates often seen around the aboral +pole of those animals. For, if these radial constituents of the supposed +apical system in an ophiurid have really some other origin, +why can we not say the same of the supposed basals? Indeed, Bury +is constrained to admit that the view of Semon and others may be +correct, and that these so-called calycinal systems may not be heirlooms +from a calyculate ancestor, but may have been independently +developed in the various classes owing to the action of similar +causes. That this view must be correct is urged by students of +fossils. Palaeontology lends no support to the idea that the dorso-central +is a primitive element; it exists in none of the early echinoids, +and the suranal of <i>Saleniidae</i> arises from the minor plates around +the anus. There is no reason to suppose that the central apical plate +of certain free-swimming crinoids has any more to do with the distal +foot-plate of the larval <i>Antedon</i> stem than has the so-called centro-dorsal +of <i>Antedon</i> itself, which is nothing but the compressed proximal +end of the stem. As for the supposed basals of Echinoidea, Asteroidea +and Ophiuroidea, they are scarcely to be distinguished among +the ten or more small plates that surround the anus of <i>Bothriocidaris</i>, +which is the oldest and probably the most ancestral of fossil sea-urchins +(fig. 5). A calycinal system may be quite apparent in the +later Ophiuroidea and in a few Asteroidea, but there is no trace of +it in the older Palaeozoic types, unless we are to transfer the appellation +to the terminals. Those plates are perhaps constant throughout +sea-urchins and starfish (though it would puzzle any one to detect +them in certain Silurian echinoids), and they may be traced in +some of the fixed echinoderms; but there is no proof that they +represent the radials of a simple crinoid, and there are certainly +many cystids in which no such plates existed. Lovén and M. +Neumayr adduced the Triassic sea-urchin <i>Tiarechinus</i>, in which +the apical system forms half of the test, as an argument for the +origin of Echinoidea from an ancestor in which the apical system +was of great importance; but a genus appearing so late in time, in +an isolated sea, under conditions that dwarfed the other echinoid +dwellers therein, cannot seriously be thought to elucidate the origin +of pre-Silurian Echinoidea, and the recent discovery of an intermediate +form suggests that we have here nothing but degenerate +descendants of a well-known Palaeozoic family (<i>Lepidocentridae</i>). +But to pursue the tale of isolated instances would be wearisome. +The calycinal theory is not merely an assertion of certain homologies, +a few of which might be disputed without affecting the rest: +it governs our whole conception of the echinoderms, because it +implies their descent from a calyculate ancestor—not a “crinoid-phantom,” +that bogey of the Sarasins, but a form with definite +plates subject to a quinqueradiate arrangement, with which its +internal organs must likewise have been correlated. To this ingenious +and plausible theory the revelations of the rocks are more +and more believed to be opposed.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:145px; height:181px" src="images/img873b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—The <i>Pentactula</i> stage in the +development of <i>Synapta</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>T, The five interradial tentacles.</p> + +<p>M, The water-pore, leading by the stone-canal <i>stc</i> +to the water-ring, from which hangs a Polian vesicle <i>pb</i>.</p> + +<p><i>oc</i>, Supposed otocysts.</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, Longitudinal muscles.</p> + +<p><i>sk</i>, Calcareous spicules.</p> + +<p><i>st</i>, Stomach.</p> + +<p>(After Semon.)</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Pentactaea Theory.</i>—In opposition to the calycinal theory has +been the <i>Pentactaea</i> theory of R. Semon. There have always been +many zoologists prepared to ascribe an ancestral character to the +holothurians. The absence of an apical system of plates; the fact +that radial symmetry has not affected the generative organs, as it +has in all other recent classes; the well-developed +muscles of the body-wall, supposed +to be directly inherited from some +worm-like ancestor; the presence on the +inner walls of the body in the family +<i>Synaptidae</i> of ciliated funnels, which have +been rashly compared to the excretory +organs (nephridia) of many worms; the +outgrowth from the rectum in other genera +of caeca (Cuvierian organs and respiratory +trees), which recall the anal glands of the +Gephyrean worms; the absence of podia +(tube-feet) in many genera, and even of the +radial water-vessels in <i>Synaptidae</i>; the +absence of that peculiar structure known +in other echinoderms by the names “axial +organ,” “ovoid gland,” &c.; the simpler +form of the larva—all these features have, +for good reason or bad, been regarded as +primitive. Some of the more striking of +these features are confined to <i>Synaptidae</i>; +in that family too the absence of the radial +water-vessels from the adult is correlated +with continuity of the circular muscle-layer, +while the gut runs almost straight from the +anterior mouth to the posterior anus. Early +in the life-history of <i>Synapta</i> occurs a stage +with five tentacles around the mouth, and +into these pass canals from the water-ring, +the radial canals to the body-wall making a +subsequent, and only temporary, appearance +(fig. 4). Semon called this stage the <i>Pentactula</i>, +and supposed that, in its early +history, the class had passed through a +similar stage, which he called the <i>Pentactaea</i>, +and regarded as the ancestor of all Echinoderms. It has since +been proved that the five tentacles with their canals are interradial, +so that one can scarcely look on the <i>Pentactula</i> as a primitive stage, +while the apparent simplicity of the <i>Synaptidae</i>, at least as compared +with other holothurians, is now believed to be the result of regressive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span> +changes. The <i>Pentactaea</i>, at all events as it sprang from the brain +of Semon, must pass to the limbo of mythological ancestors.</p> + +<p><i>Pelmatozoic Theory.</i>—The rejection of the calycinal and <i>Pentactaea</i> +theories need not scatter our conceptions of Echinoderm structure +back into the chaos from which they seemed to have emerged. The +idea of a calyculate ancestor, though by no means connoting fixation, +turned men’s minds in the direction of the fixed forms, simply +because in them the calyx was best developed. The <i>Pentactaea</i> again +suggested a search for some primitive type in which quinqueradiate +symmetry was exhibited in circumoral appendages, but had not +affected the nervous, water-vascular, muscular or skeletal systems +to any great extent, and the generative organs not at all. Study of +the earliest larval stages has always led to the conclusion that the +Echinoderms must have descended from some freely-moving form +with a bilateral symmetry, and, connecting this with the ideas just +mentioned, we reach the conception that this supposed bilateral +ancestor (or <i>Dipleurula</i>) may have become fixed, and may have +gradually acquired a radial symmetry in consequence of its sedentary +mode of life. The different extent of quinqueradiate symmetry in the +different classes would thus depend on the period at which they +diverged from the sedentary stock. The tracing of this history, and +the explanation of the general characters of Echinoderms and of the +differentiating features of the classes in accordance therewith, constitutes +the <i>Pelmatozoic</i> theory.</p> + +<p>The word “Pelmatozoa” literally means “stalked animals,” but +the name is now used to denote all Cystidea, Blastoidea, Crinoidea +and Edrioasteroidea, as opposed to the other classes, which may be +called Eleutherozoa. Many Pelmatozoa have, it is true, no stalk, +while some are freely-moving, but all agree in the possession of certain +characters obviously connected with a fixed mode of life. Thus, the +mouth is central and turned away from the sea-floor; the animal +does not seize its food by tentacles, limbs or jaws, neither does it +move in search of it, but a series of ciliated grooves which radiate +from the mouth sweep along currents of water, in the eddies of which +minute food-particles are caught up and carried down into the gullet; +the undigested food is driven out through an anus which is on the +upper or oral side of the theca, but as far distant as practicable from +the mouth and ciliated grooves. Such characters are found in any +primitive, sedentary group. More peculiarly Echinoderm features, +in which the Pelmatozoan nature is manifest, are the enclosing of the +viscera in a calcified and plated theca, for protection against those +enemies from which a fixed animal cannot flee; the development, at +the aboral pole of this theca, of a motor nerve-centre giving off +branches to the stroma connecting the various plates of the theca +and of its brachial, anal, and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinating +the movements of the whole skeleton; the absence of +suckers from the podia, which, when present, are respiratory, not +locomotor, in function. There are other features of most, if not +all, Pelmatozoa that appear to be due to a fixed existence; but +those are also found in the Eleutherozoa. The Pelmatozoic theory +thus regards the Pelmatozoa as the more ancestral forms, and the +Pelmatozoan stage as one that must have been passed through by +all Echinoderms during their evolution from the <i>Dipleurula</i>. It +might be possible to prove the origin of all classes from Pelmatozoa, +without thereby explaining the origin of such fundamental features +as radial symmetry, the developmental metamorphosis, and the +torsion that affects both gut and body-cavities during that process; +but the acceptance of a <i>Dipleurula</i> as the common ancestor necessitates +an explanation of these features. Such explanation is an +integral part of the Pelmatozoic theory, but is provided by no other.</p> + +<p>The evidence for the Pelmatozoic theory is supplied by palaeontology, +embryology, the comparative anatomy of the classes, and a +consideration of other phyla. Palaeontology, so far as it goes, is a +sure guide, but some of the oldest fossiliferous rocks yield remains +of distinctly differentiated crinoids, asteroids and echinoids, so +that the problem is not solved merely by collecting fossils. Two +lines of argument appear fruitful. First, a comparison of the +relative numbers of the representatives of the various classes at +different epochs; according to this they may be placed in the +following order, with the oldest first: Cystidea, Crinoidea, Blastoidea, +Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea. As for Holothuroidea, the +fossil evidence allows us to say no more than that the class existed +in early Carboniferous times, if not before. The second method is to +work out by slow and sure steps the lines of descent of the different +families, orders, and classes, and so either to arrive at the ancestral +form of each class, or to plot out the curve of evolution, which may +then legitimately be projected into “the dark backward and abysm +of time.” In this way the many highly modified orders of Cystidea +may be traced back to a simple, many-plated ancestor with little or +no radiate symmetry (see below). All the complicated structures of +Blastoidea are evolved from a fairly simple type, which in its turn +is linked on to one of the cystid orders. That the crinoids are all +deducible from some such simple form as that above described under +the head “calycinal theory,” is now generally admitted. Although, +in the extreme correlation of the radial food-grooves, nerves, water-vessels, +and so forth, with a radiate symmetry of the theca, such a +type differs from the Cystidea, while in the possession of jointed +processes from the radial plates, bearing the grooves and the various +body-systems outwards from the theca, it differs from all other +Echinoderms, nevertheless ancient forms are known which, if they +are not themselves the actual links, suggest how the crinoid type +may have been evolved from some of the more regular cystids. +The fourth class of Pelmatozoa—the Edrioasteroidea—differs from +the others in the structure of its ambulacra. As in all Pelmatozoa +these seem to have borne ciliated food-grooves protected by movable +covering-plates (fig. 11). Beneath each food-groove was a radial +water-vessel and probably a nerve and blood-vessel, all which +structures passed either between certain regularly arranged thecal +plates, or along a furrow floored by those plates, which were then +in two alternating series. The important and distinctive feature +is the presence of pores between the flooring-plates, on either side +of the groove; and these, we cannot doubt, served for the passage +of podia. Thus in a highly developed edrioasteroid, such as <i>Edrioaster</i> +itself (fig. 11), there was a true ambulacrum, apparently constructed +like that of a starfish, but differing in the possession of a ciliated +food-groove protected by covering-plates. The simpler forms of +Edrioasteroidea, with their more sac-like body and undifferentiated +plates, may well have been derived from early Cystidea of yet simpler +structure, and there seems no reason to follow Jaekel in regarding +the class as itself the more primitive. Turning to fossil Asteroidea, +we find the earlier ophiurids scarcely distinguishable from the asterids, +while in the alternation of the ambulacrals, which undoubtedly +correspond to the flooring-plates of <i>Edrioaster</i>, both groups approach +the Pelmatozoan type. These facts have been expressed by Sturtz +in his names Encrinasteriae and Ophio-encrinasteriae. There is no +difficulty in deducing the highly differentiated asterids and ophiurids +of a later day from these simpler types. The evolution of the +modern Echinoidea from their Palaeozoic ancestors is also well +understood, but in this case the ancestral form to which the palaeontologist +is led does not at first sight present many resemblances +to the Pelmatozoa. It is, however, characterized by simplicity of +structure, and a short description of it will serve to clear the problem +from unnecessary difficulties. <i>Bothriocidaris</i> (fig. 5), a small echinoid +from the Ordovician rocks of Esthonia, is in essential structure +just the form demanded by comparative palaeontology to make a +starting-point. It is spheroidal, with the mouth and anus at opposite +poles; there are five ambulacra, and the ambulacral plates are +large, simple and alternating, each being pierced by two podial +pores which lie in a small oval depression; the ambulacrals next +the mouth form a closed ring of ten plates; the interambulacrals +lie in single columns between the ambulacra, and are separated +from the mouth-area by the proximal ambulacrals just mentioned, +and sometimes by the second set of ambulacrals also; the ambulacra +end in the five oculars or terminals, which meet in a ring around +the anal area and have no podial pores, but one of them serves as +a madreporite; within this ring is a star-shaped area filled with +minute irregular plates, none of which can safely be selected as the +homologues of the so-called basals or genitals of later forms; within +the ring of ambulacrals around the mouth are five somewhat pointed +plates, which Jaekel regards as teeth, but which can scarcely be +homologous with the interradially placed teeth of later echinoids, +since they are radial in position; small spines are present, especially +around the podial pores. The position of the pores near the centre of +the ambulacrals in <i>Bothriocidaris</i> need not be regarded as primitive, +since other early Palaeozoic genera, not to mention the young +of living forms, show that the podia originally passed out between +the plates, and were only gradually surrounded by their substance; +thus the original structure of the echinoid ambulacra differed from +that of the early asteroid in the position of the radial vessels and +nerves, which here lie beneath the plates instead of outside them. +To this point we shall recur; palaeontology, though it suggests a +clue, does not furnish an actual link either between Echinoidea and +Asteroidea, or between those classes and Pelmatozoa.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:223px" src="images/img874.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—<i>Bothriocidaris globulus.</i> A, from the side; B, the plates +around the aboral pole. (After Jaekel.) The short spines which +were attached to the tubercles are not drawn.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The argument from embryology leads further back. First, as +already mentioned, it outlines the general features of the <i>Dipleurula</i>; +secondly, it indicates the way in which this free-moving form +became fixed, and how its internal organs were modified in consequence; +but when we seek, thirdly, for light on the relations of the +classes, we find the features of the adult coming in so rapidly that +such intermediate stages as may have existed are either squeezed out +or profoundly modified. The difficulty of rearing the larvae in an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span> +aquarium towards the close of the metamorphosis may account for +the slight information available concerning the stages that immediately +follow the embryonic. Another difficulty is due to the fact +that the types studied, and especially the crinoid <i>Antedon</i>, are highly +specialized, so that some of the embryonic features are not really +primitive as regards the class, but only as regards each particular +genus. Thus inferences from embryonic development need to be +checked by palaeontology, and supplemented by comparison of the +anatomy of other living genera.</p> + +<p>Minute anatomical research has also aided to establish the Pelmatozoic +theory by the gradual recognition in other classes of features +formerly supposed to be confined to Pelmatozoa. Thus the elements +of the Pelmatozoan ventral groove are now detected in so different +a structure as the echinoid ambulacrum, while an aboral nervous +system, the diminished representative of that in crinoids, has been +traced in all Eleutherozoa except Holothurians. The broader theories +of modern zoology might seem to have little bearing on the Echinoderma, +for it is not long since the study of these animals was compared +to a landlocked sea undisturbed by such storms as rage +around the origin of the Vertebrata. This, however, is no more the +case. The conception of the <i>Dipleurula</i> derives its chief weight +from the fact that it is comparable to the early larval forms of +other primitive coelomate animals, such as <i>Balanoglossus</i>, <i>Phoronis</i>, +Chaetognatha, Brachiopoda and Bryozoa. So too the explanation +of radial symmetry and torsion of organs as due to a Pelmatozoic +mode of life finds confirmation in many other phyla. Instead of +discussing all these questions separately, with the details necessary +for an adequate presentation of the argument, we shall now sketch +the history of the Echinoderms in accordance with the Pelmatozoic +theory. Such a sketch must pass lightly over debatable ground, +and must consist largely of suggestions still in need of confirmation; +but if it serves as a frame into which more precise and more detailed +statements may be fitted as they come to the ken of the reader, its +object will be attained.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Evolution of the Echinoderms.</i>—It is reasonable to suppose that +the Coelomata—animals in which the body-cavity is divided +into a gut passing from mouth to anus and a hollow (coelom) +surrounding it—were derived from the simpler Coelentera, in +which the primitive body-cavity (archenteron) is not so divided, +and has only one aperture serving as both mouth and anus. +We may, with Sedgwick, suppose the coelom to have originated +by the enlargement and separation of pouches that pressed +outwards from the archenteron into the thickened body-wall +(such structures as the genital pouches of some Coelentera, +not yet shut off from the rest of the cavity), and they would +probably have been four in number and radially disposed about +the central cavity. The evolution of this cavity into a gut is +foreshadowed in some Coelentera by the elliptical shape of the +aperture, and by the development at its ends of a ciliated channel +along which food is swept; we have only to suppose the approximation +of the sides of the ellipse and their eventual fusion, to +complete the transformation of the radially symmetrical Coelenterate +into a bilaterally symmetrical Coelomate with mouth and +anus at opposite ends of the long axis. We further suppose that +of the four coelomic pouches one was in front of the mouth, +one behind the anus, and one on each side. Such an animal, +if it ever existed, probably lived near the surface of the sea, and +even here it may have changed its medusoid mode of locomotion +for one in the direction of its mouth. Thus the bilateral symmetry +would have been accentuated, and the organism shaped more +definitely into three segments, namely (1) a preoral segment +or lobe, containing the anterior coelomic cavity; (2) a middle +segment, containing the gut, and the two middle coelomic +cavities; (3) a posterior segment, containing the posterior +coelomic cavity, which, however, owing to the backward prolongation +of the anus, became divided into two—a right and left +posterior coelom. Each of these cavities presumably excreted +waste products to the exterior by a pore. There was probably +a nervous area, with a tuft of cilia, at the anterior end; while, +at all events in forms that remained pelagic, the ciliated nervous +tracts of the rest of the body may be supposed to have become +arranged in bands around the body-segments. Such a form as +this is roughly represented to-day by the <i>Actinotrocha</i> larva +of <i>Phoronis</i>, the importance of which has been brought out +by Masterman. But only slight modifications are required to +produce the <i>Tornaria</i> larva of the Enteropneusta and other +larvae, including the special type that is inferred from the +<i>Dipleurula</i> larval stages of recent forms to have characterized +the ancestor of the Echinoderms. We cannot enter here into +all the details of comparison between these larval forms; amid +much that is hypothetical a few homologies are widely accepted, +and the preceding account will show the kind of relation that the +Echinoderms bear to other animals, including what are now +usually regarded as the ancestors of the Chordata (to which +back-boned animals belong), as well as the nature of the evidence +that their study has been, or may be, made to yield. How the +hypothetical <i>Dipleurula</i> became an Echinoderm, and how the +primitive Echinoderms diverged in structure so as to form the +various classes, are questions to which an answer is attempted +in the following paragraphs:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:460px; height:185px" src="images/img875a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Diagrammatic reconstruction of <i>Dipleurula</i>. The creature +is represented crawling on the sea-floor, but it may equally well have +been a floating animal. The ciliated bands are not drawn.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Confining our attention to that form of Dipleurula (fig. 6) which, +it is supposed, gave rise to the Echinoderma, we infer from embryological +data that its special features were as follow:—The anterior +coelomic cavity was wholly or partially divided, and from each half +a duct led to the exterior, opening at a pore near the middle line of +the back. The middle cavities were smaller, and the ducts from them +came to unite with those from the anterior cavities, and no longer +opened directly to the exterior; whether these cavities were already +specialized as water-sacs cannot be asserted, but they certainly had +become so at a slightly later stage. The posterior cavities were the +largest, but what had become of their original opening to the exterior +is uncertain. The genital products were derived from the lining of +the coelomic cavities, but it would not be safe to say that any +particular region was as yet specialized for generation. The epithelium +of the outer surface was probably ciliated, and a portion +of it in the preoral lobe differentiated as a sense-organ, with longer +cilia and underlying nerve-centre, from which two nerves ran back +below the ventral surface. Into the space between the walls of the +coelom and the outer body-wall, originally filled with jelly, definite +cells now wandered, chiefly derived from the coelomic walls. Some +of these cells produced muscles and connective tissue; others +absorbed and removed waste products, iron salts, calcium carbonate +and the like, and so were ready to be utilized for the deposition of +pigment or of skeletal substance. In some of these respects the +<i>Dipleurula</i> may have diverged from the ancestor of Enteropneusta +and of other animals, but it could not as yet have been recognized as +echinodermal by a zoologist, for it presented none of the structural +peculiarities of the modern adult echinoderm.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:334px" src="images/img875b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Diagrammatic reconstruction of primitive Pelmatozoön, +seen from the side. The plates of the test are not drawn; their +probable appearance may be gathered from fig. 8.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:279px; height:291px" src="images/img876a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—<i>Aristocystis bohemicus</i>; +side-view of the theca. The internal +structure may be gathered from fig. +7.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:228px; height:180px" src="images/img876b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—<i>Fungocystis rarissima</i>, +one of the Diploporita, +in which the thecal plates +bordering the food-grooves are +not yet regularly arranged. +The brachioles are not drawn.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Now ensued the great event that originated the phylum—the +discovery of the sea-floor. This being apprehended by the sensory +anterior end, it was by that end that the <i>Dipleurula</i> attached +itself; not, however, by the pole, since that would have interfered +at once with the sensory organ, but a little to one side, the right +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span> +side being the one chosen for a reason we cannot now fathom; it +may be that fixation was facilitated by the presence of the pore on +that side, and by the utilization of the excretion from it as a cement. +The first result was that which is always seen to follow in such cases—the +passage of the mouth towards the upper surface (fig. 7). +As it passed up along the left side, the gut caught hold of the left +water-sac and pulled it upwards, curving it in the process; this +being attached to the left duct from the anterior body-cavity, this +structure with its water-pore was also pulled up, and the pore came +to lie between mouth and anus. The forward portion of the anterior +coelom shared in the constriction and elongation of the preoral lobe; +but its hinder portion was dragged up along with the water-pore +and formed a canal lying +along the outer wall (the +parietal canal). As the gut +coiled, it pressed inwards the +middle of the left posterior +coelom of the <i>Dipleurula</i>, and +drew the whole towards the +mouth, while the corresponding +cavity on the right was +pressed down by the stomach +towards the fixed end of the +animal and became involved +in the elongation of that +region. These changes, which +may still be traced in the +development of <i>Antedon</i>, resulted +in the primitive Pelmatozoön +(fig. 7), represented in +the rocks by such a genus +as <i>Aritocystis</i> (fig. 8). The +pear-shaped body is encased +in a theca formed by a +number of polygonal plates, +and is attached by its +narrow end. On the broad upper surface are four openings, that +nearest the centre being the mouth, which is slit-like, and that nearest +the periphery being the anus. The two other openings are minute, +and placed between those two; one close to the mouth is almost +certainly the water-pore, while that nearer the anus is regarded as a +genital aperture. Which of the coelomic cavities this last is connected +with is uncertain, for there is considerable doubt as to the origin of +the genital glands in the embryonic development of recent echinoderms. +It seems clear, however, that there was but a single duct and +a single bunch of reproductive cells, as in the holothurians, though +perhaps bifurcate, as in some of those animals. The line between +mouth and anus, along which these openings are situate, corresponds +with the plane of union between the two horns of the curved left +posterior coelom, the united walls of which form the “dorsal mesentery.” +Since this must have, on our theory, enclosed the parietal +canal from the anterior coelom, it is possible that the genital products +were developed from the lining cells of that cavity, and that the +genital pore was nothing but its original pore not yet united with +that from the water-sac. The concrescence of these pores can be +traced in other cystids; but as the genital organs became affected +by radial symmetry the original function of the duct was lost, and +the reproductive elements escaped to the exterior in another way. +<i>Aristocystis</i> may have had ciliated +food-grooves leading to its mouth, +but these have left no traces on the +structure of the test. Traces, however, +are perceptible in genera believed +to be descended from such a simple +type, and the majority may be +grouped under two heads. One group +includes those in which the grooves +wander outwards from the mouth +over the thecal plates, which gradually +become arranged regularly on either +side of the grooves, while further +extensions ascend from the grooves +on small jointed processes called +“brachioles” (fig. 9). In the other +group the grooves do not tend so +much to stretch over the theca as to +be raised away from it on relatively larger brachioles, arising close +around the mouth (fig. 10).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:303px; height:511px" src="images/img876c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—<i>Chirocrinus-alter</i>, one of +the Rhombifera, showing the reduced +number and regular arrangement of the +thecal plates, and the concentration of +the brachioles. (Adapted from Jaekel.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>These two types are, in the main, correlated with two gradual +differentiations in the minute structure of the thecal plates. Originally +the calcareous substance of the plates (stereom) was pierced +by irregular canals, more or less vertical, and containing strands +of the soft tissue (stroma) that deposited the stereom, as well as +spaces filled with fluid. In the former group (fig. 9) these canals +became connected in pairs (diplopores) still perpendicular to the +surface, and this structure, combined with that of the grooves, +characterizes the order—Diploporita. In the latter group (fig. 10) +the canals, that is to say, the stroma-strands, came to lie parallel +to the surface and to cross the sutures between the plates, which +were thus more flexibly and more strongly united: since the canals +crossing each suture naturally occupy a rhombic area, the order is +called Rhombifera. At first the grooves were three, one proceeding +from each end of the mouth-slit, and the third in a direction opposed +to the anus; with reference to the Pelmatozoan structure, the anal +side may be termed posterior, and this groove anterior. Eventually +each lateral groove forked, so that there were five grooves. These +gradually impressed themselves on the theca and influenced the +arrangement of the internal organs: it is fairly safe to assume that +nerves, blood-vessels and branches from the water-sac stretched +out along with these grooves, each system starting from a ring +around the gullet. At last a quinqueradiate symmetry influenced +the plates of the theca, partly through the development of a plate +at the end of each groove (terminal), partly through plates at the +aboral pole of the theca (basals and infrabasals) arising in response +to mechanical pressure, but soon intimately connected with the cords +of an aboral nervous system. Before the latter plates arose, the +stem had developed by the elongation and constriction of the fixed +end of the theca, the gradual regularization of the plates involved, +and their coalescence into rings. The crinoid type was differentiated +by the extension of the food-grooves and associated organs along +radial outgrowths from the theca itself. These constituted the arms +(brachia), and five definite radial plates of the theca were specialized +for their support. These radials may be homologous with the +terminals already mentioned, but this is neither necessary nor certain. +In this development of brachial extensions of the theca the genital +organs were involved, and their ripe products formed at the ends +of the brachia or in the +branches therefrom. The +remains of the original +genital gland within the +theca became the “axial +organ” surrounded by the +“axial sinus” derived from +the anterior coelom, and +this again by structures +derived from the right +posterior coelom, which, +as explained above, had +been depressed to the +aboral pole. These last +structures formed a nervous +sheath around the +axial sinus with its blood-vessels, +and became +divided into five lobes +correlated with the five +basals (the “chambered +organ”) and forming the +aboral nerve-centre. Before +these changes were +complete the Holothurioidea +must have diverged, +by the assumption of a +crawling existence. Thus +in them the mouth and +anus reverted to opposite +poles, and only the torsion +of the gut and coelom, +and the radial extensions +of the nervous, water-vascular +and blood-vascular +systems, testified +to their Pelmatozoan +ancestry. The ciliated +grooves, no longer needed for the collection of food, closed over, +and are still traceable as ciliated canals overlying the radial nerves. +At the same time the thecal plates degenerated into spicules. The +Edrioasteroidea followed a different line from that of the cystids above +mentioned and their descendants. The theca became sessile, and in +its later developments much flattened (fig. 11). Mouth, water-pore +and anus remained as in <i>Aristocystis</i>, but the five ciliated grooves +radiated from the mouth between the thecal plates rather than +over them, and were, as usual, protected by covering-plates. The +important feature was the extension of radial canals from the +water-sac along these grooves, with branches passing between the +flooring-plates of the grooves (fig. 12, A). The resemblance of the +flooring-plates to the ambulacral ossicles of a starfish is so exact +that one can explain it only by supposing similar relations of the +water-canals and their branches (podia). On the thinly plated under +surface of well-preserved specimens of <i>Edrioaster</i> are seen five +interradial swellings (fig. 11, B). These are likely to have been +produced by the ripe genital glands, which may have extruded +their products directly through the membranous integument of the +under side. No other way out for them is apparent, and it is clear +that <i>Edrioaster</i> was not permanently and solidly fixed to the sea-floor.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:482px; height:287px" src="images/img877a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—<i>Edrioaster.</i> A, upper or oral surface of <i>E. Bigsbyi</i>, +with the covering-plates on the anterior and left posterior food-grooves, +but removed from the others, which show only the flooring-plates, +between which are pores; B, under surface of <i>E. Buchianus</i>, +with covering-plates on right posterior and right anterior food-grooves +(left hand in the drawing). The * denotes the position of the anal +interradius.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Now comes a great change, unfortunately difficult to follow +whether in the fossils or in the modern embryos. We suppose +some such form as <i>Edrioaster</i>, which appears to have lived near +the shore, to have been repeatedly overturned by waves. Those +that were able to accommodate themselves to this topsy-turvy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span> +existence, by taking food in directly through the mouth, survived, +and their podia gradually specialized as sucking feet. Such a form +as this, when once its covering-plates had atrophied, would be a +starfish without more ado (fig. 12, B); but the sea-urchins present +a more difficult problem, on which <i>Bothriocidaris</i> sheds no light. +An Upper Silurian echinoid, however, <i>Palaeodiscus</i>, is believed by +W.J. Sollas and W.K. Spencer to have had in its ambulacra an +inner as well as an outer series of plates. If this be correct, the only +change from <i>Edrioaster</i>, as regards the ambulacra, was that in +<i>Palaeodiscus</i> the covering-plates could no longer open, but closed +permanently over the whole groove, while the podia issued through +slits between them. In more typical echinoids the covering-plates +alone remained to form the ordinary ambulacral plates, while the +flooring-plates disappeared, the canals and other organs remaining +as before. In any case we have to admit a closure of the integument +over the ciliated groove (fig. 12, D, <i>e</i>) just as in holothurians, since +this is necessitated by anatomical evidence. The genital organs +in both Asteroidea and Echinoidea would retain the interradial +position they first assumed in <i>Edrioaster</i>; and in Echinoidea their +primitive temporary openings to the exterior were converted into +definite pores, correlated with five interradially placed plates at the +aboral pole. The anus also naturally moved to this superior and +aboral position. In the Echinoidea the water-canals and associated +structures, ending in the terminal plates, stretched right up to these +genital plates; but in the Asteroidea they never reached the aboral +surface, so that the terminals have always been separated from the +aboral pole by a number of plates.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:443px" src="images/img877b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>-Diagrammatic sections across the ambulacra of A, C, +<span class="sc">Pelmatozoa</span>, and B, D, <span class="sc">Eleutherozoa</span>, placed in the same position +for comparison. <i>S</i>, Blood-spaces, of which the homology is still +uncertain.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Analysis of Echinoderm Characters.</i>—Regarding the Echinoderms +as a whole in the light of the foregoing account, we may +give the following analytic summary of the characters that +distinguish them from other coelomate animals:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>They live in salt or brackish water; a primitive bilateral symmetry +is still manifest in the right and left divisions of the coelom; +the middle coelomic cavities are primitively transformed into two +hydrocoels communicating with the exterior indirectly through a +duct or ducts of the anterior coelom; stereom, composed of crystalline +carbonate of lime, is, with few exceptions, deposited by special +amoebocytes in the meshes of a mesodermal stroma, chiefly in the +integument; reproductive cells are derived from the endothelium, +apparently of the anterior coelom; total segmentation of the ovum +produces a coeloblastula and gastrula by invagination; mesenchyme +is formed in the segmentation cavity by migration of cells, chiefly +from the hypoblast. Known Echinoderms show the following +features, imagined to be due to an ancestral pelmatozoic stage:—Increase +in the coelomic cavities of the left side, and atrophy of +those on the right; the dextral coil of the gut, recognizable in all +classes, though often obscured; an incomplete secondary bilateralism +about the plane including the main axis and the water-pore +or its successor, the madreporite, often obscured by one or other of +various tertiary bilateralisms; the change of the hydrocoel into a +circumoral, arcuate or ring canal; development through a free-swimming, +bilaterally symmetrical, ciliated larva, of which in +many cases only a portion is transformed into the adult Echinoderm +(where care of the brood has secondarily arisen, this larva is not +developed). All living, and most extinct, Echinoderms show the +following features, almost certainly due to an ancestral pelmatozoic +stage:—An incomplete radial symmetry, of which five is usually the +dominant number, is superimposed on the secondary bilateralism, +owing to the outgrowth from the mouth region of one unpaired and +two paired ciliated grooves; these have a floor of nervous epithelium, +and are accompanied by subjacent radial canals from the water-ring, +giving off lateral podia and thus forming ambulacra, and by a +perihaemal system of canals apparently growing out from coelomic +cavities. All living Echinoderms have a lacunar, haemal system +of diverse origin; this, the ambulacral system, and the coelomic +cavities, contain a fluid holding albumen in solution and carrying +numerous amoebocytes, which are developed in special lymph-glands +and are capable of wandering through all tissues. The Echinoderms +may be divided into seven classes, whose probable relations are +thus indicated:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:526px; height:134px" src="images/img877c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"></td></tr></table> + +<p>Brief systematic accounts of these classes follow:—</p> + +<p>Grade A. PELMATOZOA.—Echinoderma with the viscera enclosed +in a calcified and plated theca, of which the oral surface is +uppermost, and which is usually attached, either temporarily or +permanently, by the aboral surface. Food brought to the mouth +by a subvective system of ciliated grooves, radiating from the mouth +either between the plates of the theca (endothecal), or over the theca +(epithecal), or along processes from the theca (exothecal: arms, +pinnules, &c.), or, in part, and as a secondary development, below +the theca (hypothecal). Anus usually in the upper or oral half of +the theca, and never aboral. An aborally-placed motor nerve-centre +gives off branches to the stroma connecting the various plates of the +theca and of its brachial, anal and columnar extensions, and thus +co-ordinates the movements of the whole skeleton. The circumoesophageal +water-ring communicates indirectly with the exterior; +the podia, when present, are respiratory, not locomotor, in function.</p> + +<p>Class I. <span class="sc">Cystidea.</span>—Pelmatozoa in which radial polymeric +symmetry of the theca is developed either not at all or not in complete +correlation with the radial symmetry of the ambulacra (such +as obtains in Blastoidea and Crinoidea); in which extensions of +the food-grooves are exothecal or epithecal or both combined, but +neither endothecal nor pierced by podia (as in some Edrioasteroidea) +All Palaeozoic.</p> + +<p>This class shows much greater diversity of organization than any +other, and the classifications proposed by recent writers, such as +E. Haeckel, O. Jaekel and F.A. Bather, start from such different +points of view that no discussion of them can be attempted here. +Following the narrative given above, we recognize a primitive +group—Amphoridea—represented by <i>Aristocystis</i> (fig. 8). From +this are derived the orders Diploporita (fig. 9) and Rhombifera (fig. +10) and the class Edrioasteroidea, all which have already been +described as steps in the evolution of the phylum. But there were +also side-branches leading nowhere, and therefore placed in separate +orders—Aporita and Carpoidea.</p> + +<p>Order 1. <i>Amphoridea.</i>—Radial symmetry has affected neither +food-grooves nor thecal plates; nor, probably, nerves, ambulacral +vessels, nor gonads. Canals or folds when present in the stereom +are irregular. Families: Aristocystidae (fig. 8); Eocystidae.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span></p> + +<p>Order 2. <i>Carpoidea.</i>—Theca compressed in the oro-anal plane +and a bilateral symmetry thus induced, affecting the food-grooves +and, usually, the thecal plates and stem. Food-grooves in part +epithecal and may be continued on one or two exothecal processes. +No pores or folds in the stereom. Families: Anomalocystidae, +Dendrocystidae. These correspond to Jaekel’s Carpoidea Heterostelea; +he also includes, as Eustelea, our Comarocystidae and +Malocystidae.</p> + +<p>Order 3. <i>Rhombifera.</i>—Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves +and, in the more advanced families, the thecal plates; probably +also the nerves and ambulacral vessels, but not the gonads. The +food-grooves are exothecal, <i>i.e.</i> are stretched out from the theca on +jointed skeletal processes (brachioles). These either are close to the +mouth or are removed from it upon a series of ambulacral or sub-ambulacral +plates not derived immediately from thecal plates, or are +separated from the oral centre by hypothecal passages passing +beneath terminal plates. The stereom and stroma become arranged +in folds and strands at right angles to the sutures of the thecal +plates; in higher forms the stereom-folds are in part specialized as +pectini-rhombs. Families: Echinosphaeridae; Comarocystidae; +Macrocystellidae; Tiaracrinidae; Malocystidae; Glyptocystidae, +with sub-famm. Echinoencrininae, Callocystinae, Glyptocystinae, of +which examples are <i>Cheirocrinus</i> (fig. 10) and <i>Cystoblastus</i> from +which Jaekel deduces the blastoids; Caryocrinidae.</p> + +<p>Order 4. <i>Aporita.</i>—Pentamerous symmetry affects the food-grooves +and thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral +vessels, but not the gonads. Food-grooves exothecal and circumoral. +The stereom shows no trace of canals, folds, rhombs or diplopores. +Family: Cryptocrinidae.</p> + +<p>Order 5. <i>Diploporita.</i>—Radial symmetry affects the food-grooves, +and by degrees the thecal plates connected therewith, but not the +interradial thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral +vessels, but not the gonads. The food-grooves are epithecal, <i>i.e.</i> +are extended over the thecal plates themselves without intermediate +flooring; they are also prolonged on exothecal brachioles, which line +the epithecal grooves. The stereom of the thecal plates may be +thrown into folds, but the mesostroma does not so much tend to lie +in strands traversing the sutures, nor are pectini-rhombs or pore-rhombs +developed; diplopores are always present in the mesostereom, +but often restricted to definite tracts or plates, especially +in higher forms. Families: Sphaeronidae; Glyptosphaeridae, <i>e.g.</i> +<i>Fungocystis</i> (fig. 9); Protocrinidae; Mesocystidae; Gomphocystidae.</p> + +<p>The Protocrinidae lead up to <i>Proteroblastus</i>, in which the theca is +ovoid, sometimes prolonged into a stem, the plates differentiated +into (<i>a</i>) smooth, irregular, depressed interambulacrals, (<i>b</i>) transversely +elongate brachioliferous adambulacrals, to which the diplopores, +which lie at right angles to the main food-groove, are confined. +This leads almost without a break to the Protoblastoidea.</p> + +<p>Class II. <span class="sc">Blastoidea.</span>—Pelmatozoa in which five (by atrophy +four) epithecal ciliated grooves, lying on a lancet-shaped plate +(? always), radiate from a central peristome between five interradial +deltoid plates, and are edged by alternating side-plates bearing +brachioles, to which side-branches pass from the grooves. Grooves +and peristome protected by small plates, which can open over the +grooves. The generative organs and coelom probably did not send +extensions along the rays into the brachioles; but apparently nerves +from the aboral centre, after passing through the thecal plates, met +in a circumoral ring, from which branches passed into the plate +under each main food-groove, and thence supplied the brachioles. +The thecal plates, however irregular in some species, always show +defined basals and a distinct plate (“radial”) at the end of each +ambulacrum; they are in all cases so far affected by pentamerous +symmetry that their sutures never cross the ambulacra. All +Palaeozoic.</p> + +<p>Division A. <span class="ls"><i>Protoblastoidea.</i></span>—Blastoidea without interambulacral +groups of hydrospire-folds hanging into the thecal +cavity. Families: Asteroblastidae, Blastoidocrinidae. The former +might be placed with Diploporita, were it not for a greater intimacy +of correlation between ambulacral and thecal structures than is +found in Cystidea as here defined. They form a link between the +Protocrinidae and—</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 140px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:78px; height:77px" src="images/img878.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—A Eublastoid, <i>Pentremites</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Division B. <span class="ls"><i>Eublastoidea.</i></span>—Blastoidea in which the thecal +plates have assumed a definite number and position in 3 circlets, +as follows: 3 basals, 2 large and 1 small; 5 radials, often fork-shaped, +forming a closed circlet; 5 deltoids, interradial +in position, supported on the shoulders or +processes of the radials, and often surrounding the +peristome with their oral ends. The stereom of the +radials and deltoids on each side of the ambulacra is +thrown into folds, running across the radio-deltoid +suture, and hanging down into the thecal cavity as +respiratory organs (hydrospires).</p> + +<p>These are the forms to which the name Blastoidea +is usually restricted. They have been divided into +Regulares and Irregulares, but it seems possible to group them +according to three series or lines of descent, thus:—</p> + +<p>Series <i>a. Codonoblastida.</i>—Families: Codasteridae, Pentremitidae +(fig. 13).</p> + +<p>Series <i>b. Troostoblastida.</i>—Families: Troostocrinidae, Eleutherocrinidae.</p> + +<p>Series <i>c. Granatoblastida.</i>—Families: Nucleocrinidae, Orbitremitidae, +Pentephyllidae, Zygocrinidae.</p> + +<p>Class III. <span class="sc">Crinoidea.</span>—Pelmatozoa in which epithecal extensions +of the food-grooves, ambulacrals, superficial oral nervous system, +blood-vascular and water-vascular systems, coelom and genital +system are continued exothecally upon jointed outgrowths of the +abactinal thecal plates (<i>brachia</i>), carrying with them extensions of +the abactinal nerve-system. The number of these processes is +primitively and normally five, but may become less by atrophy. +The brachia rise from a corresponding number of thecal plates, +“radials (RR).” Below these is always a circlet, or traces of a circlet, +of plates alternating with the radials, <i>i.e.</i> interradial, and called +“basals (BB).” Through all modifications, which are numerous +and vastly divergent, these elements persist. A circlet of radially +situate infrabasals (IBB) may also be present. Below BB or IBB +there follows a stem, which, however, may be atrophied or totally +lost (see fig. 1).</p> + +<p>The classification here adopted is that of F.A. Bather (1899), +which departs from that of Wachsmuth and Springer mainly in the +separation of forms with infrabasals or traces thereof from those in +which basals only are present. These two series also differ from +each other in the relations of the abactinal nerve-system. O. Jaekel +(1894) has divided the crinoids into the orders Cladocrinoidea and +Pentacrinoidea, the former being the Camerata of Wachsmuth and +Springer (Monocyclica Camerata, Adunata and Dicyclica Camerata +of the present classification), and the latter comprising all the rest, +in which the arms are either free or only loosely incorporated in the +dorsal cup. In minor points there is fair agreement between the +American, German and British authors. The families are extinct, +except when the contrary is stated.</p> + +<p>Sub-class I. <i>Monocyclica.</i>—Crinoidea in which the base consists +of BB only, the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ being +interradial; new columnals are introduced at the extreme proximal +end of the stem.</p> + +<p>Order 1. <i>Monocyclica Inadunata.</i>—Monocyclica in which the +dorsal cup is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated anals; +such ambulacrals or interambulacrals as enter the tegmen remain +supra-tegminal and not rigidly united. Families: Hybocrinidae, +Stephanocrinidae, Heterocrinidae, Calceocrinidae, Pisocrinidae, +Zophocrinidae, Haplocrinidae, Allagecrinidae, Symbathocrinidae, +Belemnocrinidae, Plicatocrinidae, Hyocrinidae (recent), Saccocomidae.</p> + +<p>Order 2. <i>Adunata.</i>—Monocyclica with dorsal cup primitively +confined to the patina and an occasional single anal; tegmen solid; +portions of the proximal brachials and their ambulacrals tend to be +rigidly incorporated in the theca. Arms fork once to thrice, and bear +pinnules on each or on every other brachial. BB fused to 3, 2 or 1. +(Eucladocrinus and Acrocrinidae offer peculiar exceptions to this +diagnosis.) Families: Platycrinidae, Hexacrinidae, Acrocrinidae.</p> + +<p>Order 3. <i>Monocyclica Camerata.</i>—Monocyclica in which the first, +and often the succeeding, orders of brachials are incorporated by +interbrachials in the dorsal cup, while the corresponding ambulacrals +are either incorporated in, or pressed below, the tegmen by interambulacrals; +all thecal plates united by suture, somewhat loose in +the earliest forms, but speedily becoming close, and producing a rigid +theca; mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed; arms pinnulate.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Sub-order i. <i>Melocrinoidea.</i>—RR in contact all round; first brachial +usually quadrangular. Families: Glyptocrinidae, Melocrinidae, +Patelliocrinidae, Clonocrinidae, Eucalyptocrinidae, Dolatocrinidae.</p> + +<p>Sub-order ii. <i>Batocrinoidea.</i>—RR separated by a heptagonal anal; +first brachial usually quadrangular. Families: Tanaocrinidae, +Xenocrinidae, Carpocrinidae, Barrandeocrinidae, Coelocrinidae, +Batocrinidae, Periechocrinidae.</p> + +<p>Sub-order iii. <i>Actinocrinoidea.</i>—RR separated by a hexagonal +anal; first brachial usually hexagonal. Families: Actinocrinidae, +Amphoracrinidae.</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-class II. <i>Dicyclica.</i>—Crinoidea in which the base consists of +BB and IBB, the latter being liable to atrophy or fusion with the +proximale, but the aboral prolongations of the chambered organ +are always radial; new columnals may or may not be introduced at +the proximal end of the stem.</p> + +<p>Order 1. <i>Dicyclica Inadunata.</i>—Dicyclica in which the dorsal cup +primitively is confined to the patina and occasional intercalated +anals, and no other plates ever occur between RR (Grade: Distincta); +Br may be incorporated in the cup, with or without iBr, +but never rigidly, and their corresponding ambulacrals remain +supra-tegminal (Grade: Articulata); new columnals are introduced +at the extreme proximal end of the stem.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Sub-order i. <i>Cyathocrinoidea.</i>—Tegmen stout with conspicuous +orals. Families: Carabocrinidae, Palaeocrinidae. Euspirocrinidae, +Sphaerocrinidae, Cyathocrinidae, Petalocrinidae, +Crotalocrinidae, Codiacrinidae, Cupressocrinidae, Gasterocomidae.</p> + +<p>Sub-order ii. <i>Dendrocrinoidea.</i>—Tegmen thin, flexible, with inconspicuous +orals. Families: Dendrocrinidae, Botryocrinidae, +Lophocrinidae, Scaphiocrinidae, Scytalecrinidae, Graphiocrinidae, +Cromyocrinidae, Encrinidae (preceding families are +Distincta; the rest Articulata), Pentacrinidae, including the +recent <i>Isocrinus</i> (fig. 14), Uintacrinidae, Marsupitidae, Bathycrinidae +(recent).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span></p> + +<p>Order 2. <i>Flexibilia.</i>—Dicyclica in which proximal brachials are +incorporated in the dorsal cup, either by their own sides, or by +interbrachials, or by a finely plated skin, but never rigidly; plates +may occur between RR. Tegmen flexible, with distinct ambulacrals +and numerous small interambulacrals; mouth and food-grooves +remain supra-tegminal and open. Top columnal a persistent +proximale, often fusing with IBB, which are frequently atrophied +in the adult.</p> + +<p>All the Palaeozoic representatives have non-pinnulate arms, +while the Mesozoic and later forms have them pinnulate. There are +other points of difference, so that it is not certain whether the latter +really descended from the former. But assuming such a relationship +we arrange them in two grades.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Grade <i>a. Impinnata.</i>—Families: Ichthyocrinidae, Sagenocrinidae, +and Taxocrinidae, perhaps capable of further division.</p> + +<p>Grade <i>b. Pinnata.</i>—Families: Apiocrinidae with the recent <i>Calamocrinus</i>, +Bourgueticrinidae with recent <i>Rhizocrinus</i>, Antedonidae, +Atelecrinidae, Actinometridae, Thaumatocrinidae (these four +recent families include free-moving forms with atrophied stem, +probably derived from different ancestors), Eugeniacrinidae, +Holopodidae (recent), Eudesicrinidae.</p> +</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:649px" src="images/img879a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—A living Pentacrinid, <i>Isocrinus asteria</i>; +the first specimen found, after Guettard’s figure published in 1761.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Order 3. <i>Dicyclica Camerata.</i>—Dicyclica in which the first, and +usually the second, orders of brachials are incorporated in the dorsal +cup by interbrachials, at +first loosely, but afterwards +by close suture. +IBB always the primitive +5. An anal plate +always rests on the +posterior basal; mouth +and tegminal food-grooves +closed; arms +pinnulate. Families: +Reteocrinidae, Dimerocrinidae, +Lampterocrinidae, +Rhodocrinidae, +Cleiocrinidae.</p> + +<p>Class IV. <span class="sc">Edrioasteroidea.</span>—Pelmatozoa +in which the theca is +composed of an indefinite +number of irregular +plates, some of which are +variously differentiated +in different genera; with +no subvective skeletal +appendages, but with +central mouth, from +which there radiate +through the theca five +unbranched ambulacra, +composed of a double +series of alternating +plates (covering-plates), +sometimes supported by +an outer series of larger +alternating plates (side-plates +or flooring-plates). +In some forms at least, +pores between (not +through) the ambulacral +elements, or between +them and the thecal +plates, seem to have +permitted the passage +of extensions from the +perradial water-vessels. +Anus in posterior interradius, +on oral surface, closed by valvular pyramid. Hydropore +(usually, if not always, present) between mouth and anus. Families: +Agelacrinidae, Cyathocystidae, Edrioasteridae, Steganoblastidae. +All Palaeozoic. The structure and importance of <i>Edrioaster</i> have +been discussed above (figs. 11, 12).</p> + +<p>Grade B. ELEUTHEROZOA—Echinoderma in which the theca, +which may be but slightly or not at all calcified, is not attached by +any portion of its surface, but is usually placed with the oral surface +downwards or in the direction of forward locomotion. Food is not +conveyed by a subvective system of ciliated grooves, but is taken in +directly by the mouth. The anus when present is typically aboral, +and approaches the mouth only in a few specialized forms. The +aboral nervous system, if indeed it be present at all, is very slightly +developed. The circumoesophageal water-ring may lose its connexion +with the exterior medium; the podia (absent only in some +exceptional forms) may be locomotor, respiratory or sensory in +function, but usually are locomotor tube-feet.</p> + +<p>The classes of the Eleutherozoa probably arose independently +from different branches of the Pelmatozoan stem. The precise +relation is not clear, but the order in which they are here placed is +believed to be from the more primitive to the more specialized.</p> + +<p>Class I. <span class="sc">Holothurioidea.</span>—Eleutherozoa normally elongate along +the oro-anal axis, which axis and the dorsal hydropore lie in the +sagittal plane of a secondary bilateral symmetry. The calcareous +skeleton, which may be entirely absent, is usually in the form of +minute spicules, sometimes of small irregular plates with no trace +of a calycinal or apical system; to these is added a ring of pieces +radiately arranged round the oesophagus. Ambulacral appendages +take the form of: (1) circumoral tentacles, (2) sucking-feet, (3) +papillae; of these (1) alone is always present. The gonads are not +radiately disposed.</p> + +<p>The comparative anatomy of living forms, combined with the +evolutionary hypothesis sketched above, suggests that the early +holothurians possessed the following characters: subvective grooves +entirely closed; 5 radial canals, proceeding from the water-ring, +gave off branches furnished with ampullae to the podia on each side +of them, the 10 anterior podia being changed into cylindrical tentacles; +the transverse muscles of the body-wall formed a circular +layer, probably interrupted at the radii (though Ludwig believes the +contrary); longitudinal muscles as paired radial bands, without +those special retractors for withdrawing the anterior part of the body +which occur in many recent forms; a hydropore connected with the +water-ring by a canal in the dorsal mesentery; a gonopore behind +the hydropore connected by a single duct with a bunch of genital +pouches on each side of the mesentery; gut dextrally coiled, with a +simple blood-vascular system, and with an enlargement at the anus +for respiration, this eventually producing branched caeca called +“respiratory trees”; skeleton reduced to a ring of 5 radial and +5 interradial plates round the gullet, and small plates, with a hexagonally +meshed network, dispersed through the integument. Such +a form gave rise to descendants differing <i>inter se</i> as regards the +suppression of the radial canals and of the podia, the form of the +tentacles, and the development of respiratory trees. These anatomical +facts are represented in the following classification by +H. Ludwig:—</p> + +<p>Order 1. <i>Actinopoda.</i>—Radial canals supplying tentacles and +podia.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. With respiratory trees.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="3">   (<i>a</i>) With podia <span style="font-size: 4em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">{</span></td> <td class="tcl">Fam. 1, Holothuriidae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fam. 4, Cucumariidae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fam. 5, Molpadiidae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   (<i>b</i>) Without podia</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">B. Without respiratory trees.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   (<i>a</i>) With podia</td> <td class="tcl">Fam. 2, Elpidiidae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   (<i>b</i>) Without podia</td> <td class="tcl">Fam. 3, Pelagothuriidae.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Order 2. <i>Paractinopoda.</i>—Neither radial canals nor podia. +Tentacles supplied from circular canal. Fam. Synaptidae.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:205px; height:458px" src="images/img879b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—An Aspidochirote +Holothurian of the +family <i>Holothuriidae</i>, showing +the mouth surrounded +by tentacles, the anus at +the other end of the body, +and three of the rows of +podia.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is admitted, however, that this scheme does not represent the +probable descent or relationship of the families. Consideration of +the views of Ludwig himself, of H. +Östergren, and especially of R. Perrier, +suggests the following as a more natural +if less obvious arrangement.</p> + +<p>Order 1. <i>Aspidochirota.</i>—Tentacles +more or less peltate; calcareous ring +when present simple and radially symmetrical; +no retractors; stone-canal +often opens to exterior; genital tubes +sometimes restricted to left side in consequence +of altered position of gut (Fig. +15.) Families: Elpidiidae (deep-sea +forms, with sub-famm. Synallactinae, +Deimatinae, Elpidiinae, Psychropotinae), +Holothuriidae (shallow water), +Pelagothuriidae (pelagic).</p> + +<p>Order 2. <i>Dendrochirota.</i>—Tentacles +simple or branched, never peltate; +calcareous ring well developed, often +bilaterally symmetrical; retractor +muscles usually present; stone-canal +opens internally; genital tubes in right +and left tufts.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Sub-order i. <i>Apoda.</i>—No tube-feet or +papillae, but tentacular ampullae +more or less developed. Mostly +burrowers. Families: Synaptidae +(sub-famm. Synaptinae, Chirodotinae, +Myriotrochinae), Molpadiidae.</p> + +<p>Sub-order ii. <i>Eupoda.</i>—Tube-feet +present, but tentacular ampullae +rudimentary or absent. Families: +Cucumariidae (climbers and +crawlers), Rhopalodinidae (burrowers).</p> +</div> + +<p>Class II. <span class="sc">Stelliformia</span> (= <span class="sc">Asteroidea</span> +<i>sensu lato</i>).—Eleutherozoa with +a depressed stellate body composed of a central disk, whence +radiate five or more rays; this radiate symmetry affects all the +systems of organs, including the genital. The radial water-vessels +lie in grooves on the ventral side of flooring-plates (usually called +“ambulacrals”); they and their podia are limited to the oral +surface of the body and their extremities are separated from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span> +apical plates by a stretch of dorsal integument containing skeletal +elements; the opening of the water-vascular system (madreporite) +is not connected with a definite apical plate or system of plates.</p> + +<p>The starfish, brittle-stars and their allies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Starfish</a></span>) have for +the last fifty years usually been divided into two classes—Asteroidea +and Ophiuroidea, each equivalent to the Holothurioidea or Echinoidea. +Recently, however, some authors, <i>e.g.</i> Gregory, have attempted +to show that these classes cannot be distinguished. It is true that +some specialized forms, such as the <i>Brisingidae</i> among starfish, +<i>Astrophiura</i> and <i>Ophioteresis</i> among ophiurans, contravene the usual +diagnoses; but this neither obscures their systematic position, nor +does it alter the fact that since early Palaeozoic times these two +great groups of stellate echinoderms have evolved along separate +lines. If then we place these groups in a single class, it is not on +account of a few anomalous genera, but because the characters set +forth above sharply distinguish them from all other echinoderms, +and because we have good reason to believe that the ophiurans did +not arise independently but have descended from primitive starfish. +For that class Bell’s name Stelliformia is selected since it avoids +both confusion and barbarism.</p> + +<p>Sub-class I. <span class="ls"><i>Asterida.</i></span>—Stelliformia in which the ambulacral +groove always remains open and the podia serve as tube-feet (fig. 12, +B); the rays as a rule pass gradually into the disk, and contain both +genital glands and caecal extensions of the digestive system; an +anus usually present; respiration is by tubular extensions from +the body-cavity (papulae); skeletal appendages, in addition to +small spines, are either small grasping organs (pedicellariae), or +clumped spines (paxillae), or branched spines bearing a membrane.</p> + +<p>No existing classification of the Asterida is satisfactory even for +the recent forms, still less when the older fossils are considered. +A separation of the latter as Palasterida, because of their alternating +ambulacrals, from the recent Euasterida with opposite ambulacrals, +is now discarded and an attempt made to arrange the Palasterida +in divisions originally established for Euasterida. Those divisions +fall under three schemes. C. Viguier has divided the starfish into: +<i>Astéries ambulacraires</i>, with plates of ambulacral origin prominent +in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae stalked, and straight or crossed, +podial pores usually quadriserial; <i>Astéries adambulacraires</i>, with +adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, pedicellariae sessile, +and forcipiform or valvular, podial pores usually biserial. Perrier, +at first laying greater stress on the nature of the pedicellariae and +afterwards on the form of the mouth-skeleton, has gradually perfected +a scheme of five orders: (1) <i>Forcipulata</i>, with pedicellariae stalked, +and straight or crossed; (2) <i>Spinulosa</i>, with pedicellariae sessile and +forcipiform; (3) <i>Velata</i>, with membraniferous spines; (4) <i>Paxillosa</i>, +pedicellariae represented by an ossicle of the test and the spines +covering it, the whole forming a paxilla; (5) <i>Valvata</i> or <i>Granulosa</i>, +with pedicellariae sessile and valvular or salt-cellar shaped. A +more widely accepted scheme is that of W.P. Sladen, who divided +the Euasterida into two orders; (1) <i>Phanerozonia</i>, with marginals +large and highly developed, the supero-marginals and infero-marginals +contiguous, with papulae confined to the dorsal surface, +with ambulacrals well spaced and usually broad, adambulacrals +prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with pedicellariae sessile; (2) +<i>Cryptozonia</i>, with marginals inconspicuous and somewhat atrophied +in the adult, the supero-marginals separated from the infero-marginals +by intercalated plates, with papulae distributed over the +whole body, with ambulacrals crowded and narrow, either ambulacrals +or adambulacrals prominent in the mouth-skeleton, with +pedicellariae stalked or sessile.</p> + +<p>We give here a list of the families separated into Sladen’s +orders and grouped under Perrier’s divisions, extinct families being +marked †.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 335px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:179px" src="images/img880a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Section across the arm-skeleton +of a Phanerozonate Asterid, <i>Astropecten</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Ambulacral plates.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Adambulacral plates.</p> + +<p><i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, Inferior and superior lateral plates.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, Dorsal plates with paxillae. Certain supra-ambulacral plates, which +also exist, are not shown.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>1. <span class="ls"><i>Phanerozonia.</i></span>—<i>Unclassed Famm.</i>, † Palaeasteridae, † Palasterinidae, +† Taeniasteridae, † Aspidosomatidae. <i>Paxillosa</i>, +Luidiidae, Astropectinidae +(fig. 16), Archasteridae restr. +Verrill, Porcellanasteridae, +Chaetasteridae. <i>Valvata</i>, +Benthopectinidae, Goniopectinidae, +Plutonasteridae, +Odontasteridae, Pentagonasteridae, +Antheneidae, Pentacerotidae, +Gymnasteriidae. +<i>Spinulosa</i>, Poraniidae, Asterinidae.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="ls"><i>Cryptozonia.</i></span>—<i>Unclassed +Famm.</i>, † Sturtzasteridae +(= Palaeocomidae +Greg.), † Lepidasteridae, +† Tropidasteridae. <i>Valvata</i>, +Linckiidae restr. Perr. +<i>Spinulosa</i>, Echinasteridae, +Solasteridae (fig. 17), Korethrasteridae. +<i>Velata</i>, † Palasteriscidae, +Pterasteridae, +Pythonasteridae, Myxasteridae. +<i>Forcipulata</i>, Stichasteridae, +Zoroasteridae (fig. 3, D), Heliasteridae, Pedicellasteridae, +Asteriidae, Brisingidae.</p> + +<p>Sub-class II. <span class="ls"><i>Ophiurida.</i></span>—Stelliformia in which the ambulacral +groove, though open in the oldest forms, soon becomes closed, while +the podia cease to serve as tube-feet; the rays as a rule spring +abruptly from the disk and contain neither genital glands nor digestive +caeca; no anus; respiration may be through clefts at the bases +of the rays, but not by papulae; skeletal appendages confined to +spines, usually of simple structure.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:401px" src="images/img880b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—A Cryptozonate Asterid, <i>Solaster papposus</i>, from the +upper or dorsal surface.</td></tr></table> + +<p>There is as yet no satisfactory classification of the Ophiurida +into orders expressing lines of descent; even as regards families, +leading writers are at variance. The following scheme is based on +the attempts of E. Haeckel, F.J. Bell, J.W. Gregory, B. Stürtz, +J.O.E. Perrier, and A.E. Verrill. Extinct families marked †.</p> + +<p>Grade A. <i>Palophiurae.</i>—Ambulacrals not yet forming complete +vertebrae; plates of disk not yet specialized into mouth, radial or +genital shields.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Stage <i>a. Allostichia</i> (= Lysophiurae).—Ambulacrals alternating and +unfused, groove uncovered by ventral arm-plates. Families: +† Protasteridae, † Protophiuridae.</p> + +<p>Stage <i>b. Zygostichia.</i>—Ambulacrals opposite and, except in Ophiurinidae, +fused; ventral arm-plates developed in some. +Families: † Ophiurinidae, † Lapworthuridae, † Furcasteridae, +† Palastropectinidae, † Eoluididae, † Palaeophiomyxidae.</p> +</div> + +<p>Grade B. <i>Colophiurae.</i>—Ambulacral pairs fused to form vertebrae +with definite articular surfaces; mouth, radial and genital shields +developed, though not all need be present in any one form.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:150px; height:204px" src="images/img880c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—A vertebral arm-ossicle (fused ambulacrals) +of a Zygophiuran, <i>Ophiolepis</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>A, Proximal joint-face.</p> + +<p>B, Distal joint-face.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, Ventral groove, where lies the water-vessel, from which +branches pass through the ossicle, emerging as podia at <i>e</i> and <i>e</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>Order 1. <i>Streptophiurae.</i>—Rays simple and capable of coiling, +since the vertebrae articulate by a ball-and-socket joint; arm-plates +incompletely developed. Families: † Onychasteridae, +Ophiohelidae, Ophioscolecidae, Ophiomyxidae, +Hemieuryalidae, Astrophiuridae; unclassified +genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ophioteresis</i>, <i>Ophiosciasma</i>, +<i>Ophiogeron</i>.</p> + +<p>Order 2. <i>Zygophiurae.</i>—Rays simple and prevented +from coiling by processes on the vertebral +joints (fig. 18); dorsal, ventral and lateral arm-plates +present.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Sub-order i. <i>Brachyophiurae.</i>—Spines short, +simple, pointing towards the end of the +arm. Families: Pectinuridae (= Ophiodermatidae), +Ophiolepididae.</p> + +<p>Sub-order ii. <i>Nectophiurae.</i>—Spines may be +variously elaborated and are set more at +right angles to the arm-axis. Families: +Amphiuridae, Ophiacanthidae, Ophiocomidae, +Ophiothrichidae.</p> +</div> + +<p>Order 3. <i>Cladophiurae</i> (= Euryalae). Rays +simple or branched, capable of coiling, since the +vertebrae articulate by surfaces of hour-glass +shape; ventral arm-plates, and often the others, +much reduced; spines reduced or absent. Families: +Euryalidae, Gorgonocephalidae, Astrochelidae, +Astroschemidae, Astronycidae.</p> + +<p>The Silurian genera <i>Eucladia</i> and <i>Euthemon</i> +have the rays greatly reduced and merged in the +disk, so that the ambulacrals are unseen. There +are a few large dorsal, lateral and ventral arm-plates, +and at the angles of the latter emerge +huge podia with a granular or plated skin. +There are five prominent mouth-shields and a +separate madreporite on the ventral surface. These genera attained +the Colophiuran grade in respect of external plating, but it is unlikely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span> +that they or their ancestors had acquired even the Streptophiuran +type of vertebra. Sollas has separated them as an order <i>Ophiocistia</i>.</p> + +<p>Class III. <span class="sc">Echinoidea.</span>—Eleutherozoa with a test of roughly +circular, subpentagonal or elliptical outline, spheroidal, domed or +flattened, of primary pentameric symmetry affecting all systems of +organs except the gut. The radial water-vessels lie within the test +through which their podia pass (fig. 12, D); the ambulacra thus +formed are continuous from the peristome to the apical system of +plates; the hydropore is connected with a definite plate of that +system, and thus marks a secondary bilateral symmetry. An anus is +present either within the apical system (endocyclic, fig. 3, A and B), +or outside it in an interradius (exocyclic, fig. 19, 7), thus initiating +yet another bilateral symmetry. Skeletal appendages are spines +(radioles), pedicellariae, and, in some forms, minute sense-organs +called sphaeridia.</p> + +<p>The echinoids or sea-archins (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sea-Urchin</a></span>) may be grouped +under the following orders, here named in the sequence of their +appearance in the rocks.</p> + +<p>Order 1. <i>Bothriocidaroida.</i>—Ambulacrals simple, each with two +pores vertically superposed, 2 columns to each ambulacrum; interambulacrals +multi-tuberculate, in 1 column, none passing on to +or resorbed by the peristome; mouth central, jaws unknown, no +external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Sole genus +<i>Bothriocidaris</i> (fig. 5), Ordovician.</p> + +<p>Order 2. <i>Melonitoida.</i>—Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores +horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 to 18 columns; interambulacrals granulate +with occasional tubercles, in 3 to 11 columns, not more than one +row passing on to the peristome; mouth central, with jaws, no +external gills or sphaeridia; anus aboral, endocyclic. Families: +Palechinidae (fig. 19, 1), Melonitidae and Lepidesthidae, Silurian to +Carboniferous.</p> + +<p>Order 3. <i>Cystocidaroida.</i>—Ambulacrals simple, each with one or +two pores, which sometimes pass between rather than through the +plates, in 2 columns; interambulacrals, uni- or multi-tuberculate, in +numerous (say 10 or more) columns, none passing on to peristome; +mouth central with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia; position of +anus doubtful, acyclic, <i>i.e.</i> no apical system so far as known. Include +only <i>Echinocystis</i>, <i>Palaeodiscus</i> and (?) <i>Myriastiches</i>, all Upper +Silurian.</p> + +<p>Order 4. <i>Cidaroida.</i>—Ambulacrals simple, each with two pores +horizontally juxtaposed, in 2 columns; interambulacrals unituberculate, +in 2 to 11 columns, some rows may pass on to the peristome; +mouth central, with jaws, no external gills or sphaeridia; +anus aboral, endocyclic. Families: Lepidocentridae and Archaeocidaridae +(fig. 19, 2), Devonian and Carboniferous; Cidaridae (fig. 19, +3, 4). Permian to present; Diplocidaridae and Tiarechinidae, Mesozoic.</p> + +<p>Order 5. <i>Diademoida.</i>—Ambulacrals generally compound, with +two pores obliquely juxtaposed, in 2 columns as in all subsequent +orders; interambulacrals usually with large radioles surrounded by +smaller ones, as in Cidaroida, in 2 columns as in all subsequent +orders, only one plate resorbed; mouth central, with jaws and +external gills, sphaeridia present; anus aboral endocyclic. J.W. +Gregory divides this into four suborders, each representing a +distinct evolutionary series; i. <i>Calycina</i>, Saleniidae (fig. 19, 5) and +Acrosaleniidae; ii. <i>Arbacina</i>, Hemicidaridae and Arbaciidae; iii. +<i>Diademina</i>, Orthopsidae, Diadematidae, Diplopodiidae, Pedinidae, +Cyphosomatidae, and Echinothuridae; iv. <i>Echinina</i>, Temnopleuridae, +Triplechinidae, Strongylocentrotidae and Echinometridae. The +order is Triassic to Recent.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:485px; height:284px" src="images/img881a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Denuded tests of some fossil Echinoids.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1, <i>Palaeechinus</i>; Carboniferous.</p> +<p>2, A plate and radiole of <i>Archaeocidaris</i>;<br />Carboniferous.</p> +<p>3, A radiole of <i>Cidaris</i>; Jurassic.</p> +<p>4, <i>Hemicidaris</i>; Mid. Jurassic.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>5, <i>Salenia</i>; Cretaceous.</p> +<p>6, <i>Dysaster</i>; Jurassic.</p> +<p>7, <i>Enallaster</i>: Cretaceous.</p> +<p>8, <i>Catopygus</i>; Cretaceous.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Order 6. <i>Holectypoida.</i>—Ambulacrals sometimes compound, with +one or two pores to a plate, some dorsal podia begin to assume +respiratory function; interambulacrals multi-tuberculate, none +resorbed; mouth central, with jaws weak or wanting, with external +gills and sphaeridia; anus exocyclic. Families: Pygasteridae, +Discoidiidae, Galeritidae, Conoclypeidae; Jurassic to Recent.</p> + +<p>Order 7. <i>Spatangoida.</i>—Ambulacrals simple, with two pores +juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals bearing +numerous small spines, none resorbed; mouth central or shifted +forwards, with no jaws or external gills, sphaeridia numerous; anus +exocyclic. As the mouth moves forward and the anus downward, +the posterior interambulacrals between them are enlarged and +strengthened so as to form a sternum. The order may therefore be +divided into: (i.) <i>Asternata</i>, Famm. Echinoneidae, Nucleolitidae +and Cassidulidae (fig. 19, 8); (ii.) <i>Sternata</i>, Famm. Collyritidae (fig. +19, 6), Echinocorytidae, Spatangidae (fig. 19, 7), Palaeostomidae, +and Pourtalesiidae; Jurassic to Recent.</p> + +<p>Order 8. <i>Clypeastroida.</i>—Ambulacrals simple or compound, with +two pores juxtaposed, dorsal podia respiratory; interambulacrals +multi-tuberculate, none resorbed; mouth central with flattened +unequal jaws, reduced external gills, and few sphaeridia; anus +exocyclic. Families: Fibulariidae, Laganidae, Scutellidae, Clypeastridae; +Cretaceous to Recent.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:524px" src="images/img881b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The probable relationship of these orders is shown in the annexed +table. Here the Cystocidaroida occupy an isolated position. It is, +however, quite possible that <i>Echinocystis</i> may some day be referred +to the Cidaroida, and <i>Palaeodiscus</i> to the Melonitoida. This would +leave the Echinoid scheme remarkably simple, with the Melonitoida +and Cidaroida as divergent branches from an ancestor like <i>Bothriocidaris</i>; +but while the former branch soon decayed, the latter +continues to flourish at the present day. To take the Echinoidea +now living, and to divide them into Endocyclica and Exocyclica, +Branchiate and Abranchiate, Gnathostomata and Atelostomata, is +easy and convenient; or again to distinguish as Palechinoidea +those pre-Jurassic genera which do not conform to the fixed type of +twenty vertical columns found in the later Euechinoidea, is to +express an interesting fact; but all such divisions obscure the true +relationships, and the corresponding terms should be recognized as +descriptive rather than classificatory.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—In addition to the works referred to at the beginning +of the article, the following deal with the general subject: +Bather, Gregory and Goodrich, “Echinoderma,” in Lankester’s +<i>Treatise on Zoology</i> (London, 1900); F.J. Bell, <i>Catalogue of the +British Echinoderms in the British Museum</i> (London, 1892); P.H. +Carpenter, “Notes on Echinoderm Morphology,” <i>Quart. Journ. +Micr. Sci.</i>, 1878-1887; Y. Delage and E. Hérouard, <i>Traité de +zoologie concrète, iii., Échinodermes</i> (Paris, 1904); A. Lang, <i>Text-Book +of Comparative Anatomy</i>, transl., part ii. (London, 1896); +Ludwig and Hamann, “Echinodermen,” in Bronn’s <i>Klassen und +Ordnungen des Tierreichs</i> (Leipzig, 1889), in progress; M. Neumayr, +<i>Die Stämme des Tierreiches</i> (Wien, 1889); P.B. and C.F. Sarasin, +“Über die Anatomie der Echinothuriden und die Phylogenie der +Echinodermen,” <i>Ergebnisse naturw. Forsch. auf Ceylon</i>, Bd. i Heft 3 +(Wiesbaden, 1888); R. Semon, “Die Homologien innerhalb des +Echinodermenstammes,” <i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> (1889); W.P. Sladen, +“Homologies of the Primary Larval Plates in the Test of Brachiate +Echinoderms,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i>, 1884; K.A. v. Zittel, +<i>Handbuch der ... Paläozoologie</i>, i. pp. 308-560 (München, 1879); +also Grundzüge, translated and revised by C.R. Eastman as <i>Text-Book of Palaeontology</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span> +(New York and London, 1899). The larger +treatises here mentioned contain very full bibliographies, and a +complete analytical index to the annual literature of the Echinoderma +has for many years been published in the <i>Zoological Record</i> +(London).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. A. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Sometimes called “Echinodermata,” a Greek name meaning +“sea-urchin-skins,” which was invented by J.T. Klein (1734) to +denote the tests of the Echini or sea-urchins; its later use for the +animals themselves, or for the whole phylum, was an error in both +history and etymology.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECHINUS<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (Gr. for “hedge-hog” or “sea-urchin”), in architecture, +the convex moulding which supports the abacus of the +Doric column. The term is sometimes given to the <i>ovolo</i> of the +Ionic capital, especially when curved with the egg-and-tongue +enrichment. The origin of this use of the word in architecture, +which comes down from ancient times, is uncertain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECHIUROIDEA<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="echis">ἔχις</span>, adder, and <span class="grk" title="oura">οὐρά</span>, tail), the zoological +name for a small group of marine animals which show +in their larval life-history a certain degree of segmentation, and +are therefore grouped by some authorities as Annelids. Formerly, +together with the Sipunculoidea and Priapuloidea, they made up +the class Gephyrea, but on the ground that they retain in the +adult a large preoral lobe (the proboscis), that they have anal +vesicles, that their anus is terminal, that setae are found, and +finally that they are segmented in the larval stage, they have +been removed from the class, which by the proposed further +separation of the Priapuloidea on account of their unique renal +and reproductive organs, has practically ceased to exist.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:358px; height:502px" src="images/img882a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—A, <i>Bonellia viridis</i>, Rol., ♀; B, <i>B</i>. +<i>fuliginosa</i>. Both natural size. <i>a</i>, grooved +proboscis; <i>b</i>, mouth; <i>c</i>, ventral hooks; <i>d</i>, anus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Echiuroids are animals of moderate size, varying roughly +from one to six or seven centimetres in length, exclusive of +the proboscis. This organ is capable of very considerable extension, +and may attain a length in <i>Bonellia viridis</i> of about a +metre and a half (fig. 1). It is grooved ventrally and ciliated. +At its attachment +to the body the +groove sinks into +the mouth. In +<i>Bonellia</i> the proboscis +is forked at +its free end, but in +the other genera it +is short and unforked. +The body is +somewhat sausage-shaped, +with the +anus at the posterior +extremity, +surrounded in +<i>Echiurus</i> by a single +or double ring of +setae. The skin is +usually wrinkled, +and in <i>B. viridis</i>, +<i>Thalassema lankesteri</i>, +<i>Th. baronii</i>, +<i>Hamingia arctica</i>, +and in the larva +of many species, is +of a lively green +colour. A pair of +curved bristles, +formed in true setal +sacs as in Chaetopoda, +project from the body a short distance behind the +mouth, and are moved by special muscles; they are of use in +helping the animal to move slowly about, and they take a large +share in the burrowing movements (C.B. Wilson, <i>Biol. Bull.</i>, +1900), for some species tunnel in the mud and sand and form more +or less permanent burrows, the walls of which are strengthened +by mucus secreted from the skin. The openings of the burrows +become silted up, leaving, however, a small aperture through +which the proboscis is extruded. This organ carefully searches +the neighbourhood for particles of food. When these are found +the grooved proboscis folds its walls inwards, and the cilia pass +the particles down the tube thus formed to the mouth. Echiuroids +also move by extending the proboscis, which takes hold of +some fixed object, and, then contracting, draws the body forwards. +Recently it has been shown that <i>Echiurus</i> swims freely +at night-time, using for locomotion both the proboscis and the +contraction of the muscles of its body-wall. The motion is +described as “gyratory,” and the anterior end is always carried +foremost. Those species which do not burrow usually conceal +themselves in crevices of the rocks or under stones, or at times in +empty Mollusc or Echinid shells. They are occasionally used by +fishermen for bait.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:435px; height:707px" src="images/img882b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Female <i>Bonellia viridis</i>, Rol. Opened along the +left side.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Proboscis cut short.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Bristle passing through the mouth into the pharynx.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Coiled intestine.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Anal tufts or vesicles.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Ventral nerve cord.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, Ovary borne on ventral vessel running parallel with e.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Position of anus.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Position of external opening of nephridium.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Nephridium—the line points towards, but does not reach, +the internal opening.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:327px; height:703px" src="images/img883.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Adult male, <i>Bonellia viridis</i>, +Rol. The original was 1.5 mm. long. The +nervous system is not shown. (After Selenka.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, Generative pore with spermatozoa coming out.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Anterior blind end of intestine attached +to the parenchymatous tissue by muscular strands.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Green wandering cells containing chlorophyll.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Parenchymatous connective tissue.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Epidermis.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>j</i>, Vas deferens.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Internal opening of vas deferens.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, The left anal vesicle.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Spermatozoa in the body-cavity.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><i>Anatomy</i> (fig. 2).—A thin cuticle covers the epidermis, which +contains mucus-secreting glands. Beneath the epidermis is a layer +of circular muscles, then a layer of longitudinal, and finally in some +cases a layer of oblique muscle-fibres. The inner face of this muscular +skin is lined by a layer of epithelium. The coelomic body-cavity is +spacious. It does not extend into the proboscis, which is a solid +organ traversed by the nervous and vascular rings, but otherwise +largely built up of muscle fibres and connective tissue. Many sense-cells +lie in the epidermis. The ciliated ventral groove of the proboscis +leads at its base into the simple mouth, which gives access to the +thin-walled alimentary canal. This is longer than the body, and to +tuck it away it is looped from side to side. The loops are supported +by strands of connective tissue, which in some species are united so +as to form a dorsal mesentery, whilst traces of a ventral mesentery +are met with anteriorly and posteriorly (H.L. Jameson, <i>Zool. Jahrb. +Anat.</i>, 1899). The alimentary canal is divisible into fore-gut, +mid-gut and hind-gut, and the first-named can be further divided +into pharynx, oesophagus, gizzard and crop, mainly on histological +grounds. The mid-gut is characterized by the presence of a ciliated +groove, from which arises the collateral intestine or siphon, a second +tube which rejoins the alimentary canal lower down. Similar +collateral intestines are familiar in the Echinids and certain Polychaets +(Capitellidae). The rectum receives the openings of a pair of very +characteristic organs, the anal vesicles. Each consists of a branching +tube, the tips of whose twigs terminate in minute ciliated funnels. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span> +The anal vesicles are thought to be excretory; whether this be so or +not, they undoubtedly have some influence on the amount of fluid +found in the coelom. The coelomic fluid contains as a rule both +amoeboid and rounded corpuscles, and, when ripe, the products of +the gonads. A closed system of vessels, usually called the vascular +system, is present. There are, however, no capillaries connected +with this, and it is confined to certain portions of the body. It can +possess few of the functions usually associated with a vascular +system, and its main use is probably to assist in the expansion of the +proboscis. The system consists of the following parts:—A dorsal +vessel applied to the alimentary canal is continued anteriorly into +a median vessel, which traverses the proboscis to its tip. Here the +vessel splits, and each +half returns along the +lateral edge of the proboscis; +they reunite +around the oesophagus +and form a single ventral +vessel, which lies above +the ventral nerve-cord. +The ventral vessel, +which ends solidly behind, +sends off a branch +which forms a ring +around the intestine +and opens into the +posterior extremity of +the dorsal vessel. In +<i>Echiurus</i> and <i>Thalassema</i> +the same vessel +forms a ring round a +stout muscle, which connects +the bases of the +two ventral setae before +passing to surround the +intestine. Amoeboid +corpuscles float in the +fluid contents. The +nephridia vary in number +from a single one in +<i>Bonellia</i> to three pairs +in many species of +<i>Thalassema</i>. Their external +openings are ventral, +and on the same +level as the ciliated +funnel-shaped nephrostomes. +The posterior +wall of the organ is +produced into a long +blind sac, which is lined +by secretory cells. The +nervous system is a single +ventral cord, which +starts from a circumoesophageal +ring. This +ring is involved in the +growth of the proboscis, +and is drawn out with +it. Thus there is a +lateral nerve near each +edge of the proboscis +which unites with its +fellow dorsally above +the oesophagus at the +tip of the proboscis, +and ventrally beneath +the oesophagus, where +they fuse to form the +ventral nerve-cord. +There are no specialized +ganglia, but ganglion-cells +are scattered uniformly +along the nerve-cords. +The ventral cord +gives off rings, which +run into the skin at regular intervals. The reproductive cells +are modified coelomic cells, which lie on the ventral vessel. +They escape into the coelomic fluid and there develop. When +mature they leave the body through the nephridia. <i>Bonellia</i> and +<i>Hamingia</i> are very interesting examples of sexual dimorphism. +The female has the normal Echiuroid structure, but the male is +reduced to a minute, flattened, planarian-like organism, which +passes its life usually in the company of two or three others in a +special recess of the nephridia of the female. Its structure may be +gathered by a reference to fig. 3.</p> + +<p><i>Larva.</i>—The larva is a typical trochosphere, which, although of a +temporary character, shows a distinct segmentation of the mesoblast, +of the nervous system, and of the ciliated and pigmented structures +in the skin, resembling that of Chaetopods. The preoral lobe persists +as the proboscis. The sexes of the larvae are not determinable in the +early stages, but when a certain growth has been reached in Bonellia +the males seek the proboscis of the adult females, and passing into +the mouth undergo there the transformation into the planarian-like +parasite which is the fully-formed male. This now creeps along the +body of the female and takes up its home in her nephridia.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Classification and Distribution.</i>—The Echiuroidea consists of +the following genera:—(1) <i>Bonellia</i> (Rol.), with four species, +widely distributed, but inhabiting the temperate and warmer +waters of each hemisphere. (2) <i>Echiurus</i> (Guérin-Méneville), +with four species. This genus reaches from the Arctic waters +of both hemispheres into the cooler temperate regions. (3) +<i>Hamingia</i> (Kor. and Dan.), with one species, which has been +taken in the Arctic Sea and the Hardanger Fjord. (4) <i>Saccosoma</i> +(Kor. and Dan.) was described from a single specimen dredged +about half-way between Iceland and Norway. (5) <i>Thalassema</i> +(Gaertner, Lamarck), with twenty-one species. This genus is +in the main a denizen of the warmer waters of the globe. Sixteen +species are found only in tropical or subtropical seas, three +species are Mediterranean (<i>Mt. Stat. Neapel</i>, 1899), whilst three +species are from the eastern Atlantic, where the temperature +is modified by the Gulf Stream (Shipley; see Willey’s <i>Zoological +Results</i>, part iii. 1899; <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1898, 1899; and +<i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, ii.). The following are found in the +British area:—<i>E. pallasii</i> (Guérin-Méneville), <i>Th. neptuni</i> +(Gaertner), and <i>Th. lankesteri</i> (Herdman, <i>Q.J.M.S.</i>, 1898).</p> + +<p><i>Affinities.</i>—The occurrence of trochosphere larva and the +temporary segmentation of the body have led to the belief that +the Echiuroids are more nearly allied to the Annelids than +to any other phylum. This view is strengthened by certain +anatomical and histological resemblances to the genus <i>Sternaspis</i>, +which in one species, <i>S. spinosa</i>, is said to carry a bifid proboscis +resembling that of the Echiuroids.</p> +<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECHMIADZIN,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Itsmiadsin</span>, a monastery of Russian +Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, the seat of the +Catholicus or primate of the Armenian church. It is situated +close to the village of Vagarshapat, in the plain of the Aras, +2840 ft. above the sea, 12 m. W. of Erivan and 40 N. of Mount +Ararat. The monastery comprises a pretty extensive complex +of buildings, and is surrounded by brick walls 30 ft. high, which +with their loopholes and towers present the appearance of a +fortress. Its architectural character has been considerably +impaired by additions and alterations in modern Russian +style. On the western side of the quadrangle is the residence +of the primate, on the south the refectory (1730-1735), on the +east the lodgings for the monks, and on the north the cells. The +cathedral is a small but fine cruciform building with a Byzantine +cupola at the intersection. Its foundation is ascribed to St +Gregory the Illuminator in 302. Of special interest is the porch, +built of red porphyry, and profusely adorned with sculptured +designs somewhat of a Gothic character. The interior is +decorated with Persian frescoes of flowers, birds and scroll-work. +It is here that the Catholicus confers episcopal consecration by +the sacred hand (relic) of St Gregory; and here every seven +years he prepares with great solemnity the holy oil which is to +be used throughout the churches of the Armenian communion. +Outside of the main entrance are the alabaster tombs of the +primates Alexander I. (1714), Alexander II. (1755), Daniel (1806) +and Narses (1857), and a white marble monument, erected by +the English East India Company to mark the resting-place of +Sir John Macdonald Kinneir, who died at Tabriz in 1830, while +on an embassy to the Persian court. The library of the monastery +is a rich storehouse of Armenian literature (see Brosset’s +<i>Catalogue de la bibliothèque d’Etchmiadzin</i>, St Petersburg, 1840). +Among the more remarkable manuscripts are a copy of the +gospels dating from the 10th or 11th century, and three bibles +of the 13th century. A type-foundry, a printing-press and a +bookbinding establishment are maintained by the monks who +supply religious and educational works for their co-religionists.</p> + +<p>To the east of the monastery is a modern college and seminary. +Half a mile to the east stand the churches of St Ripsime and +St Gaiana, two of the early martyrs of Armenian Christianity; +the latter is the burial-place of those primates who are not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span> +deemed worthy of interment beside the cathedral. From a +distance the three churches form a fairly striking group, and +accordingly the Turkish name for Echmiadzin is Uch-Kilissi, +or the Three Churches. The town of Vagarshapat dates from +the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; it takes its name from King Vagarsh +(Vologaeses), who in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> chose it as his residence +and surrounded it with walls. Here the apostle of Armenia, +St Gregory the Illuminator, erected a church in 309 and with +it the primacy was associated. In 344 Vagarshapat ceased to +be the Armenian capital, and in the 5th century the patriarchal +seat was removed to Dvin, and then to Ani. The monastery +was founded by Narses II., who ruled 524-533; and a restoration +was effected in 618. The present name of the monastery +was adopted instead of Vagarshapat in the 10th century. At +length in 1441 the primate George brought back the see to the +original site.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECHO<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="êchô">ἠχώ</span>), in Greek mythology, one of the Oreades or +mountain nymphs, the personification of the acoustical phenomenon +known by this name. She was beloved by Pan, but +rejected his advances. Thereupon the angry god drove the +shepherds of the district mad; they tore Echo in pieces, and +scattered her limbs broadcast, which still retained the gift of +song (Longus iii. 23). According to Ovid (<i>Metam.</i> iii. 356-401), +Echo by her incessant talking having prevented Juno from +surprising Jupiter with the Nymphs, Juno changed her into an +“echo”—a being who could not speak till she was spoken to, +and then could only repeat the last words of the speaker. While +in this condition she fell in love with Narcissus, and in grief at +her unrequited affection wasted away until nothing remained +but her voice and bones, which were changed into rocks. The +legends of Echo are of late, probably Alexandrian, origin, and +she is first personified in Euripides.</p> + +<p>In acoustics an “echo” is a return of sound from a reflecting +surface (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>: <i>Reflection</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Wieseler, <i>Die Nymphe Echo</i> (1854), and <i>Narkissos</i> (1856); +P. Decharme in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECHTERNACH,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg, +on the Sûre, close to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1905) 3484. +It is the oldest town in Luxemburg, and was the centre from +which the English Saint Willibrord converted the people to +Christianity in the 7th century. There are the Benedictine +abbey, the hospital almshouse, which is said to be the oldest +hospital in Europe except the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris, and the +church of St Peter and St Paul. The Benedictine abbey has been +greatly shorn of its original dimensions, but the basilica remains +a fair monument of Romano-Gothic art. The church of St Peter +and St Paul stands on an isolated mound, and for the ascent +sixty steps have been built in the side, and these are well worn +by the tread of numerous pilgrims who come in each succeeding +year. The interior of the church is curious more than imposing, +and is specially noteworthy only for its gloom. Under the altar, +and below a white marble effigy of himself, lies Saint Willibrord.</p> + +<p>Echternach is famous, however, in particular for the dancing +procession held on Whit-Tuesday every year. The origin of this +festival is uncertain, but it dates at least from the 13th century +and was probably instituted during <span class="correction" title="amended from on">an</span> outbreak of cholera. +Nowadays it is an occasion of pilgrimage, among Germans and +Belgians as well as Luxemburgers, for all sick persons, but +especially for the epileptic and those suffering from St Vitus’ +dance. The ceremony is interesting, and the Roman Catholic +Church lends all its ritual to make it more imposing. The +archbishop of Trier attends to represent Germany, and the +bishop of Luxemburg figures for the grand duchy. There is a +religious ceremony on the Prussian side of the bridge over the +Sûre, and when it is over the congregation cross into the duchy +to join the procession, partly religious, partly popular, through +the streets of the town. The religious procession, carrying +cross and banners and attended by three hundred singers, comes +first, chanting St Willibrord’s hymn. Next comes a band of +miscellaneous instruments playing as a rule the old German air +“Adam had seven sons,” and then follow the dancers. Many +of these are young and full of life and health and dance for +amusement, but many others are old or feeble and dance in the +hope of recovery or of escaping from some trouble, but on all +alike the conditions of the dance are incumbent. There are +three steps forward and two back; five steps are thus taken to +make one in advance. This becomes especially trying at the +flight of steps mounting to the little church where the procession +ends in front of the shrine of the great saint. There are sixty +steps, but it takes three hundred to reach the top for the final +time. It is said that those who fall from age or weariness have +to be dragged out of the way by onlookers or they would be +trampled to death by the succeeding waves of dancers. The +procession, although it covers a distance of less than a mile, is +said to take as much as five hours in its accomplishment. In +olden days the abbey was the goal of the procession, and King +William I. of the Netherlands—great-grandfather of Queen +Wilhelmina—changed the day from Tuesday to Sunday so that +a working day should not be lost. This reform did not answer, +and the ancient order was restored. Some critics see in the +dancing procession of Echternach merely the survival of the +spring dance of the heathen races, but at any rate it invests the +little town with an interest and importance that would otherwise +be lacking.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECHUCA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a borough of the county of Rodney, Victoria, +Australia, 156 m. by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4075. +It is situated on the river Murray, across which it is connected +by bridge with Moama, on the New South Wales side, whence +a railway runs to Deniliquin. The town is the terminus of the +Murray River railway and the entrepot of the overland intercolonial +trade; it has large wool stores, saw-mills, coach factories, +breweries and soap-works. The rich agricultural district is +noted for its vineyards.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ÉCIJA,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville; +on the Cadiz-Cordova railway and the left bank of the river +Genil. Pop. (1900) 24,372. The river, thus far navigable, is +here crossed by a fine old bridge; and the antiquity of the town +betrays itself by the irregularity of its arrangement, by its walls +and gateways, and by its numerous inscriptions and other relics. +Its chief buildings include no fewer than twenty convents, mostly +secularized. The principal square is surrounded with pillared +porticoes, and has a fountain in the centre; and along the river +bank there runs a fine promenade, planted with poplar trees +and adorned with statues. From an early period the shoemakers +of Écija have been in high repute throughout Spain; woollen +cloth, flannel, linen and silks are also manufactured. The +vicinity is fertile in corn and wine, and cotton is cultivated. +The heat is so great that the spot has acquired the sobriquet +of <i>El Sarten</i>, or the “Frying-pan” of Andalusia. Écija, called +<i>Estija</i> by the Arabs, is the ancient <i>Astigis</i>, which was raised to the +rank of a Roman colony with the title of <i>Augusta Firma</i>. According +to Pliny and Pomponius Mela, who both wrote in the 1st +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. If local +tradition may be believed, it was visited by the apostle Paul, +who converted his hostess Santa Xantippa; and, according to +one version of his life, it was the see of the famous St Crispin +(<i>q.v.</i>) in the 3rd century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECK, JOHANN MAIER<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1486-1543), German theologian, +the most indefatigable and important opponent of Martin +Luther, was born on the 13th of November 1486 at Eck in +Swabia, from which place he derived his additional surname, +which he himself, after 1505, always modified into Eckius or +Eccius, <i>i.e.</i> “of Eck.” His father, Michael Maier, was a peasant +and bailiff (<i>Amtmann</i>) of the village. The boy’s education was +undertaken by his uncle Martin Maier, parish priest at Rothenburg +on the Neckar, who sent him at the age of twelve to the +university of Heidelberg, and subsequently to those of Tübingen, +Cologne and Freiburg in the Breisgau. His academic career +was so rapidly successful that at the age of twenty-four he +was already doctor and professor of theology. During this +period he was distinguished for his opposition to the scholastic +philosophy; and, though he did not go to all lengths with the +“modernists” (<i>Moderni</i>) of his day, his first work—<i>Logices +exercitamenta</i> (1507)—was distinctly on their side. This attitude +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span> +brought him into conflict with the senate of the university, +a conflict which Eck’s masterful temper, increased by an extreme +self-confidence perhaps natural in one so young and so successful, +did not serve to allay. His position in Freiburg becoming +intolerable, he accepted in 1510 an invitation from the duke +of Bavaria to fill the theological chair at Ingolstadt, where he +was destined for thirty years to exercise a profound influence +as teacher and vice-chancellor (<i>Prokanzler</i>).</p> + +<p>A ducal commission, appointed to find a means for ending the +interminable strife between the rival academic parties, entrusted +Eck with the preparation of fresh commentaries on Aristotle and +Petrus Hispanus. He had a marvellous capacity for work, and +between 1516 and 1520, in addition to all his other duties, he +published commentaries on the <i>Summulae</i> of Petrus Hispanus, +and on the <i>Dialectics</i>, <i>Physics</i> and lesser scientific works of +Aristotle, which became the text-books of the university. +During these early years Eck was still reckoned among the +“modernists,” and his commentaries are inspired with much +of the scientific spirit of the New Learning. His aim, however, +had been to find a <i>via media</i> between the old and new; his +temper was essentially conservative, his imagination held captive +by the splendid traditions of the medieval church, and he had +no sympathy with the revolutionary attitude of the Reformers. +Personal ambition, too, a desire to be conspicuous in the great +world of affairs, may have helped to throw him into public +opposition to Luther. He had won laurels in a public disputation +at Augsburg in 1514, when he had defended the lawfulness +of putting out capital at interest; again at Bologna in 1515, on +the same subject and on the question of predestination; and these +triumphs had been repeated at Vienna in 1516. By these +successes he gained the patronage of the Fuggers, and found +himself fairly launched as the recognized apologist of the established +order in church and state. Distinguished humanists might +sneer at him as “a garrulous sophist”; but from this time his +ambition was not only to be the greatest scientific authority +in Germany but also the champion of the papacy and of the +traditional church order. The first-fruits of this new resolve +were a quite gratuitous attack on his old friend, the distinguished +humanist and jurist Ulrich Zasius (1461-1536), for a doctrine +proclaimed ten years before, and a simultaneous assault on +Erasmus’s <i>Annotationes in Novum Testamentum</i>.</p> + +<p>It is, however, by his controversy with Luther and the other +reformers that Eck is best remembered. Luther, who had some +personal acquaintance with Eck, sent him in 1517 copies of his +celebrated 95 theses. Eck made no public reply; but in 1518 +he circulated, privately at first, his <i>Obelisci</i>, in which Luther +was branded as a Hussite. Luther entrusted his defence to +Carlstadt, who, besides answering the insinuations of Eck in 400 +distinct theses, declared his readiness to meet him in a public +disputation. The challenge was accepted, and the disputation +took place at Leipzig in June and July 1519. On June 27 and +28 and on July 1 and 3 Eck disputed with Carlstadt on the +subjects of grace, free will and good works, ably defending +the Roman Semipelagian standpoint. From July 4 to 14 he +engaged with Luther on the absolute supremacy of the papacy, +purgatory, penance, &c., showing a brilliant display of patristic +and conciliar learning against the reformer’s appeals to Scripture. +The arbitrators declined to give a verdict, but the general impression +was that victory rested with Eck. He did, indeed, succeed +in making Luther admit that there was some truth in the Hussite +opinions and declare himself against the pope, but this success +only embittered his animosity against his opponents, and from +that time his whole efforts were devoted to Luther’s overthrow. +He induced the universities of Cologne and Louvain to condemn +the reformer’s writings, but failed to enlist the German princes, +and in January 1520 went to Rome to obtain strict regulations +against those whom he called “Lutherans.” He was created a +protonotary apostolic, and in July returned to Germany, as +papal nuncio, with the celebrated bull <i>Exsurge Domine</i> directed +against Luther’s writings. He now believed himself in a position +to crush not only the Lutheran heretics, but also his humanist +critics. The effect of the publication of the bull, however, +soon undeceived him. Bishops, universities and humanists were +at one in denunciation of the outrage; and as for the attitude +of the people, Eck was glad to escape from Saxony with a whole +skin. In his wrath he appealed to force, and his <i>Epistola ad +Carolum V.</i> (February 18, 1521) called on the emperor to take +measures against Luther, a demand soon to be responded to in +the edict of Worms. In 1521 and 1522 Eck was again in Rome, +reporting on the results of his nunciature. On his return from +his second visit he was the prime mover in the promulgation +of the Bavarian religious edict of 1522, which practically +established the senate of the university of Ingolstadt as a +tribunal of the Inquisition, and led to years of persecution. In +return for this action of the duke, who had at first been opposed +to the policy of repression, Eck obtained for him, during a third +visit to Rome in 1523, valuable ecclesiastical concessions. Meanwhile +he continued unabated in his zeal against the reformers, +publishing eight considerable works between 1522 and 1526.</p> + +<p>His controversial ardour was, indeed, somewhat damped by +Luther’s refusal to answer his arguments, and with a view to +earning fresh laurels he turned his attention to Switzerland +and the Zwinglians. At Baden-in-Aargau in May and June 1526 +a public disputation on the doctrine of transubstantiation was +held, in which Eck and Thomas Murner were pitted against +Johann Oecolampadius. Though Eck claimed the victory in +argument, the only result was to strengthen the Swiss in their +memorial view of the Lord’s Supper, and so to diverge them +further from Luther. At the Augsburg diet in 1530 Eck was +charged by Charles V. to draw up, in concert with twenty other +theologians, the refutation of the Protestant Confession, but +was obliged to rewrite it five times before it suited the emperor. +He was at the colloquy of Worms in 1540 and at the diet of +Regensburg (Ratisbon) in 1541. At Worms he showed some +signs of a willingness to compromise, but at Regensburg his old +violence reasserted itself in opposing all efforts at reconciliation +and persuading the Catholic princes to reject the Interim.</p> + +<p>Eck died at Ingolstadt on the 10th of February 1543, fighting +to the last and worn out before his time. He was undoubtedly +the most conspicuous champion produced by the old religion in +the age of the Reformation, but his great gifts were marred by +greater faults. His vast learning was the result of a powerful +memory and unwearied industry, and he lacked the creative +imagination necessary to mould this material into new forms. +He was a powerful debater, but his victories were those of a +dialectician rather than a convincing reasoner, and in him depth +of insight and conviction were ill replaced by the controversial +violence characteristic of the age. Moreover, even after discounting +the bias of his enemies, there is evidence to prove that +his championship of the Church was not the outcome of his zeal +for Christianity; for he was notoriously drunken, unchaste, +avaricious and almost insanely ambitious. His chief work was +<i>De primatu Petri</i> (1519); his <i>Enchiridion locorum communium +adversus Lutherum</i> ran through 46 editions between 1525 and +1576. In 1530-1535 he published a collection of his writings +against Luther, <i>Opera contra Ludderum</i>, in 4 vols.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Wiedemann, <i>Dr Johann Eck</i> (Regensburg, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1792-1854), German poet +and author, best known owing to his association with Goethe, +was born at Winsen in Hanover on the 21st of September 1792, of +humble parentage, and was brought up in penury and privation. +After serving as a volunteer in the War of Liberation (1813-1814), +he obtained a secretarial appointment under the war +department at Hanover. In 1817, although twenty-five years of +age, he was enabled to attend the gymnasium of Hanover and +afterwards the university of Göttingen, which, however, after one +year’s residence as a student of law, he left in 1822. His acquaintance +with Goethe began in the following year, when he sent to him +the manuscript of his <i>Beiträge zur Poesie</i> (1823). Soon afterwards +he went to Weimar, where he supported himself as a private +tutor. For several years he also instructed the son of the grand +duke. In 1830 he travelled in Italy with Goethe’s son. In 1838 +he was given the title of grand-ducal councillor and appointed +librarian to the grand-duchess. Eckermann is chiefly remembered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span> +for his important contributions to the knowledge of the great poet +contained in his <i>Conversations with Goethe</i> (1836-1848). To +Eckermann Goethe entrusted the publication of his <i>Nachgelassene +Schriften</i> (posthumous works) (1832-1833). He was also joint-editor +with Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer (1774-1845) of the complete +edition of Goethe’s works in 40 vols. (1839-1840). He died +at Weimar on the 3rd of December 1854.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Eckermann’s <i>Gespräche mit Goethe</i> (vols. i. and ii. 1836; vol. iii. +1848; 7th ed., Leipzig, 1899; best edition by L. Geiger, Leipzig, +1902) have been translated into almost all the European languages, +not excepting Turkish. (English translations by Margaret Fuller, +Boston, 1839, and John Oxenford, London, 1850.) Besides this +work and the <i>Beiträge zur Poesie</i>, Eckermann published a volume of +poems (<i>Gedichte</i>, 1838), which are of little value. See <i>J.P. Eckermanns +Nachlass</i>, herausgegeben von F. Tewes, vol. i. (1905), and an +article by R.M. Meyer in the <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i>, xvii. (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECKERNFÖRDE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Schleswig-Holstein, on a fjord of the Baltic, 20 m. by rail N.W. +from Kiel. Pop. (1905) 7088. It has a good harbour, fishing, +trade in agricultural products, and manufactures of tobacco, salt +and iron goods. There are a technical school of building and +a Protestant teachers’ seminary. Eckernförde is mentioned as +far back as 1197. It was taken by Christian IV. of Denmark in +1628 from the Imperial troops. In 1813 the Danes were defeated +here, while in 1849 the harbour was the scene of the blowing up +of the Danish line-of-battle ship “Christian VIII.” and of the +surrender of the frigate “Gefion” after an engagement with the +German shore batteries. The place lost most of its trade after +the union with Germany in 1864, and suffered severely from +a sea-flood in 1872. In the immediate neighbourhood is the +village of Borby, much frequented for sea-bathing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECKERSBERG, KRISTOFFER<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1783-1853), Danish painter, +was born in south Jutland. He became successively the pupil of +Nikolaj Abildgaard and of J.L. David. From 1810 to 1813 he +lived at Paris under the direction of the latter, and then proceeded, +as an independent artist, to Rome, where he worked until +1816 in close fellowship with Thorwaldsen. His paintings from +this period—“The Spartan Boy,” “Bacchus and Ariadne” and +“Ulysses”—testify to the influence of the great sculptor over the +art of Eckersberg. Returning to Copenhagen, he found himself +easily able to take the first place among the Danish painters of +his time, and his portraits especially were in extreme popularity. +It is claimed for Eckersberg by the native critics that “he created +a Danish colour,” that is to say, he was the first painter who threw +off conventional tones and the pseudo-classical landscape, in +exchange for the clear atmosphere and natural outlines of Danish +scenery. But Denmark has no heroic landscape, and Eckersberg +in losing the golden commonplaces scarcely succeeds in being +delightful. His landscapes, however, are pure and true, while in +his figure-pieces he is almost invariably conventional and old-fashioned. +He was president of the Danish Academy of Fine Arts +in Charlottenburg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECKHART,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> JOHANNES<a name="ar12a" id="ar12a"></a></span> [”Meister Eckhart”] (?1260-?1327), +German philosopher, the first of the great speculative mystics. +Extremely little is known of his life; the date and place of his +birth are equally uncertain. According to some accounts, he was +a native of Strassburg, with which he was afterwards closely +connected; according to others, he was born in Saxony, or at +Hochheim near Gotha. Trithemius, one of the best authorities, +speaks of him merely as “Teutonicus.” 1260 has frequently +been given as the date of his birth; it was in all probability some +years earlier, for we know that he was advanced in age at the time +of his death, about 1327. He appears to have entered the +Dominican order, and to have acted for some time as professor at +one of the colleges in Paris. His reputation for learning was very +high, and in 1302 he was summoned to Rome by Boniface VIII., +to assist in the controversy then being carried on with Philip of +France. From Boniface he received the degree of doctor. In +1304 he became provincial of his order for Saxony, and in 1307 +was vicar-general for Bohemia. In both provinces he was +distinguished for his practical reforms and for his power in preaching. +Towards 1325 we hear of him as preaching with great effect +at Cologne, where he gathered round him a numerous band of +followers. Before this time, and in all probability at Strassburg, +where he appears to have been for some years, he had come in +contact with the Beghards (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beguines</a></span>) and Brethren of the +Free Spirit, whose fundamental notions he may, indeed, be said to +have systematized and expounded in the highest form to which +they could attain. In 1327 the opponents of the Beghards laid +hold of certain propositions contained in Eckhart’s works, and he +was summoned before the Inquisition at Cologne. The history of +this accusation is by no means clear. Eckhart appears, however, +to have made a conditional recantation—that is, he professed to +disavow whatever in his writings could be shown to be erroneous. +Further appeal, perhaps at his own request, was made to +Pope John XXII., and in 1329 a bill was published condemning +certain propositions extracted from Eckhart’s works. But before +its publication Eckhart was dead. The exact date of his death +is unknown. Of his writings, several of which are enumerated by +Trithemius, there remain only the sermons and a few tractates. +Till the middle of the 19th century the majority of these were +attributed to Johann Tauler, and it is only from Pfeiffer’s careful +edition (<i>Deutsche Mystiker d. XIV. Jahrhunderts</i>, vol. ii., 1857) +that one has been able to gather a true idea of Eckhart’s activity. +From his works it is evident that he was deeply learned in all the +philosophy of the time. He was a thorough Aristotelian, but by +preference appears to have been drawn towards the mystical +writings of the Neoplatonists and the pseudo-Dionysius. His +style is unsystematic, brief and abounding in symbolical expression. +His manner of thinking is clear, calm and logical, and +he has certainly given the most complete exposition of what may +be called Christian pantheism.</p> + +<p>Eckhart has been called the first of the speculative mystics. +In his theories the element of mystical speculation for the first +time comes to the front as all-important. By its means the church +doctrines are made intelligible to the many, and from it the church +dogmas receive their true significance. It was but natural that +he should diverge more and more widely from the traditional +doctrine, so that at length the relation between his teaching and +that of the church appeared to be one of opposition rather than of +reconciliation. Eckhart is in truth the first who attempted with +perfect freedom and logical consistency to give a speculative +basis to religious doctrines. The two most important points in +his, as in all mystical theories, are first, his doctrine of the divine +nature, and second, his explanation of the relation between God +and human thought. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mysticism</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the German writings of Eckhart see F. Pfeiffer, <i>Deutsche +Mystiker</i>, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1857), and F. Jostes, <i>Meister Eckhart und +seine Jünger</i> (Freiburg, 1895); for the Latin works, H. Denifle in +<i>Archiv f. Litt- und Kirchengeschichte d. Mittelalters</i>, ii. (1886), pp. +417-652, and v. (1889), pp. 349-364; German translations by +G. Landauer, <i>Meister Eckarts mystische Schriften</i> (Berlin, 1903), +and Büttner (Leipzig, 1903 foll.). See also A. Lasson, <i>Meister +Eckhart der Mystiker</i> (1868); H.L. Martensen, <i>Meister Eckhart</i> +(1842); J. Bach, <i>Meister Eckhart der Vater der deutschen Speculation</i> +(1864); C. Ullmann, <i>Reformatoren vor der Reformation</i> (1842); +W. Preger, <i>Geschichte d. deutschen Mystik</i>, i. (1874); and “Ein neuer +Traktat M. Eckharts und d. Grundzüge der Eckhartischen Theosophie” +in <i>Zeitschr. f. hist. Phil.</i> (1864), pp. 163 foll.; A. Bullinger, +<i>Das Christenthum im Lichte der deutschen Philos.</i> (Dillingen, 1895); +H. Delacroix, <i>Le Mysticisme spéculatif en Allemagne au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> +(Paris, 1900); E. Kramm, <i>Meister Eckhart im Lichte der Denifleschen +Funde</i> (Bonn, 1889); R. Langenberg, <i>Über die Verhältnisse Meister +Eckharts zur niederdeutschen Mystik</i> (Göttingen, 1896); W. Schopff, +<i>Meister Eckhart</i> (Leipzig, 1889); A. Jundt, <i>Hist. du panthéisme +populaire au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1875); art. in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(S.M. Deutsch); R.M. Jones, <i>Mystical Religion</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name is variously spelled: Eckehart, Eckart, Eckhard.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1737-1798), Austrian numismatist, +was born at Enzersfeld in lower Austria, 1737. His +father was farm-steward to Count Zinzendorf, and he received +his early education at the Jesuits’ College, Vienna, where at the +age of fourteen he was admitted into the order. He devoted +himself to antiquities and numismatics. After being engaged as +professor of poetry and rhetoric, first at Steyer and afterwards at +Vienna, he was appointed in 1772 keeper of the cabinet of coins +at the Jesuits’ College, and in the same year he went to Italy for +the purpose of personal inspection and study of antiquities and +coins. At Florence he was employed to arrange the collection of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span> +the grand duke of Tuscany; and the first-fruits of his study of this +and other collections appeared in his <i>Numi veteres anecdoti</i>, published +in 1775. On the dissolution of the order of Jesuits in 1773, +Eckhel was appointed by the empress Maria Theresa professor of +antiquities and numismatics at the university of Vienna, and this +post he held for twenty-four years. He was in the following year +made keeper of the imperial cabinet of coins, and in 1779 appeared +his <i>Catalogus Vindobonensis numorum veterum</i>. Eckhel’s great +work is the <i>Doctrina numorum veterum</i>, in 8 vols., the first of +which was published in 1792, and the last in 1798. The author’s +rich learning, comprehensive grasp of his subject, admirable order +and precision of statement in this masterpiece drew from Heyne +enthusiastic praise, and the acknowledgment that Eckhel, as the +Coryphaeus of numismatists, had, out of the mass of previously +loose and confused facts, constituted a true science. A volume of +<i>Addenda</i>, prepared by Steinbüchel from Eckhel’s papers after his +death, was published in 1826. Among his other works are—<i>Choix +de pierres gravées du Cabinet Impérial des Antiques</i> (1788), +a useful school-book on coins entitled <i>Kurzgefasste Anfangsgrunde +zur alten Numismatik</i> (1787), of which a French version enlarged +by Jacob appeared in 1825, &c. Eckhel died at Vienna on the +16th of May 1798.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECKMÜHL,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Eggmühl</span>, a village of Germany, in the kingdom +of Bavaria, on the Grosse Laaber, 13 m. S.E. of Regensburg by +the railway to Munich. It is famous as the scene of a battle +fought here on the 22nd of April 1809, between the French, +Bavarians and Wurttembergers under Napoleon, and the +Austrians under the Archduke Charles, which resulted in the +defeat of the latter. Napoleon, in recognition of Marshal +Davout’s great share in the victory, conferred on him the title +of prince of Eckmuhl. For an account of this action and those +of Abensberg and Landshut see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECLECTICISM<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="eklegô">ἐκλέγω</span>, I select), a term used specially +in philosophy and theology for a composite system of thought +made up of views borrowed from various other systems. Where +the characteristic doctrines of a philosophy are not thus merely +adopted, but are the modified products of a blending of the +systems from which it takes its rise, the philosophy is not +properly eclectic. Eclecticism always tends to spring up after +a period of vigorous constructive speculation, especially in the +later stages of a controversy between thinkers of pre-eminent +ability. Their respective followers, and more especially cultured +laymen, lacking the capacity for original work, seeking for a +solution in some kind of compromise, and possibly failing to +grasp the essentials of the controversy, take refuge in a combination +of those elements in the opposing systems which seem +to afford a sound practical theory. Since these combinations +have often been as illogical as facile, “eclecticism” has generally +acquired a somewhat contemptuous significance. At the same +time, the essence of eclecticism is the refusal to follow blindly +one set of formulae and conventions, coupled with a determination +to recognize and select from all sources those elements which +are good or true in the abstract, or in practical affairs most useful +<i>ad hoc</i>. Theoretically, therefore, eclecticism is a perfectly sound +method, and the contemptuous significance which the word +has acquired is due partly to the fact that many eclectics have +been intellectual trimmers, sceptics or dilettanti, and partly to +mere partisanship. On the other hand, eclecticism in the sphere +of abstract thought is open to this main objection that, in so +far as every philosophic system is, at least in theory, an integral +whole, the combination of principles from hostile theories must +result in an incoherent patchwork. Thus it might be argued +that there can be no logical combination of elements from +Christian ethics, with its divine sanction, and purely intuitional +or evolutionary ethical theories, where the sanction is essentially +different in quality. It is in practical affairs that the eclectic +or undogmatic spirit is most valuable, and also least dangerous.</p> + +<p>In the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a remarkable tendency toward +eclecticism began to manifest itself. The longing to arrive at +the one explanation of all things, which had inspired the older +philosophers, became less earnest; the belief, indeed, that any +such explanation was attainable began to fail. Thus men came +to adopt from all systems the doctrines which best pleased them. +In Panaetius we find one of the earliest examples of the modification +of Stoicism by the eclectic spirit; about the same time +the same spirit displayed itself among the Peripatetics. In +Rome philosophy never became more than a secondary pursuit; +naturally, therefore, the Roman thinkers were for the most part +eclectic. Of this tendency Cicero is the most striking illustration—his +philosophical works consisting of an aggregation, with +little or no blending, of doctrines borrowed from Stoicism, Peripateticism, +and the scepticism of the Middle Academy.</p> + +<p>In the last stage of Greek philosophy the eclectic spirit produced +remarkable results outside the philosophies of those +properly called eclectics. Thinkers chose their doctrines from +many sources—from the venerated teaching of Aristotle and +Plato, from that of the Pythagoreans and of the Stoics, from +the old Greek mythology, and from the Jewish and other Oriental +systems. Yet it must be observed that Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, +and the other systems which are grouped under the name +Alexandrian, were not truly eclectic, consisting, as they did, +not of a mere syncretism of Greek and Oriental thought, but of a +mutual modification of the two. It is true that several of the +Neoplatonists professed to accept all the teaching both of Plato +and of Aristotle, whereas, in fact, they arbitrarily interpreted +Aristotle so as to make him agree with Plato, and Plato so as to +make his teachings consistent with the Oriental doctrines which +they had adopted, in the same manner as the schoolmen +attempted to reconcile Aristotle with the doctrines of the +church. Among the early Christians, Clement of Alexandria, +Origen and Synesius were eclectics in philosophy.</p> + +<p>The eclectics of modern philosophy are too numerous to name. +Of Italian philosophers the eclectics form a large proportion. +Among the German we may mention Wolf and his followers, +as well as Mendelssohn, J.A. Eberhard, Ernst Platner, and to +some extent Schelling, whom, however, it would be incorrect +to describe as merely an eclectic. In the first place, his speculations +were largely original; and in the second place, it is not so +much that his views of any time were borrowed from a number +of philosophers, as that his thinking was influenced first by one +philosopher, then by another.</p> + +<p>In the 19th century the term “eclectic” came to be applied +specially to a number of French philosophers who differed +considerably from one another. Of these the earliest were Pierre +Paul Royer-Collard, who was mainly a follower of Thomas Reid, +and Maine de Biran; but the name is still more appropriately +given to the school of which the most distinguished members are +Victor Cousin, Théodore Jouffroy, J.P. Damiron, Barthélemy +St Hilaire, C.F.M. de Rémusat, Adolphe Garnier and +Ravaisson-Mollien. Cousin, whose views varied considerably +at different periods of his life, not only adopted freely what +pleased him in the doctrines of Pierre Laromiguière, Royer-Collard +and Maine de Biran, of Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and +of the ancient philosophies, but expressly maintained that the +eclectic is the only method now open to the philosopher, whose +function thus resolves itself into critical selection and nothing +more. “Each system,” he asserted, “is not false, but incomplete, +and in reuniting all incomplete systems, we should have a complete +philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness.” +This assumes that every philosophical truth is already contained +somewhere in the existing systems. If, however, as it would +surely be rash to deny, there still remains philosophical truth +undiscovered, but discoverable by human intelligence, it is +evident that eclecticism is not the only philosophy. Eclecticism +gained great popularity, and, partly owing to Cousin’s position +as minister of public instruction, became the authorized system +in the chief seats of learning in France, where it has given a most +remarkable impulse to the study of the history of philosophy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECLIPSE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="ekleipsis">ἔκλειψις</span>, falling out of place, failing), the +complete or partial obscuration of one heavenly body by the +shadow of another, or of the disk of the sun by the interposition +of the moon; then called an eclipse of the sun. +Eclipses are of three classes: those of the sun, as just defined; +those of the moon, produced by its passage through the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span> +shadow of the earth, and those of the satellites of other planets, +produced by their passage through the shadow of their primary. +Jupiter (<i>q.v.</i>) is the only planet of whose satellites the eclipses +can be observed, unless under very rare circumstances.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:830px; height:94px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img888a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt1">The geometrical conditions of an eclipse of the sun or moon are +shown in fig. 1, which represents the earth E as casting its shadow +towards C, and the moon M between the earth and sun as throwing +its shadow towards some part of the earth and eclipsing the sun. +The dark conical regions are those within which the sun is entirely +hidden from sight. This portion of the shadow is called the +<i>umbra</i>. Around the umbra is an enveloping shaded cone with its +vertices directly towards the sun. To an observer within this +region the sun is partly hidden from view. As the apparent path +of the moon may pass to the north or south of the line joining the +earth and sun, the axis of its shadow may pass to the north or +south of the earth, and not meet it at all. An eclipse of the sun +is called <i>central</i> when the shadow axis strikes any part of the +earth; partial when only the penumbra falls upon the earth. +It is evident that an eclipse can be seen as central only at those +points of the earth’s surface over which the axis of the shadow +passes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:622px; height:79px" src="images/img888b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:622px; height:76px" src="images/img888c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>A central eclipse is <i>total</i> when the umbra actually reaches the +earth; <i>annular</i> when it does not. These two cases are shown in +figs. 2 and 3. In the first of these the sun is entirely hidden +within the region uu′. In fig. 3 within the region aa’ the +apparent diameter of the sun is slightly greater than that of the +moon, and at the moment of greatest eclipse a narrow ring of +sunlight is seen surrounding the dark body of the moon.</p> + +<p>We shall treat the subject in the following sections:—</p> + +<p>I. Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun and conclusions derived +from their observation.</p> + +<p>II. Eclipses of the Moon.</p> + +<p>III. The Laws and Cycles of recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun +and Moon.</p> + +<p>IV. Chronological list of remarkable eclipses of the Sun, past +and future, to the end of the 20th century.</p> + +<p>V. Description of the methods of computing eclipses.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Phenomena of Eclipses of the Sun.</i></p> + +<p>While an eclipse of the sun, whether partial, annular or total, +is in progress, no striking phenomena are to be noted until, in the +case of total eclipses, the moment of the total phase approaches. +It will, however, be noticed that as the moon advances on the +solar disk the sharply defined and ragged edge of the moon’s +disk contrasts strongly with the soft and uniform outline of the +sun’s limb. As the total phase approaches, the phenomenon +known as <i>shadow bands</i> may sometimes be seen. These consist +of seeming vague and rapidly moving wave-like alternations of +light and shade flitting over any white surface illuminated by the +sun’s rays immediately before and after the total phase. They +are probably due to a flickering of the light from the thin crescent, +produced by the undulations of the air, in the same way that the +twinkling of the stars is produced. The rapid progressive motion +sometimes assigned to them may be regarded as the natural +result of an optical illusion. A few seconds before the commencement +of the total phase the red light of the chromosphere becomes +visible, and will be seen most distinctly as continuations of the +solar crescent at its two ends. Owing to the inequalities of the +lunar surface, the diminution of the solar crescent does not go on +with perfect uniformity, but, just before the last moment, what +remains of it is generally broken up into separate portions of light, +which, magnified and diffused by the irradiation of the telescope, +present the phenomenon +long celebrated under the +name of “Baily’s beads.” +These were so called +because minutely and +vividly described by +Francis Baily as he observed them during the annular eclipse +of May 15, 1836, when he compared them to a string of +bright beads, irregular in size and distance from each other. +The disappearance of the last bead is commonly taken as the +beginning of totality. An arc of the chromosphere will then +be visible for a few seconds at and on each side of the point of +disappearance, the length and duration of which will depend on +the apparent diameter of the moon as compared with that of the +sun, being greater in length and longer seen as the excess of +diameter of the moon is less. The red prominences may now +generally be seen here and there around the whole disk of the +moon, while the effulgence of soft light called the corona surrounds +it on all sides. Before the invention of the spectroscope, observers +of total eclipses could do little more than describe in detail the +varying phenomena presented by the prominences and the +corona. Drawings of the latter showed it to have the appearance +of rays surrounding the dark disk of the moon, quite similar to the +glory depicted by the old painters around the +head of a saint. The discrepancies between the +outlines as thus pictured, not only at different +times, but by different observers at the same time +and place, are such as to show that little reliance +can be placed on the details represented by hand +drawings.</p> + +<p>During the eclipse of July 8, 1842, the shadow of +the moon passed from Perpignan, France, through +Milan and Vienna, over Russia and Central Asia, to +the Pacific Ocean. Very detailed physical observations +were made, but none which need be specially mentioned +in the present connexion.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of July 28, 1851, was total in Scandinavia and +Russia. It was observed in the former region by many astronomers, +among them Sir George B. Airy and W.R. Dawes. It +was specially noteworthy for the first attempt to photograph +such a phenomenon. A daguerreotype clearly showing the +protuberances was taken by Berkowski at the Observatory of +Königsberg. An attempt by G.A. Majocchi to daguerreotype +the corona was a failure. Photographs of the eclipse of July 18, +1860, were taken by Padre Angelo Secchi and Warren De La Rue, +which showed the prominences well, and proved that they were +progressively obscured by the edge of the advancing moon. It +was thus shown that they were solar appendages, and did not +belong to the moon, as had sometimes been supposed. The corona +was barely visible on De La Rue’s plates, but those of Secchi +showed it, with its rifts and the bases of the tall coronal wings, to +about 15’ from the sun’s limb. The sketches taken at this +eclipse proved that the corona extended in some regions 1° from +the sun’s limb. As the sensitiveness of photographic plates has +increased, they have gradually been wholly relied upon for +information respecting the corona, so that at the present time +naked-eye descriptions are regarded as of little or no scientific +value. Owing to the great contrast between the brilliancy of the +coronal light at its base and its increasing faintness as it extends +farther from the sun, no one photograph will bring out all the +corona. An exposure of one or two seconds is ample to show the +details of inner corona to the best advantage, while longer exposures +give greater extent of the brighter portions. The most +extended streamers are very little brighter than the sky, and must +be photographed with long exposures.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span></p> + +<p>The first application of the spectroscope to the phenomenon +was made during the total solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, +by P.J.C. Janssen and other observers in India. By them was +made the capital discovery that the red solar prominences give +a spectrum of bright lines, and are therefore immense masses +of incandescent gases, chiefly hydrogen and the vapours of calcium +and helium. Janssen also found that this bright-line spectrum +could be followed after the eclipse was over, and, in fact, could +be observed at any time when the air was sufficiently transparent. +By one of those remarkable coincidences which frequently occur +in the history of science, this last discovery was made independently +by Sir Norman Lockyer in England before the news of +Janssen’s success had reached him. It was afterwards found +that, by giving great dispersing power to the spectroscope, the +prominences could be observed in a wide slit, in their true form. +At this eclipse the spectrum of the corona was also observed, +and was supposed to be continuous, while polariscopic observation +by Lieutenant Campbell showed it polarized in planes +passing through the sun’s centre. The conclusion from these +two observations was that the light was composed, at least in +great part, of reflected sunlight.</p> + +<p>At the total eclipse of August 7, 1869, it was independently +found by Professors C.A. Young of Princeton and W. Harkness +of Washington that the continuous spectrum of the corona was +crossed by a bright line in the green, which was long supposed +to be coincident with 1474 of Kirchhoff’s scale. This coincidence +is, however, now found not to be real, and the line cannot be +identified with that of any terrestrial substance. The name +“coronium” has therefore been given to the supposed gas +which forms it. It is now known that 1474 is a double line, +one component of which is produced by iron, while the other +is of unknown origin. The wave-length of the principal component +is 5317, while that of the coronal line was found at the +eclipses of 1896 and 1898 to be 5303.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of December 28, 1870, passed over the south-western +corner of Spain, Gibraltar, Oran and Sicily. It is +memorable for the discovery by Young of the “reversing layer” +of the solar atmosphere. This term is now applied to a shallow +stratum resting immediately upon the photosphere, the absorption +of which produces the principal dark lines of the solar +spectrum, but which, being incandescent, gives a spectrum of +bright lines by its own light when the light of the sun is cut off. +This layer is much thinner than the chromosphere, and may +be considered to form the base of the latter. Owing to its thinness, +the phenomenon of the reversed bright lines is almost +instantaneous in its nature, and can be observed for a period +exceeding one or two seconds only near the edge of the shadow-path, +where the moon advances but little beyond the solar limb. +Near the central line it is little more than a flash, thus giving rise +to the term “flash-spectrum.” Young also at this eclipse saw +bright hydrogen lines when his spectroscope was directed to +the centre of the dark disk of the moon. This can only be attributed +to the reflection of the light of the prominences and +chromosphere from the atmosphere between us and the moon. +The coronal light as observed in the spectroscope may thus be +regarded as a mixture of true coronal light with chromospheric +light reflected from the air, and it is therefore probable that the +H and K (calcium) lines of the coronal spectrum are not true +coronal lines, but chromospheric.</p> + +<p>At the eclipse of December 12, 1871, visible in India and +Australia, Janssen observed, as he supposed, some of the dark +lines of the solar spectrum in the continuous spectrum of the +corona, especially D, <i>b</i> and G. This would show that an important +part of the coronal light is due to reflected sunshine. +This feature of the spectrum, however, is doubtful in the most +recent photographs under the best conditions. At this eclipse +the remarkable observation was also made by Colonel John +Herschel and Colonel J.F. Tennant that the characteristic line +of the coronal spectrum is as bright in the dark rifts of the corona +as elsewhere. This would show that the gas coronium does not +form the streamers of the corona, but is spherical in form and +distributed uniformly about the sun. Photographs were also +taken on wet plates by a party in Java and by the parties of +Lord Lindsay (at Baikul, India) and of Colonel Tennant (at +Dodabetta). The Baikul and Dodabetta photographs were of +small size (moon’s diameter = <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> in.), but of excellent definition. +A searching study was made of them by A. C Ranyard and +W.H. Wesley (<i>Memoirs R.A.S.</i> vol. xli., 1879), and for the first +time a satisfactory representation of the corona was obtained. +The drawings in the volume quoted show its polar rays, wings, +interlacing filaments and rifts as they are now known to be, as +well as the forms and details of the prominences.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of April 16, 1874, was observed in South Africa +by E.J. Stone, H.M. astronomer at the Cape, who traced the +coronal line about 30’ (430,000 m.) from the sun’s limb. The +visual corona was seen to extend in places some 90′ from the +limb.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of April 6, 1875, was observed in Siam by Sir +J. Norman Lockyer and Professor Arthur Schuster. Their +photographs showed the calcium and hydrogen lines in the +prominence spectrum.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of July 29, 1878, was observed by many astronomers +in the United States along a line extending from Wyoming to +Texas. A number of the stations were at high altitudes (up to +14,000 ft.), and the sky was generally very clear. The visible +corona extended on both sides of the sun along the ecliptic for +immense distances—at least twelve lunar diameters, about eleven +million miles. Photographs taken by the parties of Professors +A. Hall and W. Harkness gave the details of the inner corona +and of the polar rays, showing the filamentous character of the +corona, especially at its base in the polar regions. A photograph +taken by the party of Professor E.S. Holden showed the outer +corona to a distance of 50′ from the moon’s limb. The bright-line +spectrum of the corona was excessively faint and, as the solar +activity (measured by sun-spot frequency) was near a minimum, +it was concluded that the brilliancy of the coronium line varied +in the sun-spot period, a conclusion which subsequent eclipse +observations seem to have verified. It is not yet certain that +the other coronal spectrum lines vary in the same way.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of May 17, 1882, was observed in Egypt. On the +photographs of the corona the image of a bright comet was found, +the first instance of the sort. (A faint comet was found on the +plates of the Lick Observatory eclipse expedition to Chile in +1893.) The slitless spectroscope showed the green line (coronium) +and D<span class="su">3</span> (helium) in the coronal spectrum.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of May 6, 1883, was observed from a small coral +atoll in the South Pacific Ocean by parties from America, England, +France, Austria and Italy. A thorough search was made by +Holden (with a 6 in. telescope) for an intra-Mercurial planet, +without success, during an unusually long totality (5 m. 23 s.). +J. Palisa also searched for such a planet. Janssen again reported +the presence of dark lines in the coronal spectrum. “White” +prominences were seen by P. Tacchini.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of August 29, 1886, was observed in the West +Indies. The English photographs of the corona, taken with a +slitless spectroscope, show the hydrogen lines as well as K and f. +Tacchini devoted his attention to the spectra of the prominences, +and showed that their upper portions contained no hydrogen +lines, but only the H and K lines of calcium. He also observed a +very extensive “white” prominence. It was shown on the photographs +of the corona, but could not be seen in the Hα line with +the spectroscope. It has been suggested by Professor G.E. Hale +that the colour of a “white” prominence may be due to the fact +that the H and K lines (calcium) are of their normal intensity, +while the less refrangible prominence lines are, from some unknown +cause, comparatively faint. It is known that the intensity +of such lines does, in fact, vary, though it is not yet certain that +the “white” prominences are produced in this way. The subject +is one demanding further observation. High prominences are +generally “white” at their summits, “red” at their bases. +The Harvard College Observatory photographs show the corona +out to 90′ from the moon’s limb, though no detail is visible +beyond 60′. W.H. Pickering made a series of photographic +photometric measures of the corona, some of which are given +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span> +below, together with results deduced by Holden from the eclipses +of January and December 1889:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">August<br />1886.</td> <td class="tccm allb">January<br />1889.</td> <td class="tccm allb">December<br />1889.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Intrinsic actinic brilliancy of the brightest parts of the corona</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.031</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.079</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.029</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">    Do. of the polar rays</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.053</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.016</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">    Do. of the sky near the sun</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0007</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0050</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0009</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ratio of intrinsic brilliancy of the brightest parts of the corona<br />   to that of the sky (actinic)</td> <td class="tclb rb">44 to 1</td> <td class="tclb rb">16 to 1</td> <td class="tclb rb">32 to 1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Magnitude of the faintest star shown on the eclipse negatives</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">2.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The results in the first and third columns are derived from plates +taken in a very humid climate, and are not very different.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1">The eclipse of August 19, 1887, was total in Japan and Russia, +but cloudy weather prevented successful observations except in +Siberia and eastern Russia.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of January 1, 1889, was observed in California and +Nevada by many American astronomers. The photographs of +the corona, especially those by Charoppin and E.E. Barnard, +show a wealth of detail. Those of Barnard, of the Lick Observatory +party, were studied by Holden, and exhibited the fact +that rays, like the “polar-rays,” extended all round the sun, +instead of being confined to the polar regions only. The outer +corona was registered out to 100′ from the moon’s limb on +Charoppin’s negatives, to 130′ on those of Lowden and Ireland. +On other plates the outline of the moon is visible projected on the +corona before totality began. The spectrum of the corona showed +few bright lines besides those of coronium and hydrogen.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of December 22, 1889, was observed in Cayenne, +S. America, by a party from the Lick Observatory under rather +unfavourable conditions. Expeditions sent to Africa were baffled +by cloudy weather. Father Stephen Joseph Perry observed at +Salute Islands, French Guiana, and obtained some photographs +of value. The effort cost him his life, for he died of malarial fever +five days after the eclipse.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of April 16, 1893, was observed by British and +French parties in Africa and Brazil, and by Professor J.M. +Schaeberle of the Lick Observatory in Chile. The Chile photographs +of the corona were taken with a lens of 40 ft. focus, and are +extremely fine. They show a faint comet near the sun. No great +extensions to the corona were shown on any of the negatives, or +seen visually, though they were specially looked for by British +parties. The neighbourhood of the sun was carefully examined +by G. Bigourdan without finding any planet. The spectrum of +the corona was the usual one. The following lines were photographed +in slitless spectroscopes, and undoubtedly belong to the +corona: W. L. 3987; 4086; 4217; 4231; 4240; 4280; 4486; +5303 (the last number is the wave-length of the green coronium +line). All of these have been seen in slit spectroscopes also. It is +possible that two lines observed by Young in 1869, namely, W. L. +(Ångstrom) 5450 and 5570, should be added to the list of undoubted +coronal lines. It is not likely that helium or hydrogen +or calcium vapour forms part of the corona. The wave-lengths +of some 700 lines belonging to the chromosphere and prominences +were determined by the British parties.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of August 9, 1896, was total in Norway, Novaya +Zemlya and Japan. The day was very unfavourable as to +weather, but good photographs of the corona were obtained by +Russian parties in Siberia and Lapland. Shackelton, in Novaya +Zemlya, with a prismatic camera obtained a photograph of the +reversing-layer at the beginning of totality. This photograph +completely confirms Young’s discovery, and shows the prominent +Fraunhofer lines bright, the bright lines of the chromosphere +spectrum being especially conspicuous.</p> + +<p>At the solar eclipse of January 22, 1898, the shadow of the +moon traversed India from the western coast to the Himalaya. +The duration of totality was about 2 m. The eclipse was very +fully observed, more than 100 negatives of the corona being +secured. The equatorial extension of the visible corona was short +and faint, and the invisible (spectroscopic) corona was also very +faint. The spectrum of the reversing-layer was successfully +photographed; one set of negatives shows the polarization of one +of the longest streamers of the corona, and proves the presence of +dust particles reflecting solar light. The bright-line spectrum of +hydrogen in the chromosphere was followed to the thirtieth point +of the series, and the wave-lengths were shown to agree closely +with Balmer’s formula (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spectroscopy</a></span>). The wave-length of +coronium was found to be 5303 (not 5317 as previously supposed), +and the brightness of the corona was measured. E.W. Maunder +made the curious observation of coronal matter enveloping a +prominence in the form of a hood.</p> + +<p>Observations of the eclipse of May 28, 1900, were favoured in a +remarkable degree by the absence of clouds. The photographs of +the corona obtained by W.W. Campbell extended four diameters +of the sun on the west side. The sun’s edge was photographed +with an objective-prism spectrograph composed of two 60° +prisms in front of a telescope of 2 in. aperture and 60 in. focus. +A fine photograph, 6 in. long, of the bright- and dark-line spectra +of the sun’s edge at the end of totality was thus obtained. It +shows 600 bright lines sharply in focus besides the dark-line +spectrum, to which the bright lines gave way as the sun reappeared. +The coronal material radiating the green light was +found to be markedly heaped up in the sun-spot regions. No +dark lines were found in the spectrum of the inner corona. G.E. +Hale and E.B. Frost also photographed the combined bright- +and dark-line spectra of the solar cusps at the instants before and +after totality. On one photograph showing no dark lines 70 +bright lines could be measured between 4070 and 4340. On +another were 70 bright lines between H<i>b</i> and H<i>s</i>. On a third +were 266 bright lines between 4026 and 4381, and some dark +lines. These lines show a marked dissimilarity from the solar +spectrum.</p> +<div class="author">(S. N.)</div> + +<p>The eclipse of May 18, 1901, was observable in Mauritius with +3½ minutes of totality, and in Sumatra with 6½ minutes. Unfortunately +there was cloudy weather in Sumatra, which at some +stations prevented observations entirely and at others neutralized +the advantages promised by the long duration of totality. Thus +spectroscopic observations for the detection of motion of the +corona, for which the long totality gave a special opportunity, +failed owing to cloud; and the search for intra-Mercurial planets +had only a negative result, though stars down to magnitude 8.8 +were photographed on the plates. But though no particular step +in advance was taken, successful records of the eclipse were +obtained, which will enable comparison to be made with other +eclipses and will contribute their share to the discussion of the +whole series. These include photographs of the corona, showing +that it was of the sun-spot minimum type, and available for +measures of its brightness; photographs of the spectra of the +chromosphere and corona which are of the same general character +as those obtained at previous eclipses; photographs showing the +polarization of the corona, available for quantitative measures of +polarization at different points. Photographs of the spectrum +of the outer corona taken by the Lick Observatory party show a +strong Fraunhofer dark-line spectrum, consistent with the view +that the light is reflected sunlight. At Mauritius there was no +cloud, but the definition was poor. Successful photographs of +the corona were obtained for comparison with those taken in +Sumatra one and a half hours later, but nothing of great interest +was revealed by the comparison.</p> + +<p>The eclipse of August 30, 1905, offered a duration of 3½ minutes +in Spain, the track running from Labrador through Spain to +North Africa, and affording excellent opportunities for observers, +who flocked to the central line in great numbers. Unfortunately +it was cloudy in Labrador, so that the special advantages of the +long line of possible stations were lost. Exceptionally good +weather conditions were enjoyed in Algeria and Tunisia, and full +advantage was taken of them by H.F. Newall, C. Trépied and +others at Guelma, by the party from Greenwich and G. Bigourdan +at Sfax. That G. Newall’s spectroscopic photographs for rotation +of the corona again gave no result is a clear indication of the +faintness of the corona at 3′ from the limb; but F.W. Dyson at +Sfax obtained two new lines at 5536 and 5117 in the spectrum +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span> +of the corona; and a very large number of photographs of the +corona (including many in polarized light on several different +plans), of its spectrum, and of the spectrum of the chromosphere, +were obtained by the various parties, which will afford copious +material for discussion. Newall also obtained a polarized +spectrum of the corona. Altogether no less than eighty stations +were occupied. There were English, American, Russian and +German observers in Egypt; English and French in Algeria and +Tunisia; English in Majorca; observers of almost all nationalities +in Spain; and English and American in Labrador. In +Egypt the weather was bright, though the sun was low; in +Majorca and Spain there were local clouds. Consequently many +observations, in addition to those in Labrador, were lost, notably +the special spectroscopic observations undertaken by Evershed +on the northern limit of totality, and the observations of radiation +undertaken by H.L. Callendar. A search for intra-Mercurial +planets was conducted on an elaborate plan, with similar batteries +of telescopes, in Egypt, Spain and Labrador, by three parties +from the Lick Observatory, but the examination of the plates +showed nothing noteworthy. Pending discussion of the greater +part of the material, some interesting preliminary results were +published in 1906 by the French observers. C.E.H. Bourget +and Montangerand conclude that there is a marked division of +the chromosphere into two regions or shells, a lower or “reversing-layer,” +extending only 1″ from the limb, and a chromospheric +layer extending to 3″ or 4″; and that the coronal light contains +less blue and violet, but more green and yellow, than sunlight; +while Fabry, by visual methods, obtained measures of the total +and intrinsic intensity of the light from the corona closely confirming +recent photographic observations, finding the total +brightness about equal to that of the full moon, and the intrinsic +brightness at 5′ from the limb about one quarter of that of the +full moon.</p> +<div class="author">(H. H. T.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Eclipses of the Moon.</i></p> + +<p>The physical phenomena attending eclipses of the moon are no +longer of a high order of interest either to the layman or scientific +observer. A brief statement of them and their causes will therefore +be sufficient. An observer watching such an eclipse from +the moon would see the earth, which has nearly four times the +apparent diameter of the sun, impinging on the sun’s disk and +slowly hiding it. The phenomenon would be quite similar to +that of an eclipse of the sun seen from the earth, until the sun was +completely covered. During the progress of this partial eclipse +the moon would be passing into the earth’s penumbra. As the +moment of total obscuration approached, a red band of light +would rapidly form in the neighbourhood of the disappearing +limb of the sun, and gradually extend around the earth. This +would arise from the refraction of the sun’s light by the earth’s +atmosphere, and the absorption of its blue rays. When the light +of the sun was completely hidden, a reddish ring of great brilliancy +would, owing to this cause, surround the entire dark body of the +earth during the period of the total eclipse.</p> + +<p>The aspect of the moon, as seen from the earth, corresponds to +this view from the moon. The fading of the moon’s light, due to +its entrance into the penumbra, is scarcely noticeable without +direct photometric determination until near the beginning of the +total phase. Then, as the limb of the moon approaches the +earth’s shadow, it begins to darken. When only a small portion +has entered into the shadow, that portion is completely hidden. +But, as the total phase approaches, the part of the moon’s disk +immersed in the penumbra becomes visible by a reddish coppery +light—that of the sun refracted through the lower parts of the +earth’s atmosphere. The brightness of this illumination is +different in different eclipses, a circumstance which may be +attributed to the greater or less degree of cloudiness in those +regions of the earth’s atmosphere through which the light of the +sun passes in order to reach the moon. Its colour is due to absorption +in passing through the earth’s atmosphere.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Laws and Cycles of Recurrences of Eclipses of the Sun +and Moon.</i></p> + +<p>It has been known since remote antiquity that eclipses occur +in cycles. These cycles are known now to be determined +principally by the motion of the moon’s node and the relations +between the revolutions of the earth round the sun and the moon +round the earth.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:237px; height:154px" src="images/img891.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Owing to the inclination of the moon’s orbit to the plane of the +ecliptic, an eclipse of the sun can occur only when the conjunction +of the sun and moon takes place within about +16° of one of the nodes of the moon’s orbit. The +<span class="sidenote">Eclipse seasons.</span> +eclipse can be total only within about 11° of the node. +An eclipse of the moon can occur only when the line sun-moon-earth +makes an angle less than about 11° with the line of nodes; +and the eclipse can be total only within about 8° of the node, +the average limiting distances varying 1° or 2° according to the +circumstances. These conditions being understood, the cycles +of recurrence of eclipses of either kind can be worked out geometrically +from the mean motions of the sun, moon, node and +perigee by the aid of geometric conceptions shown in their +simplest form in fig. 4. Here E is the earth, at the centre of +a circle representing the mean orbit of the moon around it. +MN is the line of nodes which is +moving in the retrograde direction +from N towards S<span class="su">1</span>, at a rate of +about 19.3° in a year, making a +complete revolution in 18.6 years. +Let the sun at the moment of +some new moon be in the line +ES<span class="su">1</span>, continued. If the angle +NES<span class="su">1</span> is less than 16° there will +probably be an eclipse of the sun, +which may be central if the angle is less than 11°. Let the next +new moon take place in the line ES<span class="su">2</span> a month later. The mean +value of the angle S<span class="su">1</span>ES<span class="su">2</span> is about 29°; but as the node N has +moved towards S<span class="su">1</span> about 1.4° during the interval, the sum of the +angles NES<span class="su">1</span> and NES<span class="su">2</span> will be somewhat greater than S<span class="su">1</span>ES<span class="su">2</span> +by about 1.6°. The result is that if these two angles are nearly +equal there may be two small partial eclipses of the sun, after +which no more can occur until, by the annual revolution of the +earth, the direction of the sun approaches the opposite line of +nodes EM, nearly six months later. The result is that there +are in the course of any one year two “eclipse seasons” each of +about one month in duration, in which at least one eclipse of +the sun, or possibly two small partial eclipses, may occur. One +eclipse of the moon will generally, but not always, occur during +a season.</p> + +<p>Owing to the retrograde motion of the node the direction ES +of the sun returns to the node at the end of about 347 days, +so that a third eclipse season may commence before the end of a +year. In this way there is a possible but very rare maximum +of five eclipses of the sun in a year. Owing to the motion of the +line of nodes each eclipse season occurs about 19 days earlier in +the year than it did the year before. Another conclusion from +the greater eclipse limit for the sun than for the moon is that in +the long run eclipses of the sun, as regards the earth generally, +occur oftener than those of the moon. But as any eclipse of the +sun is visible only from a limited region of the earth’s surface, +while one of the moon may be seen from an entire hemisphere, more +eclipses of the moon are visible at any one place than of the sun.</p> + +<p>If, starting with a conjunction along some line ES<span class="su">1</span>, we mark +by radial lines from E the successive conjunctions year after +year, we shall find that at the end of 18 years and about 11 days +the 223rd conjunction will fall once more very near the line ES<span class="su">1</span>, +the angle NES<span class="su">1</span> being about 24′ greater than before. Successive +eclipses will then occur very nearly in the same order as they +did 18 years and 11 days before. This period of recurrence +has been known from remote antiquity and is called the <i>Saros</i>. +What is most remarkable in this period is that in addition to +the distance from the node being nearly the same as before, +the longitude of the sun increases by only 11° and the distance +of the moon from its perigee has changed less than 3°. The result +of this approach to coincidence is that the recurring eclipse will +generally be of the same kind—total, annular or partial—through +a number of successive periods.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span></p> + +<p>To see the law of recurrence of corresponding eclipses in the +successive periods let us suppose the line of conjunction ES<span class="su">1</span> to +be that at which there is a very small eclipse, visible only in high +northern or southern latitudes. At the end of 18 years 11 days +a second eclipse will occur along a line nearly half a degree nearer +EN, the line of nodes. The successive eclipses will occur at the +same interval through about ten periods, or 180 years, when the +line of conjunction will pass within 11° of EN. Then the eclipse +will be central, whether annular or total depending on circumstances: +in the first one the central lines will pass only over +the polar regions; but in successive eclipses of the series it will +pass nearer and nearer to the equator until the conjunction line +coincides with the node. The path of centrality will then cross +in the equatorial region. During 22 or 23 more recurrences the +path will continually approach to the opposite pole and finally +leave the earth entirely. The entire number of central eclipses +in any one series will generally be about forty-five. Then a +series of continually diminishing partial eclipses will go on for +about ten periods more. The whole series of eclipses will therefore +extend through about sixty-five periods; and interval of +time of about twelve hundred years.</p> + +<p>Another remarkable eclipse period recurs at the end of 358 +lunations. At the end of this period the line of mean conjunction +ES<span class="su">1</span> falls so near its former position relative to the node that we +find each central eclipse visible in our time to be one of an +unbroken series extending from the earliest historic times to +the present, at intervals equal to the length of the period. The +recurring eclipses in this period do not, however, have the +remarkable similarity of those belonging to the Saros, but may +differ to any extent, owing to the different positions of the line +of conjunction with respect to the moon’s perigee. Moreover, +they recur alternately at the ascending and descending node. +The length of the period is 10,571.95 days, or 29 Julian years +less 20.3 days. Hence 18 periods make 521 years, so that at the +end of this time each eclipse recurs on or about the same day of +the year. As an example of this series, starting from the eclipse +of Nineveh, June 15, 763 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, recorded on the Assyrian tablets, +we find eclipses on May 27, 734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, May 7, 705 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and so on +in an unbroken series to 1843, 1872 and 1901, the last being the +93rd of the series. Those at the ends of the 521-year intervals +occurred on June 15, O.S., of each of the years 763, 242 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 280, 801, 1322 and 1843. As the lunar perigee moves +through 242.4° in a period, the eclipses will vary from total to +annular, but at the end of 3 periods the perigee is only 7.1° +in advance of its original position relative to the node. Hence +in a series including every third eclipse the eclipses will be of the +same character through a thousand years or more. Thus the +eclipses of 1467, 1554, 1640, 1727, 1814, 1901, 1988, &c., are total.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">IV. <i>Chronological Lists of Eclipses of the Sun.</i></p> + +<p>The following is a brief chronological enumeration of those +total eclipses of the sun which are of interest, either from their +historic celebrity or the nature of the conclusions +<span class="sidenote">Notable eclipses.</span> +derived from them. In numbering the years before +the Christian era the astronomical nomenclature is +used, in which the number of the year is one less than that used +by the chronologists. The Chinese eclipses are passed over, +owing to the generally doubtful character of the records pertaining +to them.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>—1069 June 20 and —1062 July 31; total eclipses recorded at +Babylon.</p> + +<p>—762, June 14; a total eclipse recorded at Nineveh. Computation +from the modern tables shows that the path of totality passed +about 100 m. or more north of Nineveh.</p> + +<p>—647, April 6; total eclipse at or near Thasos, mentioned by +Archilochus.</p> + +<p>—584, May 28; the celebrated eclipse of Thales. For an account +of this eclipse see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thales</a></span>.</p> + +<p>—556, May 19, the eclipse of Larissa. The modern tables show +that the eclipse was not total at Larissa, and the connexion of the +classical record with the eclipse is doubtful.</p> + +<p>—430, August 3; eclipse mentioned by Thucydides, but not total +by the tables.</p> + +<p>—399, June 21; eclipse of Ennius. Totality occurred immediately +after sunset at Rome. The identity of this eclipse is doubtful.</p> + +<p>—309, August 14; eclipse of Agathocles. This eclipse would be +one of the most valuable for testing the tables of the moon, but for +an uncertainty as to the location of Agathocles, who, at the time of +the occurrence, was at sea on a voyage from Syracuse to Carthage.</p> + +<p>F.K. Ginzel (<i>Spezieller Kanon der Finsternisse</i>) has collected a +great number of passages from classical authors supposed to refer to +eclipses of the sun or moon, but the difficulty of identifying the +phenomenon is frequently such as to justify great doubt as to the +conclusions. In a few cases no eclipse corresponding to the description +can be found by our modern table to have occurred, and in +others the latitude of interpretation and the uncertainty of the date +are so wide that the eclipse cannot be identified.</p> + +<p>Of medieval eclipses we mention only the dates of those visible in +England, referring for details to the works mentioned in the bibliography. +The letter C following a date shows that the eclipse is +mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. The dates in question +are:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl rb"><span class="scs">A.D.</span> 538, February 15, C. (partial).</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="scs">A.D.</span>  878, October 29, C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb">    540, June 12, C. (partial).</td> <td class="tcl">     885, June 15.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb">    594, July 23.</td> <td class="tcl">    1023, January 24.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb">    603, August 12.</td> <td class="tcl">    1133, August 1, C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb">    639, September 3.</td> <td class="tcl">    1140, March 20, C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb">    664, May 1, C. </td> <td class="tcl">    1185, May 1, C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb">    733, August 14 (annular).</td> <td class="tcl">    1191, June 23, C. (annular).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rb">    764, June 4 (annular).</td> <td class="tcl">    1330, July 16.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Besides these, the tables show that the shadow of the moon +passed over some part of the British Islands on 1424, June 26; +1433, June 17; 1598, March 6; 1652, April 8; 1715, May 2; +1724, May 22. Of these the eclipse of 1715 is notable for the careful +observations made in England, and published by Halley in the +<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. The next dates are 1927, June 29, when +a barely total eclipse will be seen soon after sunrise in the northern +counties near the Scottish border, and 1999, August 11, when the +moon’s shadow will graze England at Land’s End.</p> +</div> + +<p>We give below, in tabular form, a list of the principal total +eclipses during the 19th and 20th centuries, omitting a few visible +only in the extreme polar regions, and some others of which the +duration is very short. The first column gives the civil date of the +point on the earth’s surface at which the eclipse is central at noon. +The next two columns give the position of this point to the nearest +degree. The fourth column shows the Greenwich astronomical +time of conjunction in longitude. The next column gives the +duration of the total phase at the noon-point; this is sometimes +0.1′ less than the absolutely greatest duration at any point. +Next is given the node near which the eclipse occurs; and then +the number in the Saros. Corresponding eclipses at intervals +of 18 y. 11 d. have the same number, and occur near the same +node of the noon, which is indicated in the next column.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2" colspan="2">Date at<br />Noon-Point.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Point where<br />Central at Noon.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Greenwich M.T. of<br />conjunction in<br />Longitude. +</td> <td class="tccm allb">Duration<br />of<br />Totality.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Node</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Series.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Regions Swept by Shadow.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Lat.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Long.</td> <td class="tcc bb">d.</td> <td class="tcc bb">h.</td> <td class="tcc bb">m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1803, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">11 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">136 W.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Mexico.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1804, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">38 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">66 W.</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Chile, Argentina.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1806, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">42 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">66 W.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">New England, Atlantic, Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1807, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">11 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 E.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Africa, Areolia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1810, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">154 E.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ann.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Borneo.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1811, Mar,</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">26 W.</td> <td class="tcr">24</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">South Atlantic to and across South Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1814, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">84 E.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Africa, Central Asia, China.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1815, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">88 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">175 W.</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Polar Regions, Western Siberia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1816, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">43 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">30 E.</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Eastern Europe, Central Asia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1817, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">149 E.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Burma, Pacific Ocean.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1821, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">8 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">96 E.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian and Pacific Oceans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1822, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">36 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">176 W.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Australia, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1824, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">47 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">175 W.</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Japan, China.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1825, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">127 W.</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Mexico.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1828, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">18 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 E.</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Northern Africa, India.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1829, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">32 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">149 W.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">South Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1832, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">24 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">28 W.</td> <td class="tcr">27</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">West Indies and across Central Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1833, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">78 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">76 E.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">North-eastern Asia and Polar Regions.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1834, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">40 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">101 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Southern and Western United States.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1835, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">20 E.</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Africa, Madagascar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1839, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 W.</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">South America, Africa, Egypt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1840, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">34 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">72 E.</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Africa, Madagascar, Indian Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1842, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">51 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">77 E.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Spain, France, Russia to China, and Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1843, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">8 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">102 E.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian and North Pacific Oceans and India.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1846, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">25 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">75 W.</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mexico, West Indies, Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1847, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">24 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">90 E.</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian Ocean, Australia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1850, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">18 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">142 W.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1851, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">70 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">34 W.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Scandinavia, Russia and North America.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1852, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">37 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">127 E.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">China, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1857, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">4 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">155 W.</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Mexico.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1858, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">33 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">41 W.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Peru, South Brazil, Uruguay.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1860, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">56 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 W.</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">British America, France, Egypt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1861, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">9 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29 W.</td> <td class="tcr">31</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Caribbean Sea to North Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1864, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">32 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">173 E.</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1865, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">16 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> 30 W.</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Brazil to Central Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1868, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">103 E.</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">India to Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1869, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">61 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">145 W.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States and Alaska.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1870, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">36 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 W.</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gibraltar, Northern Africa, Sicily.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1871, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">118 E.</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Southern India, Northern Australia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1875, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">83 E.</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian Ocean, Siam, Pacific.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1876, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">33 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">156 W.</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1878, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">60 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">139 W.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States and Canada.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1880, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">160 W.</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, California.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1882, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">63 E.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Egypt, Central Asia, China.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1883, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">147 W.</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Caroline Islands.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1886, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">3 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">14 W.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">South America, Central Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1887, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">53 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">102 E.</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Northern Europe, Siberia, Japan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1889, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">37 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">138 W.</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">California, Oregon, British America.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1889, Dec.</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">13 W.</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Africa and South America.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1893, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">1 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">37 W.</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Venezuela to West Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1894, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">34 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">86 E.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Africa, Indian Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1896, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">65 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">112 E.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">North Europe, Siberia, Japan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1898, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">13 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">69 E.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Africa, India, China.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1900, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">45 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">45 W.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States, Spain, North Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1901, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">97 E.</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sumatra, Borneo.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1904, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">133 W.</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1905, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">45 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Canada, Spain, North Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1907, Jan. </td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">89 E.</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Russia, Central Asia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1908, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">145 W.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1911, April</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">1 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">155 W.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Australia, Polynesia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1912, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">35 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">33 W.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1914, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">71 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 E.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Scandinavia, Russia, Asia Minor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1916, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">16 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">62 W.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Venezuela, West Indies.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1918, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">51 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">152 W.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">British Columbia, United States.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1919, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">4 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">18 W.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Peru, Brazil, Central Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1922, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">12 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">106 E.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Africa, Australia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1923, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">38 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">128 W.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">California, Mexico, Central America.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1925, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">42 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">44 W.</td> <td class="tcr">24</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1926, Jan.</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">82 E.</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">East Africa, Sumatra, Philippines.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1927, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">78 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">84 E.</td> <td class="tcr">28</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">England, Scotland, Scandinavia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1929, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">89 E.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sumatra, Malacca, Philippines.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1930, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">36 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">155 W.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1932, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">78 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">109 W.</td> <td class="tcr">31</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Canada.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1934, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">19 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">168 E.</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Borneo, Celebes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1936, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">56 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">101 E.</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Greece to Central Asia and Japan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1937, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">131 W.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Peru.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1940, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">19 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">16 W.</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Colombia, Brazil, South Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1941, Sept.</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">30 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">114 E.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Asia, China, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1943, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">47 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">176 W.</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">China, Alaska.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1947, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">2 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">25 W.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Argentina, Paraguay, Central Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1948, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">37 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">82 E.</td> <td class="tcr">31</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Central Africa, Congo.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1952, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">22 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 E.</td> <td class="tcr">24</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nubia, Persia, Siberia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1954, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">62 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Canada, Scandinavia, Russia, Persia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1955, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">15 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">117 E.</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ceylon, Siam, Philippines.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1958, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">26 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">139 W.</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chile, Argentina.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1959, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">23 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 W.</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Canaries, Central Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1961, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">53 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">53 E.</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">France, Italy, Austria, Siberia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1962, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">179 E.</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">New Guinea.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1963, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">62 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">126 W.</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Alaska, Hudson’s Bay Territory.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1965, May</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">4 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">137 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1966, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">38 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">43 W.</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1970, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">25 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">88 W.</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mexico, Georgia, ? Florida.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1972, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">67 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">111 W.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">North-East Asia, North-East America and Atlantic Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1973, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">19 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 E.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">South America, Africa and Atlantic Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1974, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">32 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">107 E.</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">56</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">South-West Australia and Indian Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1976, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">95 E.</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Africa, Australia, Indian and Pacific Oceans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1977, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">16 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">127 W.</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Venezuela, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1979, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">61 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">77 W.</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">United States, British America, Pacific Ocean, N. Polar Sea.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1980, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">1 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">48 E.</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Africa, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and India.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1981, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">54 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">127 E.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Asia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1983, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">7 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">111 E.</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Java, Atlantic Ocean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1984, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">39 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">170 W.</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Patagonia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1987, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">17 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 W.</td> <td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">Atlantic, Equatorial Africa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1988, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">28 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">146 E.</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Indian and Pacific Oceans, Sumatra.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1990, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">72 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">142 E.</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Finland, North Atlantic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1991, July</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">22 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">105 W.</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, Hawaii, Central America.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1992, June</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">26 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5 W.</td> <td class="tcr">30</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">South Atlantic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1994, Nov.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">36 S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">31 W.</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific Ocean, South America.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1995, Oct.</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">10 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">110 E.</td> <td class="tcr">23</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific and Indian Oceans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1997, Mar.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">71 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">154 E.</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcl rb">North-East Asia, Arctic Sea.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">1998, Feb.</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">6 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">81 W.</td> <td class="tcr">26</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Desc.</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, Central America.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">1999, Aug.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">46 N.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">18 E.</td> <td class="tcr bb">10</td> <td class="tcr bb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.6</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Asc.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Central and Southern Europe touching England.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Recurrence of Remarkable Eclipses.</i></p> + +<p>From the property of the Saros it follows that eclipses remarkable +for their duration, or other circumstances depending on the +relative positions of the sun and moon, occur at intervals of one +saros (18 y. 11 d.). Of interest in this connexion is the recurrence +of total eclipses remarkable for their duration. The absolute +maximum duration of a total eclipse is about 7′ 30″; but no +actual eclipse can be expected to reach this duration. Those +which will come nearest to the maximum during the next 500 +years belong to the series numbered 4 and 6 and in the list which +precedes. These occurring in the years 1937, 1955, &c., will +ultimately fall little more than 20″ below the maximum. But +the series 4, though not now remarkable in this respect, will +become so in the future, reaching in the eclipse of June 25, 2150, +a duration of about 7′ 15″ and on July 5, 2168, a duration of +7′ 28″, the longest in human history. The first of these will pass +over the Pacific Ocean; the second over the southern part of the +Indian Ocean near Madras.</p> + +<p>All the national annual Ephemerides contain elements of the +eclipses of the sun occurring during the year. Those of England, +America and France also give maps showing the path of the +central line, if any, over the earth’s surface; the lines of eclipse +beginning and ending at sunrise, &c., and the outlines of the +shadow from hour to hour. By the aid of the latter the time +at which an eclipse begins or ends at any point can be determined +by inspection or measurement within a few minutes.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">V. <i>Methods of computing Eclipses of the Sun.</i></p> + +<p>The complete computation of the circumstances of an eclipse ab +initio requires three distinct processes. The geocentric positions +of the sun and moon have first to be computed from +the tables of the motions of those bodies. The second +<span class="sidenote">Elements of eclipses.</span> +step is to compute certain elements of the eclipse from +these geocentric positions. The third step is from these elements +to compute the circumstances of the eclipse for the earth generally +or for any given place on its surface. The national Astronomical +Ephemerides, or “Nautical Almanacs,” give in full the geocentric +positions of the sun and moon from at least the early part of the +19th century to an epoch three years in advance of the date of +publication. It is therefore unnecessary to undertake the first +part of the computation except for dates outside the limits of the +published ephemerides, and for many years to come even this +computation will be unnecessary, because tables giving the +elements of eclipses from the earliest historic periods up to the +22nd century have been published by T. Ritter von Oppolzer +and by Simon Newcomb. We shall therefore confine ourselves +to a statement of the eclipse problem and of the principles on +which such tables rest.</p> + +<p>Two systems of eclipse elements are now adopted in the +ephemerides and tables; the one, that of F.W. Bessel, is used +in the English, American and French ephemerides, the other—P. +A. Hansen’s—in the German and in the eclipse tables of +T. Ritter von Oppolzer. The two have in common certain +geometric constructions. The fundamental axis of reference +in both systems is the line passing through the centres of the sun +and moon; this is the common axis of the shadow cones, which +envelop simultaneously the sun and moon as shown in figs. 1, 2, 3. +The surface of one of these cones, that of the umbra, is tangent +to both bodies externally. This cone comes to a point at a +distance from the moon nearly equal to that of the earth. Within +it the sun is wholly hidden by the moon. Outside the umbral +cone is that of the penumbra, within which the sun is partially +hidden by the moon. The geometric condition that the two +bodies shall appear in contact, or that the eclipse shall begin or +end at a certain moment, is that the surface of one of these +cones shall pass through the place of the observer at that moment. +Let a plane, which we call the fundamental plane, pass through +the centre of the earth perpendicular to the shadow axis. On +this plane the centre of the earth is taken as an origin of rectangular +co-ordinates. The axis of Z is perpendicular to the +plane, and therefore parallel to the shadow axis; that of Y and X +lie in the plane. In these fundamental constructions the two +methods coincide. They differ in the direction of the axis of Y +and X in the fundamental plane. In Bessel’s method, which +we shall first describe, the intersection of the plane of the earth’s +equator with the fundamental plane is taken as the axis of X. +The axis of Y is perpendicular to it, the positive direction being +towards the north. The Besselian elements of an eclipse are +then:—x, y, the co-ordinates of the shadow axis on the fundamental +plane; d, the declination of that point in which the +shadow axis intersects the celestial sphere; μ, the Greenwich +hour angle of this point; l, the radius of the circle, in which the +penumbral or outer cone intersects the fundamental plane; +and l’, the radius of the circle, in which the inner or umbral cone +intersects this plane, taken positively when the vertex of the +cone does not reach the plane, so that the axis must be produced, +and negatively when the vertex is beyond the plane.</p> + +<p>Hansen’s method differs from that of Bessel in that the +ecliptic is taken as the fundamental plane instead of the equator. +The axis of X on the fundamental plane is parallel to the plane +of the ecliptic; that of Y perpendicular to it. The other elements +are nearly the same in the two theories. As to their relative +advantages, it may be remarked that Hansen’s co-ordinates +follow most simply from the data of the tables, and are necessarily +used in eclipse tables, but that the subsequent computation is +simpler by Bessel’s method.</p> + +<p>Several problems are involved in the complete computation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span> +of an eclipse from the elements. First, from the values of the +latter at a given moment to determine the point, if any, at which +the shadow-axis intersects the surface of the earth, and the +respective outlines of the umbra and penumbra on that surface. +Within the umbral curve the eclipse is annular or total; outside +of it and within the penumbral curve the eclipse is partial at +the given moment. The penumbral line is marked from hour to +hour on the maps given annually in the American Ephemeris. +Second, a series of positions of the central point through the +course of an eclipse gives us the path of the central point along +the surface of the earth, and the envelopes of the penumbral and +umbral curves just described are boundaries within which a +total, annular or partial eclipse will be visible. In particular, +we have a certain definite point on the earth’s surface on which +the edge of the shadow first impinges; this impingement +necessarily takes place at sunrise. Then passing from this point, +we have a series of points on the surface at which the elements +of the shadow-cone are in succession tangent to the earth’s +surface. At all these points the eclipse begins at sunrise until a +certain limit is reached, after which, following the successive +elements, it ends at sunrise. At the limiting point the rim of +the moon merely grazes that of the sun at sunrise, so that we +may say that the eclipse both begins and ends at that time. +Of course the points we have described are also found at the +ending of the eclipse. There is a certain moment at which the +shadow-axis leaves the earth at a certain point, and a series of +moments when, the elements of the penumbral cone being tangent +to the earth’s surface, the eclipse is ending at sunset. Three +cases may arise in studying the passage of the outlines of the +shadow over the earth. It may be that all the elements of the +penumbral cone intersect the earth. In this case we shall have +both a northern and a southern limit of partial eclipse. In the +second case there will be no limit on the one side except that of +the eclipse beginning or ending at sunrise or sunset. Or it may +happen, as the third case, that the shadow-axis does not intersect +the earth at all; the eclipse will then not be central at any +point, but at most only partial.</p> + +<p>The third problem is, from the same data, to find the circumstances +of an eclipse at a given place—especially the times of +beginning and ending, or the relative positions of the sun and +moon at a given moment. Reference to the formulae for all +these problems will be given in the bibliography of the subject.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The richest mine of information respecting eclipses +of the sun and moon is T.R. von Oppolzer’s “Kanon der Finsternisse,” +published by the Vienna Academy of Sciences in the 52nd +volume of its <i>Denkschriften</i> (Vienna, 1887). It contains elements of +all eclipses both of the sun and moon, from 1207 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 2161, a +period of more than thirty centuries. Appended to the tables is +a series of charts showing the paths of all central eclipses visible +in the northern hemisphere during the period covered by the table. +The points of the path at which the eclipse occurs, at sunrise, noon +and sunset, are laid down with precision, but the intermediate +points are frequently in error by several hundred miles, as they +were not calculated, but projected simply by drawing a circle +through the three points just mentioned. For this reason we cannot +infer from them that an eclipse was total at any given place. The +correct path can, however, be readily computed from the tables +given in the work. Eduard Mahler’s memoir, “Die centralen +Sonnenfinsternisse des 20. Jahrhunderts” (<i>Denkschriften</i>, Vienna +Academy, vol. xlix.), gives more exact paths of the central eclipses +of the 20th century, but no maps. General tables for computing +eclipses are Oppolzer’s “Syzygientafeln für den Mond” (Publications +of the <i>Astronomische Gesellschaft</i>, xvi.), and Newcomb’s, in <i>Publications +of the American Ephemeris</i>, vol. i. part i. Of these, Oppolzer’s are +constructed with greater numerical accuracy and detail, while Newcomb’s +are founded on more recent astronomical data, and are preferable +for computing ancient eclipses. F.K. Ginzel’s <i>Spezieller Kanon +der Sonnen- und Mondfinsternisse</i> (Berlin, 1899) contains, besides +the historical researches already mentioned, maps of the paths of +central eclipses visible in the lands of classical antiquity from 900 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500, but computed with imperfect astronomical data. +Maguire, “Monthly Notices,” <i>R.A.S.</i> xlv. and xlvi., has mapped the +total solar eclipses visible in the British Islands from 878 to 1724. +General papers of interest on the same subject have been published +by Rev. S.J. Johnson. A résumé of all the observations on the +physical phenomena of total solar eclipses up to 1878, by A.C. +Ranyard, is to be found in <i>Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical +Society</i>, vol. xli. A very copious development of the computation +of eclipses by Bessel’s method is found in W. Chauvenet’s <i>Spherical +and Practical Astronomy</i>, vol. i. <i>The Theory of Eclipses</i>, by R. +Buchanan (Philadelphia, 1904), treats the subject yet more fully. +Hansen’s method is developed in the <i>Abhandlungen</i> of the Leipzig +Academy of Sciences, vol. vi. (Math.-Phys. Classe, vol. iv.). The +formulae of computation by this method are found in the introductions +to Oppolzer’s two works cited above.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECLIPTIC,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> in astronomy. The plane of the ecliptic is that +plane in or near which the centre of gravity of the earth and moon +revolves round the sun. The ecliptic itself is the great circle in +which this plane meets the celestial sphere. It is also defined, +but not with absolute rigour, as the apparent path described by +the sun around the celestial sphere as the earth performs its +annual revolution. Owing to the action of the moon on the earth, +as it performs its monthly revolution in an orbit slightly inclined +to the ecliptic, the centre of the earth itself deviates from the plane +of the ecliptic in a period equal to that of the nodal revolution +of the moon. The deviation is extremely slight, its maximum +amount ranging between 0.5′ and 0.6″. Owing to the action of +the planets, especially Venus and Jupiter, on the earth, the +centre of gravity of the earth and moon deviates by a yet minuter +amount, generally one or two tenths of a second, from the plane +of the ecliptic proper. Owing to the action of the planets, the +position of the ecliptic is subject to a slow secular variation +amounting, during our time, to nearly 47″ per century. The rate +of this motion is slowly diminishing.</p> + +<p>The obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle which its plane makes +with that of the equator. Its mean value is now about 23° 27′. +The motion of the ecliptic produces a secular variation in the +obliquity which is now diminishing by an amount nearly equal +to the entire motion of the ecliptic itself. The laws of motion of +the ecliptic and equator are stated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Precession of +the Equinoxes</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Attempts have been made by Laplace and his successors to fix +certain limits within which the obliquity of the ecliptic shall +always be confined. The results thus derived are, however, +based on imperfect formulae. When the problem is considered +in a rigorous form, it is found that no absolute limits can be set. +It can, however, be shown that the obliquity cannot vary more +than two or three degrees within a million of years of our epoch.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The formula for the obliquity of the ecliptic, as derived from the +laws of motion of it and of the equator, may be developed in a series +proceeding according to the ascending powers of the time as follows: +we put T, the time from 1900, reckoned in solar centuries as a unit. +Then,</p> + +<p class="center">Obliquity = 23° 27′ 31.68″ − 46.837″ T − 0.0085″ T² + 0.0017″ T³.</p> + +<p>From this expression is derived the value of the obliquity at various +epochs given in the following table. The left-hand portion of this +table gives the values for intervals of 500 years from 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 2500 as computed from modern data. For dates more than +three or four centuries before or after 1850 the result is necessarily +uncertain by one or more tenths of a minute, and is therefore only +given to 0.1′.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr"><span class="scs">B.C.</span></td> <td class="tcr">2000;</td> <td class="tcc">obl.</td> <td class="tcl">= 23°</td> <td class="tcc">55.5″</td> <td class="tcr">    <span class="scs">A.D.</span></td> <td class="tcr">1700;</td> <td class="tcc">obl.</td> <td class="tcl">= 23°</td> <td class="tcc">28′</td> <td class="tcl">41.91″</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">1500</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">52.3</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1750</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">28</td> <td class="tcl">18.51</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">1000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">48.9</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1800</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">27</td> <td class="tcl">55.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2"> 500</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">45.4</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1850</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">27</td> <td class="tcl">31.68</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">  0</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">41.7</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1900</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">27</td> <td class="tcl"> 8.26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"><span class="scs">A.D.</span></td> <td class="tcr"> 500</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">38.0</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">1950</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">26</td> <td class="tcl">44.84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">1000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">34.1</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">2000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">26</td> <td class="tcl">21.41</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">1500</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">30.3</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">2050</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">25</td> <td class="tcl">57.99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">2000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">26.4</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2">2100</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">25</td> <td class="tcl">34.56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="2">2500</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">= 23</td> <td class="tcc">22.5</td> <td class="tcr" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +</div> +<div class="author">(S. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECLOGITE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="eklogê">ἐκλογή</span>, a selection), in petrology, a +typical member of a small group of metamorphic rocks of special +interest on account of the variety of minerals they contain and +their microscopic structures and geological relationships. Typically +they consist of pale green or nearly colourless augite (omphacite), +green hornblende and pink garnet. Quartz also is usually +present in these rocks, but felspar is rare. The augite is mostly +a variety of diopside and is only occasionally idiomorphic. The +garnet sometimes forms good dodecahedra, but may occur as +rounded grains, and encloses quartz, rutile, kyanite, and other +minerals very frequently. The hornblende is usually pale green +and feebly dichroic, but, in some eclogites which are allied to +garnet-amphibolites, it is of dark brown colour. Among the +commoner accessory minerals are kyanite (of blue or greyish-blue +tints), rutile, biotite, epidote and zoisite, sphene, iron oxides, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span> +pyrites. The rutile is invariably in small brown prisms; the +kyanite forms bladed crystals, with perfect cleavage; felspar, if +present, belongs to basic varieties rich in lime. Other minerals +which have been found in eclogites are bronzite, olivine and +glaucophane. The last mentioned is a bright blue variety of +hornblende with striking pleochroism. The eclogites in their +chemical composition show close affinities to gabbros; they often +exhibit relationships in the field which show that they were +primarily intrusive rocks of igneous origin, and occasionally contact +alteration can be traced in the adjacent schists. Examples +are known in Saxony, Bavaria, Carinthia, Austria, Norway. A +few eclogites also occur in the north-west highlands of Scotland. +Glaucophane-eclogites have been met with in Italy and the +Pennine Alps. Specimens of rock allied to eclogite have been +found in the diamantiferous peridotite breccias of South Africa +(the so-called “blue ground”), and this has given rise to the +theory that these are the parent masses from which the Kimberley +diamonds have come.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECLOGUE,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a short pastoral dialogue in verse. The word is +conjectured to be derived from the Greek verb <span class="grk" title="eklegein">ἐκλέγειν</span>, to choose. +An eclogue, perhaps, in its primary signification was a selected +piece. Another more fantastic derivation traces it to <span class="grk" title="aix">αἴξ</span>, goat, +and <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, speech, and makes it a conversation of shepherds. +The idea of dialogue, however, is not necessary for an eclogue, +which is often not to be distinguished from the idyll. The +grammarians, in giving this title to Virgil’s pastoral conversations +(<i>Bucolica</i>), tended to make the term “eclogue” apply exclusively +to dialogue, and this has in fact been the result of the success +of Virgil’s work. Latin eclogues were also written by Calpurnius +Siculus and by Nemesianus. In modern literature the term has +lost any distinctive character which it may have possessed among +the Romans; it is merged in the general notion of pastoral +poetry. The French “Églogues” of J.R. de Segrais (1624-1701) +were long famous, and those of the Spanish poet Garcilasso +de La Vega (1503-1536) are still admired.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bucolics</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pastoral</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> the name given to the study of +insects based on their relation to man, his domestic animals and +his crops, and, in the case of those that are injurious, of the practical +methods by which they can be prevented from doing harm, +or be destroyed when present. In Great Britain little attention +is paid to this important branch of agricultural science, but in +America and the British colonies the case is different. Nearly +every state in America has its official economic entomologists, +and nearly every one of the British crown colonies is provided +with one or more able men who help the agricultural community +to battle against the insect pests. Most, if not all, of the important +knowledge of remedies comes from America, where this +subject reaches the highest perfection; even the life-histories of +some of the British pests have been traced out in the United +States and British colonies more completely than at home, from +the creatures that have been introduced from Europe.</p> + +<p>Some idea of the importance of this subject may be gained +from the following figures. The estimated loss by the vine +<i>Phylloxera</i> in the Gironde alone was £32,000,000; for all the +French wine districts £100,000,000 would not cover the damage. +It has been stated on good evidence that a loss of £7,000,000 per +annum was caused by the attack of the ox warble fly on cattle in +England alone. In a single season Aberdeenshire suffered nearly +£90,000 worth of damage owing to the ravages of the diamond +back moth on the root crops; in New York state the codling +moth caused a loss of $3,000,000 to apple-growers. Yet these +figures are nothing compared to the losses due to scale insects, +locusts and other pests.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most able exponent of this subject in Great Britain was John +Curtis, whose treatise on <i>Farm Insects</i>, published in 1860, is still +the standard British work dealing with the insect foes of corn, +roots, grass and stored corn. The most important works dealing +with fruit and other pests come from the pens of Saunders, Lintner, +Riley, Slingerland and others in America and Canada, from Taschenberg, +Lampa, Reuter and Kollar in Europe, and from French, +Froggatt and Tryon in Australia. It was not until the last quarter +of the 19th century that any real advance was made in the study of +economic entomology. Among the early writings, besides the book +of Curtis, there may also be mentioned a still useful little publication +by Pohl and Kollar, entitled <i>Insects Injurious to Gardeners, Foresters +and Farmers</i>, published in 1837, and Taschenberg’s <i>Praktische +Insecktenkunde</i>. American literature began as far back as 1788, +when a report on the Hessian fly was issued by Sir Joseph Banks; +in 1817 Say began his writings; while in 1856 Asa Fitch started his +report on the “Noxious Insects of New York.” Since that date the +literature has largely increased. Among the most important reports, +&c., may be mentioned those of C.V. Riley, published by the U.S. +Department of Agriculture, extending from 1878 to his death, in +which is embodied an enormous amount of valuable matter. At his +death the work fell to Professor L.O. Howard, who constantly issues +brochures of equal value in the form of Bulletins of the U.S. Department +of Agriculture. The chief writings of J.A. Lintner extend +from 1882 to 1898, in yearly parts, under the title of <i>Reports on +the Injurious Insects of the State of New York</i>. Another author +whose writings rank high on this subject is M.V. Slingerland, +whose investigations are published by Cornell University. Among +other Americans who have largely increased the literature and +knowledge must be mentioned F.M. Webster and E.P. Felt. In +1883 appeared a work on fruit pests by William Saunders, which +mainly applies to the American continent; and another small book +on the same subject was published in 1898 by Miss Ormerod, +dealing with the British pests. In Australia Tryon published a +work on the <i>Insect and Fungus Enemies of Queensland</i> in 1889. +Many other papers and reports are being issued from Australia, +notably by Froggatt in New South Wales. At the Cape excellent +works and papers are prepared and issued by the government +entomologist, Dr Lounsbury, under the auspices of the Agricultural +Department; while from India we have Cotes’s <i>Notes on Economic +Entomology</i>, published by the Indian Museum in 1888, and other +works, especially on tea pests.</p> +</div> + +<p>Injurious insects occur among the following orders: <i>Coleoptera</i>, +<i>Hymenoptera</i>, <i>Lepidoptera</i>, <i>Diptera</i>, <i>Hemiptera</i> (both <i>heteroptera</i> +and <i>homoptera</i>), <i>Orthoptera</i>, <i>Neuroptera</i> and <i>Thysanoptera</i>. The +order <i>Aptera</i> also contains a few injurious species.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:299px" src="images/img896.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C, adult Click +Beetle (<i>Agriotes lineatum</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the <i>Coleoptera</i> or <span class="correction" title="amended from bettles">beetles</span> there is a group of world-wide +pests, the <i>Elateridae</i> or click beetles, the adults of the various +“wireworms.” The insects in the larval or wireworm stage +attack the roots of plants, eating them away below the ground. +The eggs deposited by the beetle in the ground develop into +yellowish-brown wire-like grubs with six legs on the first three +segments and a ventral prominence on the anal segment. The +life of these subterranean pests differs in the various species; +some undoubtedly (<i>Agriotes lineatum</i>) live for three or four years, +during the greater part of which time they gnaw away at the +roots of plants, carrying wholesale destruction before them. +When mature they pass deep into the ground and pupate, appearing +after a few months as the click beetles (fig. 1). Most crops are +attacked by them, but they are particularly destructive to wheat +and other cereals. With such subterranean pests little can be +done beyond rolling the land to keep it firm, and thus preventing +them from moving rapidly from plant to plant. A few crops, +such as mustard, seem deleterious to them. By growing mustard +and ploughing it in green the ground is made obnoxious to the +wireworms, and may even be cleared of them. For root-feeders, +bisulphide of carbon injected into the soil is of particular value. +One ounce injected about 2 ft. from an apple tree on two sides has +been found to destroy all the ground form of the woolly aphis. +In garden cultivation it is most useful for wireworm, used at the +rate of 1 ounce to every 4 sq. yds. It kills all root pests.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span></p> + +<p>In Great Britain the flea beetles (<i>Halticidae</i>) are one of the +most serious enemies; one of these, the turnip flea (<i>Phyllotreta +nemorum</i>), has in some years, notably 1881, caused more than +£500,000 loss in England and Scotland alone by eating the young +seedling turnips, cabbage and other <i>Cruciferae</i>. In some years +three or four sowings have to be made before a “plant” is +produced, enormous loss in labour and cost of seed alone being +thus involved. These beetles, characterized by their skipping +movements and enlarged hind femora, also attack the hop +(<i>Haltica concinna</i>), the vine in America (<i>Graptodera chalybea</i>, +Illig.), and numerous other species of plants, being specially +harmful to seedlings and young growth. Soaking the seed in +strong-smelling substances, such as paraffin and turpentine, has +been found efficacious, and in some districts paraffin sprayed +over the seedlings has been practised with decided success. This +oil generally acts as an excellent preventive of this and other +insect attacks.</p> + +<p>In all climates fruit and forest trees suffer from weevils or +<i>Curculionidae</i>. The plum curculio (<i>Conotrachelus nenuphar</i>, +Herbst) in America causes endless harm in plum orchards; +curculios in Australia ravage the vines and fruit trees (<i>Orthorrhinus +klugii</i>, Schon, and <i>Leptops hopei</i>, Bohm, &c.). In Europe +a number of “long-snouted” beetles, such as the raspberry +weevils (<i>Otiorhynchus picipes</i>), the apple blossom weevil (<i>Anthonomus +pomorum</i>), attack fruit; others, as the “corn weevils” +(<i>Calandra oryzae</i> and <i>C. granaria</i>), attack stored rice and corn; +while others produce swollen patches on roots (<i>Ceutorhynchus +sulcicollis</i>), &c. All these <i>Curculionidae</i> are very timid creatures, +falling to the ground at the least shock. This habit can be used +as a means of killing them, by placing boards or sacks covered +with tar below the trees, which are then gently shaken. As many +of these beetles are nocturnal, this trapping should take place +at night. Larval “weevils” mostly feed on the roots of plants, +but some, such as the nut weevil (<i>Balaninus nucum</i>), live as +larvae inside fruit. Seeds of various plants are also attacked +by weevils of the family <i>Bruchidae</i>, especially beans and peas. +These seed-feeders may be killed in the seeds by subjecting them +to the fumes of bisulphide of carbon. The corn weevils (<i>Calandra +granaria</i> and <i>C. oryzae</i>) are now found all over the world, in many +cases rendering whole cargoes of corn useless.</p> + +<p>The most important Hymenopterous pests are the sawflies or +<i>Tenthredinidae</i>, which in their larval stage attack almost all +vegetation. The larvae of these are usually spoken of as “false +caterpillars,” on account of their resemblance to the larvae of a +moth. They are most ravenous feeders, stripping bushes and +trees completely of their foliage, and even fruit. Sawfly larvae +can at once be recognized by the curious positions they assume, +and by the number of pro-legs, which exceeds ten. The female +lays her eggs in a slit made by means of her “saw-like” ovipositor +in the leaf or fruit of a tree. The pupae in most of these pests +are found in an earthen cocoon beneath the ground, or in some +cases above ground (<i>Lophyrus pini</i>). One species, the slugworm +(<i>Eriocampa limacina</i>), is common to Europe and America; the +larva is a curious slug-like creature, found on the upper surface +of the leaves of the pear and cherry, which secretes a slimy coating +from its skin. Currant and gooseberry are also attacked by +sawfly larvae (<i>Nematus ribesii</i> and <i>N. ventricosus</i>) both in Europe +and America. Other species attack the stalks of grasses and corn +(<i>Cephus pygmaeus</i>). Forest trees also suffer from their ravages, +especially the conifers (<i>Lophyrus pini</i>). Another group of +Hymenoptera occasionally causes much harm in fir plantations, +namely, the <i>Siricidae</i> or wood-wasps, whose larvae burrow into +the trunks of the trees and thus kill them. For all exposed +sawfly larvae hellebore washes are most fatal, but they must not +be used over ripe or ripening fruit, as the hellebore is poisonous.</p> + +<p>The order Diptera contains a host of serious pests. These +two-winged insects attack all kinds of plants, and also animals +in their larval stage. Many of the adults are bloodsuckers +(<i>Tabanidae</i>, <i>Culicidae</i>, &c.); others are parasitic in their larval +stage (<i>Oestridae</i>, &c.). The best-known dipterous pests are the +Hessian fly (<i>Cecidomyia destructor</i>), the pear midge (<i>Diplosis +pyrivora</i>), the fruit flies (<i>Tephritis Tyroni</i> of Queensland and +<i>Halterophora capitata</i> or the Mediterranean fruit fly), the onion +fly (<i>Phorbia cepetorum</i>), and numerous corn pests, such as the +gout fly (<i>Chloropstaeniopus</i>) and the frit fly (<i>Oscinis frit</i>). +Animals suffer from the ravages of bot flies (<i>Oestridae</i>) and gad +flies (<i>Tabanidae</i>); while the tsetse disease is due to the tsetse +fly (<i>Glossina morsitans</i>), carrying the protozoa that cause the +disease from one horse to another. Other flies act as disease-carriers, +including the mosquitoes (<i>Anopheles</i>), which not only +carry malarial germs, but also form a secondary host for these +parasites. Hundreds of acres of wheat are lost annually in +America by the ravages of the Hessian fly; the fruit flies of +Australia and South Africa cause much loss to orange and +citron growers, often making it necessary to cover the trees in +muslin tents for protection. Of animal pests the ox warbles +(<i>Hypoderma lineata</i> and <i>H. bovis</i>) are the most important (see +fig. 2). The “bots” or larvae of these flies live under the skin +of cattle, producing large swollen lumps—“warbles”—in which +the “bots” mature (fig. 2). These parasites damage the hide, +set up inflammation, and cause immense loss to farmers, herdsmen +and butchers. The universal attack that has been made +upon this pest has, however, largely decreased its numbers. In +America cattle suffer much from the horn fly (<i>Haematobia +serrata</i>). The dipterous garden pests, such as the onion fly, +carrot fly and celery fly, can best be kept in check by the use +of paraffin emulsions and the treatment of the soil with gas-lime +after the crop is lifted. Cereal pests can only be treated by +general cleanliness and good farming, and of course they are +largely kept down by the rotation of crops.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:479px; height:306px" src="images/img897a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—A, Ox Bot Maggot; B, puparium; C, Ox Warble Fly +(<i>Hypoderma bovis</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:136px; height:199px" src="images/img897b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Looper-larva +of Winter +Moth (<i>Cheimatobia +brumata</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Lepidopterous enemies are numerous all over the world. +Fruit suffers much from the larvae of the <i>Geometridae</i>, the so-called +“looper-larvae” or “canker-worms.” Of these geometers +the winter moth (<i>Cheimatobia brumata</i>) is one of the chief culprits +in Europe (fig. 3). The females in this moth and in others allied +to it are wingless. These insects pass the pupal stage in the +ground, and reach the boughs to lay their eggs by crawling up +the trunks of the trees. To check them, “grease-banding” +round the trees has been adopted; but as +many other pests eat the leafage, it is best to +kill all at once by spraying with arsenical +poisons. Among other notable Lepidopterous +pests are the “surface larvae” or cutworms +(<i>Agrotis spp.</i>), the caterpillars of various +Noctuae; the codling moth (<i>Carpocapsa +pomonella</i>), which causes the maggot in +apples, has now become a universal pest, +having spread from Europe to America and +to most of the British Colonies. In many +years quite half the apple crop is lost in +England owing to the larvae destroying the +fruit. Sugar-canes suffer from the sugar-cane +borer (<i>Diatioca sacchari</i>) in the West Indies; tobacco +from the larvae of hawk moths (<i>Sphingidae</i>) in America; corn +and grass from various Lepidopterous pests all over the world. +Nor are stored goods exempt, for much loss annually takes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span> +place in corn and flour from the presence of the larvae of the +Mediterranean flour moth (<i>Ephestia kuniella</i>); while furs and +clothes are often ruined by the clothes moth (<i>Tinea trapezella</i>).</p> + +<p>By far the most destructive insects in warm climates belong +to the Hemiptera, especially to the <i>Coccidae</i> or scale insects. +All fruit and forest trees suffer from these curious insects, which +in the female sex always remain apterous and apodal and +live attached to the bark, leaf and fruit, hidden beneath +variously formed scale-like coverings. The male scales +differ in form from the female; the adult male is winged, +and is rarely seen. The female lays her eggs beneath +the scaly covering, from which hatch out little active +six-legged larvae, which wander about and soon begin to +form a new scale. The <i>Coccidae</i> can, and mainly do, +breed asexually (parthenogenetically). One of the most +important is the San José scale (<i>Aspidiotus perniciosus</i>), +which in warm climates attacks all fruit and many other +trees, which, if unmolested, it will soon kill (fig. 4). +These scales breed very rapidly; Howard states one +may give rise to a progeny of 3,216,080,400 in one +year. Other scale insects of note are the cosmopolitan +mussel scale (<i>Mytilaspis pomorum</i>) and the Australian +<i>Icerya purchasi</i>. The former attacks apple and pear; +the latter, which selects orange and citron, was introduced +into America from Australia, and carried ruin before it +in some orange districts until its natural enemy, the +lady-bird beetle, <i>Vedalia cardinalis</i>, was also imported.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:590px; height:346px" src="images/img898a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—San José Scale (<i>Aspidiotus perniciosus</i>). A, Male scale insect; +B, female; C, larva; D, female scale; E, male scale.</td></tr></table> + +<p>After the <i>Coccidae</i> the next most important insects +economically are the plant lice or <i>Aphididae</i>. These breed +with great rapidity under favourable conditions: one by the end of +the year will be accountable, according to Linnaeus, for the enormous +number of a quintillion of its species. Aphides are born, as +a rule, alive, and the young soon commence to reproduce again. +Their food consists mainly of the sap obtained from the leaves +and blossom of plants, but some also live on the roots of plants +(<i>Phylloxera vastatrix</i> and <i>Schizoneura lanigera</i>). Aphides often +ruin whole crops of fruit, corn, hops, &c., by sucking out the sap, +and not only check growth, but may even entail the death of the +plant. Reproduction is mainly asexual, the females producing +living young without the agency of a male. Males in nearly all +species appear once a year, when the last female generation, the +ovigerous generation, is fertilized, and a few large ova are produced +to carry on the continuity of the species over the winter. +Some aphides live only on one species of plant, others on two or +more plants. An example of the latter is seen in the hop aphis +(<i>Phorodon humuli</i>), which passes the winter and lives on the +sloe and damson in the egg stage until the middle of May or later, +and then flies off to the hops, where it causes endless harm all +the summer (fig. 5); it flies back to the prunes to lay its eggs +when the hops are ripe. Another aphis of importance is the +woolly aphis (<i>Schizoneura lanigera</i>) of the apple and pear: it +secretes tufts of white flocculent wool often to be seen hanging +in patches from old apple trees, where the insects live in the +rough bark and form cankered growths both above and below +ground. Aphides are provided with a mealy skin, which does +not allow water to be attached to it, and thus insecticides for +destroying them contain soft soap, which fixes the solution +to the skin; paraffin is added to corrode the skin, and the +soft soap blocks up the breathing pores and so produces +asphyxiation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:598px; height:386px" src="images/img898b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—The Hop Aphis (<i>Phorodon humuli</i>). A, Winged female; B, winged +male; C, ovigerous wingless female; D, viviparous wingless female from +plum; E, pupal stage.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Amongst <i>Orthoptera</i> we find many noxious insects, notably +the locusts, which travel in vast cloud-like armies, clearing the +whole country before them of all vegetable life. The most +destructive locust is the migratory locust (<i>Locusta migratoria</i>), +which causes wholesale destruction in the East. Large pits are +dug across the line of advance of these great insect armies to +stop them when in the larval or wingless stage, and even huge +bonfires are lighted to check their flight when adult. So dense are +these “locust clouds” that they sometimes quite darken the +air. The commonest and most widely distributed migratory +locust is <i>Pachytylus cinerascens</i>. The mole cricket (<i>Gryllotalpa +vulgaris</i>) and various cockroaches (<i>Blattidae</i>) are also amongst +the pests found in this order.</p> + +<p>Of <i>Neuroptera</i> there are but few injurious species, and +many, such as the lace wing flies (<i>Hemerobiidae</i>), are +beneficial.</p> + +<p><i>The Treatment of Insect Pests.</i>—One of the most important +ways of keeping insect pests in check is by +“spraying” or “washing.” This method has made great +advances in recent years. All the pioneer work has been +done in America; in fact, until the South-Eastern +Agricultural College undertook the elucidation of this +subject, little was known of it in England except by a +few growers. The results and history of this essential +method of treatment are embodied in Professor Lodemann’s +work on the <i>Spraying of Plants</i>, 1896. In this +treatment we have to bear in mind what the entomologist +teaches us, that is, the nature, habits and structure +of the pest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For insects provided with a biting mouth, which take +nourishment from the whole leaf, shoot or fruit, the +poisonous washes used are chiefly arsenical. The two most +useful arsenical sprays are Paris green and arsenate of lead. +To make the former, mix 1 oz. of the Paris green with 15 +gallons of soft water, and add 2 oz. of lime and a small +quantity of agricultural treacle; the latter is prepared by dissolving +3 oz. of acetate of lead in a little water, then 1 oz. of +arsenate of soda in water and mixing the two well together, and +adding the whole to 16 gallons of soft water; to this is added a small +quantity of coarse treacle. For piercing-mouthed pests like <i>Aphides</i> +no wash is of use unless it contains a basis of soft soap. This soft-soap +wash kills by contact, and may be prepared in the following +way:—Dissolve 6 to 8 ℔ of the best soft soap in boiling soft water +and while still hot (but of course taken off the fire) add 1 gallon of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span> +paraffin oil and churn well together with a force-pump; the whole +may then be mixed with 100 gallons of soft water. The oil readily +separates from the water, and thus a perfect emulsion is not obtained: +this difficulty has been solved by Mr Cousin’s paraffin naphthalene +wash, which is patented, but can be made for private use. It is +prepared as follows:—Soft soap, 6 ℔ dissolved in 1 quart of water; +naphthalene, 10 oz. mixed with 1½ pint of paraffin; the whole is +mixed together. When required for use, 1 ℔ of the compound is +dissolved in 5 to 10 gallons of warm water.</p> + +<p>These two washes are essential to the well-being of every orchard +in all climates. Not only can we now destroy larval and adult +insects, but we can also attack them in the egg stage by the use of +a caustic alkali wash during the winter; besides destroying the +eggs of such pests as the <i>Psyllidae</i>, red spider, and some aphides, +this also removes the vegetal encumbrances which shelter numerous +other insect pests during the cold part of the year. Caustic alkali +wash is prepared by dissolving 1 ℔ of crude potash and 1 ℔ of +caustic soda in soft water, mixing the two solutions together, adding +to them ¾ ℔ of soft soap, and diluting with 10 gallons of soft water +when required for use. Another approved insecticide for scale +insects is resin wash, which acts in two ways: first, corroding the +soft scales, and second, fixing the harder scales to stop the egress of +the hexapod larvae. It is prepared as follows:—First crush 8 ℔ of +resin in a sack, and then place the resin in warm water and boil in a +cauldron until thoroughly dissolved; then melt 10 ℔ of caustic soda +in enough warm water to keep it liquid, and mix with the dissolved +resin; keep stirring until the mixture assumes a clear coffee-colour, +and for ten minutes afterwards; then add enough warm water to +bring the whole up to 25 gallons, and well stir. Bottle this off, and +when required for use dilute with three times its bulk of warm soft +water, and spray over the trees in the early spring just before the +buds burst. For mites (<i>Acari</i>) sulphur is the essential ingredient of a +spray. Liver of sulphur has been found to be the best form, especially +when mixed with a paraffin emulsion. Bud mites (<i>Phytoptidae</i>, +fig. 6) are of course not affected. Sulphur wash is made by adding to +every 10 gallons of warm paraffin emulsion or paraffin-naphthalene-emulsion +7 oz. of liver of sulphur, and stirring until the sulphur is +well mixed. This is applied as an ordinary spray. Nursery stock +should always be treated, to kill scale, aphis and other pests which +it may carry, by the gas treatment, particularly in the case of stock +imported from a foreign climate. This treatment, both out of doors +and under glass, is carried out as follows:—Cover the plants in bulk +with a light gas-tight cloth, or put them in a special fumigating +house, and then place 1 oz. of cyanide of potassium in lumps in a dish +with water beneath the covering, and then pour 1 oz. of sulphuric +acid over it (being careful not to inhale the poisonous fumes) for +every 1000 cub. ft. of space beneath the cover. The gas generated, +prussic acid, should be left to work for at least an hour before the +stock is removed, when all forms of animal life will be destroyed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:429px; height:368px" src="images/img899a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Bud Mites (<i>Phytoptidae</i>). A, Currant Bud Mite (<i>Phytoptus +ribis</i>); B, Nut Bud Mite (<i>P. avellanae</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>For spraying, proper instruments must be used, by means of +which the liquid is sent out over the plants in as fine a mist as +possible. Numerous pumps and nozzles are now made by which +this end is attained. Both horse and hand machines are employed, +the former for hops and large orchards, the latter for bush fruit +and gardens. In America, where trees in parks as well as orchards +and gardens are treated, steam-power is sometimes used. Among +the most important sprayers are the Strawson horse sprayers and +the smaller Eclair and Notus knapsack pumps, carried on the back +(fig. 7). The nozzles for “mistifying” the wash most in use are +known as the Vermorel and Riley’s, which can be fitted to any +length of tubing, so as to reach any height, and can be turned in +any direction. The pumps in the machine keep the insecticide +constantly mixed, and at the same time force the wash with great +strength through the nozzle, and so to the exterior, as a fine mist; +every part of the plant is thus affected.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:321px" src="images/img899b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Knapsack Sprayer for Liquid Insecticides.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Beneficial Insects</i> have also to be considered in economic +entomology. They are of two kinds—(1) those that help to +keep down an excess of other insects by acting either as parasites +or by being insectivorous in habit; and (2) insects of economic +value, such as the bee and silkworm. Amongst the most important +friends to the farmer and gardener are the Hymenopterous +families of ichneumon flies (<i>Ichneumonidae</i> and +<i>Braconidae</i>); the Dipterous families <i>Syrphidae</i> and <i>Tachinidae</i>; +the Coleopterous families <i>Coccinellidae</i> and <i>Carabidae</i>; and the +Neuropterous <i>Hemerobiidae</i>, or lace-wing flies. Ichneumon flies +lay their eggs either in the larvae or ova of other insects, and the +parasites destroy their host. In this way the Hessian fly is +doubtless kept in check in Europe, and the aphides meet with +serious hindrance to their increase. If a number of plant-lice +are examined, a few will be found looking like little pearls; +these are the dried skins of those that have been killed by +<i>Ichneumonidae</i>. The <i>Syrphidae</i>, or hover flies, are almost +exclusively aphis-feeders in their larval stage. <i>Tachina</i> flies +attack lepidopterous larvae. One of the most notable examples +of the use of insect allies is the case of the Australian lady-bird, +<i>Vedalia cardinalis</i>, which, in common with all lady-birds, feeds +off <i>Aphidae</i> and <i>Coccidae</i>. The Icerya scale (<i>Icerya purchasi</i>) +imported into America ruined the orange groves, but its enemy, +the <i>Vedalia</i>, was also imported from Australia, and counteracted +its abnormal increase with such great results that the crippled +orange groves are now once more profitable.</p> +<div class="author">(F. V. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECONOMICS<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="oikonomikê">οἰκονομική</span>, sc. <span class="grk" title="technê">τέχνη</span>, from +<span class="grk" title="oikos">οἶκος</span>, a house, and <span class="grk" title="nomos">νόμος</span>, rule,—the “art of household +management”), the general term, with its synonym “political +economy,” for the science or study of wealth (welfare) +and its production, applicable either to the individual, the +family, the State, or in the widest sense, the world. How far +the same considerations apply to all these spheres is one of the +problems of economic thought in its widest sense. The term +“economy” (<i>q.v.</i>) by itself, which should strictly mean the art +of applying money (or wealth) wisely, has commonly come to +mean the art of saving money, or spending as little as possible. +In practice the study of “political” economy is mainly devoted +to the sphere of the State; the welfare of the individual as a +member of the State, and of the State in its relation to the world, +being internal aspects of the prosperity of the State itself. +Economics thus includes the discussion of all the numerous +factors which make life profitable, whether to the nation or to +the business, or to the individual man. It may be conceived +either as an historical science (What principles have in fact paid?), +or as an abstract science (What are the true principles which +must pay, presupposing an ideal?). Economists at different +times have studied both aspects, according to their lights, and +influenced by historical conditions of philosophic thought. A +text-book on economics necessarily deals, therefore, with the +whole subject in a manner which need not here be followed, +since separate articles are devoted in this work to the biographies +of writers on economics, and also to the principal economic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span> +questions involved, under their own headings. In this article +we propose therefore to confine ourselves to discussing the +character and subject-matter of the science, indicating its +relation to other sciences, and explaining the methods by which +economists reach their conclusions.</p> + +<p>We understand by economics the science which investigates +the manner in which nations or other larger or smaller communities, +and their individual members, obtain food, clothing, +shelter and whatever else is considered desirable or necessary +for the maintenance and improvement of the conditions of life. +It is thus the study of the life of communities with special +reference to one side of their activity. It necessarily involves the +scientific examination of the structure and organization of the +community or communities in question; their history, their +customs, laws and institutions; and the relations between +their members, in so far as they affect or are affected by this +department of their activity.</p> + +<p>At the root of all economic investigation lies the conception +of the standard of life of the community. By this expression +we do not mean an ideal mode of living, but the habits and +requirements of life generally current in a community or grade +of society at a given period. The standard of life of the ordinary +well-to-do middle class in England, for example, includes not +only food, clothing and shelter of a kind different in many +respects from that of a similar class in other countries and of +other classes in England, but a highly complicated mechanism, +both public and private, for ministering to these primary needs, +habits of social intercourse, educational and sanitary organization, +recreative arrangements and many other elements. Many +influences operating for a long period of time on the character +and the environment of a class go to determine its standard of +life. In a modern industrial community it is possible to express +this standard fairly accurately for the purposes of economic +investigation in terms of money (<i>q.v.</i>). But it is doubtful whether +the most complete investigation would ever enable us to include +all the elements of the standard of life in a money estimate. The +character, tastes and capacity for management of different +individuals and groups differ so widely that equal incomes do +not necessarily imply identity of standard. In the investigation +of past times, the incommensurate elements of well-being are so +numerous that merely money estimates are frequently misleading. +The conception of the standard of life involves also some estimate +of the efforts and sacrifices people are prepared to make to +obtain it; of their ideals and character; of the relative strength +of the different motives which usually determine their conduct. +But no carefully devised calculus can take the place of insight, +observation and experience. The economist should be a man +of wide sympathies and practical sagacity, in close touch with +men of different grades, and, if possible, experienced in affairs.</p> + +<p>It is evident that no permanent classification is possible of +what is or is not of economic significance. No general rules, +applicable to all times, can be laid down as to what +phenomena must be examined or what may be neglected +<span class="sidenote">Character of subject-matter.</span> +in economic inquiry. The different departments of +human activity are organically connected, and all +facts relating to the life of a community have a near or remote +economic significance. For short historical periods, indeed, +many phenomena are so remotely connected with the ordinary +business of life that we may ignore them. But at any moment +special causes may bring into the field of economic inquiry +whole departments of life which have hitherto been legitimately +ignored. In times past, biblical exegesis, religious ideals, and +ecclesiastical organization, the purely political aims of statesmen, +chance combinations of party politics and the intrigues of +diplomatists, class prejudice, social conventions, apparently +sudden changes of economic policy, capricious changes of fashion—all +these causes and many others have exerted a direct and +immediate influence on the economic life of the community. +In our own day we have had many illustrations of the manner +in which special circumstances may at once bring an almost +unnoticed series of scientific investigations into direct and vital +relation with the business world. The economist must, therefore, +not only be prepared to take account of the physical features of +the world, the general structure and organization of the industry +and commerce of different states, the character of their administration +and other important causes of economic change. He must be +in touch with the actual life of the community he is studying, +and cultivate “that openness and alertness of the mind, that +sensitiveness of the judgment, which can rapidly grasp the +significance of at first sight unrelated discoveries or events.”</p> + +<p>Some people are of opinion that the factors to be taken account +of in economic investigation are so numerous that progress on +these lines is impossible. It would certainly be impossible if we +had to begin <i>de novo</i> to construct the whole fabric of economic +science. But, as we shall see, it is no more necessary to do this +in the world of science than it is in the world of business or politics. +There is in existence a vast store of accumulated knowledge, and +few, if any, departments of economics have been left quite unilluminated +by the researches of former generations. Progress is +the result of adaptation rather than reconstruction. It must be +remembered also that economic work in modern times is carried +on by consciously or unconsciously associated effort, and although +it must always require high qualities of judgment, capacity and +energy, many of the difficulties which at first sight appear so +insuperable give way when they are attacked. In some ways +also the study of highly developed organizations like the modern +industrial state is simpler than that of earlier forms of society.</p> + +<p>In the earliest times for which we have abundant material +the economic life of England had already reached in certain +directions a high degree of complexity. Even in the rural +districts, manorial records reveal the existence of a great variety +of classes and groups of persons engaged in the performance of +economic functions. The lord of the manor with his officials +and retainers, the peasantry bound to him by ties of personal +dependence and mutual rights and obligations, constituted a +little world, in which we can watch the play of motives and +passions not so dissimilar as we are sometimes led to believe +<span class="sidenote">Ancient and modern conditions in England.</span> +from those of the great modern world. In many a +country district the gradations of social rank were +more continuous, the opportunities of intercourse +more frequent, and the capacity for organization +greater than in modern times. The manorial accounts +were kept with precision and detail, and we are told +that a skilled official could estimate to the utmost farthing the +value of the services due from the villein to his lord. The manor +was indeed self-sufficient and independent in the sense that it +could furnish everything required by the majority of the inhabitants, +and that over the greater part of rural England +production was not carried on with a view to a distant market. +But in the earliest times the manor was subjected to external +influences of great importance. Vast areas of the country were +in fact under the single control of a territorial lord or an ecclesiastical +foundation. Every manor composing these great fiefs +was likely to be affected by the policy or the character of the +administration of the feudal lord, and he, again, by the policy +or the difficulties, the strength or the weakness, of the central +government. Foreign trade and foreign intercourse were +undeveloped, but their influence was in historical times never +entirely absent, while the influence of Roman law and the +Christian Church constantly tended to modify the manorial +organization. In the towns the division of labour had proceeded +much further than in the rural districts, and there were in +existence organized bodies, such as the Gild Merchant and the +crafts, whose functions were primarily economic. But one of +the most striking characteristics of town life in the middle ages +was the manner in which municipal and industrial privileges +and responsibilities were interwoven. In modern times the +artisan, however well trained, efficient and painstaking he may +be, does not, in virtue of these qualities, enjoy any municipal +or political privileges. By means of his trade union, co-operative +society or club he may gain some experience in the management +of men and business, and in so far as the want of a sufficient +income does not constitute an insuperable difficulty, he may +share in the public life of the country. But in his character as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span> +artisan he enjoys no municipal or political privileges. In the +middle ages this differentiation of the industrial, municipal and +political life had not taken place, and in order to understand the +working of at first sight purely economic regulations it is +necessary to make a close study of the functions of local government. +But this, after all, does not carry us very far. From the +very nature of the records in which we study the town life of +the middle ages, it follows that we obtain from them only a one-sided +view. No one knows what proportion of the industrial +population was included in the organized gilds, or how complete +was the control exercised by these bodies over their members. +Elaborate regulations were in force, but no one knows how elastic +they were in practice. Medieval Englishmen were particularly +apt to put their aspirations into a legal form, and then rest +satisfied with their achievement. The number of regulations is +scarcely to be regarded as a test of their administrative success. +Further, as the country became more consolidated and the +central government extended its authority over economic affairs, +new regulations came into force, new organs of government +appeared, which were sometimes in conflict, sometimes in harmony, +with the existing system, and it becomes for a time far +more difficult to obtain a clear view of the actual working of +economic institutions. Thus the study of the economic life of +the middle ages is one of the most complicated subjects which +can engage the attention of man. It is impossible to carry the +process of isolation very far. The different threads of social +activity are so closely interwoven that we cannot follow any one +for very long without forming wrong impressions, and it becomes +necessary to turn back and study others which seemed at first +sight unrelated to the subject of our investigations. Under an +apparently uniform and stable system of social regulation there +was much variation and movement, the significance of which +it is impossible to estimate. Materials for forming such an +estimate no doubt exist, but before doing so we have to study in +infinite detail a vast number of separate manors, municipalities +or other separate economic areas. This involves great industry +on the part of many scientific workers. Meanwhile we can +<i>illustrate</i> the economic life of the middle ages, describe its main +features, indicate the more important measures of public policy +and draw attention to some of the main lines of development.</p> + +<p>It is only as we approach more modern times that the conditions +of economic study are realized and economic science, +as we understand it, becomes possible. Those conditions +are: (i.) the life of the state or other community +<span class="sidenote">Conditions of economic science.</span> +or communities we are studying must be so differentiated +that we can isolate those functions which are +wholly or predominantly economic. The “separation of employments” +is not only a condition of economic efficiency; it was +necessary before we could have an economic science. (ii.) We +must be in a position so far to understand and estimate the +character and motives of different classes and groups in these +communities that we can rightly interpret their action. This +condition cannot be realized without great difficulty, for +“economic motives” are very different in different periods, +nations and classes, and even for short periods of time in the +same country are modified by the influence of other motives of +an entirely different order. In studying the economic history +of the 18th century, for example, it is not enough to assume with +Defoe that “gain is the design of merchandise.” We have to be +saturated, as it were, with 18th-century influences, so that we +can realize the conditions in which industry and trade were +carried on, before we can rightly explain the course of development. +In our own day labour disputes, to take another example, +can scarcely ever be resolved into a question of merely pecuniary +gain or loss. The significance of the amount of money involved +varies greatly for different trades, and can only be understood +by reference to the character and habits of the people concerned. +But questions of sentiment, shop-feeling and trade customs +invariably play an important part. (iii.) Economics can never +lead to anything but hypothetical results unless we not only +realize that we must “take account of” other than the purely +economic factors, but also give due weight and significance to +these factors. No explanation of the industrial situation in +Germany, for example, would be intelligible or satisfactory even +from the economic point of view which ignored the significance +of the political conditions which Germans have to deal with. +So, again, it is impossible to make a useful comparative estimate +of the advantages and disadvantages of the transport systems +of England, the United States and Germany, unless we keep +constantly in view the very different geographical, military and +political conditions which these systems have to satisfy. (iv.) +Sufficient information must be available to enable us to test +the validity of our hypotheses and conclusions. Whatever +“method” of economic investigation we employ, we must at +every stage see how far our reasoning is borne out by the actual +experience of life. This obvious condition of scientific inquiry is +very far from being completely realized even at the present time. +It implies the existence of a well-trained class engaged in the +work of collecting information, and much organization both by +the state and private bodies. These four conditions can be +reduced to two. The community we are studying must have +reached such a stage of development that its economic functions +and those immediately cognate to them form a well-defined +group, and adequate means must be available so that we can, as +it were, watch the performance of these functions and test our +hypotheses and conclusions by observation and experience.</p> + +<p>It is easy to understand, therefore, why we trace the beginnings +of economics, so far as England is concerned, in the 16th century, +and why the application of strict scientific tests in this subject +of human study has become possible only in comparatively +recent times. Medieval economics was little more than a +casuistical system of elaborate and somewhat artificial rules of +conduct. From the close of the middle ages until the middle of +the 18th century thousands of pamphlets and other works on +economic questions were published, but the vast majority of +the writers have little or no scientific importance. Their works +frequently contain information given nowhere else, and throw +much light on the state of opinion in the age in which they wrote. +It is also possible to find in them many anticipations of the views +of the economists of later times; but such statements were as +a rule generated merely by the heat of controversy on some +measure or event of practical importance, and when the controversy +died down were seldom regarded or incorporated in a +scientific system. Trade bias, personal impressions and guesswork +took the place of scientific method. This was inevitable +in the absence of trustworthy information on an adequate scale, +and from the immediately practical aims of the writers. But +from the end of the 17th century economics has been definitely +recognized as a subject of scientific study.</p> + +<p>In modern times the conditions which have made economic +science possible have also made it necessary. While it is impossible +to give a strictly economic interpretation +of the earlier history of nations, economic interests +<span class="sidenote">Necessity of economic science.</span> +so govern the life and determine the policy of modern +states that other forces, like those of religion and +politics, seem to play only a subsidiary part, modifying here and +there the view which is taken of particular questions, but not +changing in any important degree the general course of their +development. This may be, in the historical sense, merely a +passing phase of human progress, due to the rapid extension of +the industrial revolution to all the civilized and many of the +uncivilized nations of the world, bringing in its train the consolidation +of large areas, a similarity of conditions within them, +and amongst peoples and governments a great increase in the +strength of economic motives. When the world has settled +down to the new conditions, if it ever does so, we may be confronted +with problems similar to those which our forefathers +had to solve. But, for the time, if we know the economic interests +of nations, classes and individuals, we can tell with more +accuracy than ever before how in the long run they will act. +Public policy therefore requires the closest possible study of the +economic forces which are moulding the destinies of the great +nations of the world. In most civilized countries except England +this is recognized, and adequate provision is made for the study +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span> +of economic science. But the subject is not only of immediate +concern to the state in its corporate and public capacity. The +neglect of it in the domain of private business can now only lead +to disastrous results. To quote from a useful work (<i>National +Education: a Symposium</i>, 1901), “the commercial supremacy +of England was due to a variety of causes, of which superior +intelligence, in the ordinary business sense, was not the most +important. Her insular position, continuity of political development +and freedom from domestic broils played an important +part in bringing about a steady and continuous growth of industry +and manufactures for several generations before the modern era. +The great wars of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, +which arrested the growth of continental nations, gave England +the control of the markets of the world. When peace was restored, +England enjoyed something in the nature of a monopoly. The +competition of France ceased for a time to be an important +factor. What is now the German empire was a mere congeries +of small states, waging perpetual tariff wars upon each other. +In the old Prussian provinces alone there were fifty-three different +customs frontiers, and German manufactures could not develop +until the growth of the Zollverein brought with it commercial +consolidation, internal freedom and greater homogeneity of +economic conditions. The industries of the United States were +in their infancy. Thus the productive power of England was +unrivalled, and her manufactures and business men, under a +régime rapidly approximating to complete freedom of trade, +could reap the full advantages to be derived from the possession +of great national resources and production by machinery. +Commercial supremacy required not so much highly trained +intelligence amongst manufacturers and merchants as keen +business instinct and a certain rude energy. In the last generation +all that has changed, and the change is of a permanent +character. The struggle of the future must inevitably be +between a number of great nations, more or less equally well +equipped, carrying on production by the same general methods, +each one trying to strengthen its industrial and commercial +position by the adoption of the most highly developed machinery, +and all the methods suggested by scientific research, policy or +experience. Under these conditions, it is no longer possible for +the individual merchant, or for small groups of merchants, to +acquaint themselves, by personal experience alone, with more +than a fractional part of the causes which affect the business in +which they are engaged. The spread of the modern industrial +system has brought with it the modern state, with its millions +of consumers, its vast area, its innumerable activities, its complicated +code of industrial and commercial law. At the same +time, the revolution in the means of transport and communication +has destroyed, or is tending to destroy, local markets, and closely +interwoven all the business of the world. Events in the most +distant countries, industrial and commercial movements at +first sight unrelated to the concerns of the individual merchant, +now exert a direct and immediate influence upon his interests. +The technical training of the factory or the office, the experience +of business, the discharge of practical duties, necessary as they +are, do not infallibly open the mind to the large issues of the +modern business world, and can never confer the detailed +acquaintance with facts and principles which lie outside the +daily routine of the individual, but are none the less of vital +importance.” Economics, therefore, under modern conditions, +is not only a subject which may usefully occupy the attention +of a leisured class of scientific men. It should form part of the +training of educated men of all classes, on grounds of public +policy and administrative and business efficiency.</p> + +<p>The relations between economics and other sciences cannot +be stated in a very general form. They vary for different +periods, and are not the same for all branches of +economics. There is no subject of human study which +<span class="sidenote">Relations between economics and other sciences.</span> +may not be at some time or other of economic significance, +and anything which affects the character, the +ideals or the environment of man may make it +necessary to modify our assumptions and our reasoning with +regard to his conduct in economic affairs. But if the economist, +while studying one side of man’s activities, must also cultivate +all other branches of human learning, it is obvious that no +substantial progress can be made. The economist frankly +assumes the reality of the existing world and takes men as they +are, or as they have been if he is studying past times. His +assumptions are based upon ordinary observation and experience, +and are usually accurate in proportion to his practical shrewdness +and sagacity, so that he is not interested in the speculative +flights of philosophy, except in so far as they influence or have +influenced conduct. In times past, and to a less extent in our +own day, philosophical conceptions have formed the basis of +great systems of politics and economics. The historical relations +between philosophy and economics are of great importance in +tracing the development of the latter, and have done much to +determine its present form. But the modern conception of +society or the state owes more to biology than philosophy, and +actual research has destroyed more frequently than it has +justified the assumptions of the older philosophical school. +Experimental psychology may in course of time have an important +bearing on economics, but the older science cannot be said to +be of much significance except in its historical aspects. Ethics +is in much the same position. That is, it is possible to conceive +of an ethical science which would extend considerably our +knowledge of economic affairs, but no important new principle +or original discovery, relevant to economic investigation, has +come from that quarter in recent years, and at present ethics +has more to learn from economics than the latter has from ethics. +It is in the adaptation of biological conceptions and methods, +in the positive contributions of jurisprudence, law and history, +in the rigorous application, where possible, of quantitative tests, +that the explanation of the present position of economics is +to be found. Mathematics has influenced the form and the +terminology of the science, and has sometimes been useful +in analysis; but mathematical methods of reasoning, in their +application to economics, while possessing a certain fascination, +are of very doubtful utility.</p> + +<p>There is no method of investigation which is peculiarly +economic or of which economics has the monopoly. In every +age economists have applied the methods ordinarily +in use amongst scientific men. There would probably +<span class="sidenote">Method of economic investigation.</span> +have been no controversy at all on this subject but for +the fact that economics was elaborated into systematic +form, and made the basis of practical measures of the greatest +importance, long before the remarkable development in the 19th +century of historical research, experimental science and biology. +The application of the <i>a priori</i> method in economics was an +accident, due to its association with other subjects and the +general backwardness of other sciences rather than any exceptional +and peculiar character in the subject-matter of the science itself. +The methods applied to economics in the 18th and the early part +of the 19th century were no more invented with a special view +to that subject than the principles of early railway legislation, +in the domain of practical policy, were devised with a special +view to what was then a new means of transport. As a matter +of fact, discussions of method and the criticism of hypotheses +and assumptions are very rarely found in early economic works. +It is only by reference to the prevailing ideas in philosophy and +politics that we can discover what was in the minds of their +authors. The growth of a science is much like the growth of a +constitution. It proceeds by adaptation and precedent. The +scientific and historical movement of the 19th century was +revolutionary in character. When it began to affect economics, +many people were afraid that the whole fabric of science +would be destroyed and the practical gains it had achieved, +jeopardized. These fears were justified, in so far as those who +entertained them shut their eyes to everything new and assumed +an attitude of no compromise. Where the newer methods were +assimilated, the position of economics was strengthened and +its practical utility increased. General discussion of method, +however, is rarely profitable. In all branches of economics, +even in what is called the pure theory, there is an implied reference +to certain historical or existing conditions of a more or less +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span> +definite character; to the established order of an organized +state or other community, at a stage of development which in +its main features can be recognized. In all economic investigation +assumptions must be made, but we must see that they are +legitimate in view of the actual life and character of the community +or communities which are the subject of investigation. In +common with other sciences, economics makes use of “abstractions”; +but if for some problems we employ symbolic processes +of reasoning, we must keep clearly in view the limits of their +significance, and neither endow the symbols with attributes +they can never possess, nor lose sight of the realities behind them. +Every hypothesis must be tested by an appeal to the facts of life, +and modified or abandoned if it will not bear examination, unless +we are convinced on genuine evidence that it may for a time be +employed as a useful approximation, without prejudice to the +later stages of the investigation we are conducting.</p> + +<p>We shall best illustrate the character and method of economic +reasoning by examples, and for that purpose let us take first of +all a purely historical problem, namely, the effect on +the wage-earners of the wages clauses of the Statute of +<span class="sidenote">An illustration of economic method.</span> +Apprenticeship (1563). It is at once obvious that we +are dealing not with an abstract scheme of regulation +in a hypothetical world, but with an act of parliament nominally +in force for two hundred and fifty years, and applicable to a +great variety of trades whose organization and history can be +ascertained. The conclusions we reach may or may not modify +any opinions we have formed as to the manner in which wages +are determined under modern conditions. For the time being +such opinions are irrelevant to the question we are investigating, +and the less they are in our minds the better. There is no reason +why we should apply to this particular act a different method of +inquiry from that we should apply to any other of the numerous +acts, of more or less economic importance, passed in the same +session of parliament. The first step is to see whether there is a +<i>prima facie</i> case for inquiry, for many acts of parliament have +been passed which have never come into operation at all, or have +been administered only for a short time on too limited a scale to +have important or lasting results. The justices were authorized +to fix wages at the Easter quarter sessions. Did they exercise +their powers? To answer this question we must collect the +wages assessments sanctioned by the magistrates. This is a +perfectly simple and straightforward operation, involving nothing +more than familiarity with records and industry in going through +them. Without having recourse to any elaborate process of +economic reasoning, by confining our attention to one simple +question, namely, what happened, we can establish conclusions +of the greatest interest to economic historians and, further, +define the problem we have to investigate. We can show, for +example: (1) that the Statute of Apprenticeship did not stand +alone; it was one of a long series of similar measures, beginning +more than two centuries before, which in their turn join on to +the municipal and gild regulations of the middle ages; one of an +important group of statutes, more or less closely interwoven +throughout their history, administered by local authorities +whose functions had grown largely in connexion with this +legislation and the gradual differentiation of the trades and +callings to which it related. (2) That wages were regulated with +much greater frequency during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I. +and Charles I. than at any later period. (3) That they were +regulated in some counties and not in others. (4) That in the +counties and towns where they were regulated the action of the +magistrates was in general spasmodic, and rarely continuous +for a long series of years. (5) That the magistrates used their +powers sometimes to raise wages, sometimes to force them down. +(6) That the local variations of wages and prices were what we +should call excessive, so that the standard of comfort in one +district was very different from that of others. (7) That the +wages assessments group themselves round certain short periods, +coincident in many instances with high prices, increase of poverty, +and other causes of exceptional action. (8) That what we may +call, with the above limitations, the effective period of the act +terminates with the outbreak of the Civil War. (9) That +subsequent to that period organic changes in the industries +affected, coupled with the incompetence of parliament to adapt +the old legislation to new conditions, and the growing acceptance +of the doctrine of <i>laissez faire</i>, brought about a general disuse of +the statute, though isolated attempts to enforce it were made +and new acts applicable to certain trades were passed in the 18th +century. (10) For more than one hundred years before the +repeal of the act, trade unions and other forms of voluntary +association amongst wage-earners, combinations amongst employers, +collective agreements, customary regulations, were +established in many of the important trades of the country. +But these conclusions, after all, suggest more difficulties than +they remove, for they show that our inquiry, instead of presenting +certain well-marked features which can be readily dealt with, +has to be split up into a number of highly specialized studies: +the investigation of rates of wages, prices and the standard +of comfort in different localities, bye-industries, regularity of +employment, the organization of particular trades, the economic +functions of local authorities, apprenticeship and a host of +other subjects. Moreover, all these subjects hang together, so +that it seems impossible to come to a decision about one of them +without knowing all about the others.</p> + +<p>It is a comparatively simple thing to state the question to +which we want an answer, but extremely difficult to define the +exact nature of the evidence which will constitute a good answer; +easy enough to say we must try hypothesis after hypothesis, and +test each one by an appeal to the facts, but a man may easily +spend his life in this sort of thing and still leave to his descendants +nothing more than a legacy of rejected hypotheses. Every +volume of records we look through contains a mass of detailed +information on the economic life of England in the period we +are studying. How much of it is relevant to the subject of +inquiry? What is to be the principle of selection? How shall +we determine the relative weight and importance of different +kinds of relevant evidence? As in modern problems, so in those +of past times, a man requires for success qualities quite distinct +from those conferred by merely academic training and the use +of scientific methods. A correct sense of proportion and the +faculty of seizing upon the dominant factors in an historical +problem are the result partly of the possession of certain natural +gifts in which many individuals and some nations are conspicuously +wanting, partly of general knowledge of the working +of the economic and political institutions of the period we are +studying, partly of what takes the place of practical experience +in relation to modern problems, namely, detailed acquaintance +with different kinds of original sources and the historical imagination +by which we can realize the life and the ideals of past +generations. These qualities are required all the more because, +in order to make any further progress with such an inquiry as +we have suggested, we have deliberately to make use of +abstraction as an instrument of investigation.</p> + +<p>Let us see how this will work out. Suppose we have selected +one of the numerous subsidiary problems suggested by the +general inquiry, and obtained such full and complete +information about one particular industry that we +<span class="sidenote">The plan of a general theory.</span> +can tabulate the wages of the workers for a long series +of years. We may do the same for other industries, +some of them coming under the Statute of Apprenticeship, others +not. If all the industries belong to one economic area over which, +so far as we can tell from general statistics of wages and prices, +and other information, fairly homogeneous conditions prevailed, +we may be able to reach some useful conclusions as to the +operation of the act. But it would be absurd to suppose that +we could reach those conclusions by simple reference to the trades +themselves. We cannot assume that the fluctuations in wages +were due to the action or inaction of magistrates without the +most careful examination of the other influences affecting the +trades. In economic affairs the argument <i>post hoc propter hoc</i> +never leads to the whole truth, and is frequently quite misleading. +We cannot suppose that the policy of the Merchant Adventurers’ +Company had nothing to do with the woollen industry; that the +export trade in woollen cloth was quite independent of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span> +foreign exchanges and international trade relations in those +times; that the effect on wages of the state of the currency, +the influx of new silver, the character of the harvests, and many +other influences can be conveniently ignored. In studying, +therefore, such an apparently simple question as the effect of an +act of parliament on wages in a small group of trades we want a +general theory which we can use as a kind of index of the factors +we have to consider.</p> + +<p>Assuming that we have in our minds this safeguard against +loose thinking and neglect of important factors, the investigation +of the special problems arising out of the general +inquiry resolves itself into a careful definition of each +<span class="sidenote">Difficulties due to want of evidence.</span> +problem we wish to deal with, and the collection, +tabulation and interpretation of the evidence. In +most cases the interpretation of the facts is far from obvious, +and we have to try several hypotheses before we reach one +which will bear the strain of a critical examination in the light +of further evidence. But at this stage in historical investigation +it is generally the want of evidence of a sufficiently complete +and continuous character, rather than difficulties of method, +which forces us to leave the problem unsolved. It is, for instance, +practically impossible to obtain reliable evidence as to the +regularity of employment in any industry in the 17th century, +and the best approximations and devices we can invent are very +poor substitutes for what we really want. For this reason guesswork +must continue to play an important part in economic +history. But every genuine attempt to overcome its difficulties +brings us into closer touch with the period we are examining; +and though we may not be able to throw our conclusions into +the form of large generalizations, we shall get to know something +of the operation of the forces which determined the economic +future of England; understand more clearly than our forefathers +did, for we have more information than they could +command, and a fuller appreciation of the issues, the broad +features of English development, and be in a position to judge +fairly well of the measures they adopted in their time. By +comparing England with other countries we may be able in the +distant future to reach conclusions of some generality as to the +laws of growth, maturity and decay of industrial nations. But +like the early statisticians of the 17th century, economic historians +are the “beginners of an art not yet polished, which time may +bring to more perfection.”</p> + +<p>When we come to exclusively modern questions, there is no +reason or necessity for a fundamental change of method. We +cannot suppose that there occurred, at or about the +commencement of the 19th century, a breach of +<span class="sidenote">The investigation of modern questions.</span> +historical continuity of such a character that institutions, +customs, laws and social conventions were +suddenly swept away, the bonds of society loosened, and the +state and people of England dissolved into an aggregate of +competing individuals. The adoption of machinery gradually +revolutionized the methods of production; but in the first +instance only certain industries were affected, and those not at +the same time or in the same degree; old laws grown obsolete +were repealed, but other laws affecting wage-earners and employers +took their place, more complicated and elaborate than +the Elizabethan code. Trade unions, so far from disappearing, +were legalized, gathered strength from the changes in industrial +organization, and nowhere became so powerful as in the most +progressive industries; while other forms of combination +appeared, incomparably stronger, for good or evil, than those +of earlier times. But while we recognize these facts, we must +not suppose that we have to study the action of men as though +they were all enrolled in organized associations, or covered by +stringent laws which were always obeyed. There has never +been in the history of English industry such licence as we find +in certain directions in the earlier part of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>It is not in the decay of combination and monopoly or in the +growth of competition that we must look for the distinctive +characteristics of modern problems. A 17th-century monopoly +was a very weak and ineffective instrument compared +<span class="sidenote">The distinctive features of modern problems.</span> +with a modern syndicate; the Statute of Apprenticeship was +certainly not so widely enforced as the “common rules” of trade +unions; and many of the regulations of past times, which look +so complicated to modern eyes, were conditions of free +enterprise rather than restraints upon it. It is due +to the influence of the <i>laisser faire</i> doctrine that we +regard law and regulation as a restraint on liberty. +As a maxim for guidance in public affairs, <i>laisser faire</i> +was genuinely relevant at the end of the 18th and the beginning +of the 19th century, when the Statute Book was cumbered with +vexatious and obsolete laws. As an explanation of what has +taken place in later years, or of the actual economic life of the +present day, it is ludicrously inadequate. Competition, in the +sense in which the word is still used in many economic works, +is merely a special case of the struggle for survival, and, from its +limitation, does not go far towards explaining the actual working +of modern institutions. To buy in the cheapest market and sell +in the dearest; to secure cheapness by lowering the expenses +of production; to adopt the less expensive rather than the more +expensive method of obtaining a given result—these and other +maxims are as old as human society. Competition, in the +Darwinian sense, is characteristic not only of modern industrial +states, but of all living organisms; and in the narrower sense +of the “higgling of the market” is found on the Stock Exchange, +in the markets of old towns, in medieval fairs and Oriental +bazaars. In modern countries it takes myriads of forms, from +the sweating of parasitic trades to the organization of scientific +research. Economic motives, again, are as varied as the forms +of competition, and their development is coeval with that of +human society. They have to be interpreted in every age in +relation to the state of society, the other motives or ideals with +which they are associated, the kind of action they inspire, and +the means through which they operate. Apparently the same +economic motives have led in the same age and in the same +nation to monopoly and individual enterprise, protection and +free trade, law and anarchy. In our own time they have inspired +both the formation of trade combinations and attempts to break +them up, hostility to all forms of state interference and a belief +in collectivism.</p> + +<p>The conditions which are peculiar to the modern world +are the large numbers we have to deal with, the vast and fairly +homogeneous areas in which justice is administered and property +secured, and the enormously increased facilities for transport +and communication. These conditions are of course not +independent of each other, and they have brought in their train +many consequences, some good and some bad. But they supply +the bases for that general theory which, as we have seen, is +indispensable in economic investigation. From the standpoint +of general theory economic movements assume an impersonal +character and economic forces operate like the forces of nature. +Although economic motives have become more complex, they +have just as much and no more to do with general economic +reasoning and analysis than the causes of death with the normal +expectation of life, or domestic ideals with the birth-rate. So +far as we have anything to do with psychology at all, it is the +psychology of crowds and not of individuals which we have to +consider. If we study the economy of a village, the idiosyncrasies +of every individual in it are of importance. If the village +is replaced by a large area, inhabited by millions, with modern +facilities of communication, it is a matter of observation and +experience that for the purposes of general reasoning the idiosyncrasies +of individuals may be neglected. Whether such large +numbers have the character of the “economic man” of the +early economists matters very little. All the assumptions we +require are furnished by observation of people in the mass and the +larger generalizations of statistics. Thus we can construct a +kind of envelope of theory, which, by careful testing as we proceed, +can be made to indicate in a general manner the reactions +of one part of the activities of the economic world upon the others, +and the interdependence of the several parts. From its very +nature this general theory can never correspond strictly to the +actual life and movement of any given state. It is useful and +necessary, and plays somewhat the same part in economic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span> +investigation as ton-mile statistics do in the administration of a +railway. To express in any language or to illustrate by any +images, from a purely objective standpoint, the infinitely complicated +movements of the actual world, is a task far beyond +human capacity.</p> + +<p>With the aid of this general theory the methods we have +sketched in relation to historical problems apply with greater +force to the special problems of modern times, and are +rewarded with results more accurate, more fruitful, +<span class="sidenote">Application to modern problems.</span> +more relevant to difficulties which all civilized nations +have to face, than those of historical research. To +many minds the interest and usefulness of economics depend +entirely on the application of these methods, for it is the actual +working of economic institutions about which the statesman, +the publicist, the business man and the artisan wish to know. +Under the conditions we have described, many of the most +interesting problems of our own time, when they are once +defined, resolve themselves into statistical inquiries. But in +most cases such an inquiry cannot be successfully carried out +by a mere statistician. Definite economic problems can very +rarely be dealt with by merely quantitative methods. In the +tabulation and interpretation of statistical evidence, as in its +collection, it is scarcely possible to overrate the importance of +wide knowledge and experience. There is another very important +instrument of investigation which can be used in our own time, +but cannot be employed in historical research. Historical +documents, however detailed, rarely show all the factors we have +to deal with or fully explain a given situation. No sane person +would suppose that the minutes of a modern legislative body +explain the steps by which legislation has been passed, or the +issues really involved. The ostensible cause of a modern labour +dispute is frequently not the real or the most important cause. +In modern problems we can watch the economic machine actually +at work, cross-examine our witnesses, see that delicate interplay +of passions and interests which cannot be set down or described +in a document, and acquire a certain sense of touch in relation to +the questions at issue which manuscripts and records cannot +impart. We can therefore substitute sound diagnosis for guesswork +more frequently in modern than in historical problems.</p> + +<p>What then, it may be asked, becomes of the “old Political +Economy”? Of what possible use are the works of the so-called +classical writers, except in relation to the history of economics +and the practical influence of theory in past times? If we take +the mere popular view of what is meant by the “old Political +Economy,” that is, that a generation or so ago economics was +comprised in a neatly rounded set of general propositions, +<span class="sidenote">The “old political economy.”</span> +universally accepted, which could be set forth in a +text-book and learnt like the multiplication table, it +is not incumbent on the present generation to define +its attitude at all. In this sense of the words, there +was no faith delivered to our fathers which we are under any +obligation to guard or even explain. If by the “old Political +Economy” we mean the methods and conclusions of certain +great writers, who stood head and shoulders above their contemporaries +and determined the general character of economic +science, we are still under no obligation to define the attitude +of the present generation with regard to them. The fact that +Adam Smith, with the meagre materials of the 18th century +at his disposal, saw his way to important generalizations which +later research has established on a firm basis, may enhance +greatly the reputation of Adam Smith, but does not strengthen +the generalizations. They stand or fall by the strength of the +evidence for or against them. In the history of economics or +the biography of Ricardo it is of interest to show that he anticipated +later writers, or that his analysis bears the test of modern +criticism; but no economist is under any obligation to defend +Ricardo’s reputation, nor is the fact that a doctrine is included +in his works to be taken as a demonstration of its truth. The +appeal to authority cannot be permitted in economics any more +than in chemistry, physics or astronomy. But the cases stated +above suggest more or less false issues. There has been no +revolution in economic science, and is not likely to be any. The +question we have really to determine is how we can make the +best use of the accumulated knowledge of past generations, and +to do that we must look more closely into the economic science of +the 19th century.</p> + +<p>Any one who has taken the trouble to trace the history of one +of the modern schools of economists, or of any branch of economic +science, knows how difficult it is to say when it began. “Anticipations” +of method and doctrine can generally be found by the +diligent investigator in the economic literature of his own or a +foreign country. So that cross-sections of the stream of economic +thought will reveal the existence, at different times, in varying +proportions and at different stages of development, of most of +the modern “schools.” Again, the classification of an economic +bibliography at once shows how varied has been the character +of economic investigation, ranging from the most abstract +speculation on the one hand to almost technical studies of +particular trades on the other. Of the great army of writers who +flourished in the first half of the 19th century some were +closely identified with the utilitarian school, and the majority +were influenced in a greater or less degree by the prevailing +ideas of that school. Others, however, were hostile to it. In +many works, such as those of a statistical or historical character, +there are frequently to be found passages which could have been +written in no other period, but are only of the nature of ejaculations +and do not affect the argument. In stating the position of +economics during this time we cannot ignore all writers, except +these who belonged to one group, however eminent that group +may have been, simply because they did not represent the +dominant ideas of the period, and exercised no immediate and +direct influence on the movement of economic thought. We +must include the pioneers of the historical school, the economic +historians, the socialists, the statisticians, and others whose +contributions to economics are now appreciated, and without +whose labours the science as we know it now would have been +impossible. If we take this broadly historical view of the progress +of economics, it is obvious that even in England there was no +general agreement, during the 19th century, as to the methods +most appropriate to economic investigation.</p> + +<p>Suppose, now, we ignore the writers who were inaugurating +new methods, investigating special problems or laboriously +collecting facts, and concentrate attention on the dominant +school, with its long series of writers from Adam Smith to John +Stuart Mill. It is the work of these writers which people have +in mind when they speak of the “old Political Economy.” There +are several quite distinct questions we can ask with regard to +them. That they must be studied closely by every one who +wishes to follow the history of economics goes without saying. +That they must be studied by the economic historian is equally +clear, owing to their practical influence and the fact that they +furnished the theoretical bases of much of the economic policy +of the 19th century. This is true whether their method is good +or bad, whether their conclusions are true or false. It is not so +easy to determine their relevance and usefulness in relation to +distinctively modern problems, or to indicate within what limits +their work is of permanent value, and we can only deal with these +questions in their more general aspects.</p> + +<p>It must be clear to every observer that the economists of the +classical period, with the one exception of Adam Smith, will +speedily share the fate of nearly all scientific writers. They will +be forgotten, and their books will not be read. Adams Smith’s +<i>Wealth of Nations</i>, if it has ever been, has long ceased to be a +scientific text-book. Whether a modern economist accepts his +views or not is of no importance. There is probably not a single +chapter in the <i>Wealth of Nations</i> which would be thoroughly +endorsed by any living economist. But the reputation of the +book and its author is quite independent of considerations of this +kind. The <i>Wealth of Nations</i> is one of the great books of the +world, many of the sayings of which are likely to be more frequently +quoted in the future than they have been in the 19th +century. Malthus is already an author whose name is probably +more widely known than that of any other economist, but whose +works are rarely read, and studied only by a small proportion of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span> +the few people who write books on the history of economic +theory. Of economic students, many are unaware of the fact +that he wrote any other book than the <i>Essay on the Principle +of Population</i>, and what is of permanent importance in that work +is contained in the generalization which it suggested to Darwin. +Moreover, modern economists, while accepting in the main the +general tenor of Malthus’s theory of population, would not agree +with his statement of it. Like Malthus, Ricardo owes his reputation +very largely to the theory associated with his name, though +it has long ceased to be stated precisely in the terms he employed. +But there are very few people in the world who have made a +careful study of his works; and although his theory of rent has +a wide and increasing application in economics, it is not comparable +in general scientific importance with Malthus’s theory of +population. It is already impossible to take J.S. Mill’s <i>Principles +of Political Economy</i> as a text-book. Important as it was for +thirty or forty years, it will soon be as little read as M’Culloch’s +<i>Principles</i>. For the rest of the economists of this period, it is +difficult to see how they can escape oblivion. When the generation +whose economic training was based upon J.S. Mill has died out, +the relevance of the “old Political Economy” is not likely to +be a question of any interest to ordinary educated men and +women, or even to the great mass of economic students.</p> + +<p>The explanation of this decay of interest does not lie upon the +surface. It is frequently supposed that the influence of the “old +Political Economy” has been gradually undermined by the +attacks of the historical school. But great as the achievements +of this school have been, it has not developed any scientific +machinery which can take the place of theory in economic +investigation. If our view is correct that, broadly speaking, +the two ways of regarding economic questions are complementary +rather than mutually exclusive, there does not seem to be any +reason why the growth of the historical school should have been +destructive of the “old Political Economy” if it had been well +founded. The use of the historical method has, in fact, raised +more reputations than it has destroyed, because by keeping +carefully in view the conditions in which economic works have +been written, it has shown that many theories hastily condemned +as unsound by <i>a priori</i> critics had much to be said for them at the +time when they were propounded. This observation is true not +only of old-world writers like the Mercantilists, but also of +Ricardian economics. No one is concerned to prove that the +Ricardian economics applies to the manorial system, and it is +generally supposed at any rate that the world has been approximating +more and more nearly during the last century to the +conditions assumed in most of the reasoning of that school. On +the principles we have explained, therefore, the Ricardian +economics should supply just that body of general theory which +is required in the investigation of modern economic problems, +and the reputation of at any rate the leading writers should be +as great as ever. It would be of immense advantage from a +scientific point of view if this could be taken for granted, if for +a time the work of the classical economists could be considered +final so far as it goes, and for the purposes of investigation regarded +as the theoretical counterpart of the modern industrial +system. This assumption, however, has been made quite impossible, +not by the historical school, but by the criticism and +analysis of economists in the direct line of the Ricardian succession.</p> + +<p>Modern economic criticism and analysis has destroyed the +authority of the “old Political Economy” as a scientific system. +The assumptions, the definitions, the reasoning, the conclusions +of the classical writers have been ruthlessly overhauled. Defects +in their arguments have been exposed to view by those who are +most concerned to defend their reputation. Writers with none +of the prejudices of the historical school, but with the cold and +remorseless regard for logic of the purely objective critic, have +pointed out serious inconsistencies here, the omission of important +factors there, until very little of the “old Political Economy” +is left unscathed. In fact, there never was a scientific system +at all. What was mistaken for it was fashioned in the heat of +controversy by men whose interests were practical rather than +scientific, who could not write correct English, and revealed in +their reasoning the usual fallacies of the merely practical man. +So the “old Political Economy” lies shattered. It is useless +to suppose that this destructive criticism from within can be +neutralized by generously sprinkling the pages of the classical +writers with interpretation clauses. This may serve to show +that the ideals of our youth were not without justification; but +the younger generation, which does not care about our ideals, +and looks to the future rather than the past, will not read +annotated editions of old books, however eminent their authors. +If the Ricardian school of economists had been merely philosophers, +or even a group like the French physiocrats, this +state of things might be regarded with equanimity. We might +assume that criticism and analysis had separated the wheat from +the chaff in their writings, that everything of permanent value +had probably been preserved and incorporated in the works of +later economists. But the character of much of their work +makes this assumption impossible. It is, in fact, quite true that +many of them were more interested in practical aims than in the +<span class="sidenote">Ricardo’s limitations.</span> +advancement of economic science. We may talk of +the assumptions implicitly involved in Ricardo’s +works. In reality we do not know what those assumptions +were; we only know what assumptions we should +make in order to reach the same conclusions, and they may be +very different from “the mind of Ricardo.” Ricardo’s works, +in fact, do not explain a theoretical system, but contain the +matured reflections, more or less closely reasoned, of a man of +great mental power looking out on the world as it appeared to a +business man experienced in affairs. The conclusions of such a +work are of wider significance than the assumptions we attribute +to the author would warrant. They are not expressed in terms +which satisfy our canons of scientific accuracy. Dissected +sentence by sentence, the book may be shown to be a mass of +inconsistencies. If it has the misfortune to be systematized by +an enthusiastic but dull and incompetent disciple, it may appear +even absurd. But after all the misinterpretation of contemporaries +and the destructive criticism of later times, the book as +a whole leaves upon us an impression of peculiar strength and +charm, and imparts a sense of the relations of things truer, +because less mechanical, than the laboured reasoning of smaller +men. Such is the character of much of the work of Ricardo and +some of his contemporaries. We think that the decay of interest +in these writers involves a real loss, and that students of modern +problems may do worse than read Ricardo and his school. Some +of the criticism of their works, necessary and useful as it has been, +will probably be corrected later on by that breadth of view and +sense of proportion which has enabled us to appreciate justly +the achievements of lesser men in more remote times. But +rehabilitation in accordance with the canons of historical justice +will not restore the lost influence of the Ricardian school. Their +achievements in the 19th century will be fully acknowledged, +but the relevance of their work to the problems of the 20th +century will be admitted less than at the present time.</p> + +<p>In a subject like economics it must always be very difficult +to decide how far a departure from the traditional form and +expression of its main doctrines is necessary or desirable. +No one who is really experienced in economic +<span class="sidenote">Economics a conservative science.</span> +investigation cares to emphasize the originality, still +less the revolutionary character of his own work. It +is much more likely than not that some principle which for the +moment seems new, some distinction which we may flatter ourselves +has not been observed before, has been pointed out over +and over again by previous writers, although, owing to special +circumstances, it may not have received the notice it deserved. +Economics is therefore, on the whole, an intensely conservative +science, in which new truths are cautiously admitted or incorporated +merely as extensions or qualifications of those enunciated +by previous writers. This procedure has its advantages, but it +may easily become dangerous by destroying the influence of the +science it is meant to preserve. It is not unlike the procedure +of the canonists and casuists of the middle ages with regard to +the doctrine of usury, by which the doctrine was to all appearances +preserved intact while in reality it was stripped of all its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span> +original meaning by innumerable distinctions “over-curious +and precise.” In the same way the doctrines of the classical +economists may be adapted by interpretation clauses and +qualifications the exact force of which cannot be tested or explained, +so that we do not know whether the original proposition +is to be considered substantially correct or not. The result will +be that while the doctrines are apparently being brought into +closer correspondence with the facts of life, they will in reality +be made quite useless for practical purposes or economic investigation. +It is easier to point out the danger than to suggest +how it should be met. The position we have described is no +doubt partly due to the unsettlement of economic opinion +and the hostile criticism of old-established doctrines which +has characterized the last generation. Or it may be the +result of economic agnosticism, combined with unwillingness +to cut adrift from old moorings. Whatever the cause, the complete +restatement of economic theory, which some heroic persons +demand, is clearly impossible, except on conditions not likely +to be realized in the immediate future. The span of life is limited; +the work requires an extensive knowledge of the economic +literature of several countries and the general features of all the +important departments of modern economic activity. In general +theory special studies by other men cannot play the same part +as they do in historical and statistical work. In historical and +statistical investigation, or in special studies of particular subjects, +it is possible, given the pecuniary means, to organize a +whole army of skilled assistants, and with ordinary care to +combine the results of their separate efforts. In general theory +the inverse rule seems to prevail. There the unity of conception +and aim, the firm grip of all the different lines of argument and +their relation to each other, which are required, can only be +given by a single brain. But no one individual can do original +work over the whole field. He is lucky if he can throw new light +on a few old propositions. For the rest, he can only, with the +utmost caution, adopt the suggestions of other minds as qualifications +of old doctrines, never feeling quite sure that he is right in +doing so. A complete restatement could only be undertaken +by a group of men, trained in much the same conditions, accustomed +to think and work together, each one engaged on a special +department, but all acting under the control of one master-mind. +This is largely a question of the organization of economic studies, +and it is of the greatest importance that, if possible, such an effort +should be made to present in a connected form the best results +of modern criticism and analysis.</p> + +<p>Economics is unlike many other sciences in the fact that its +claim to recognition must be based upon its practical utility, +on its relevance to the actual life of the economic +world, on its ability to unravel the social and economic +<span class="sidenote">Some recent developments of economic theory.</span> +difficulties of each generation, and to contribute to the +progress of nations. The very effectiveness of modern +criticism and analysis, which has brought great gains in +almost all branches of economic theory, has made the +science more difficult as a subject of ordinary study. The +extensions, the changes or the qualifications, of old doctrines, +which at any rate in the works of responsible writers are rarely +made without good if not always sufficient reason, have modified +very considerably the whole science, and weakened the confidence +of ordinary educated men in its conclusions. In the case of many +subjects this would matter very little, but in that of economics, +which touches the ordinary life of the community at so many +points, it is of great importance, especially at a time like the +present, when economic questions determine the policy of great +nations. The “economic man” of the earlier writers, with his +aversion from labour and his desire of the present enjoyment +of costly indulgences, has been abandoned by their successors, +with the result that in the opinion of many good people altruistic +sentiment may be allowed to run wild over the whole domain +of economics. The “economic man” has, on the other hand, +been succeeded by another creation almost as monstrous, if his +lineaments are to be supposed to be those of the ordinary +individual—a man, that is, who regulates his life in accordance +with Gossen’s Law of Satiety, and whose main passion is to +discover a money measure of his motives. It is extremely important +to consider how far the economic conceptions based upon +this view of the action of men in the ordinary business of life—such, +for example, as the doctrine of marginal utility—depend +for their truth and relevance on the fact that in economics we +are dealing with large aggregates. The earlier writers generally +assumed perfect mobility of labour and capital. No economist +would deliberately make that assumption now unless he were +dealing with some purely theoretical problem, for the solution +of which it was legitimate at some stage in the reasoning. Many +of the questions of the greatest practical importance at the present +time, such as the competition between old and new methods +of manufacturing commodities substantially the same in kind, +and equally useful to the great body of consumers, arise largely +from the immobility of capital or labour, or both of them. But +it is obvious that if the assumption of perfect mobility is invalid, +there is scarcely any economic doctrine identified with the +earlier writers which may not require modification, in what +degree it is impossible to say without very careful investigation. +Much suggestive work on this subject of a general character is +incorporated in economic books of the present day, but there is +room for a whole series of careful monographs on a question of +such fundamental importance. The same may be said of another +subject, too frequently neglected by earlier writers, to which +due significance has been given in the best recent work, namely, +time in relation to value. It would perhaps be too much to say +that the full consideration of this point has revolutionized the +theory of value, but it has certainly created what seems almost +a new science in close contact with the actual life of the modern +world.</p> + +<p>Some doctrines of the earlier economists, such as the Wages +Fund Theory, are now practically abandoned, though it may be +said that they contained a certain amount of truth. Others, +which were considered of fundamental importance, owe their +position in modern economics and the form in which they are +stated to the “tradition of the elders.” If they could, by some +happy chance, have been left for discovery by modern economists, +they would without doubt have received different treatment, +to the great advantage of economic science. Such a doctrine +is the so-called Law of Diminishing Returns, which Mill considered +“the most important proposition in Political Economy.” +“Unless this one matter,” he says, “be thoroughly understood, +it is to no purpose proceeding any further in our inquiry.” +“Were the law different, nearly all the phenomena of the production +and distribution of wealth would be other than they are.” +On the other hand, Thorold Rogers, not to speak of earlier +objectors, described the law as a “dismal and absurd theorem.” +The opinions of present-day economists appear to fluctuate +between these two extremes. The law may apparently be “a +general rule” or “a tendency” which is liable to be “checked,” +or a particular case of the law of the conservation of energy. +If we go to Mill to discover what it is, we find that “it is not +pretended that the law of diminishing return was operative from +the beginning of society; and though some political economists +may have believed it to come into operation earlier than it does, +it begins quite early enough to support the conclusions they +founded on it.” “It comes into operation at a certain and not +very advanced stage in the progress of agriculture.” But this +very important stage in the history of a nation is not defined or +clearly illustrated. We are told that we can see “the law at +work underneath the more superficial agencies on which attention +fixes itself”; it “undergoes temporary suspension,” which may +last indefinitely; and “there is another agency, in habitual +antagonism” to it, namely, “the progress of civilization,” +which may include every kind of human improvement. Mill +apparently is not content with the confusion between “law” +and “agency” or “force,” but opposes the one to the other. +He is constantly speaking in terms which imply the conquering +of one law by another, a habit from which his successors have not +freed themselves; and the theory of natural processes which +appears to have satisfied him, was that when two forces come into +operation there is a partial or complete suspension of one by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span> +other. In modern economics “fertility” has no very definite +meaning. It may mean what is ordinarily understood by the +word—climate, rainfall, railway rates or anything else except +“indestructible powers of the soil.” To speak of “additional +labour and capital” without reference to the kind and quality +of the labour and capital, and the manner in which they are +employed, organized and directed, throws very little light on +agriculture. Every improvement involves, from a quantitative +point of view, more or less of capital or of labour, so that it is the +“antagonizing” influences, which are nearly all qualitative, +which appear to be really important. It is therefore extraordinarily +difficult at present to know what happens, or rather what +would happen if it were not prevented, when a country reaches +“the stage of diminishing returns”; what precisely it is which +comes into operation, for obviously the diminishing returns are +the results, not the cause; or how commodities “obey” a law +which is always “suspended.” Possibly the present generation +of English industrial history will furnish many illustrations of +the law of diminishing returns. We can only say that it requires +investigation and restatement.</p> + +<p>Closely related to the law of diminishing returns is the Theory +of Rent. No economic doctrine so well illustrates the achievements +and the defects of modern economic analysis. Ricardo’s +statement of the theory left upon the world an impression, not +wholly just, of singular clearness. He employed the theory +with wonderful success in unravelling the problems of his time. +Its importance has not been seriously, or at any rate successfully, +called in question. Treated at first as a doctrine peculiarly +applicable to land, with a certain controverted relevance to other +natural agents, it has been so extended that there is scarcely +any subject of economic study in which we may not expect to +find adaptations or analogies, so that Ricardo seemed to have +discovered the key of economic knowledge. But it was discovered +that there were no “indestructible powers of the soil”; that +the fertility of land in a country like England is almost entirely +the result of improvement at some time or other; that “advantage +of situation” includes very much more than the words in +their literal sense imply; that both “fertility” and “advantage +of situation” include many kinds of differential advantage; +that in some circumstances rent does not enter into the price +of agricultural and other produce, and that in others it does. +Moreover, the study of the theory of rent has had a very great +influence on all branches of economics by destroying the notion +that it is possible to draw sharp lines of distinction, or deal with +economic conceptions as though they were entirely independent +categories. That modern economic analysis is incomparably +more accurate than that of earlier times there can be no question. +But the net result of the development of the doctrine of rent is +that all problems in which this factor appears, and they embrace +the whole range of economic theory, must apparently be treated +on their merits. In its modern form the doctrine is far too +general to be serviceable without the closest scrutiny of all the +facts relating to the particular case to which it is applied. To +deal adequately with the numerous extensions or qualifications +of these and other doctrines in the hands of modern economists +would involve us in an attempt to do what we have already said +is impossible except on conditions not at present realized. It is +clear that in the interests of general economic theory we require +a vast number of special studies before an adequate restatement +can be undertaken.</p> + +<p>It must be clearly recognized that the functions of economic +science in the present requirements of the world cannot possibly; +be discharged by treatises on economic theory. The +relations between general theory and special studies +<span class="sidenote">Relations between general economics and special studies.</span> +conducted on the lines we have indicated have completely +changed. General theory never has been, and +in the nature of things never can be, the actual reflex +of the life and movement of the economic world. It +never has been, and never can be, more than an indication +of the kind of thing which might be expected in a purely +hypothetical world. When the aim of the man of affairs and the +hypothesis of the economist was unrestricted competition, and +measures were being adopted to realize it, general theory such as +the classical economists provided was perhaps a sufficiently +trustworthy guide for practical statesmen and men of business. +If only people can be got to believe in them, a few abstract +principles are quite enough to destroy an institution which it has +taken centuries to create. But a new institution cannot be +made on the same terms. The modern industrial system has +brought with it an immense variety of practical problems which +nations must solve on pain of industrial and commercial ruin. +For these problems we want, not a few old-established general +principles which no one seriously calls in question, but genuine +constructive and organizing capacity, aided by scientific and +detailed knowledge of particular institutions, industries and +classes. Just as the historical school grew up along with the +greatest constructive achievement of the 19th century, namely, +the consolidation of Germany, so the application to modern +problems of the methods of that school has been called forth by +the constructive needs of the present generation. We have +already shown how these methods, in their turn, require the aid +of general theory, but not of a general theory which tries to do +their work. In fact, every attempt to make it do so must inevitably +fail. How can such a huge mass of general propositions +as are necessarily included in a system of economics ever be +thoroughly tested by an appeal to facts? If they are not so tested, +the general theory will remain a general theory, of no practical +use in itself, until the end of time. It they are to be tested, an +indefinitely large number of special studies must be made, for +which the original materials must be collected and examined. +That is, original investigation of special problems has to be +carried out on a more gigantic scale than any economist of the +historical school ever dreamt of or the world requires, with the +certain knowledge that at the end of it all the general theory will +not correspond with the facts of life. For there is all the difference +in the world between using a body of general theory as an +indication of the factors to be considered in the study of a special +problem, and undertaking special studies with a view to testing +the general theory. If the necessary limitations of general +economic theory are recognized, most of the difficulties we have +noticed disappear. Now that the “industrial revolution” has +extended practically all over the world, so that we have several +countries carrying on production by modern methods, it is easily +possible to sketch the main features of industrial and commercial +organization at the present time, to describe the banking and +currency systems of the principal nations, their means of transport +and communication, their systems of commercial law and +finance, and their commercial policy. It is true that at present +very little work of this kind has been done in England, but +innumerable books, many of them about England, have been +written by thoroughly competent economists, in French, German +and other languages. So that no great amount of original work +is required for a reliable account of those general features of the +modern system which should form the introduction to economics. +The general theory which we require should be sketched in firm +and clear outline, leaving the detailed qualifications of broad +principles to special studies, where they can be dealt with if it is +necessary or desirable, and examined by statistical and other +tests. For such a general theory there is ample material in the +economic literature of all civilized countries. It is of the utmost +importance that the economic terms, which are also, though in +many cases with an entirely different meaning, the terms of +business and commerce, should as far as possible be used in their +common and ordinary English sense: that they should correspond +in meaning with the same words when used in description, +in law, accountancy and ordinary business. This is no doubt +a difficult matter. But some change in this direction is necessary +both in the interests of the science itself and of its practical +utility. All the materials for investigation, all the facts and +figures from which illustrations are drawn, all methods of keeping +accounts in England, assume the ordinary English tongue. +There are few if any conceptions in economics which cannot be +expressed in it without depleting the ordinary vocabulary. At +present the language of economics is for the ordinary Englishman +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span> +like a foreign language of exceptional difficulty, because he is +constantly meeting with words which suggest to his mind a whole +world of associations quite different from those with which +economic theory has clothed them. The refinements of economic +analysis, as distinguished from its broader achievements, should +be reserved for special studies, in which a technical scientific +terminology, specially devised, can be used without danger of +misconception. But in a subject like economics obscurity and +an awkward terminology are not marks of scientific merit.</p> + +<p>Economic studies should be as relevant to existing needs as +those of engineering and other applied sciences. The scientific +study of practical problems and difficulties is (generally speaking, +and with honourable exceptions) far more advanced in almost +every civilized country than it is in England, where the limited +scale upon which such work is carried on, the indifference of +statesmen, officials and business men, and the incapacity of the +public to understand the close relation between scientific study +and practical success, contrast very unfavourably with the state +of affairs in Germany or the United States. The backwardness +of economic science has been an index of the danger threatening +the industrial and commercial supremacy of the United Kingdom. +There are very few questions of public or commercial importance +upon which the best and most recent investigations are to be +found amongst English works. This would matter very little, +perhaps, if Englishmen had a firm belief, established by actual +experience, in the soundness of their policy, the present security +of their position, and the sufficiency of their methods to strengthen +or maintain it. But this is very far from being the case. If we +take, for example, the corner-stone of the British commercial +system in the 19th century, namely, the policy of “free trade” +(<i>q.v.</i>), the public do not now read the economic works which +supplied the theoretical basis of that policy, and, indeed, would +<span class="sidenote">Economic problems in Great Britain.</span> +not be convinced by them. The great men of the period, +Cobden and Bright, are merely historical figures. +Long before his death, Bright’s references in public +speeches to the achievements of the Anti-Corn Law +League were received with respectful impatience, and Peel’s +famous speech on the repeal of the corn laws would not convince +the German Reichstag or a modern House of Commons. The +result is that free trade had become by the end of the 19th century +in the main an old habit, for which the ordinary English manufacturer +could give no very reasonable explanation, whatever may +be its influence in commerce and public affairs. The doctrine of +free trade only prevailed in so far as it could be restated in terms +which had a direct relevance to the existing position of England +and existing conditions of international trade. And it was +directly challenged by the representatives of Mr Chamberlain’s +school of Imperialist thought (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamberlain, Joseph</a></span>). It +thus became the work of economic science ruthlessly to analyse the +existing situation, explain the issues involved in the commercial +policy of different countries, and point out the alternative methods +of dealing with present difficulties, with their probable results.</p> + +<p>The commercial policy of a state is merely the reflex of its +system of public finance (see <i>e.g.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Finance</a></span>). The absence +of conviction in regard to British commercial policy naturally had +its counterpart in the attitude of many men to the financial +system of the country. The eulogies showered upon it in the +past were no longer considered adequate. The great increase in +recent years in British military and naval expenditure, made +necessary by the exceptional demands of a state of war and the +great development of foreign powers, was partly responsible for +the new difficulties; partly it was due to the great extension of +the functions of the state during the latter part of the 19th +century. The former causes may be considered partly permanent, +partly temporary; but those of a permanent character are likely +to increase in force, and those of a temporary character will leave +<span class="sidenote">Commerce and finance.</span> +a deposit in the shape of an addition to the normal +expenditure of the central government. The extension +of government functions appeared much more likely +to continue than to be checked. Normal expenditure +might therefore be calculated to rise rather than fall. In spite +of the vast increase in national wealth, it was found a matter of +increasing difficulty to meet a comparatively slight strain without +recourse to measures of a highly controversial character; and +the search for new sources of revenue (as in 1909) at once raised, +in an acute form, questions of national commercial policy and +the relations between the United Kingdom and the colonies.</p> + +<p>The development of the powers of the central government has +been less than that of the functions of local governing authorities. +This, again, is a movement much more likely to extend than to be +checked. Local governing authorities now discharge economic +functions of enormous importance and complexity, involving +sums of money larger than sufficed to run important states a +generation ago. The scientific study of the economics of local +administration is, however, in its infancy, and requires to be +taken up in earnest by economists. These questions of commercial +policy and local government are closely bound up with +the scientific study of the transport system. Although the +British Empire contains within itself every known species of +railway enterprise, the study of railways and other means of +transport, and their relation to the business, the commerce and +the social life of the country, is deplorably backward. It is +obvious that no inquiry into commercial policy, or into such +social questions as the housing of the poor, can be effective unless +this deficiency is remedied.</p> + +<p>The whole social and political fabric of the British Empire +depends upon the efficiency of its industrial system. On this +subject many monographs and larger works have been published +in recent years, but dealing rather with such questions +as trade unionism, co-operation and factory legislation, than the +structure and organization of particular industries, or the causes +and the results of the formation of the great combinations, +peculiarly characteristic of the United States, but not wanting +in England, which are amongst the most striking economic +phenomena of modern times.</p> + +<p>These are some of the questions which must absorb the energies +of the rising generation of economists. The claim of economics +for recognition as a science and as a subject of study must be +based on its relevance to the actual life of the economic world, +on its ability to unravel the practical difficulties of each generation, +and so contribute to the progress of nations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Free Trade</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Protection</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tariff</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commercial Treaties</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trusts</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Money</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Finance</a></span>; &c. The +bibliography of economics as a whole would include a history of all +the writers on the subject, and is beyond our scope here; see the +numerous articles on economic subjects throughout this work. +The article by Dr J.K. Ingram in the ninth edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i> is still a valuable historical account. It is only +possible to mention here a few of the more recent text-books. The +most important general work published in English is Marshall’s +<i>Principles of Economics</i>, vol. i. (1st edition, 1890; 4th edition, 1898). +J. Shield Nicholson’s <i>Principles of Political Economy</i> (3 vols.) not +only gives a survey of economic principles since Mill’s time, but +contains much suggestive and original work. The writer of this +article is much indebted to the works of Schmoller, particularly his +<i>Grundris der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre</i> (1900), and Adolph +Wagner, particularly his <i>Grundlegung der politischen Ökonomie</i>. +On the history of economic theory, Cannan’s <i>History of the Theories +of Production and Distribution</i> (1776-1848) is an admirable criticism, +from a purely objective standpoint, of the works of the English +classical writers. The most important English works published in +recent years on general English economic history are W. Cunningham’s +<i>Growth of Industry and Commerce</i>, and W.J. Ashley’s <i>Economic +History</i>, while Vinogradoff’s <i>Villenage in England</i> and <i>The Growth of +the Manor</i>, as well as Maitland’s <i>Domesday Studies</i>, are of great +importance to the student of early economic institutions. D’Avenel’s +<i>Histoire économique de la propriété, &c.</i> (<i>1200-1800</i>), is a monumental +work on the history of prices in France. Other books dealing +with special subjects are likely to take a very high place in economic +literature. We may mention particularly Charles Booth’s <i>Life and +Labour of the People in London</i>, B.S. Rowntree’s <i>Poverty</i>, Sidney +and Beatrice Webb’s <i>History of Trade Unionism</i> and <i>Industrial +Democracy</i>, and Dr Arthur Shadwell’s <i>Industrial Efficiency</i> (1906). +These books are generally regarded as typical of the best English +work of recent years in economic investigation. We may also +mention Schloss’s <i>Methods of Industrial Remuneration</i>, a most important +contribution to the study of the wages question; C.F. +Bastable’s works on <i>International Trade</i> and <i>Public Finance</i>; George +Clare on the <i>Money Market</i> and the <i>Foreign Exchanges</i>; and A.T. +Hadley’s <i>Economics: An Account of the Relations between Private +Property and Public Welfare</i> (1896). Studies of particular questions, +both concrete and theoretical, in foreign languages are too numerous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span> +to specify, and much of the best modern work is to be found in +economic periodicals.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. S. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECONOMY,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a township and a village of Beaver county, +Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Ohio river, 17 m. +N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. of township (1900) 1062; (1910) 860. +The village is served by the Pennsylvania system. It was owned +until 1904, when it was sold to a land company, by the Harmony +Society (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Communism</a></span>), commonly called the Economites, +Harmonists or Rappists. The founder, George Rapp, after +living with his would-be primitive Christian followers at Harmony, +Butler county, Pennsylvania, in 1803-1814, and in 1815-1824 in +New Harmony (<i>q.v.</i>), Indiana, which he then sold to Robert +Owen, settled here in 1824 and rapidly built up a village, in which +each family received a house and garden. The culture of silk, +flax, grapes (for wine-making) and fruits and cereals in general, +and the manufacture of flour and of woollen, flannel and cotton +fabrics, were carried on under a rule requiring every adult to +labour 12 or 14 hours each day in field or mill. Celibacy had +been adopted in 1807 as the rule of the community. New +members were received after a half-year’s probation, and +members who left received their original investment. Three +hundred thus separated from Rapp in 1833, with $105,000 as +their share of the communal property, to build the millennial +kingdom of New Jerusalem at Phillipsburg (now Monaca), +Beaver county, Pennsylvania, under the lead of Bernhard +Müller, who had come to Economy in 1831 as a fellow religionist, +and was called Count Maximilian de Leon (or Proli); in 1833 +Leon went, with his followers, to Louisiana, and established a +religious colony 6 m. from Natchitoches. After his death his +wife until 1871 was head of a similar community at Germantown +in Webster parish. The Harmonists at Economy flourished +under the rule of a tradesman, R.L. Baker, or Romelius +Langenbacher, after the death of Rapp in 1847, and during the +Civil War had about $500,000 buried away. Their numbers +were for a time kept up by the addition of fresh converts, but the +employés who were not Harmonists soon greatly outnumbered +the members of the community, the basis of which was +always religious. Baker died in 1868, and his successor, John +Henrici, in 1892, when John S. Duss became first trustee. In +1907 there were only two or three members in the society. In +1851 the township of Harmony was set apart from Economy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Morris Hillquit, <i>History of Socialism in the United States</i> +(New York, 1903); William A. Hinds, <i>American Communities</i> +(revised edition, Chicago, 1902); John L. Bole, <i>The Harmony +Society</i> (Philadelphia, 1904); Charles Nordhoff, <i>The Communistic +Societies of the United States</i> (New York, 1875); and among several +excellent monographs in German, Karl Knortz, <i>Die christlichkommunistische +Kolonie der Rappisten</i> (Leipzig, 1892), and J. Hanno +Deiler, <i>Eine vergessene deutsche Colonie: eine Stimme zur Verteidigung +des Grafen de Leon</i> (New Orleans, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECONOMY,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a word ranging in application from the careful +thrift of an individual to the systematic arrangement of an +organization. It is derived from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="oikonomia">οἰκονομία</span>, the management +(<span class="grk" title="nemein">νέμειν</span>, to control) of an <span class="grk" title="oikos">οἶκος</span> or house, extended in +meaning to the administration of a state. Of its original sense, +the art or science of managing a household, the expression +“domestic economy” survives, but the principal use in this +sense is confined to the thrifty management of the financial +resources of a household or of an individual. It is thus used as +equivalent to “saving,” not only of money, but of time, labour +or effort, and, generally, of the least expenditure of means to +attain a required end. It is on the principle of “economy” +that many phonetic changes occur in the development of +languages, and, in aesthetics, the name has been applied to a +principle or law that effects are pleasant in proportion to the +smallness of the effort made, and of the means taken to produce +the result. The phrase “economy of truth” is due to an invidious +application of the use, in patristic theology, of the word +<span class="grk" title="oikonomia">οἰκονομία</span> for the careful presentation of such doctrine as would +be applicable to the hearer (see J.H. Newman, <i>History of the +Arians of the 4th Century</i>). “Economy” is also used in theology +in such expressions as “Mosaic” or “Christian economy” as a +synonym of “dispensation,” for the administration of the world +by God at particular times or for particular races. From the +meaning of organization or administration of a house or state the +word is applied more widely to the ordered arrangement of any +organized body, and is equivalent almost to “system”; thus +the “economy” of nature or of animal or plant life may be +spoken of. The most common use, however, of the word is that +of “political economy,” the science dealing with the production, +distribution and consumption of wealth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Economics</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECSTASY<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="ekstasis">ἔκστασις</span>, from <span class="grk" title="existêmi">ἐξίστημι</span>, put out of its place, +alter), a term applied to a morbid mental condition, in which +the mind is entirely absorbed in the contemplation of one +dominant idea or object, and loses for the time its normal self-control. +With this there is commonly associated the prevalence +of some strong emotion, which manifests itself in various ways, +and with varying degrees of intensity. This state resembles in +many points that of catalepsy (<i>q.v.</i>), but differs from it sufficiently +to constitute it a separate affection. The patient in ecstasy may +lie in a fixed position like the cataleptic, apparently quite unconscious, +yet, on awaking, there is a distinct recollection of +visions perceived during this period. More frequently there is +violent emotional excitement which may find expression in +impassioned utterances, and in extravagant bodily movements +and gesticulations. Ecstasy usually presents itself as a kind of +temporary religious insanity, and has frequently appeared as an +epidemic. It is well illustrated in the celebrated examples of the +dancing epidemics of Germany and Italy in the middle ages, and +the <i>Convulsionnaires</i> of St Medard at the grave of the Abbé Paris +in the early part of the 18th century, and in more recent times +has been witnessed during periods of religious revivalism. (See +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECTOSPORA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a homogeneous and natural division of Protozoan +parasites included under the Sporozoa; they comprise the three +orders, Gregarines, Coccidia and Haemosporidia. The defining +character of the Ectospora is that the spore-mother-cells (sporoblasts) +are formed at the periphery of the parent-individual +(sporont); we may, however, go further, and say that the formation +of all the different reproductive elements is uniformly +peripheral or exogenous. Two other very general features are (<i>a</i>) +that the individual trophozoite is uninuclear, and (<i>b</i>) that growth +and trophic activity are finished before the multiplicative or +reproductive phase sets in.</p> + +<p>There is now little doubt that the Ectospora possess a flagellate +ancestry. The principal facts in favour of this view are as follows: +the actual ontogenetic connexion known to exist between +certain Haemoflagellates and certain Haemosporidia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trypanosomes</a></span>); +the possession by many Coccidia of biflagellar +microgametes (male elements), whose general structure greatly +resembles that of a Heteromastigine Flagellate; the possession +by various parasitic Flagellates (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Herpetomonas</i>) of an attached, +resting phase, when the parasites become gregariniform, which +strongly suggests the attached phase of many young, growing +Gregarines; the typical gregarinoid and euglenoid movements +of Gregarines and of the germs or other stages of Coccidia and +Haemosporidia, which are quite comparable with the contractile +and metabolic movements of Flagellates; and, lastly, the +exogenous type of reproduction, which is easily derivable from +the multiple division of certain Haemoflagellates, and this, in +turn, from the typical binary longitudinal fission of a Flagellate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECUADOR<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (officially <i>La Republica del Ecuador</i>), a republic of +South America, bounded N. and N.E. by Colombia, S.E. and S. +by Peru, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Its boundary +lines with Colombia and Peru were in 1909 still unsettled, +<span class="sidenote">Boundaries.</span> +large areas of territory being claimed by all +three republics. Under an agreement of the 15th of December +1894, the disputes were to be decided by the Spanish sovereign +as arbitrator, but nothing was accomplished. On the 5th of +November 1904, Colombia and Ecuador agreed to submit their +dispute to the German emperor, and a convention of the 12th of +September 1905 between Colombia and Peru established a +<i>modus vivendi</i> for the settlement of their conflicting claims, in +which Ecuador is likewise interested. The maps of Ecuador, +which are very defective, usually describe its territory as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span> +extending eastward to the Brazilian frontier, but as Peru is in +actual occupation of the region east of Huiririma-chico, on the +Napo river, 3½ degrees west of that frontier, those maps cannot +be considered correct. The Trans-Andine territory occupied by +Ecuador is a wedge-shaped area between the Coca and Napo, +the provisional boundary line with Colombia, and a line running +nearly west-south-west from Huiririma-chico (about lat. 2° 50′ +S., long. 73° 20′ W.) to a point on the Santiago river in about +lat. 4° 12′ S., long. 78° W., which forms the provisional boundary +with Peru. The eastern part of this territory is also claimed by +Peru, which would have the effect, if allowed, of restricting +Ecuador to a comparatively small area covered by the Andes +and western Cordillera and the narrow plain on the Pacific coast. +From the Santiago river, a western affluent of the Marañon, the +boundary line runs south-west and west across the Andes to the +head waters of the Macara, down that stream to the Chira, or +Achira, whose channel marks the frontier down to about 80° 17′ W., +where a small stream (the Rio Alamo) enters from the north. +The line then runs almost due north to the south shore of the +Gulf of Guayaquil, following the western water parting of the +lower Tumbez valley. A small district in the valley of the Chira +is claimed by Peru. The northern boundary line is described +elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Colombia</a></span>). A small section of this line terminating +on the Pacific coast is also in dispute, Ecuador claiming the +main channel of the Mira as the dividing line, and Colombia +claiming a small district south of that channel, the line running +due west from the mouth of the most southern outlet of the Mira +opening into Panguapi Bay, to a point of intersection with +that river.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:756px; height:592px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img911.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><i>Physical Geography.</i>—The surface of Ecuador may be divided into +three distinct regions: the Cis-Andine lying between the Western +Cordillera and the coast; the Inter-Andine, which includes the two +great mountain chains crossing the republic with the elevated plateau +lying between; and the Trans-Andine, lying east of the Andes in +the great Amazon valley. The first part consists of an alluvial, +low-lying plain formed in great part by the detritus brought down +by the mountain streams. It is irregular in form and is broken by +isolated elevations and spurs from the Cordillera. Large areas are +still subject to annual inundations in the rainy season, and the lower +river courses are bordered with swamps. This is the most fertile +and productive part of Ecuador, especially on the higher lands near +the Cordillera. The Trans-Andine region is similar to the neighbouring +territories of the upper Amazon basin occupied by Colombia, +Brazil and Peru—a great forest-covered plain descending gently +toward the east, broken on its western margin by short spurs from +the Andes enclosing highly fertile valleys, and by low, isolated +ranges between the larger river courses, and traversed by large +rivers flowing into the Napo and Marañon. This region has been +only partially explored, and but little is known of the large areas +lying between the navigable rivers.</p> + +<p>The Inter-Andine or plateau region lies in and between the two +great mountain chains which cross the +greater part of the republic +between and almost parallel +with the 78th and 79th +meridians. The eastern chain is known +as the Andes of Ecuador, or the Cordillera +Oriental, and the western as +<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span> +the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera). +Starting from the confused +grouping on the southern frontier of +the two great chains and some transverse +ranges, they run nearly north by +east to the Colombian frontier where +another “knot” or junction occurs. +The summits of the western range form +a line of noteworthy regularity, but +those of the eastern form a broken +irregular line of varying distances from +the first. The elevated plateau between +the two great chains, which is +about 300 m. long and 20 to 30 m. +wide, is divided into three great shallow +basins or plains by the transverse ridges +or <i>paramos</i> of Tiupullo and Azuay. +These are known as the Quito, Ambato +and Cuenca basins. South of the latter +is the irregular and deeply broken Loja +basin, which can hardly be considered +a part of the great Ecuador plateau. +The three great basins, which are broken +and subdivided by mountainous spurs +and ridges, descend gradually toward +the south, the Quito plain having an +average elevation of 9500 ft. above the +sea, Ambato 8500, and Cuenca 7800. +They are also characterized by the increasing +aridity of the plateau from +north to south, the Quito plain being +fertile and well covered with vegetation, and the Ambato and Cuenca +plains being barren and desolate except in some favoured localities. +The volcanic character of the region is likewise responsible for large +areas of barren surfaces. Rising from this elevated plateau, along +its eastern and western margins, are the Cordilleras with their +principal summits culminating far above the line of perpetual snow, +which in this region is about 15,750 ft. above the sea. These summits +are remarkable, not only for their great height, but also for their +apparent symmetrical arrangement in parallel lines, sometimes in +pairs facing each other across this cyclopean passage. Nowhere in +the world can there be found another such assemblage of snow-clad +peaks, several of which are active volcanoes. There are 22 of them +grouped around these central plains almost within sight of each other. +The western chain has the distinction of having the highest summit, +the eastern the greatest number of high summits and the highest +average elevation. From the time of Humboldt’s visit to this remarkable +region down to the present time there have been many +diverse calculations of the height of these peaks, but with a considerable +variation. It is estimated that there was a considerable +decrease in the elevation of this part of the Andes during the past +century, Quito having sunk 26 ft. in 122 years, Pichincha 218 ft. +in the same time, and the farm of Antisana, where Humboldt +resided for a time, 165 ft. in 64 years. At the same time Cotopaxi +and Sangay, the two active volcanoes, have actually increased in +elevation since the measurement of La Condamine in 1742. These +changes in elevation, if correct, are due to seismic disturbances, a +cause that may be partially responsible for the varying computations +of the heights of these well-known peaks. Among modern investigators +are W. Reiss and A. Stübel (1871-1873), and Edward Whymper +(1880), whose measurements of the principal summits were:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>Eastern Cordillera.</i></td> <td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>Western Cordillera.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2">Ft.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Ft.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Cayambe</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb2">19,186</td> <td class="tcl">Cotocachi</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">16,301</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Sara-Urcu</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb2">15,502</td> <td class="tcl">Mojanda</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. & S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,088</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Antisana</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb2">19,335</td> <td class="tcl">Pichincha</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,918</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Sincholagua</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. & S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb2">16,365</td> <td class="tcl">Atacatzo</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. & S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,892</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Rumiñagui</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb2">15,607</td> <td class="tcl">El Corazon (Chamalari)</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,871</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Cotopaxi</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb2">19,613</td> <td class="tcl">Iliniza</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. & S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,405</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Tunguragua</td> <td class="tcc rb">(R. & S.)</td> <td class="tcc rb2">16,690</td> <td class="tcl">Carahuairazo</td> <td class="tcc rb">(W.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">16,515</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Altar (Capac-Urcu)</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb2">17,730</td> <td class="tcl">Chimborazo</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,498</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">Sangay</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">17,464</td> <td class="tcl bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span></p> + +<p>The Imbabura volcano, celebrated for its destructive eruptions of +mud and water, stands midway between the two ranges at the +northern end of the plateau, and belongs to the transverse ridge of +knot (<i>nudo</i>) which unites them. It is the most northern of the higher +peaks of Ecuador, with the exception of Cotocachi, and possibly +of Chiles on the Colombian frontier, and reaches the elevation of +15,033 ft. Ibarra on the northern flanks of the volcano has suffered +severely from its eruptions. The name is derived from <i>imba</i>, fish, +and <i>bura</i>, mother, and is said to have originated from the quantities +of a fish called “preñadilla” (<i>Pimelodus cyclopum</i>) discharged from +its crater during one of its eruptions—a phenomenon which, after a +searching investigation, was discredited by Wagner. Cayambe, or +Cayembi, the second highest peak of the Ecuadorean Andes, has the +noteworthy distinction of standing very nearly on the equator. +Its base covers a large area, and its square top, rising far above the +snow-line, is one of the sights of Quito. Antisana is crowned with +a double dome, and is described as an extinct volcano, though +Humboldt saw smoke issuing from it in 1802. On its western side +is the famous <i>hacienda</i> (farm) of Antisana, 13,306 ft. above the sea, +where Humboldt resided for several months in 1802. Sara-Urcu +stands south-east of Antisana in a densely forested region, drenched +with rain and only slightly explored. Sincholagua and Rumiñagui +are the next two peaks, going southward, and then the unrivalled +cone of Cotopaxi (<i>q.v.</i>)—the highest active volcano in the world—from +whose summit smoke curls upward unceasingly.</p> + +<p>Llanganati or Cerro Hermoso is chiefly known through the tradition +that the treasures of the Incas were buried in a lake on its slopes. +It consists of a group of summits, the highest being credited with +17,843 ft. Tunguragua, or Tungurahua, has a cone-shaped summit +like that of Cotopaxi, with a slope of 38°. It rises from a plain +somewhat lower than the neighbouring central plateau and stands +free from the surrounding elevations, except on the south, which give +it an exceptionally imposing appearance. Among its characteristic +features is a cataract fed by melting snows, which descends 1500 ft. +in three leaps, and an enormous basaltic lava-stream, which crosses +the face of the mountain in a north-easterly direction. Its most +notable eruption was in 1777. It has been sometimes classed +among the extinct volcanoes, but smoke has been seen issuing from +it at different dates, and a violent eruption occurred on January 12, +1886. The fertile cultivated valley of Baños, with its thermal +springs, lies at the base of Tunguragua, which F. Hassaurek describes +as “the most beautiful of all the snow peaks in the country.” The +next in line is El Altar, which the natives call Capac-Urcu (“king +mountain”), whose broken cone and impressive outlines make it one +of the most attractive mountains of Ecuador. Its summit comprises +a group of eight snow-clad peaks, and its crater is surrounded by a +steep and jagged wall of rocks. There is a tradition that this mountain +was once higher than Chimborazo, but a series of eruptions +caused the cone to fall in and reduced its summit to its present +altitude and broken appearance. Altar has shown no signs of activity +since the discovery of America. Sangay, or Sangai, the next and +last large volcano to the south, is in a state of frequent eruption, +however, and is known as one of the most restless volcanoes of the +world. Since the Spanish conquest it has been in a state of uninterrupted +activity, but no damage has been done, because there are +no civilized settlements in its immediate vicinity. Though of great +interest to scientific investigators because of this unceasing activity, +and of its peculiar position in the Andean system, and because of the +difficult and dangerous country by which it is surrounded, Sangay +has been but rarely visited by European travellers. Its eruptions +are not on a grand scale, but small outbursts of lava and explosions +of steam occur at frequent intervals, and at longer intervals more +violent explosions in which the molten rock is thrown 2000 ft. +above its summit, and ashes are carried away as far as the streets of +Guayaquil.</p> + +<p>Turning to the Cordillera Occidental and taking the principal +peaks in order from south to north, the first to claim attention is +Chimborazo (from <i>Chimpu-raza</i>, “mountain of snow”), the highest +summit of Ecuador, and once believed to be the culminating point +of the Andes. Humboldt, who unsuccessfully attempted its ascent +in 1802, gives its elevation as 21,425 ft., Reiss and Stubel as 20,703, +and Whymper as 20,498. It stands 76 m. north-east of Guayaquil, +and, according to Spruce, rises majestically from the valley of the +Guayas, on the west, without a “positive break from the summit +down to the plain.” This, however, is erroneous, for Whymper +located a detached range running parallel with the Cordillera on the +west, for a distance of 65 m. with the Chimbo valley between them. +The magnificence of its mass is imposing from almost any point of +view, but it can be most fully appreciated from its western or +Pacific side, where its base is covered with forest up to the snow-line, +above which its pure white cone rises another 5000 ft. An unobstructed +view of the great mountain is rarely obtained, however, +because of the mists and clouds which cover its cone. Its summits +were reached for the first time in 1880 by Edward Whymper, all +previous attempts having failed. It is considered to be an extinct +volcano because it makes the plumb-line deviate only 7″ to 8″, +from which it is deduced that the mountain is hollow. Moreover, the +calcined matter resembling white sand which covers its sides below +the snow-line, extensive beds of lava, and the issue of streams of hot +water from its northern side, seem to confirm the deduction that +Chimborazo is an extinct volcano. Immediately north of Chimborazo, +and separated from it by only a narrow valley, are the lower +triple summits of Carahuairazo, or Carguairazo (which the natives +call <i>Chimborazo-embra</i>, “Chimborazo’s wife”), whose hollow cone +collapsed in 1698 during a great earthquake, and left the jagged rim +which adds so much to its present picturesque appearance. Mr +Whymper’s measurement is for the middle peak. Quirotoa, still +farther north, is supposed to have suffered a similar catastrophe. +Its hollow summit, 13,510 ft. above sea-level, now contains a large +lake. Iliniza, which stands west by north of Cotopaxi, has two +pyramidal peaks, and is one of the most interesting mountains of +the Ecuadorean group. It stands at the western end of the Tiupullo +ridge, and overlooks the Quito basin to the north-east. The French +academician Bouger, who was chief of the scientific commission +sent to Ecuador in 1736 to measure a degree of the meridian on the +equator, made a trigonometrical measurement of Iliniza, and Wagner +ascended to within 800 ft. of its summit in 1859. The geological +structure of the mountain furnishes no evidence of volcanic activity. +Chamalari, which the Spaniards called El Corazon from its heart-shaped +appearance, is similarly destitute of a crater. It overlooks +the Quito basin and has been ascended many times. Among the +earlier explorers to reach its summit were Bouger and La Condamine, +Humboldt and Bonpland, and José Cáldas, the Granadian naturalist. +Atacatzo is an extinct volcano, with nothing noteworthy in its +appearance and history. Pichincha, its famous neighbour, is +apparently of later origin, according to Wagner, and of slightly +lower elevation. Perhaps no Ecuadorean volcano is better known +than Pichincha, the “boiling mountain,” because of its destructive +eruptions and its proximity to the city of Quito. Its summit comprises +three groups of rocky peaks, of which the most westerly, +Rucu-Pichincha (Old Pichincha), contains the crater, a funnel-shaped +basin 2460 ft. deep and about 1500 ft. wide at the bottom, +whose walls in places rise perpendicularly and in others at an angle +of 20°. The exterior of the cone has an angle of 30°. Bouger and +La Condamine were the first to reach its brink in 1742, after which +Humboldt made the ascent in 1802, Boussingault and Hall in 1831, +Garcia Moreno and Sebastian Wisse in 1844 and 1845 (descending +into the crater for the first time), Garcia Moreno and Jameson in +1857, Farrand and Hassaurek in 1862, Orton in 1867, and Whymper +in 1880. Farrand spent more than a week in the crater trying to +get some good photographic views, and Orton has given a graphic +description of his experiences in the same place. He found that the +real cone of eruption was an irregular heap 250 ft. in height and +800 ft. in diameter, containing about 70 vents. The temperature +of the vapour within the fumarole was 184°, and water boiled at +189°. There have been five eruptions of Pichincha since the Spanish +conquest—in 1539, 1566, 1575, 1587 and 1660. The second covered +Quito 3 ft. deep with ashes and stones, but the last three were considered +as the most destructive to that city. The last happily broke +down the western side of the crater, which, it is believed, will ensure +the city against harm in any subsequent eruption. Since the earthquake +of August 1867 Pichincha has sent forth dense masses of +black smoke and great quantities of fine sand. Cotocachi is a double-peaked +mountain, rising from an extremely rough country. It was +ascended by Whymper in 1880. All the higher summits of Ecuador +have true glaciers, the largest being found on Antisana, Cayambe +and Chimborazo. Whymper located and named no less than eleven +on Chimborazo, and counted twelve on Cayambe.</p> + +<p>There are two distinct hydrographic systems in Ecuador—the +streams that flow south-eastward to the Marañon, or Amazon, and +those which flow westward to the Pacific. The southern +part of the great central plateau is arid and has a very +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +light rainfall; it has no streams, therefore, except from melting +snows, and the higher elevations which receive the impact of the +easterly winds. Farther north the rainfall becomes heavier, the +plateau is covered with vegetation, and a considerable number of +small rivers flow westward through the Cordillera to the Pacific. +The Eastern Cordillera, or Andes, forms the water-parting between +the two systems. The largest of the eastward-flowing rivers is the +Napo, which rises in the eastern defiles of Cotopaxi and Sincholagua—the +principal source being the Rio del Valle, which traverses the +Valle Vicioso. It at first flows south by east, and at the village of +Napo is 1450 ft. above sea-level, at the mouth of the Coca 858 ft., +at the mouth of the Aguarico 586 ft., 500 at the mouth of the +Curaray, and 385 at its junction with the Marañon. Orton estimates +its current at Napo in the month of November as 6 m. an hour; +in the next 80 m. the river falls 350 ft. and produces a fine series of +rapids; and from Santa Rosa downwards the rate is not less than +4 m. an hour. Its breadth at Napo is only 120 ft., but at Coca it has +widened to 1500 ft., and at its mouth to nearly 1 m. Like most of +the large Amazon tributaries, its discharge into the Marañon is +through several distinct channels. The Napo is navigable for steam-boats +for some distance above the mouth of the Coca, and thence for +canoes as far as the Cando cataract, 3332 ft. above the sea. Its total +length is 920 m. The principal tributaries of the Napo are the Coca +and Aguarico from the north, and the Curaray from the south. +The Coca rises on the eastern slopes of the Andes near Cayambe +and the Guamani range, and flows eastward near the equator to +San Rafael (about 76° 30′ W. long.), where it turns sharply southward +to a junction with the Napo in about lat. 1° S., long. 76° W. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span> +Coca forms the provisional boundary line between Ecuador and +Colombia from its source to the Napo. The Aguarico also rises on +the eastern slopes of the Andes north of Cayambe and flows south-eastward +to a junction with the Napo in about long. 75° W., its +length being roughly estimated at 420 m. Little is known of its +course, or of the country through which it flows, which is provisionally +occupied by Colombia. The Curaray has its sources in the +defiles of the Cerros de Llanganati, and flows south-eastward to the +Napo, its length being estimated at 490 m. Its lower course is +sluggish, where its waters are made unpalatable by a reddish slime. +The Napo and its tributaries are celebrated in the early history of +South America as the route by which Gonzalo Pizarro and Orellana +first reached the Amazon, and it was afterwards the principal route +by which the early expeditions across the continent at this point +connected the Andean Plateau with the Amazon. The other rivers +which flow through the Oriente territory of Ecuador into the Marañon +are the Tigre, Pastaza, Morona and Santiago. The Tigre, of which +little was known until a recent date, is formed by the confluence of +the Cunambo and Huiviyacu, whose sources are on the eastern +slopes of the Andes near those of the Curaray. Its length below this +confluence is 416 m., into which are received 109 tributaries, the +largest of which are the Pucacuro and Corrientes. The Tigre is +navigable at all stages up to the Cunambo confluence, and promises +to afford one of the most valuable river routes in Ecuador. It enters +the Marañon very near the 74th meridian. The Pastaza, or Pastassa, +unlike the rivers already described, has its source on the central +plateau west of the principal chain of the Andes, within the shadow +of Cotopaxi, and breaks through the Cordillera to the north of +Tunguragua. After flowing southward along the base of the high +Andes for a short distance and receiving a number of torrents from +the snowclad heights, it turns south-eastward across the plain and +enters the Marañon about 70 m. above the mouth of the Huallaga. +The stream is known as the Patate down to its junction with the +Chambo, near Baños, and is not called Pastaza until the Agoyan +falls are passed. It was navigated by Don Pedro Maldonado as +early as 1741, and is navigable for steamboats of 2 to 4 ft. draft +up to the mouth of the Huasaga (about 124 m.) in times of high +water, and for canoes nearly 200 m. farther. The Pastaza, however, +is subject to irresistible floods caused by the sudden rising of the +mountain torrents on its upper course, especially the Toro, which +sweep down with such fury that navigation on the river is practically +impossible. The shallowness of the lower stream, where the current +is sluggish, is probably due to the great quantities of silt brought +down by these floods. Many of the rivers of eastern Ecuador are +subject to similar floods from the Andean slopes, which have cut +away broad, deep channels, through the adjacent plains, leaving +long, narrow ridges between their courses which the natives call +<i>cuchillas</i>. The Morona is formed by the confluence of the Manhuasisa +and Cangaima about 310 m. above its mouth, and is freely navigable +for small steamboats to that point. The two confluents just mentioned +have their sources in the Andes, and flow for some distance +across the plain before uniting to form the Morona. Both are +navigable for considerable distances. The Morona follows a very +tortuous course before entering the Marañon, at long. 70° W., and +receives a large number of affluents, one of which serves as the +outlet for Lake Rimachuma, in Peruvian territory. Very little is +definitely known of the affluents of the Morona, Pastaza and Tigre, +as the territory through which they run has been but slightly explored. +The Santiago, which enters the Marañon near the Pongo de +Manseriche, is formed by the confluence of the Paute, which rises +in the province of Azuay, and the Zamora, which has its source +among the mountains of Loja. According to Alexander Garland +(<i>Peru in 1906</i>), the rivers of eastern Ecuador are navigable at low +water for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an aggregate distance of +1503 m., as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Miles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Napo, to the mouth of the Aguarico</td> <td class="tcc">559</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Curaray, up to Canonaco</td> <td class="tcc">286</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tigre, up to Cunambo-Huiviyacu confluence</td> <td class="tcc">416</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pastaza</td> <td class="tcc"> 31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Morona, up to the Rarayacu</td> <td class="tcc">211</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">These same rivers are navigable at high water for steamers of +19½ ft. draft for an aggregate distance of 1330 m., including 68 m. +of the Aguarico, and for steamers of 2 to 4 ft. draft for an additional +733 m. The last aggregate includes an extension of 93 m. on the +Pastaza, 99 on the Morona, 186 on the Napo, and the balance on +the Manhuasisa, Cangaima, Pucacuro, Corrientes, Cunambo and +Huiviyacu.</p> + +<p>On the western versant of the Andes of Ecuador there are three +river systems of considerable size—the Mira, the Esmeraldas and +the Guayas. The sources of the first—the Rioblanco, Pisco and +Puntal—are to be found on the northern slopes of the transverse +ridge which culminates in the Imbabura volcano. Its course is +north and north-west to the Colombian frontier, thence westward +and north-west to the Pacific, breaking through the Western Cordillera +on its way. It forms the boundary line for some distance +between Ecuador and Colombia, but near its mouth where the river +turns northward Colombia has taken possession of the left bank +and all the territory covered by its large delta. Its principal tributaries +on the left are the San Pedro, Paramba, Cachiyacu, Chachavi +and Canumbi, and on the right the San Juan, Caiquer and Nulpe. +The delta channels of the Mira are navigable, being tributary to the +Colombian port of Tumaco. The Esmeraldas drains all that part +of the central plateau lying between the transverse ridge of Tiupullo +on the south, and the Imbabura ridge on the north, together with +the western slopes of the Cordillera between Iliniza and Cotocachi, +and a considerable part of the lower plain. It is formed by the +confluence of the Quininde and Toachi with the Guaillabamba +between 40 and 50 m. above its mouth, and discharges into the +Pacific in lat. 1° N., long. 79° 40′ W., through a narrow and precipitous +gorge. The volume and current of the river is sufficient to +freshen the sea 2 m. from the coast. The Guaillabamba is the larger +and more important tributary, and should be considered the main +stream. It rises in the Chillo valley in the vicinity of Cayambe, +and flows across the northern end of the central plateau, breaking +through the Western Cordillera between Cotocachi and Pichincha. +One of its plateau tributaries, Rio Pedregal, rises on the slopes of +Cotopaxi and is celebrated for its three beautiful cascades, the highest +of which is about 220 ft. The Toachi and Quininde have their +sources on the western slopes of the Cordillera. The Guayas or +Guayaquil river is in part an estuary extending northward from the +Gulf of Guayaquil, bordered by mangrove swamps and mud banks +formed by the silt brought down from the neighbouring mountains. +All the bordering country on both sides is of the same description, +and for a long distance inland extensive areas of swampy country +are submerged during the rainy season. Above the mouth of the +Daule the river is known as the Bodegas, which in turn is formed by +the confluence of the Babahoyo and the Vinces. The Guayas also +receives a large tributary from the east called the Yaguachi. All +these streams are navigable on their lower courses, regular steamboat +communication being maintained on the Guayas and Bodegas to a +river port of the latter name, 80 m. above Guayaquil, and for 40 m. +on the Daule. The navigable channels of all the rivers are computed +at 200 m. The drainage basin of the Guayas, according to Theodor +Wolf, covers an area of 14,000 sq. m., and includes the greater part +of the lower plain and the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental +as far north as Iliniza. The Babahoyo, which is the main stream, +has its sources on the slopes of Chimborazo, the Daule on the Sandomo +ridge in the latitude of Pichincha, the Yaguachi on the south-eastern +slopes of Chimborazo, whence it flows southward for a considerable +distance before breaking through the Cordillera to the western plain. +The Guayas is one of the most interesting and varied of the South +American river systems, and is of great economic importance to +Ecuador. In addition to these three river systems, there are a large +number of short streams on the coast flowing into the Pacific and +Gulf of Guayaquil, only two of which have any special importance +in the present undeveloped state of the country. These are the +Santiago, which drains several fertile valleys in northern Esmeraldas +and western Carchi, and whose outlet is connected with some +navigable tide-water channels, including the Pailon basin and the +Caráquez, or Caracas, on which is located the village of Bahia de +Caráquez (lat. 0° 34′ S.), the nearest port to the city of Quito.</p> + +<p>There are a considerable number of small lakes in Ecuador, but +no large ones. These are of two classes—those of the bowl-like +valleys and extinct craters of the mountainous region, +and the reservoir lakes of the lowland plains caused by +<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span> +the annual overflow of the rivers. It is impossible to say how many +of the latter there may be, for much of the territory where they +are found is unexplored. They are usually shallow and malarial. +Among the upland lakes, there are some of special interest because +of their position and historical association. The Yaguar-cocha +(“lake of blood”), in the province of Imbabura, near Ibarra, which +is only 1½ m. in circumference, is celebrated for the tradition that +Huayna-Capac, one of the great conquerors of the Inca dynasty, +defeated an army of rebellious Carranquis on its shores, and threw +so many of their bleeding corpses into it as to turn its waters to the +colour of blood. On the south-east skirt of Cotocachi, 10,200 ft. +above the sea, is the beautiful little Cuy-cocha, which originated, +it is believed, through the falling in of the mountain’s sides. There +are two others of apparently the same origin on the north-west slopes +of the Mojanda volcano, but they are less attractive because of their +gloomy surroundings. In the deep valley between the mountains of +Imbabura and Mojanda is the lake of San Pablo, 8848 ft. above the +sea. It is one of the largest of its class, being about 5 m. in circumference, +and is situated in an exceptionally fertile region. It +drains through the Peguchi into the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the +Mira. Other well-known lakes of the plateau region are Quirotoa, +about 4600 ft. in diameter; Colta, east of Riobamba, and Colay, +south of the same place. Among the many thermal springs throughout +the Andean districts, the best known are at Belermos and San +Pedro del Tingo, north-east of Quito; at Cachillacta, in the district +of Nanegal; at Timbugpoyo, near Latacunga; at Baños (5906 ft. +elevation), near the foot of Tunguragua; and on the slopes of +Rumiñagui and Chimborazo.</p> + +<p>The coast of Ecuador extends from about lat. 1° 20′ N. to the +vicinity of the Boca Jambeli on the southern shore of the Gulf of +Guayaquil, in lat. 3° 14′ S., and has an outward curve. +Its more prominent headlands are Punta Galera, Cabo +<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span> +Pasado, Cabo de San Lorenzo and La Puntilla, or Santa Élena +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span> +Point. The bays on this coast are commonly broad indentations, +and the rivers discharging into them are generally obstructed by +bars. The small ports along the coast, therefore, do not afford +much protection to shipping. The most northern of these bays is +the Ancon de Sardinas, lying south of the Mira delta. The head of +the bay is fringed with islands and reefs, behind which is the mouth +of the Santiago river, Poza Harbour, San Lorenzo Bay, Pailon basin +and a network of navigable channels, all of which are difficult of +access. The small ports of La Tola and Pailon are located on these +waters. The port of Esmeraldas, near the mouth of the Esmeraldas +river, is located near the southern entrance to this bay. As the +mouth of the river is obstructed by a bar and its current is swift, +the anchorage is outside in an open roadstead, only slightly protected +on the south. Farther south is the broad Bay of Manta, with a small +port of the same name at its southern extremity. The most frequented +port on this part of the coast is that of Bahia de Caráquez, at +the mouth of the Caráquez, or Caracas river, which is also obstructed +by a bar. There is a fertile, productive country back of this port, +and it is the objective point of a road from Quito. Immediately north +of the Gulf of Guayaquil is the Bay of Santa Élena, with a small port +of the same name, which has a good, well-sheltered anchorage and is +the landing-place of the West Coast cable. The Gulf of Guayaquil, +which lies between the Ecuadorean and Peruvian coasts, is the +largest gulf on the Pacific coast of South America between Panama +and Chiloe. Its mouth is 140 m. wide between La Puntilla on the +north and Cabo Blanco on the south, and it penetrates the land +eastward, with a slight curve northward at its head, for a distance +of about 100 m., terminating in the Guayas estuary or river, on +which is located the port of Guayaquil. The upper end of the bay +and its northern shores are fringed with swamps through which +numerous estuaries penetrate for some distance inland. Immediately +west of the Guayas river the Estero Salado, which comprises a great +many shallow tide-water channels, or bayous, penetrates as far +inland as Guayaquil, but is used only by canoes. The upper end +of the gulf is filling up with the silt brought down from the Cordillera. +It is divided midway by the large island of Puna, at the eastern +end of which is the anchorage for steamers too large to ascend the +Guayas. The steamship channel passes between this island and the +Peruvian coast, and is known as the Jambeli channel. The passage +north of Puna Island is known as the Morro channel, but its entrance +is obstructed by shoals and it is considered dangerous for shipping. +A small port in the Jambeli channel, on the south-east shore of the +gulf, is that of Puerto Bolivar, or Puerto Huaila, the shipping port +for the town of Machala and the Zaruma mining region.</p> + +<p>There are few islands off the coast of Ecuador, and only one of any +considerable size—that of Puna in the Gulf of Guayaquil, which +is 29 m. long from north-east to south-west and 8 to 14 m. +wide. It lies in the north-east part of the gulf, and is +<span class="sidenote">Islands.</span> +separated from the Ecuadorean mainland by the Morro channel, +and from the southern mainland by the wider and deeper Jambeli +channel. There is a low, mountainous ridge, called the Zampo Palo, +running through it, and its eastern shores have some moderately +high bluffs; otherwise the island is low and swampy, and its shores, +except the eastern end, are fringed with mud banks. The island is +densely wooded (in marked contrast with the opposite Peruvian +shore), and is considered unhealthy throughout the greater part. +It has a population of 200, chiefly centred in the village of Puna, +at its north-east extremity, which is a shipping port and health +resort for the city of Guayaquil. Puna island is celebrated for its +connexion with Pizarro’s invasion of Peru in 1531. It is said that it +had a considerable population at that time, and that the natives +resisted the invaders so vigorously that it cost six months to reduce +them. Midway in the outer part of the Gulf of Guayaquil is Amortajada +or Santa Clara island, whose resemblance to a shrouded corpse +suggested the name which it bears. It lies 12 m. south-west of Puna +island and 80 m. from Guayaquil. It rises to a considerable elevation, +and carries a light 256 ft. above sea-level. There are some low, +swampy islands, or mud flats, covered with mangrove thickets, in +the lower Guayas river, but they are uninhabited and of no importance. +North of the Gulf of Guayaquil there are only two small +islands on the coast of more than local interest. The first of these +is Salango, in lat. 1° 25′ S., which is 2 m. in circumference and rises +to a height of 524 ft. It is richly wooded, and has a well-sheltered +anchorage much frequented by whalers in search of water and fresh +provisions. The next is La Plata, in lat. 1° 16′ S., which rises to a +height of 790 ft., and has a deep anchorage on its eastern side where +Drake is said to have anchored in 1579 to divide the spoils of the +Spanish treasure ship “Cacafuego.” The Galapagos Islands (<i>q.v.</i>) +belong to the republic of Ecuador, and form a part of the province +of Guayas.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>—The great longitudinal depression which lies between +the eastern and the western branches of the Andes is also the +boundary between the ancient rocks of the east and the Mesozoic +beds which form the greater part of the west of the country. The +Eastern Cordillera is composed of gneiss, mica and chlorite schist +and other crystalline rocks of ancient date; the Western Cordillera, +on the other hand, is formed of porphyritic eruptive rocks of Mesozoic +age, together with sedimentary deposits containing Cretaceous +fossils. Most of the country between the Andes and the sea is +covered by Tertiary and Quaternary beds; but the range of hills +which runs north-west from Guayaquil is formed of Cretaceous and +porphyritic rocks similar to those of the Andes. In the intra-andine +depression, between the East and West Cordilleras, recent deposits +with plant remains occur near Loja, and to the north-east of Cuenca +is a sandstone containing mercury ores, somewhat similar to that of +Peru. Farther north nearly the whole of the depression is filled +with lavas, tuffs and agglomerates, derived from the Tertiary and +recent volcanoes which form the most striking feature of the Andes +of Ecuador. These volcanoes are most numerous in the northern +half of the country, and they stand indifferently upon the folded +Mesozoic beds of the Western Cordillera (<i>e.g.</i> Chimborazo, Iliniza, +Pichincha), the ancient rocks of the Eastern Cordillera (Altar, +Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana), or the floor of the great depression +between. The lavas and ashes are for the most part +andesitic.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—Climatic conditions in Ecuador are very largely contingent +on altitude, and the transition from one climate to another +is a matter of only a few hours’ journey. Although the equator +crosses the northern part of the republic, only 15 m. north of the city +Of Quito, a very considerable part of its area has the temperature of +the temperate zone, and snow-crowned summits are to be seen +every day in the year from its great central plateau. In addition +to the climatic changes due to altitude, there are others caused by +local arid conditions, by volcanic influences and by the influence of +mountain ranges on the temperature and rainfall of certain districts. +These influences are not general; on the contrary, they often affect +very limited areas. For instance, Guayaquil has a hot humid climate +and mangrove swamps line the shores of Guayas down to the gulf; +at Santa Élena, about 60 m. due west, arid conditions prevail and +vegetation is scanty and dwarfed; at Salango island, 50 m. north of +Santa Élena, there is an abundance of moisture and vegetation is +luxuriant; 33 m. farther north, at Manta, the country is a desert; +and at Atacames bay, 135 m. north of Manta, the rainfall and +vegetation are again favourable. On the plateau similar conditions +prevail. There is no great display of arboreal vegetation anywhere +except in the valleys and lower passes where the rainfall is abundant, +but in general terms it may be said that the rainfall and vegetation +which characterize the Quito basin soon disappear as one proceeds +southward, and are substituted by arid conditions. Even here there +are local modifications, as at Ambato, where a shallow depression, +surrounded by barren, dust-covered ridges exposed to cold winds, +is celebrated for its warm, equable climate and its fruit. It is to be +noted that the Gulf of Guayaquil separates the humid, forest-covered +coastal plain of Ecuador from the arid, barren coast of +Peru, the two regions being widely dissimilar. The mean annual +temperature, on this plain, according to an official publication, is +82.4° F., and the range is from 66° to 95°. The heat is modified at +many points on the coast, however, by the cold Humboldt current +which sweeps up the west coast of South America from the Antarctic +seas. The year is divided into a wet and dry season—the former +running from December to June, and the latter from July to December. +The rainy season, or <i>invierno</i>, is broken by a short period +of dry weather, called the <i>veranillo</i> (little summer), shortly after the +December solstice; otherwise it rains every day, the streams overflow, +land traffic is suspended, and the air is drenched with moisture +and becomes oppressive and pestiferous. The dry season, which is +called the <i>verano</i>, or summer, is also broken by a short rainy spell +called the <i>inviernillo</i> (little winter) or “cordonazo de San Francisco,” +which follows the September equinox. Apart from these the two +seasons are sometimes broken by cloudless skies in winter, and a +drizzling mist, called the <i>garua</i>, in summer. In the inter-andine +region the variations in temperature are frequent and the averages +comparatively low. An official estimate gives the mean annual +temperature as 64° to 68° between 6000 and 11,000 ft. In Quito the +mean annual temperature is 58.8°, the diurnal variation 10°, the +annual maximum 70°, and the annual minimum 45°. Other returns +give the mean annual temperature at 55°. It is said that pulmonary +tuberculosis is unknown in these altitudes, though it is common +in the coast districts. Catarrhal complaints are common, however, +and leprosy is widely prevalent, it being necessary to maintain three +large hospitals for lepers. In the higher altitudes there are wide +variations in the snow-fall and intensity of the cold even on the +same mountain. The line of permanent snow is much higher on the +plateau side in both ranges, the precipitation being greater on the +outer sides—those facing the forested lowlands—and the terrestrial +radiation being greater from the barren surfaces of the plateau. In +some instances the difference in the elevation of the snow-line has +been found to be fully 1000 ft. Moreover, no two summits seem to +retain the snow permanently at the same altitude. For instance, in +1880 Whymper found permanent snow on Cotocachi at 14,500 ft., +while near by Imbabura was bare to its summit (15,033 ft.); Antisana +was permanently covered at 16,000 ft., and near by Sara-Urcu, +which is drenched with rains and mists from the Amazon valley +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span> +all the year round, at 14,000 ft.; Sincholagua had large beds of +permanent snow at 15,300 ft., Cotopaxi was permanently covered at +15,500 ft. on its western side, Corazon had daily snowstorms down +to 14,500 ft., but no permanent beds of snow on its east side (elevation +15,871 ft.); and Chimborazo had deep snow at 15,600 ft. on its +north-east and south sides in June—July. The eastern range was +found to receive the heaviest snowfall. The elevation at which +human residence is possible seems to be unusually high in Ecuador. +Many of the towns and villages of central Ecuador lie at altitudes +ranging from 8606 ft. (Ambato) to 9839 ft. (Machachi). The capital +city of Quito is 9343 ft. above the sea, and is celebrated for its +agreeable temperature, and also for its healthiness in spite of prevailing +unsanitary conditions. Above these towns are a number of +farms and herdsmen’s habitations, where men live the whole or a +part of the year with less discomfort from low temperature than is +experienced in northern Europe and northern United States. +According to Whymper, the <i>tambo</i> of Chuquipoquio, at the foot +of Chimborazo, is 11,704 ft., and the <i>hacienda</i> of Pedregal, near +Iliniza, 11,629 ft., both being permanently occupied. The <i>hacienda</i> +of Antisana, 13,306 ft., and the herdsmen’s hut of Cunayaco on +Chimborazo, 13,396 ft., are occupied only for a part of the year. +The highest elevations are generally covered with ice and snow, +and glaciers, according to Whymper, are to be found upon no less +than nine of the culminating peaks, and possibly upon two or three +more. These serve to modify the temperatures of the plateau, +which is swept by cold winds at all seasons of the year. The prevailing +wind is that of the north-east and south-east trade winds, +broken and modified on the plateau and western lowlands by +mountain barriers. Westerly and north-west winds are sometimes +experienced, but are not permanent.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—The flora of the Quito basin has been well studied by +various European botanists, more especially by Dr William Jameson +(1796-1873) of the university of Quito, who began the preparation +of a synopsis of the Ecuadorean flora in 1864-1865 (<i>Synopsis plantarum +Quitensium</i>, 2 vols., Quito, 1865). The flora of the forested +lowlands on both sides of the Andes has not been studied and +described so fully. From the Pacific coast upward to a height of +about 3000 to 4000 ft. the vegetation is distinctively tropical, +including among its economic products cacao, cotton, sugar, tobacco, +rice, maize, yucca (also known as cassava and mandioca), peanuts, +bananas, sweet potatoes, yams, arracacha (<i>Conium moschatum</i>, +H.B.K., or <i>Arracacha esculenta</i>), indigo, rubber (<i>Castilloa</i>), ivory-nuts, +cinchona and bread-fruit. Most of these become rare at 3000 +ft., but a few, like sugar-cane, are cultivated as high as 8000 ft. The +alluvial valley of the Guayas, above Guayaquil, is celebrated for +the richness of its vegetation, which, in fruit alone, includes cacao, +coffee, coco-nuts, pine-apples, oranges, lemons, guayavas (<i>Psidium +pomiferum</i>), guavas (<i>Inga spectabilis</i>), shaddocks (or grape-fruit), +pomegranates, apricots, chirimoyas (<i>Anona Chirimolia</i>), granadillas +(<i>Passiflora quadrangularis</i>), paltas (<i>Persea gratissima</i>, otherwise +known as “alligator pears”), tunas (<i>Cactus</i>), mangoes (<i>Mangifera +Indica</i>), pacays (<i>Prosopis dulcis</i>), aji (Chile pepper), and many +others of less importance. Besides rubber, the forests produce a +great variety of cabinet and construction woods, ivory-nuts (from +the “tagua” palm, <i>Phytelephas macrocarpa</i>), “toquilla” fibre +(<i>Carludovica palmata</i>) for the manufacture of so-called Panama hats, +cabbage palms, several species of cinchona, vanilla and dyewoods. +Among the large trees which are valued for their timber are redwood +(<i>Humiria balsamifera</i>), Brazil-wood, algarrobo, palo de cruz +(<i>Jacquinea ruscifolia</i>), guaiacum or holy wood, rosewood, cedar and +walnut. From 6000 to 10,000 ft. above the sea, the indigenous +species include the potato, maize, oca (<i>Oxalis tuberosa</i>), and quinua +(<i>Chenopodium quinoa</i>), and the exotic species, wheat, barley, oats, +alfalfa (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), and most of the fruits and vegetables of the +northern temperate zone. Wheat does not form a head below +4500 ft., nor ripen above 10,500. The larger forest trees are rarely +seen above 10,000 ft., and even there only on the outer slopes of the +Cordilleras. The <i>Escallonia myrtalloides</i>, however, is found at an +elevation of 13,000 ft., and the shrubby <i>Befarias</i> 400 or 500 ft. higher. +A characteristic growth of the open plateau and upland valleys is the +cabulla, cabaya or maguey (<i>Agave americana</i>), whose fibre is much +used by the natives in the manufacture of cordage, sandals (<i>alpargatas</i>) +and other useful articles. In the treeless region lying between +11,600 and 13,800, or in other places between 12,000 and 14,000 ft., +the similarity of the vegetation to that of the corresponding European +region, according to Wagner, is especially striking. On the <i>paramos</i> +of Chimborazo, Pichincha, Iliniza, &c., the relation of characteristic +genera to those identical with genera in the Alpine flora of Europe +is as 5 to 4; and the botanist might almost suppose himself in the +Upper Engadine. Of the flora of the highest Andes, Whymper found +42 species, of various orders, above 16,000 ft., almost all of which +were from Antisana and Chimborazo; 12 genera of mosses were +found above 15,000 ft., and 59 species of flowering plants above +14,000 ft., of which 35 species came from above 15,000 and 20 +species from above 16,000 ft. The highest specimen obtained was a +lichen (<i>Lecanora subfusca</i>, L.) on the south side of Chimborazo, +18,400 ft. above sea-level. Mosses (<i>Grimmia</i>) were found on Chimborazo +at 16,660 ft., ferns (<i>Polypodium pycnolepis</i>, Kze.) at 14,900, +and specimens of <i>Gentiana rupicola</i>, H. B. K., <i>Achyrophorus quitensis</i>, +Sz. Bip., <i>Culcitium nivale</i>, H. B. K., at 16,300; <i>Phyllactis inconspicua</i>, +Wedd., at 16,600, <i>Astragalus geminiflorus</i>, H. B. K., at 14-15,000, +<i>Geranium diffusum</i>, H. B. K., at 16,000, <i>Malvastrum phyllanthos</i>, +Asa Gray, at 16,500, <i>Draba obovata</i>, Benth., at 16,660, and <i>Ranunculus +praemorsus</i>, Kth., at 16,500—all on Chimborazo. <i>Fuchsia +loxensis</i>, H. B. K., was found on the slope of Sara-Urcu at 12,779 ft., +and currant bushes (<i>Ribes glandulosum</i>, R. & P.), on Chimborazo, at +14,000. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, where the rainfall is +continuous throughout the year and the atmosphere is surcharged +with moisture, the forest growth is phenomenal. It is similar to +that of the Colombian and Peruvian <i>montanas</i>, modified, if at all, +by the excessive humidity which prevails in this region.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—The fauna of Ecuador is comparatively poor in mammalia, +but the birds and still more the insects are very numerous. The +Quadrumana are represented by a large number of species, the eastern +forests being very much like the other parts of the great Amazonian +basin in this respect. The Carnivora include the puma (<i>Felis +concolor</i>), jaguar (<i>F. onca</i>), ocelot (<i>F. grisea</i>), bear (<i>Ursus ornatus</i>), +fox, weasel and otter. A small deer and, in southern Ecuador, +the llama (<i>Auchenia</i>) with its allied species, the alpaca, guanaco and +vicuña, represent the ruminants. The rodents are numerous and +include most, if not all, of the Amazonian species—the capybara +(<i>Hydrochoerus capybara</i>), cavia (<i>C. aperea</i>), paca (<i>Coelogenys paca</i>) +and cutia (<i>Dasyprocta aguti</i>), all amphibious and having an extensive +range. Tapirs are to be found in the eastern forests, the peccary +in more open woodlands, and the opossum in nearly every part of the +country. Cattle, horses, asses, sheep and swine were introduced by +the Spaniards, and thrive well in some of the provinces. Excellent +horses are reared in the uplands, as well as mules and cattle, the +pasturage on the mountain slopes being good, and alfalfa being grown +in abundance in many districts. The Reptilia include countless +numbers of alligators in the Guayas and its tributaries and in the +tide-water channels of many of the smaller rivers; many species of +lizards, of which Mr Whymper found three in the Quito basin; +snakes of every description from the huge anaconda of the Amazon +region down to the beautifully marked coral snake; and a great +variety of frogs and toads. Bats also are very numerous, especially +in the eastern forest region, where the vampire bat is a serious +obstacle to permanent settlement. The avifauna of Ecuador is +distinguished for the great variety of its genera and species, among +which are many peculiar to the Amazon valley, and others to the +colder uplands. Among the Amazon species may be mentioned the +parrot, macaw (<i>Macrocercus</i>), toucan (<i>Ramphastos</i>), curassow (<i>Crax</i>), +penelope, trogon, and horned screamer (<i>Palamedea cornuta</i>). There +are also herons, ibises, storks and cranes, including the great black-headed +white crane, <i>Mycteria americana</i>, which ranges from northern +Argentina to Colombia. One species of ibis, the <i>Theristicus caudatus</i>, +is to be found, it is said, only on the slopes of Antisana. Species of +the pheasant and partridge are not uncommon, and the “guácharo” +(<i>Steatornis caripensis</i>), once believed to inhabit Venezuela only, is +found in Ecuador also. The Raptores are well represented by a +large number of genera and species, which include the condor, eagle, +vulture, falcon, hawk and owl. The condor (<i>Sarcorhamphus +gryphus</i>) is commonly found between the elevations of 6000 and +16,000 ft., rarely, if ever, descending to the lowland plains or rising +above the lower peaks. It preys upon the smaller animals and inflicts +much loss upon stock farmers through the destruction of calves, +lambs, &c., but it very rarely ventures to attack man or any of the +larger animals. The eagle common to Ecuador is the <i>Morphnus +taeniatus</i>, and possibly the <i>M. guaianensis</i> on the eastern slopes +of the Andes. The harrier-eagle (<i>Herpetotheres cachinnans</i>) is also to +be found throughout this part of the continent. An eagle with +buzzard-like habits, the <i>Leucopternis plumbea</i>, is likewise common in +Ecuador. Among the vultures the turkey-buzzard group (<i>Rhinogryphus</i> +or <i>Cathartes</i>), including the <i>R. aurus</i>, <i>burrovianus</i> and +<i>perniger</i>, is common everywhere. The carrion crow, or black +vulture (<i>Catharista atrata</i>), is also common to every part of the +country, and is the general scavenger. The carrion hawks are +represented by the <i>Polyborus tharus</i>, popularly called the “caracara,” +and the <i>Phalcobaenus carunculatus</i>; the falcons by the +<i>Aesalon columbarius</i>; and the kites by the <i>Gampsonyx swainsoni</i>. +The Ecuadorean owl is the <i>Bubo nigrescens</i>. An interesting species +of the song birds is popularly known as the “flautero” (flute-bird), +which inhabits the eastern forests. Its notes are marvellous imitations +of “the most mellow, sweet-sounding flute,” but the singer +itself, according to Mr Simson, is “a very insignificant-looking +little, greyish-coloured bird,” which “always dies in captivity.” The +most interesting group of the smaller birds is that of the hummingbirds, +of which the number and variety is astonishing. Some of +these have a very wide range, while others are apparently limited +to a small district, or to a certain altitude. The best-known fish of +Ecuador is the insignificant <i>Pimelodus cyclopum</i>, the only fish found +in the streams and lakes of the plateau region. Its fame rests on +Humboldt’s publication of the tradition that great numbers of this +tiny fish had been thrown out during the eruptions of Imbabura and +other volcanoes. Mr Whymper’s explanation of the phenomenon +is that the fish are scattered over the land by the sudden overflow +during volcanic eruptions of the rivers and lakes which they inhabit. +The rivers of the eastern plains are probably stocked with the fish +found in the Amazon. On the coast, the Ancon de Sardinas bay is so +named from the multitude of small fish (<i>sardinas</i>) which inhabit its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span> +waters. Elsewhere there are no fisheries of importance, except those +of the Galapagos Islands.</p> + +<p>The insect inhabitants of Ecuador, like the birds, include a large +number of genera and species, but no complete entomological survey +of the country has ever been made, and our knowledge in this respect +is insufficient to warrant a detailed description. In one ascent of +Pichincha in 1880, Mr Whymper collected 21 species of beetles, all +new to science, between 12,000 and 15,600 ft. elevation. On +Cotopaxi, at elevations of 13,000 to 15,800 ft., 18 species of the genus +<i>Colpodes</i> were collected, of which 16 were new. This may be considered +a fair illustration of the situation in Ecuador so far as natural +history exploration is concerned. Of the Machachi basin, near +Quito, which he calls a “zoologist’s paradise,” Mr Whymper writes +(<i>Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator</i>): “Butterflies above, +below and around; now here, now there, by many turns and twists +displaying the brilliant tessellation of their under-sides.... May-flies +and dragon-flies danced in the sunlight; lizards darted across +the paths; and legions of spiders pervaded the grass, many very +beautiful—frosted—silver backs, or curious, like the saltigrades, +who took a few steps and then gave a leap. There were crickets in +infinite numbers; and flies innumerable, from slim daddy-long-legs +to ponderous, black, hairy fellows known to science as <i>Dejeaniae</i>; +hymenopterous insects in profusion, including our old friend the +bishop of Ambato (possibly <i>Dielis</i>), in company with another +formidable stinger, with chrome antennae, called by the natives +’the Devil’; and occasional <i>Phasmas</i> (caballo de palo) crawling +painfully about, like animated twigs.” This description refers to a +fertile sub-tropical oasis on the partially barren plateau; below in +the forested lowlands, where tropical conditions prevail, the numbers +and varieties are many times greater. The Coleoptera are especially +numerous; Mr Whymper took home with him 206 species which +had been identified and described up to 1892, most of them from the +uplands and most of them new to science. The total number of +species in Ecuador is roughly estimated to be 8000. The Hymenoptera +are also numerous, but less so than the Lepidoptera, with +which the mountain slopes and sunny, open spaces seem to be +literally covered. Of moths alone Mr Whymper took away with him +specimens representing no less than 23 genera, with a probable +addition of 13 genera more among his undescribed specimens, the +largest of which (an <i>Erebus odora</i>) was 7¼ in. across the wings. +Among the Diptera, which includes a very wide range of genera and +species, are some of a highly troublesome character, though on the +whole, Mr Whymper did not find the flies and mosquitoes so. His +explorations, however, did not extend to the eastern region, where +the mosquitoes are usually described by travellers as extremely +troublesome. Sand-flies are common, and in the eastern forests the +tiny <i>piúm</i> fly (<i>Trombidium</i>, sp.?) is a veritable pest. Of the insects +which infest dwellings and prey upon their human inmates, such +as fleas, bed-bugs, roaches, &c., Ecuador has more than a bountiful +supply. Lice-eating is a widely prevalent habit among the Indians +and mestizos, and demonstrates how numerous these parasites are +among the people. A good illustration of the prevalence of house-infesting +animals and insects is given by Mr Whymper (<i>op. cit.</i> +p. 391), who made a collection of 50 different specimens of the +vermin which infested his bedroom in Guayaquil.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The indigenous population of Ecuador was +originally composed of two distinct races—the Quitus and Caras, +the former being the older, and the latter presumably of Quichua +origin. The Caras, according to tradition, entered the country +from the coast, and had thoroughly established themselves there +long before the conquest by the Inca rulers Tupac-Yupanqui and +his son Huayna-Capac. This conquest was comparatively easy +because the Caras spoke a dialect of the same language, and were +not greatly unlike their conquerors in manners and customs. +The present Indian population of Ecuador, excepting those of +the trans-Andean region, may be considered as descendants of +these two races. They are subjected to incredible abuses under +Spanish colonial rule, their numbers being reduced to a fraction +of the former population, and even yet they are subjected to a +kind of debt-bondage which is slavery in all but the name. +Notwithstanding all this they still represent from two-thirds to +three-fourths of the actual population of Ecuador. East of the +Andes the forests are inhabited by tribes of what are termed +“aucas” or “infieles” (infidels)—Indians who are independent +of both church and political control. Missions have been established +among some of the tribes, but their influence reaches only +a small part of the wild inhabitants of this extensive region.</p> + +<p>The principal tribes are the Quijos or Canelos, who are settled +about the headwaters of the Napo, on the eastern slopes of the +Andes, and are in great part grouped about the missions; the +Jivaros who inhabit the valley of the Pastaza; the Zaparos +who occupy the forest region between the Pastaza and +Napo; the Piojes of the middle Napo, and eastward to the +Putumayo; and the Iquitos and Mazanes of the lower Napo and +Tigre, chiefly in territory occupied by Peru. The Jivaros are the +best known of these tribes because of their successful resistance +to the Spanish invaders. They are still independent of political +control, live in permanent settlements, till the soil (producing +Indian corn, beans, yucca and plantains), and have developed +some rude manufactures. The Zaparos are less homogeneous, +some of their hordes living in a state of complete savagery. They +are classified with the Guaranis of Brazil, whom they resemble +in many particulars. The Piojes live in permanent communities +and cultivate the soil. The total number of “aucas” or uncivilized +Indians in the republic has been estimated at about +200,000, but this estimate covered a larger area than Ecuador +actually occupies and is evidently too high. Their settlements +are usually small and very much scattered, and their aggregate +number is evidently much under the earlier estimates. An +official estimate given to Mr Whymper in 1880, however, places +the population of Oriente (the eastern territory) at 80,000, which +is probably more nearly correct.</p> + +<p>No general census has ever been taken in Ecuador, and +estimates are little better than vague conjectures. One of these +estimates, that published by P.F. Cevallos for 1889, which has +been generally accepted, gave the total population as 1,272,161, +and these figures have been used with but slight changes for +various later estimates. A later official estimate appeared in +1900 in <i>La République de l’Équateur et sa participation à l’Exposition +Universelle de 1900</i>, which gives for the provinces +practically the same figures as those of Cevallos, and at the same +time assumes the total for the whole republic to be 1,500,000. +The white population is estimated at 100,000 to 120,000, which +probably includes many of mixed ancestry, and the mixed bloods +at 300,000 to 450,000. The tendency is for the <i>mestizo</i> who +dwells in Indian communities to revert to the Indian type, and +it is probable that the larger estimate is nearer the truth. On +the other hand <i>mestizos</i> who live among the whites and form new +alliances with them eventually class themselves as whites wherever +their social condition has been improved. As a rule, the +<i>mestizos</i> of Ecuador are ignorant, indolent and non-progressive. +As in Colombia they are the artizans and small traders and the +Indians are the farm labourers. The land is held by a few proprietors, +and caste sentiment is strong among those who claim +unmixed European descent; consequently the <i>mestizos</i> have +limited opportunities to improve their condition.</p> + +<p>The whites form an exclusive governing caste, as in Chile. +The territory of the republic is divided among a very few of +them, and its government is in their hands.</p> + +<p>In the hot seaboard districts there are a small number of +negroes, and a somewhat larger number of their crosses with the +other two races. The majority of these are to be found in the +northern provinces. There are comparatively few negroes and +mulattoes on the colder plateaus. Villavicencio estimated their +numbers at 7831 pure negroes and 36,592 mixed bloods, which is +probably not far from the correct totals.</p> + +<p>The foreign population is small, the total being estimated at +about 6000, of which 5000 are natives of the neighbouring Latin +republics, 700 Europeans and Americans, and 300 Chinese.</p> + +<p><i>Territorial Divisions and Towns.</i>—The republic is divided into +15 provinces and one territory. The Galapagos Islands were +declared a dependency of the province of Guayas in 1885, but are +practically independent and constitute a second territory under +the administration of <i>jefe territorial</i> appointed by the national +executive.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The official estimate (<i>La République de l’Équateur et sa participation +à l’Exposition Universelle de 1900</i>) gives the data for the provinces +and their capitals, which are shown on the next page.</p> + +<p>These population figures are very nearly the same as those given +by Cevállos for 1889. If the population of the Oriente be taken as +80,000, the aggretate is very nearly the same. The population of +the provincial capitals is in some cases over-estimated, especially +for Guayaquil and Quito, neither of which could have had 50,000 at +the date of this estimate. The population of Quito in May 1906 was +50,841, of which 1365 were foreigners. As for the areas of the +provinces the figures need not be questioned except those for the +Oriente territory, which are much too large for the region actually +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span> +occupied by Ecuador, and for the Galapagos Islands which are +described by competent authorities as 2400 sq. m. The population +of these islands was 400 (principally convicts) on Chatham Island +in 1901, about 115 on Albemarle and 3 on Charles Island in 1903. +Besides the provincial capitals already noted, there are no large +and important towns in the country. The largest of the smaller +towns is probably Jipijapa, in the province of Manabi, which is +the centre of the Panama hat industry and had in 1900 an estimated +population of 6000, nearly all Indians.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Provinces.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Area.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Population.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Capital.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Population.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">sq. m.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carchi</td> <td class="tcc rb">1495</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tulcan</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Imbabura</td> <td class="tcc rb">2416</td> <td class="tcr rb">68,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibarra</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pichincha</td> <td class="tcc rb">6219</td> <td class="tcr rb">205,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Quito</td> <td class="tcr rb">80,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Léon</td> <td class="tcc rb">2595</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,600</td> <td class="tcl rb">Latacunga</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tunguragua</td> <td class="tcc rb">1686</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ambato</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chimborazo</td> <td class="tcc rb">2990</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Riobamba</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bolivar</td> <td class="tcc rb">1260</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Guaranda</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cañar</td> <td class="tcc rb">1519</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Azogues</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Azuay</td> <td class="tcc rb">3874</td> <td class="tcr rb">132,400</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cuenca</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Loja</td> <td class="tcc rb">3707</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Loja</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">El Oro</td> <td class="tcc rb">2340</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,600</td> <td class="tcl rb">Machala</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Guayas</td> <td class="tcc rb">8216</td> <td class="tcr rb">98,100</td> <td class="tcl rb">Guayaquil</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Los Rios</td> <td class="tcc rb">2296</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,800</td> <td class="tcl rb">Babahoyo</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manabi</td> <td class="tcc rb">7893</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,100</td> <td class="tcl rb">Portoviejo</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Esmeraldas</td> <td class="tcc rb">5465</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,600</td> <td class="tcl rb">Esmeraldas</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oriente (ter.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">unknown</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Galapagos Is.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2865</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">· ·</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The first railway to be completed in Ecuador +was the line between Guayaquil and Quito, 290 m. in length, the +last section of which was formally opened at Quito on the 25th of +June 1908. It belongs to an American company, and had been under +construction for many years. Lines from Puerto Bolívar to Machala, +province of El Oro, and another from Bahia de Caráquez to Chone, +were under construction in 1908. Several lines were also projected, +two to penetrate the Ecuadorean <i>montana</i>. There is only one +highway in the country on which vehicles can be used, the paved +road extending southward from Quito 115 m. on the Guayaquil +route, which was begun by Garcia Moreno but has been allowed to +fall into neglect. Other roads have been projected to the coast +and one to the eastern territory. The ordinary roads are rough mule-tracks. +These are difficult at all times, and in the rainy season are +quite impassable. On the Pacific lowlands the rivers Guayas, Daule, +Vinces and Yaguachi have about 200 m. of navigable channels in +the rainy season, and are used for the transportation of produce and +merchandise. There are also several short river channels along +the coast which are used by planters for the same purpose. A great +part of the country, however, is still compelled to use the most +primitive means of communication—mule paths, fords in the smaller +streams in the dry season, and rude suspension bridges across deep +gorges and swift mountain torrents. The latter are usually constructed +from the tough fibre of the <i>Agave americana</i> and consist +of one or more cables. When of one cable, called the <i>taravita</i>, the +passenger and his luggage are drawn across in a rude kind of basket +suspended from it; but when two or more cables are used, transverse +sticks of bamboo and reeds are laid upon them, forming a rude +prototype of the regular suspension bridge. Such a bridge is called +a <i>chimba-chaca</i>, and is very hazardous for an unpractised foot. In +1907 there were 2564 m. of telegraph lines in operation, connecting +Quito with all the principal towns. The national capital is connected +with the submarine cable at Santa Elena (via Guayaquil) and at +Tumaco, in Colombia. Guayaquil is provided with tramway and +telephone lines. These public services are under the general supervision +of the Minister of Public Instruction, Posts and Telegraphs.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—Ecuador has no merchant marine beyond a few small +vessels engaged in the coastwise traffic, some eighteen or twenty river +steamers on the Guayas and its tributaries, and a number of steam +launches, towboats and various descriptions of barges engaged in +the transportation of produce and goods on the rivers. The ocean-going +foreign trade of the country is carried wholly in foreign vessels, +for the regular lines of which Guayaquil is a principal port of call. +Less frequent calls are made at Esmeraldas and some of the other +small ports on the coast, of which there are nine in all. Most of these +are difficult of access and their trade is unimportant. The total trade +of the republic in 1905, according to returns published by the +Guayaquil Chamber of Commerce, amounted to only £3,429,955, of +which £1,573,389 (15,733,891 sucrés) were credited to imports, and +£1,856,566 (18,565,668 sucrés) to exports. Of these totals, all but +£127,532 of the imports and £441,679 of the exports passed through +the port of Guayaquil. The great poverty of the people has been a +serious obstacle to the development of a larger commerce.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The agricultural industries on which the export +trade depends are almost wholly restricted to the western lowlands, +and include cacao, coffee, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, yucca and +sweet potatoes. The Guayas basin and the district about Machala +are celebrated for their cacao, and produce about one-third of the +world’s supply. It is the staple product of the country. Coffee is +produced on the lower slopes of the Cordilleras and is of excellent +quality. The production is small, but would be increased at remunerative +prices. During the American civil war the planters of +Ecuador entered largely into the production of cotton, which at +that time yielded large profits, but the industry has declined to very +insignificant proportions since then because of inability to compete +with the lower cost of production in the United States. The output +of sugar and tobacco is small, but could be largely increased, as the +conditions of soil and climate are favourable. Much of the sugar-cane +produced is turned into rum, which is consumed in the country. +The tobacco grown is of excellent quality. Efforts have been made +to promote the cultivation of indigo, but without much success. +On the uplands, wheat, Indian corn, oats, barley, potatoes and +vegetables of many kinds are successfully cultivated, but wholly for +home consumption. The vine is successfully grown in the warm +upland valleys, both for its fruit and for the production of wine. +The staple foods for the common people are potatoes on the plateau +(which are chiefly consumed in the form of <i>locro</i>, or potato-soup) +and yucca- or cassava-meal in the warmer regions. Although cattle +and horses were not known before the Spanish conquest, they have +become since then important products of the country. The best +grazing lands are on the lower elevations west of the Cordilleras in +certain districts of the plateau and on the slopes of some of the +higher Andes, as on Chimborazo and Antisana. Horses and mules +are reared for export on a small scale, and sheep for their wool, +which is used in home manufactures.</p> + +<p><i>Forest Products.</i>—The forest and other natural products include +rubber, cinchona bark, ivory-nuts, mocora and toquilla fibre for +the manufacture of hats, hammocks, &c., cabaya fibre for shoes +and cordage, vegetable wool (<i>Bombax ceiba</i>), sarsaparilla, vanilla, +cochineal, cabinet woods, fruit, resins, &c. The original source of +the Peruvian bark of commerce, the <i>Cinchona calisaya</i>, is completely +exhausted, and the “red bark” derived from <i>C. succirubra</i>, is now +the principal source of supply from Ecuador. Guaranda is the centre +of the industry, but bark gatherers are to be found everywhere in the +forest regions. The rubber-gathering industry is comparatively new. +The product is derived from the <i>Castilloa elastica</i>, the <i>Heveas</i> not +being found west of the Andes.</p> + +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—The mineral resources are much inferior to those of +Colombia and Peru. Gold is found in the province of El Oro, where +the great Zaruma and other companies have opened a number of +mines. It is also found in the provinces of Loja, Esmeraldas, and in +the river-beds along the eastern slopes of the Andes. Quicksilver +has been mined at Azogues, in the province of Cañar, and is also to +be found in Azuay. Iron ores and lead are credited to several +provinces, and platinum has been found in Esmeraldas, where +emerald mines have been worked ever since the Spanish conquest. +Coal of good quality has been found in Azuay and at other points, +and petroleum is known to exist in several localities. Salt springs +near Riobamba and at Salinas, in Imbabura, have long been used +by the natives in the manufacture of salt.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—The manufacturing industries are chiefly of a +primitive character and have been developed to meet local necessities. +There are some cotton factories and sugar mills provided with modern +machinery, but the cotton and woollen cloths of the country are +commonly coarse and manufactured in the most primitive manner. +Some of these goods are sent into southern Colombia, but they are +chiefly made for the local market. Hats and hammocks are made +from the fibres of the mocora and toquilla palms, and sandals from +the fibre of the <i>Agave americana</i>. The hats are an article of export, +and are known abroad as Panama hats. Hand-made laces of +admirable workmanship are made in some localities, especially on +the plateau about Quito. Among other manufactories, all for the +home market, may be mentioned: flour-mills, sugar refineries, rum +distilleries, breweries, chocolate factories, a candle factory, saw-mills +and tanneries.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—Constitutionally, the government of Ecuador is +that of a centralized republic, whose powers are defined by a +written constitution and whose chief organs are an executive +consisting of a president and vice-president, and a national +congress consisting of two houses, a senate and a chamber of +deputies. Revolutionary changes, however, have been very +frequent in Ecuador, and no less than eleven constitutions were +adopted between 1830 and 1909.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The constitution adopted in 1906 succeeded that of 1884 (amended +in 1887 and 1897), and its terms may be given here, subject to what +may be regarded as the extra-constitutional powers vested in the +executive. Executive power is vested in a president and vice-president +elected for periods of four years by a direct vote of the +people. (Under the constitution of 1884 the official terms of these +two officers were not wholly synchronous, the vice-president’s term +beginning with the president’s third year.) These officials cannot be +re-elected to succeed themselves. The president, whose salary is +12,000 sucrés per annum, has a limited veto power, and may convene +extraordinary sessions of Congress for a specified purpose, but he +has no further authority over that body. He appoints the diplomatic +and consular representatives of the republic and the governors of the +provinces, exercises a limited control over the administration of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span> +justice and public instruction through the appointment of officials, +and is chief of the small military force maintained by the republic. +The construction of railways with public funds and under government +supervision also places him at the head of a very important public +service. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers:—foreign +relations and justice; interior and public works; finance; +war; public instruction, posts and telegraphs—all of whom may be +impeached by congress. The executive authority is also partially +exercised by a council of state composed of 15 members, including +the five cabinet ministers, of which the vice-president is <i>ex-officio</i> +president. The council has important advisory functions, and must +be consulted by the president on every important measure or +appointment. The provinces are administered by governors chosen +by the national executive; the departments by <i>jefes politicos</i> +(political chiefs); and the municipalities by <i>tenientes politicos</i> +(political lieutenants). The Galapagos Islands are under a <i>jefe +territorial</i> (territorial chief), Chatham Island being a penal colony +and governed by special laws.</p> + +<p>The congressional organization is similar to that of the majority +of South American states. The senate is composed of 32 members +(2 from each province) elected for two years, one-half the number +being renewed each two years. The chamber is composed of 42 +deputies, who are elected by the provinces for a period of two +years, on a basis of one representative for each 30,000 inhabitants +and one supplementary representative for an additional 15,000. A +senator must be at least 35 years of age, and a deputy 25. +The elections are direct, and members of both houses may be re-elected. +The immunities of legislators begin 30 days before the +opening session of congress, and terminate 30 days after its dissolution. +Congress meets at Quito on the 10th of August, and +remains in session for a period of 60 days, but its sessions may be +extended or extraordinary sessions called for specified purposes. +The right of suffrage is restricted to literate male adults.</p> + +<p>The judicial branch of the government is composed of a supreme +court, located at Quito, consisting of 5 judges and a fiscal (public +prosecutor) appointed by the executive; six superior courts (in +Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba, Loja and Portoviejo) with a +total of 9 judges; <i>a Tribunal de Cuentas</i> of seven members at +Quito; and various municipal courts, or <i>alcaldes</i>, in the chief towns +of the departments. There are civil courts of first and second +instance in the larger towns, and consular courts in Quito, Guayaquil +and Cuenca with jurisdiction in commercial cases. There are also +police commissaries in the departments and justices of the peace +in the municipalities, the latter having jurisdiction in civil cases +where the amount involved does not exceed 200 sucrés. The laws of +Ecuador are based on the old Spanish laws and procedure, and include +civil, criminal and commercial codes.</p> + +<p><i>Army.</i>—The army, according to an official report of 1900, consisted +of 4 battalions of infantry (about 3690 strong), 3 brigades of artillery +(1362), and 2 regiments of cavalry (468), in all, about 5520 men, +rank and file. In 1908 this force was reported to comprise 4350 men. +The national guard is composed of three classes: actives—all enrolled +citizens of 20 to 38 years; auxiliaries—enrolled citizens of +38 to 44 years; and passives—enrolled citizens of 44 to 50 years. +These were estimated at 95,329 men. There is a military school +at Quito and a naval school at Guayaquil.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Although primary instruction is free, and is obligatory +for children of 6 to 12 years, a considerable part Of the population +is unprovided with schools and is indifferent in regard to them. +An official report for 1900 gives the number of primary schools as +1297, and the number of pupils in attendance as about 80,000. +The secondary schools numbered 37, with 371 teachers and about +4500 pupils. Higher instruction includes the technical and professional +schools with the three universities of Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca, +and 6 schools of “trades and professions” (<i>artes y oficios</i>) in as many +provinces. The old University of Quito has a staff of 32 professors +divided into 5 faculties: Philosophy and Belles-Lettres, Law, +Medicine, Physical and Natural Sciences and Mathematics. There +are also in Quito a school of agriculture, astronomical observatory, +botanical garden, museum and national printing office, all +apparently under the supervision of the University.</p> + +<p><i>Church.</i>—According to the constitution of 1884, “the religion +of the Republic is the Roman Catholic Apostolic, and all others +are excluded.” The only opposition which the Church has ever had +to encounter has been from the “liberal” element within itself, +and thus has arisen, seemingly from political motives, a desire to +restrict clerical influence in political affairs. This influence has been +exercised to an extreme in Ecuador, so much so, in fact, that its +government at times was more nearly a theocracy than a republic. +The growth of liberalism finally began to produce results. In 1889 +the tithes from which the Church revenues had been derived were +abolished, and a tax of 3 per mil. on real estate was substituted. +In 1902 a signal victory was won in a law permitting civil marriage, +but in 1904 a social revolution was effected by legislation, which +placed the Church under State control, forbade the foundation of +new religious orders and admission into the country of new religious +communities, and provided that the members of the episcopate must +be citizens of Ecuador. The higher dignitaries of the Church are an +archbishop at Quito, and six suffragan bishops at Cuenca, Loja, +Ibarra, Riobamba, Guayaquil and Manabi.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The revenues of the republic are derived from import +and export duties, liquor, tobacco and stamp taxes, inheritance +tax, salt, gunpowder and playing cards monopolies, consular charges, +and sundry miscellaneous receipts, including those from posts, +telegraphs and railways. Up to 1907 the customs duties were +increased by surtaxes amounting at that time to 100%. The +minister of finance proposed to abolish these surtaxes and double +all the rates of duties involved. On exports, however, all the duties +were to be abolished except those on cacao, coffee, hides, rubber, +tagua (ivory nuts), hat fibre, hammock fibre and tobacco. For 1907 +the revenues were £1,424,770 and the expenditures £1,383,122.</p> + +<p>On the 10th of October 1906, when the report of the provisional +government created by the revolution of the preceding January +presented its financial report to a national assembly, the total +obligations of the country were stated to be:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Sucrés. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Railway bonds, 12,282,000 sucrés gold at 107% premium</td> <td class="tcr">25,423,740</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Banco del Ecuador, advances</td> <td class="tcr">3,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Banco Comercial y Agrocola, idem</td> <td class="tcr">2,400,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Internal debt</td> <td class="tcr">739,575</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Condor bonds</td> <td class="tcr">757,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">French Finance Corporation</td> <td class="tcr">887,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">33,207,315</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   In £ sterling at 10 sucrés per £</td> <td class="tcr">3,320,731</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The foreign debt of the republic, which in 1898 stood at £693,160 in +bonds, was assumed by the Guayaquil & Quito Railway Co. under +contracts of 1897, 1898, 1899 and 1900, the government guaranteeing +interest on the sum of £2,520,000 railway mortgage bonds for 33 +years and recognizing the external debt at 35% of its face value. +This debt originated in 1830, when Ecuador seceded from the Colombian +confederacy and was charged with 21½% of the indebtedness +of the three states. In 1855 the amount was fixed at £1,824,000, +and in 1892 it was converted into a new consolidated debt of £750,000. +Payments of interest and amortization had been very irregular, and +its transfer to a foreign company as the price of a railway concession +put an end to a transaction which had been a serious discredit to +the country. The amount outstanding on the 31st of December +1907 was 10,808,000 sucrés (£1,080,800). It should be said that the +difficulties in regard to this debt arose from a feeling in Ecuador that +the part assigned to it in 1830 was much too large, and that it was +contracted almost wholly for the benefit of the two northern +republics, Colombia and Venezuela.</p> + +<p><i>Money and Measures.</i>—Under the law of 1898, which came into +effect on the 4th of June 1900, gold is made the monetary standard +in Ecuador, the legal tender of silver being limited to 10 sucrés, +and banks of issue being required to hold at least one-half their +metallic reserves in gold coin. Previously there had been much +confusion in the circulating medium because of the depreciated +value of the Quito currency in comparison with that of Guayaquil, +but the new law has corrected the anomaly and has given a simple +and uniform medium for the whole country. The coinage under +the law of 1898 consists of the gold <i>condor</i>, of 10 <i>sucrés</i>, which weighs +8.136 grams, contains 7.3224 grams of fine gold, and is equal to the +English pound sterling in value; the silver <i>sucré</i>, of 100 centavos, +equivalent to 24d. in value; and smaller coins of silver, nickel and +copper, the denominations being decimal parts of the sucré. The +sucré received its name from the portrait of General Sucré engraved +on the coin, and is legal tender up to 10 sucrés. The paper money +circulation consists of the issues of two Guayaquil banks—the +Banco del Ecuador, and the Banco Comercial y Agricola, whose +united issues on June 30th, 1906, amounted to 7,414,140 sucrés +(£741,414). The Bank of Quito at one time issued notes which, +according to Whymper, were not current at and south of Riobamba, +but it does not appear that this bank is authorized to issue +its notes under the new law. The metallic money nominally in +circulation on the 30th of June 1906, amounted to 2,587,667 sucrés +gold and 2,522,802 sucrés silver. Although the metric system was +adopted in 1856, the old Spanish weights and measures—the quintal, +libra, vara and fanega—are still in use, the quintal being equivalent +to about 101 ℔</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—Throughout Ecuador there are still considerable +remains of the architectural and artistic skill of the ante-European +period. At Cañar, to the north-east of Cuenca, stands the Incapirca, +a circular rampart of finely hewn stone, enclosing an open area with +a roofless but well-preserved building in the centre; not far off is the +Inca-chungana, a very much smaller enclosure, probably the remains +of a pavilion; and in the same neighbourhood the image of the sun +and a small cabinet are carved on the face of a rock called Intihuaicu. +On one of the hills running from Pichincha to the Esmeraldas +there are remains at Paltatamba of a temple and a conical tower, +the buttresses of a bridge composed of stone and bitumen, portions +of a great causeway, and numerous tombs from which mummies +and plates of silver have been obtained. At Hantuntaqui similar +sepulchral mounds, called <i>tolas</i>, may be seen, as well as traces of +military structures. On the plain of Callo, near Cotopaxi, at a +height of 8658 ft., the ruins of an Incarial palace, Pachusala, are +utilized by the <i>hacienda</i>; and a conical hill at its side is supposed to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span> +be of artificial construction. The remains of another fortress and +palace are preserved at Pomallacta, and in the neighbouring +pueblo of Achupallas an ancient temple of the sun now serves as +parish church. In many localities, especially in Imbabura, pottery +and various objects are found belonging to the pre-Colombian +period, among which five and six rayed stars (<i>casse-têtes</i>) are very +numerous.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The territory of the republic of Ecuador, when first +it becomes dimly visible in the grey dawn of American history, +appears to be inhabited by upwards of fifty independent tribes, +among which the Quitus seem to hold the most important +position. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 280 a foreign tribe is said to have forced +their way inland up the valley of the Esmeraldas; and the +kingdom which they founded at Quito lasted for about 1200 +years, and was gradually extended, both by war and alliance, +over many of the neighbouring dominions. In 1460, during the +reign of the fourteenth <i>Caran Shyri</i>, or king of the Cara nation, +Hualcopo Duchisela, the conquest of Quito was undertaken by +Tupac Yupanqui, the Inca of Peru; and his ambitious schemes +were, not long after his death, successfully carried out by his son +Huayna-Capac, who inflicted a decisive defeat on the Quitonians +in the battle of Hatuntaqui, and secured his position by marrying +Pacha, the daughter of the late Shyri. By his will the conqueror +left the kingdom of Quito to Atahuallpa, his son by this alliance; +while the Peruvian throne was assigned to Huascar, an elder son +by his Peruvian consort. War soon broke out between the two +kingdoms, owing to Huascar’s pretensions to supremacy over his +brother; but it ended in the defeat and imprisonment of the +usurper, and the establishment of Atahuallpa as master both of +Quito and Cuzco. The fortunate monarch, however, had not +long to enjoy his success; for Pizarro and his Spaniards were +already at the door, and by 1533 the fate of the country was +sealed. As soon as the confusions and rivalries of the first +occupation were suppressed, the recent kingdom of Quito was +made a presidency of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru, and no +change of importance took place till 1710. In that year it was +attached to the viceroyalty of Santa Fé; but it was restored to +Peru in 1722. When, towards the close of the century, the desire +for independence began to manifest itself throughout the Spanish +colonies of South America, Quito did not remain altogether +indifferent. The Quitonian doctor Eugenio Espejo, and his +fellow-citizen Don Juan Pio Montufar, entered into hearty co-operation +with Nariño and Zea, the leaders of the revolutionary +movement at Santa Fé; and it was at Espejo’s suggestion that +the political association called the <i>Escuela de Concordia</i> was +instituted at Quito. It was not till 1809, however, that the +Quitonians made a real attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke; +and both on that occasion and in 1812 the royal general succeeded +in crushing the insurrection. In 1820 the people of Guayaquil +took up the cry of liberty; and in spite of several defeats they +continued the contest, till at length, under Antonio José de +Sucré, who had been sent to their assistance by Bolivar, and +reinforced by a Peruvian contingent under Andres de Santa +Cruz, they gained a complete victory on May 22, 1822, in a battle +fought on the side of Mount Pichincha, at a height of 10,200 ft. +above the sea. Two days after, the Spanish president of Quito, +Don Melchor de Aymeric, capitulated, and the independence of +the country was secured. A political union was at once effected +with New Granada and Venezuela on the basis of the republican +constitution instituted at Cucuta in July 1821—the triple confederation +taking the name of Colombia.</p> + +<p>A disagreement with Peru in 1828 resulted in the invasion of +Ecuador and the temporary occupation of Cuenca and Guayaquil +by Peruvian forces; but peace was restored in the following +year after the Ecuadorian victory at Tarqui. In the early part of +1830 a separation was effected from the Colombian federation, +and the country was proclaimed an independent republic. +General Juan José Flores was the first president, and in spite of +many difficulties, both domestic and foreign, he managed to +maintain a powerful position in the state for about 15 years. +Succeeded in 1835 by Vicente Rocafuerte, he regained the presidency +in 1839, and was elected for the third time in 1843; but +shortly afterwards he accepted the title of generalissimo and a +sum of 20,000 pesos, and left the country to his rivals. One of +the most important measures of his second presidency was the +establishment of peace and friendship with Spain. Roca, who +next attained to power, effected a temporary settlement with +Colombia, concluded a convention with England against the +slave trade, and made a commercial treaty with Belgium. Diego +Noboa, elected in 1850 after a period of great confusion, recalled +the Jesuits, produced a rupture with New Granada by receiving +conservative refugees, and thus brought about his own deposition +and exile. The democratic Urbina now became practically +dictator, and as the attempt of Flores to reinstate Noboa proved +a total failure, he was quickly succeeded in 1856 by General +Francisco Robles, who, among other progressive measures, +secured the adoption of the French system of coinage, weights +and measures. He abdicated in 1859 and left the country, after +refusing to ratify the treaty with Peru, by which the defender +of Guayaquil had obtained the raising of the siege. Dr Gabriel +Garcia Moreno, professor of chemistry, the recognized leader +of the conservative party at Quito, was ultimately elected by the +national convention of 1861. Distrust in his policy, however, was +excited by the publication of some of his private correspondence, +in which he spoke favourably of a French protectorate, and the +army which he sent under Flores to resist the encroachments of +Mosquera, the president of New Granada, was completely routed. +His first resignation in 1864 was refused; but the despotic acts +by which he sought to establish a dictatorship only embittered +his opponents, and in September 1865 he retired from office. +While he had endeavoured to develop the material resources of +the country, he had at the same time introduced retrograde +measures in regard to religion and education. The principal +event in the short presidency of his successor, Gerónimo Carrion +(May 1865-Nov. 1867), was the alliance with Chile and Peru +against Spain, and the banishment of all Spanish subjects. +Several important changes were made by congress in the period +between his resignation and the election of Xavier Espinosa, +January 1868: the power of the president to imprison persons +regarded as dangerous to public order was annulled; and the +immediate naturalization of Bolivians, Chilians, Peruvians and +Colombians was authorized. Espinosa had hardly entered on his +office when, in August 1868, the country was visited by an earthquake, +in which 30,000 people are said to have perished throughout +South America. The public buildings of Quito were laid in +ruins; and Ibarra, Otavalo, Cotacachi and several other towns +were completely destroyed. Next year a revolution at Quito, +under Moreno, brought Espinosa’s presidency to a close; and +though the national convention appointed Carvajal to the vacant +office, Moreno succeeded in securing his own election in 1870 for +a term of six years. His policy had undergone no alteration since +1865: the same persistent endeavour was made to establish a +religious despotism, in which the supremacy of the president +should be subordinate only to the higher supremacy of the clergy.</p> + +<p>President Moreno was eventually assassinated at Quito, in +August 1875, and Dr Borrero was elected to the presidency, but +his tenure of power was short. A revolution headed by General +Veintemilla, the Radical leader, then military commandant at +Guayaquil, broke out in 1876, and on the 14th of December of +that year the government forces under General Aparicio were +completely routed at Galte. Veintemilla was proclaimed president, +and in 1877 was duly elected by the cortes. He altered +the constitution in a more Liberal direction, and struck various +blows at the Clerical party, among other things abolishing the +concordat with Rome. In 1878 Veintemilla caused himself to be +declared elected as president for a term of four years. At the +expiration of this period the president assumed dictatorial powers +and remained in office as chief of the executive. This action on +the part of General Veintemilla led to a union between the +Clericals and Moderate Liberals, and resulted in a popular rising +throughout the republic, ending in his defeat and overthrow. +His power was first restricted to Guayaquil and Esmeraldas, and +finally General Rinaldo Flores drove him from Guayaquil, and +Veintemilla fled (July 1883) to Peru. Dr Placido Caamaño was +then called upon to take charge temporarily, and on the 17th of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span> +February 1884 was definitely elected for the presidential period +terminating in 1888. Several revolutionary outbreaks occurred +during the Caamaño administration, but were successfully +suppressed. In 1888 Dr Antonio Flores succeeded Caamaño, the +four years following being passed in peaceful conditions. In +1892 Dr Luis Cordero was elected, his administration again +plunging the country into an epoch of internal disturbance.</p> + +<p>The cause of the troubles under President Cordero was the +assistance lent by Ecuador to Chile in the matter of the sale of the +cruiser <i>Esmeralda</i> to the Japanese government in 1894, in the +middle of the Japanese-Chinese War. The government of Chile +arranged the sale of the <i>Esmeralda</i>, but wished to be free from all +danger of international complications in the affair. To this end +the transfer of the vessel was made to Ecuador, and she proceeded +to Ecuadorian waters. On arriving at the Galapagos Islands the +flag of Ecuador was replaced by that of Japan and the vessel +handed over to the representatives of that nation sent for the +purpose. When the part played by President Cordero in this +transaction became known, an outburst of popular indignation +occurred. An insurrection, headed by General Eloy Alfaro, +followed; and after desultory skirmishing extending over a +period of nearly a year the government forces were finally +routed, President Cordero abandoning his office and escaping +from the country.</p> + +<p>General Alfaro then assumed dictatorial powers as supreme +chief of the nation, continuing in this capacity until the 6th of +February 1897, on which date he was declared to be elected +president of the republic. A series of revolutionary movements +against the administration of President Alfaro occurred in the +course of the next few years. Many of these risings were due to +the intrigues of the Church party, and in view of these circumstances +President Alfaro curtailed the influence of the clergy in +several directions. On the 31st of August 1901 General Alfaro +peacefully handed over the presidency to his elected successor, +General Leonidas Plaza.</p> + +<p>General Plaza continued the anticlerical policy of his predecessor. +Civil marriage and divorce were introduced, and in +1904 all religions were placed on a position of equality in the eye +of the law, and the foundation of new monasteries and convents +was forbidden. The final year of Plaza’s tenure of office was +marked by a still stronger measure, all the property of the church +being declared to be national property, and let to the highest +bidders. In 1905 the Opposition made an effort to effect a change +of policy, and were successful in obtaining the election of Lizaro +Garcia, a well-to-do merchant and a director of the Banco commercial +y Agricola. General Alfaro, however, appealed to arms, +ejected Garcia from office, and made himself ruler with practically +dictatorial powers.</p> + +<p>The more recent history of Ecuador would not be complete +without a reference to the work of Mr Archer Harman (b. 1860), +an American railway builder and financier whose connexion with +the construction of the Guayaquil and Quito railway began in +1897. To his personal energy and enterprise, as manager of the +railway company, was largely due the continued prosecution of +this difficult engineering undertaking, in connexion with which +he was responsible for a thorough reconstruction of Ecuador +finance. He thus came to exercise a powerful influence on the +internal progress of the country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.E. Akers, <i>History of South America, 1854-1904</i> (London, +1904); H.W. Bates, <i>Central and South America</i> (London, 1882); +Pedro F. Cevallos, <i>Resumen de la historia del Ecuador</i> (Guayaquil, +1886); Hans Meyer, <i>In den Hoch-Anden von Ecuador</i> (Berlin 1907); +A.H. Keane, <i>Stanford’s Compendium</i>, vol. i. (1904); W. Reiss and +A. Stübel, <i>Das Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador</i> (Berlin, 1892-1898); +Edward Whymper, <i>Travels amongst the Great Andes of the +Equator</i> (London, 1892); T. Wolf, <i>Geografia y geologia del Ecuador</i> +(Leipzig, 1892); A. Stübel, <i>Skizzen aus Ecuador</i> (Berlin, 1886); <i>Die +Vulkanberge von Ecuador</i> (Berlin, 1897); <i>Handbook of Ecuador</i> +(Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, 1892); <i>The +World’s Work</i>, vol. ii. pp. 1271-1277; <i>Engineering News</i> (New York), +vol. 52, pp. 117-119; <i>Bulletin of Internat. Bureau of American +Republics</i> for July 1900, p. 26, and for August 1908, pp. 280-282; +<i>Thirty-fifth Annual Report of the Council of Foreign Bondholders</i>, +pp. 115, 117.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See J. Siemiradzki, “Geologische Reisenotizen aus Ecuador,” +<i>Neues Jahrb. f. Min.</i>, Beil. Band iv. (1886, pp. 195-227, pl. vii.); +Th. Wolf, <i>Geografia y geologia del Ecuador, publicada por orden del +Supremo Gobierno de la Republica</i> (Leipzig, 1892); W. Reiss and +A. Stübel, <i>Reisen in Sud-America. Das Hochgebirge der Republik +Ecuador</i> (Berlin, 1892-1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ECZEMA<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="ekzema">ἔκζεμα</span>, a cutaneous eruption), one of the most +common and important of all skin diseases, consisting of a +catarrhal inflammation of the skin originating without visible +external irritation, and characterized in some stage of its +evolution by a serous exudation. This definition excludes all +those forms of inflammation of the skin (dermatitis), which though +they may be identical in course and manifestation are yet caused +by chemical or mechanical irritants. For an attack of eczema +two conditions are necessary: a predisposition or special irritability +of the skin, and a directly exciting cause. The first of these +conditions is usually inherited or depends on some underlying +constitutional state. Thus any organic lesion which may produce +oedema and malnutrition of the cutis and epidermis as in kidney +diseases, any condition of imperfect metabolism as in dyspepsia +or malnutrition, or seborrhoea, may be the predisposing cause. +Another influence that has received increasing attention from +skin specialists is that of any nervous shock or prolonged mental +strain. A “chill” is followed in most people by an ordinary +cold, but in some by an attack of eczema. Again, it may be caused +by reflex nervous irritation from the uterus, stomach, &c. In +some women it always accompanies menstruation, and in others +pregnancy. It is of common occurrence in infancy, being +attributed by some specialists to dentition, but by others to +seborrhoea. Also there is an undoubted relationship between +eczema and certain forms of functional neurosis, of which perhaps +asthma is the most striking illustration, some physicians considering +the latter trouble to be eczema of the bronchial tubes. +Sufferers from rheumatism and gout are also specially prone to +eczema, though the exact relationship is a much disputed point. +There are yet other cases that are undoubtedly microbic, but the +micro-organism cannot produce the lesion unless the soil is +suitable. As a rule it is not contagious, though when complicated +by micro-organisms it may be auto-inoculable, or more rarely +inoculable from one patient to another. Except between the +ages of ten and twenty years when menstruation is becoming +established, and again at the menopause, males are more liable +to be attacked than females. In old age the sex influence is lost.</p> + +<p>An attack of eczema is usually described as acute or chronic, +but the only distinction lies in the greater or less intensity of the +inflammation at the time of description: it has nothing to do +with the length of time that the disease has lasted. The illness +usually begins with a feeling of itching and burning at the site of +the lesion. The skin becomes covered with an erythematous blush, +on which numerous tiny vesicles form. Swelling, heat, redness +and tension are all present. The vesicles grow larger, run +together, and either burst or are broken by the patient’s scratching, +a clear fluid exuding which stiffens linen. The discharge +does not dry up at once, but continues to exude—hence the name +of “weeping eczema” when this is a prominent symptom. In +mild cases the symptoms begin to subside in a few days, the +exudation growing less and scales and scabs forming, under +which new skin is formed. But where the attack is more acute +fresh crops of vesicles spring up and the process repeats itself. +In some cases papules are the predominant lesions, but in others, +especially when the face is attacked, the erythematous condition +is more marked. A severe attack of eczema is usually +accompanied by some slight constitutional disturbance, but the +general health seldom suffers appreciably, unless, as occasionally, +the itching is so bad as to make sleep impossible. The irritation +and local heat may be out of all proportion to visible changes in +the skin, and in neurotic patients the nervous excitement may +be extreme. The attack may centre itself on any part of the +body, but there are certain places where it more usually begins, +such as the bends of the elbows, the backs of the knees and the +groins; the groove behind the ears, the scalp, the palms or the +soles, and the breasts of women. According to its position the +form of the eczema is somewhat modified. On the front of +the legs and arms, from the uniform redness it exhibits in these +positions, it is known as eczema rubrum. On the scalp it is +generally of the seborrhoeic type, and in children, especially +when pediculi are present, it will become pustular from microbic +infection. On the palms and soles it brings about a thickening +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span> +of the epidermis which leads to the formation of cracks, and is +hence called eczema rimosum.</p> + +<p>The disease can best be treated by a combination of internal and +external remedies. Internally, when the inflammation is acute, +nothing is so good as antimony, since this relieves the arterial +tension and thus reduces the local inflammation. But this must +never be given when the patient is suffering from depression. +In other cases, especially for babies and children, small doses of +calomel are very beneficial; strychnine, phosphorus and ergot +are all useful at times. When nervous excitement is marked it +must be treated with sedatives. Arsenic and iron are both contra-indicated +in this disease, since they increase blood formation and +hence stimulate the eczematous process. Internal treatment is +always best when combined with local treatment, but as a +preliminary to this all crusts and scales must first be removed to +allow the remedy free access to the disease. Locally the aim is +(1) to overcome any source of irritation, (2) to protect the inflamed +surface from the air and from microbic infection, and (3) to relieve +the itching. The diet should be simple but nourishing, and all +hygienic precautions must be taken.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDAM,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a town of Holland in the province of North Holland, +close to the Zuider Zee, about 13 m. N.N.E. of Amsterdam by +steam tramway. It is connected with the Zuider Zee by a fine +canal protected by a large sea-lock (1828), and has regular +steam-boat communication in various directions. Pop. (1900) +6444. The many quaint old brick houses form the chief feature +of interest in the town. The façades are frequently adorned +with carvings and inscriptions, one of which records the +legend of the capture of a siren in 1403, who lived for some +time among the people of Edam, but escaped again to the sea. +The Great Church of St Nicholas, probably founded in the 14th +century, was largely rebuilt after a fire in 1602, which, originating +in the church, destroyed nearly the whole town. It contains +some fine stained glass and carved woodwork of this period. +The Little Church (15th century) was demolished in 1883, +except for a portion of the nave and the old tower and steeple, +from which the bells curiously project. The town hall dates +from 1737, and there is a museum founded in 1895. Edam has +some trade in timber, while shipbuilding, rope-spinning and +salt-boiling are also carried on. It gives its name to the description +of “sweet-milk cheese” (<i>zoetemelks kaas</i>) made throughout +North Holland, which is familiar on account of its round shape +and red rind.</p> + +<p>Edam took its name and origin from the dam built on the +little river Ye which joined the great Purmer lake close by. +Free access to the Zuider Zee was obtained by the construction +of a new dock in 1357, in which year the town also received civic +rights from William V. of Bavaria, count of Holland. Owing +to the danger of the extension of the Purmer and Beemster lakes, +Philip II. of Spain caused a sluice to be built into the dock in +1567. In the next century Edam was a great shipbuilding centre, +and nearly the whole of Admiral de Ruyter’s fleet was built here; +but in the same century the harbour began to get blocked up, and +the importance and industrial activity of the city slowly waned.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDDA,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the title given to two very remarkable collections of +old Icelandic literature. Of these only one bears that title from +antiquity; the other is called <i>Edda</i> by a comparatively modern +misnomer. The word is unknown to any ancient northern +language, and is first met with in <i>Rigspula</i>, a fragmentary poem +at the end of Codex Wormianus, dated about 1200, where it is +introduced as the name or title of a great-grandmother. From +the 14th to the 17th century, this word—but no one has formed +a reasonable conjecture why—was used to signify the technical +laws of Icelandic court metre, <i>Eddu regla</i>, and “Never to have +seen Edda” was a modest apology for ignorance of the highest +poetic art. The only work known by this name to the ancients +was the miscellaneous group of writings put together by Snorri +Sturlason (<i>q.v.</i>; 1178-1241), the greatest name in old Scandinavian +literature. It is believed that the <i>Edda</i>, as he left it, +was completed about 1222. Whether he gave this name to the +work is doubtful; the title first occurs in the Upsala Codex, +transcribed about fifty years after his death. The collection +of Snorri is now known as the <i>Prose or Younger Edda</i>, the title +of the <i>Elder Edda</i> being given to a book of ancient mythological +poems, discovered by the Icelandic bishop of Skálaholt, Brynjulf +Sveinsson, in 1643, and erroneously named by him the <i>Edda of +Saemund</i>.</p> + +<p>1. The Prose <i>Edda</i>, properly known as <i>Edda Snorra Sturlusonar</i>, +was arranged and modified by Snorri, but actually composed, +as has been conjectured, between the years 1140 and 1160. +It is divided into five parts, the Preface or <i>Formáli</i>, <i>Gylfaginning</i>, +<i>Bragaraeður</i>, <i>Skáldskaparmál</i> and <i>Háttatal</i>. The preface bears +a very modern character, and simply gives a history of the world +from Adam and Eve, in accordance with the Christian tradition. +<i>Gylfaginning</i>, or the Delusion of Gylfi, on the other hand, is the +most precious compendium which we possess of the mythological +system of the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia. Commencing +with the adventures of a mythical king Gylfi and the giantess +Gefion, and the miraculous formation of the island of Zealand, +it tells us that the Aesir, led by Odin, invaded Svithjod or Sweden, +the land of Gylfi, and settled there. It is from the <i>Ynglingasaga</i> +and from the <i>Gylfaginning</i> that we gain all the information we +possess about the conquering deities or heroes who set their +stamp upon the religion of the North. Advancing from the +Black Sea northwards through Russia, and westward through +Esthonia, the Aesir seem to have overrun the south lands of +Scandinavia, not as a horde but as an immigrant aristocracy. +The Eddaic version, however, of the history of the gods is not so +circumstantial as that in the <i>Ynglingasaga</i>; it is, on the other +hand, distinguished by an exquisite simplicity and archaic force +of style, which give an entirely classical character to its mythical +legends of Odin and of Loki. The <i>Gylfaginning</i> is written in +prose, with brief poetic insertions. The <i>Bragaraeður</i>, or sayings +of Bragi, are further legends of the deities, attributed to Bragi, +the god of poetry, or to a poet of the same name. The <i>Skáldskaparmál</i>, +or Art of Poetry, commonly called <i>Skálda</i>, contains the +instructions given by Bragi to Aegir, and consists of the rules +and theories of ancient verse, exemplified in copious extracts +from Eyvindr Skáldaspillir and other eminent Icelandic poets. +The word <i>Skáldskapr</i> refers to the form rather than the substance +of verse, and this treatise is almost solely technical in character. +It is by far the largest of the sections of the <i>Edda</i> of Snorri, and +comprises not only extracts but some long poems, notably the +<i>Thorsdrapa</i> of Eilifr Guðrúnarson and the <i>Haustlaung</i> of Thjóðólfr. +The fifth section of the <i>Edda</i>, the <i>Háttatal</i>, or Number of Metres, +is a running technical commentary on the text of Snorri’s three +poems written in honour of Haakon, king of Norway. Affixed +to some MS. of the <i>Younger Edda</i> are a list of poets, and a number +of philological treatises and grammatical studies. These belong, +however, to a later period than the life of Snorri Sturlason.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The three oldest MSS. of the prose <i>Edda</i> all belong to the beginning +of the 14th century. The Wurm MS. was sent to Ole Wurm in +1628; the Codex Regius was discovered by the indefatigable bishop +Brynjulf Sveinsson in 1640. The most important, however, of these +MSS. is the Upsala Codex, an octavo volume written probably about +the year 1300. There have been several good editions of the <i>Edda +Snorra Sturlusonar</i>, of which perhaps the best is that published by +the Arne-Magnaean Society in Copenhagen in 1848-1852, in two vols., +edited by a group of scholars under the direction of Jón Sigurdsson. +There are English translations by T. Percy, <i>Northern Antiquities</i>, +from the French by P.H. Mallet (1770); by G. Webbe Dasent +(Stockholm, 1842); by R.B. Anderson (Chicago, 1880).</p> +</div> + +<p>2. The Elder <i>Edda</i>, Poetic <i>Edda</i> or <i>Saemundar Edda hins +froða</i> was entirely unknown until about 1643, when it came into +the hands of Brynjulf Sveinsson, who, puzzled to classify it, +gave it the title of <i>Edda Saemundi multiscii</i>. Saemund Sigfusson, +who was thus credited with the collection of these poems, was a +scion of the royal house of Norway, and lived from about 1055 +to 1132 in Iceland. The poems themselves date in all probability +from the 10th and 11th centuries, and are many of them only +fragments of longer heroic chants now otherwise entirely lost. +They treat of mythical and religious legends of an early Scandinavian +civilization, and are composed in the simplest and most +archaic forms of Icelandic verse. The author of no one of them +is mentioned. It is evident that they were collected from oral +tradition; and the fact that the same story is occasionally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span> +repeated, in varied form, and that some of the poems themselves +bear internal evidence of being more ancient than others, proves +that the present collection is only a gathering made early in the +middle ages, long after the composition of the pieces, and in +no critical spirit. Sophus Bugge, indeed, one of the greatest +authorities, absolutely rejects the name of Saemund, and is of +opinion that the poetic <i>Edda</i>, as we at present hold it, dates +from about 1240. There is no doubt that it was collected in +Iceland, and by an Icelander.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable and the most ancient of the poems in this +priceless collection is that with which it commences, the <i>Völuspá</i>, +or prophecy of the Völva or Sibyl. In this chant we listen to an +inspired prophetess, “seated on her high seat, and addressing +Odin, while the gods listen to her words.”</p> + +<p>She sings of the world before the gods were made, of the +coming and the meeting of the Aesir, of the origin of the giants, +dwarfs and men, of the happy beginning of all things, and the +sad ending that shall be in the chaos of Ragnarök. The latter +part of the poem is understood to be a kind of necromancy—according +to Vigfusson, “the raising of a dead völva”; but +the mystical language of the whole, its abrupt transitions and +terse condensations, and above all the extinct and mysterious +cosmology, an acquaintance with which it presupposes, make +the exact interpretation of the <i>Völuspá</i> extremely difficult. +The charm and solemn beauty of the style, however, are irresistible, +and we are constrained to listen and revere as if we were +the auditors of some fugual music devised in honour of a primal +and long-buried deity. The melodies of this earliest Icelandic +verse, elaborate in their extreme and severe simplicity, are +wholly rhythmical and alliterative, and return upon themselves +like a solemn incantation. <i>Hávamál</i>, the Lesson of the High +One, or Odin, follows next; this contains proverbs and wise +saws, and a series of stories, some of them comical, told by Odin +against himself. The <i>Vafprúðnismál</i>, or Lesson of Vafprúðnir, +is written in the same mystical vein as <i>Völuspá</i>; in it the giant +who gives his name to the poem is visited by Odin in disguise, +and is questioned by him about the cosmogony and chronology +of the Norse religion. <i>Grimnismál</i>, or the Sayings of The +Hooded One, which is partly in prose, is a story of Odin’s imprisonment +and torture by King Geirrōd. <i>För Skirnis</i>, or the +Journey of Skirnir, <i>Harbarðslióð</i>, or the Lay of Hoarbeard, +<i>Hymiskviða</i>, or the Song of Hymir, and <i>Aegisdrekka</i>, or the +Brewing of Aegir, are poems, frequently composed as dialogue, +containing legends of the gods, some of which are so ludicrous +that it has been suggested that they were intentionally burlesque. +<i>Thrymskviða</i>, or the Song of Thrym, possesses far more poetic +interest; it recounts in language of singular force and directness +how Thor lost his hammer, stolen by Thrym the giant, how the +latter refused to give it up unless the goddess Freyia was given +him in marriage, and how Thor, dressed in women’s raiment, +personated Freyia, and, slaying Thrym, recovered his hammer. +<i>Alvíssmál</i>, or the Wisdom of Allwise, is actually a philological +exercise under the semblance of a dialogue between Thor and +Alvis the dwarf. In <i>Vegtamskviða</i>, or the Song of Vegtam, +Odin questions a völva with regard to the meaning of the sinister +dreams of Balder. <i>Rígsmál</i>, or more properly <i>Rígspula</i>, records +how the god Heimdall, disguised as a man called Rig, wandered +by the sea-shore, where he met the original dwarf pair, Ai and +Edda, to whom he gave the power of child-bearing, and thence +sprung the whole race of thralls; then he went on and met with +Afi and Amma, and made them the parents of the race of churls; +then he proceeded until he came to Faðir and Moðir, to whom +he gave Jarl, the first of free men, whom he himself brought up, +teaching him to shoot and snare, and to use the sword and runes. +It is much to be lamented that of this most characteristic and +picturesque poem we possess only a fragment. In <i>Hyndluljóð</i>, +the Lay of Hyndla, the goddess Freyia rides to question the +völva Hyndla with regard to the ancestry of her young paramour +Ottar; a very fine quarrel ensues between the prophetess and +her visitor. With this poem, the first or wholly mythological +portion of the collection closes. What follows is heroic and +pseudo-historic. The <i>Völundarkviða</i>, or Song of Völundr, is +engaged with the adventures of Völundr, the smith-king, +during his stay with Nidud, king of Sweden. Völundr, identical +with the Anglo-Saxon Wêland and the German Wieland (O.H.G. +<i>Wiolant</i>), is sometimes confused with Odin, the master-smith. This +poem contains the beautiful figure of Svanhvít, the swan-maiden, +who stays seven winters with Völundr, and then, yearning for +her fatherland, flies away home through the dark forest. <i>Helgakviða, +Hiörvarðs sonar</i>, the Song of Helgi, the Son of Hiörvarð, +which is largely in prose, celebrates the wooing by Helgi of +Svava, who, like Atalanta, ends by loving the man with whom +she has fought in battle. Two Songs of Helgi the Hunding’s +Bane, <i>Helgakviða Hundingsbana</i>, open the long and very important +series of lays relating to the two heroic families of the +Völsungs and the Niblungs. Including the poems just mentioned, +there are about twenty distinct pieces in the poetic <i>Edda</i> +which deal more or less directly with this chain of stories. It +is hardly necessary to give the titles of these poems here in detail, +especially as they are, in their present form, manifestly only +fragments of a great poetic saga, possibly the earliest coherent +form of the story so universal among the Teutonic peoples. +We happily possess a somewhat later prose version of this lost +poem in the <i>Völsungasaga</i>, where the story is completely worked +out. In many places the prose of the <i>Völsungasaga</i> follows +the verse of the Eddaic fragments with the greatest precision, +often making use of the very same expressions. At the same +time there are poems in the <i>Edda</i> which the author of the saga +does not seem to have seen. But if we compare the central +portions of the myth, namely Sigurd’s conversation with Fafnir, +the death of Regin, the speech of the birds and the meeting with +the Valkyrje, we are struck with the extreme fidelity of the prose +romancer to his poetic precursors in the <i>Sigurðarkviða Fafnisbana</i>; +in passing on to the death of Sigurd, we perceive that the +version in the <i>Völsungasaga</i> must be based upon a poem now +entirely lost. Of the origin of the myth and its independent +development in medieval Germany, this is not the place for discussion +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nibelungenlied</a></span>). Suffice to say that in no modernized +or Germanized form does the legend attain such an exquisite +colouring of heroic poetry as in these earliest fragments of Icelandic +song. A very curious poem, in some MSS. attributed +directly to Saemund, is the Song of the Sun, <i>Sólarlióð</i>, which +forms a kind of appendix to the poetic <i>Edda</i>. In this the spirit +of a dead father addresses his living son, and exhorts him, with +maxims that resemble those of <i>Hávamál</i>, to righteousness of +life. The tone of the poem is strangely confused between +Christianity and Paganism, and it has been assumed to be the +composition of a writer in the act of transition between the old +creed and the new. It may, however, not impossibly, be altogether +spurious as a poem of great antiquity, and may merely +be the production of some Icelandic monk, anxious to imitate the +Eddaic form and spirit. Finally <i>Forspjallsljóð</i>, or the Preamble, +formerly known as the Song of Odin’s Raven, is an extremely +obscure fragment, of which little is understood, although infinite +scholarship has been expended on it. With this the poetic +<i>Edda</i> closes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal MS. of this <i>Edda</i> is the Codex Regius in the royal +library at Copenhagen, written continuously, without regard to +prose or verse, on 45 vellum leaves. This is that found by Bishop +Brynjulf. Another valuable fragment exists in the Arne-Magnaean +collection in the University of Copenhagen, consisting of four sheets, +22 leaves in all. These are the only MSS. older than the 17th century +which contain a collection of the ancient mythico-heroic lays, but +fragments occur in various other works, and especially in the <i>Edda</i> +of Snorri. It is believed to have been written between 1260 and 1280. +The poetic <i>Edda</i> was translated into English verse by Amos Cottle +in 1797; the poet Gray produced a version of the <i>Vegtamskviða</i>; +but the first good translation of the whole was that published by +Benjamin Thorpe in 1866. An excellent edition of the Icelandic +text has been prepared by Th. Möbius, but the standard of the +original orthography will be found in the admirable edition of +Sophus Bugge, <i>Norroen Fornkvaeði</i>, published at Christiania in 1867.</p> + +<p>The Eddaic poems were rearranged, on a system of their own +which differs entirely from that of the early MSS., by Gudbrand +Vigfusson and F. York Powell, in their <i>Corpus poeticum boreale</i> +(Oxford, 1883). This is a collection, not of <i>Edda</i> only but of all +existing fragments of the vast lyrical literature of ancient Iceland. +It supplies a prose translation.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDDIUS<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Aeddi</span>), a Kentish choirmaster, summoned by +Wilfrid (<i>c.</i> 634-709), bishop of York, to help in organizing church +services in Northumbria. He wrote the <i>Life</i> of his patron, and +this biography of St Wilfrid is the earliest extant historical work +compiled by an Anglo-Saxon author. He is a strong partisan +and very credulous, but the <i>Vita Wilfridi</i> is nevertheless invaluable +for the period it treats. Its date is little after the first +decade of the 8th century, and it was used by Bede in compiling +his <i>Historia</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Eddius, <i>Vita Wilfridi</i> (Raine, <i>Historians of Church of York</i>, +London, 1879-1894), 14; Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> (Plummer, Oxford, 1896), +iii. 2.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDELINCK, GERARD<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1649-1707), Flemish copper-plate +engraver, was born at Antwerp. The rudiments of the art, +which he was to carry to a higher pitch of excellence than it had +previously reached, he acquired in his native town under the +engraver Cornelisz Galle. But he was not long in reaching the +limits of his master’s attainments; and then he went to Paris +to improve himself under the teaching of De Poilly. This master +likewise had soon done all he could to help him onwards, and +Edelinck ultimately took the first rank among line engravers. +His excellence was generally acknowledged; and having become +known to Louis XIV. he was appointed, on the recommendation +of Le Brun, teacher at the academy established at the Gobelins +for the training of workers in tapestry. He was also entrusted +with the execution of several important works. In 1677 he was +admitted member of the Paris Academy of Painting and Sculpture. +The work of this great engraver constitutes an epoch in the +art. His prints number more than four hundred.</p> + +<p>Edelinck stands above and apart from his predecessors and +contemporaries in that he excelled, not in some one respect, but +in all respects,—that while one engraver attained excellence +in correct form, and another in rendering light and shade, and +others in giving colour to their prints and the texture of surfaces, +he, as supreme master of the burin, possessed and displayed all +these separate qualities, in so complete a harmony that the eye +is not attracted by any one of them in particular, but rests in +the satisfying whole. Edelinck was the first to break through +the custom of making prints square, and to execute them in +the lozenge shape. Among his most famous works are a “Holy +Family,” after Raphael; a “Penitent Magdalene,” after +Charles le Brun; “Alexander at the Tent of Darius,” after +Le Brun; a “Combat of Four Knights,” after Leonardo da +Vinci; “Christ surrounded with Angels”; “St Louis praying”; +and “St Charles Borromeo before a crucifix,”—the last three +after Le Brun. Edelinck was especially good as an engraver +of portraits, and executed prints of many of the most eminent +persons of his time. Among these are those of Le Brun, Rigaud, +Philippe de Champagne (which the engraver thought his best), +Santeuil, La Fontaine, Colbert, John Dryden, Descartes, &c. +He died at Paris in 1707. His younger brother John, and his +son Nicholas, were also engravers, but did not attain to his +excellence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDELWEISS,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> known botanically as <i>Leontopodium alpinum</i>, +a member of the family <i>Compositae</i>, a native of the Alps of +Central Europe. It is a small herb reaching about 6 in. high, +with narrow white woolly leaves, and terminal flower-heads +enveloped in woolly bracts. The woolly covering enables the +plant to thrive in the exposed situations in which it is found, +by protecting it from cold and from drying up through +excessive loss of moisture. It is grown in Britain as a rock-plant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDEN, SIR ASHLEY<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1831-1887), Anglo-Indian official and +diplomatist, third son of Robert John Eden, third Lord Auckland +and bishop of Bath and Wells, was born on the 13th of November +1831, and was educated at Rugby, Winchester and the East +India Company’s college at Haileybury, entering the Indian +civil service in 1852. In 1855 he gained distinction as assistant +to the special commissioner for the suppression of the Santal +rising, and in 1860 was appointed secretary to the Bengal +government with an <i>ex officio</i> seat on the legislative council, a +position he held for eleven years. In 1861 he negotiated, as +political agent, a treaty with the raja of Sikkim. His success +led to his being sent on a similar mission to Bhutan in 1863; +but, being unaccompanied by any armed force, his demands +were rejected and he was forced under circumstances of personal +insult to come to an arrangement highly favourable to the +Bhutias. The result was the repudiation of the treaty by the +Indian government and the declaration of war against Bhutan. +In 1871 Eden became the first civilian governor of British +Burma, which post he held until his appointment in 1877 as +lieutenant-governor of Bengal. In 1878 he was made a K.C.S.I., +and in 1882 resigned the lieutenant-governorship and returned +to England on his appointment to the council of the secretary +of state for India, of which he remained a member till his death +on the 8th of July 1887. The success of his administration of +Bengal was attested by the statue erected in his honour at +Calcutta after his retirement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDEN,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> the name of the region in which, according to the +Hebrew paradise-tradition in its present form, God planted a +garden (or park), wherein he put the man whom he had formed +(Gen. ii. 8). Research into primitive beliefs, guided by the +comparative method, leads to the view that the “garden” was +originally a celestial locality (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paradise</a></span>), and we cannot +therefore be surprised if, now that paradise has been brought +down to earth, the geographical details given in the Bible are +rather difficult to work into a consistent picture. The fantastic +geography of the (Indian) <i>Vishnu Purana</i> and the (Iranian) +<i>Bundahish</i> will, in this case, be a striking parallel.</p> + +<p>Let us now take the details of Eden as they occur. In Gen. ii. +8 we read that the garden lay “in Eden eastward,” where +“eastward” is generally taken to mean “in the east of the earth.” +This, however, seems inconsistent with Isa. xiv. 13, where the +“mountain of God,” which corresponds (see Ezek. xxviii. +13, 14 and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adam</a></span>) to the “garden in Eden,” is said +to have been “in the uttermost parts of the north” (so R.V.). +The former statement (“eastward”) suits Babylonia, where +Friedrich Delitzsch<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> places Eden; the latter does not. We are +further told (v. 10) that “a river went out from Eden to water +the garden,” and that “from thence it parted itself (?), and +became four heads (?),” which is commonly understood to mean +that the river was so large that, soon after leaving the garden +(“from thence” is all that the text says), it could still supply +four considerable streams (the text says, not “streams,” but +“heads,” <i>i.e.</i> perhaps “beginnings” or “starting-points”). +In <i>vv.</i> 11-14 the names of four rivers are given, but in spite of +the descriptive supplements attached to three of them, only +that one which has no supplement can be identified with much +probability. In fact, Pĕrāth may without any obvious difficulty +be “Euphrates,” except in Jer. xiii., where a more southerly +stream seems indicated, but to the identification of “Hiddekel” +with “Tigris” (Babylonian Diglat) the presence of the initial +<i>Hi</i> in the Hebrew is an objection. Now as to “Pishon” and +“Gihon.” If a moderately early tradition may be trusted, +the “Gihon” is another name for the “Shihor,” which was +either in or beside “Mizraim” (= Egypt) or Mizrim (= the +North Arabian Muṣri), and indeed according to most scholars +means the Nile in Jer. ii. 18, where the Septuagint substitutes +for it Gēōn, <i>i.e.</i> Gihon. For “Pishon” few plausible suggestions +have been made; it is not, however, a hopeless problem from +the point of view which recognizes Eden in Arabia.</p> + +<p>For details of the interesting descriptive supplements of the +names Pishon, Giḥon, and Ḥiddeḳel, on which there is much +difference of opinion, it must suffice to refer to the <i>Encyclopaedia +Biblica</i> and Hasting’s <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>. We must, however, +mention a widely held explanation of the name <i>Eden</i>. Plausible +as it is to interpret this name as “delight”—indeed, the Septuagint +translates in Gen. iii. 23 f. <span class="grk" title="ho paradeisos tês tryphês">ὁ παράδεισος τῆς τρυφῆς</span>—this cannot +have been the original meaning. Hence Delitzsch (<i>Wo lag das +Paradies?</i> p. 79) suggested that “Eden” might be a Hebraized +form of the Babylonian <i>ēdinu</i>, “field, plain, desert.” But +whereas Delitzsch takes “Eden” to be the entire plain of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span> +Babylonia, Hommel thinks that it is rather the plain about the +sacred city of Eridu. It is the latter scholar to whom the +“Arabian theory” of Paradise in its best-known form is due. +The rivers (apart from Pĕrāth, “Euphrates”) he locates in +northern and central Arabia, the “Cush” and “Asshur” of +Genesis being, according to him, central Arabia and Edom +respectively (<i>Ancient Hebrew Traditions</i>, pp. 314-316; <i>Aufsätze +u. Abhandlungen</i>, iii. 281-284, 335-339). These rivers, in short, +become Arabian wadis, on which see Hast. <i>D.B.</i> i. 132a (foot). +Cheyne, on the other hand, rejects the Babylonian explanation +of Eden as = “field, plain,” on the ground that “Eden” was +originally regarded as a mountainous tract.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further Driver, <i>Book of Genesis</i> (1904), pp. 57-60; <i>Ency. Bib.</i> +“Paradise”; and the commentaries of Gunkel (2nd ed., 1902), and +Cheyne (1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. K. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Wo lag das Paradies?</i> p. 66. A Sumerian name of Babylon +was Tin-ter, “dwelling of life.” Cf. Bābīlu, Bābīli, “gate of God.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDENBRIDGE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a market town in the south-western parliamentary +division of Kent, England, 26 m. S.S.E. of London, +on the South-Eastern & Chatham, and the London, Brighton +& South Coast railways. Pop. (1901) 2546. It is pleasantly +situated on the river Eden, an affluent of the Medway, in a +valley between the Ragstone Hills and the Forest Ridges. The +church of St Peter and St Paul is principally Perpendicular. The +town, which has considerable agricultural trade, possesses a +chalybeate spring, but this is little used. Two miles from the +town is Hever Castle, a beautiful moated mansion dating from +the 15th and 16th centuries, but occupying the site of an earlier +structure. This was rebuilt by Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, whose +grandson, Sir Thomas, was father of Anne, second wife of +Henry VIII., who here spent much of her life before her marriage, +and was visited several times by the king. There is a chapel of +her family in the fine parish church of Hever. Not far distant +is the modern Chiddingstone Castle, on an ancient site. A block +of sandstone in the park is called the “chiding stone,” tradition +asserting it to be a prehistoric seat of judgment.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDEN HALL, LUCK OF,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> an old painted drinking goblet preserved +at Eden Hall, Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family. +It is of enamelled or painted glass and is believed to date from +the 10th century. It is of fair size and has the letters I.H.S. +on the top. Round the vase is the famous verse given below. +A legend involving the fortunes of the Musgraves attaches to +this cup. In the grounds of Eden Hall is a spring called St +Cuthbert’s Well, and the story is that one of the earliest of the +Musgraves surprised the fairies feasting and making merry round +the well. He snatched at the goblet from which the Fairy King +was drinking and made off with it. The fairies pursued him +to his castle, but failed to catch him. The Fairy King acknowledged +his defeat and gave the cup as a prize to Musgrave, but +warned him that the gift carried with it a condition:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“When this cup shall break or fall.</p> +<p class="i05">Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">There are variants of this legend, but substantially they agree. +Possessed of the lucky cup the knight of Musgrave is said to have +at once prospered in a love-suit which had till then gone against +him. There is a curious poem on the cup called “The Drinking +Match at Eden Hall,” by Philip, duke of Wharton, a parody on +the ballad of Chevy Chase. This is reprinted in full in Edward +Walford’s <i>Tales of Great Families</i> (1877, vol. 11), under the +heading, “The witty Duke of Wharton.” In Longfellow’s +famous poem the goblet is represented as having been broken.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDENKOBEN,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, +6 m. N. from Landau, on the railway to Weissenburg. Pop. +5300. It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, several +high-grade schools and a sulphur-spring. Its industries comprise +linen- and damask-weaving, ironworks, and the manufacture +of machinery, furniture and cigars. It has also a +considerable trade in wine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDENTATA,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> the name assigned by Cuvier to an order of +placental mammals apparently typified by the South American +anteater, but likewise including the sloths and armadillos of the +same country, and the Old World aard-varks and pangolins. +Only the anteaters and pangolins are absolutely without teeth +(Lat. <i>e</i>, out, <i>dens</i>, tooth), and the name is strictly applicable +only to those two groups; but in all the existing representatives +of the order teeth are absent from the front of the jaws, while +the cheek-teeth are devoid of roots and of enamel, and only very +exceptionally have deciduous predecessors. Practically this is +all the definition that can be given to the assemblage, which is +possibly an artificial one. It may be mentioned, however, that +there is not unfrequently a separate coracoid bone.</p> + +<p>Edentates may be divided into three distinct sections or +suborders, firstly the Xenarthra, or Edentata Vera, of America, +secondly the Tubulidenta, represented by the African aard-varks, +and thirdly the Pholidota, which includes only the pangolins +common to Africa and Asia. The Xenarthra are essentially +a South and Central American group, some of the members of +which have effected an entrance into North America. The three +families by which they are now represented are widely sundered, +both as regards habits and structure; but two of them—the +sloths and the anteaters—are intimately connected by means of +the extinct ground-sloths. As regards the presumed relationship +of the Old World to the New World types, it is noteworthy that +in the early Tertiary deposits of France and Germany are found +certain fossil remains apparently referable to armadillos, aard-varks +and pangolins, some of the armadillos coming very close +to South American forms. This assemblage of three groups of +edentates in the countries fringing northern Africa is suggestive +that the latter continent may have been the original home of +the group, which reached South America by means of a direct +land connexion.</p> + +<p><i>Xenarthra.</i>—The typical American edentates, or Xenarthra, +are characterized by the circumstance that the last dorsal and +all the lumbar vertebrae carry additional articular facets, or +abnormal articulations (xenarthral). Teeth may be absent or +present, and when developed either all similar (homaeodont) +or to some extent differentiated. The bodily covering may take +the form either of coarse hairs, or of bony plates, with a larger +or smaller intermixture of hairs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:307px" src="images/img924.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Skull of Unau or Two-toed Sloth (<i>Choloepus didactylus</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of the three existing families of this group, the first is that of +the <i>Bradypodidae</i>, or sloths, characterized by the presence of +five pairs of upper and four of lower teeth, the normally-formed +tongue and the rudimentary tail. The species are arboreal and +feed on leaves; all being confined to the forests of tropical +America. Externally sloths are clothed with long coarse, crisp +hair; the head is short and rounded, and the external ears +inconspicuous. The teeth are subcylindrical, of persistent +growth, consisting of a central axis of vasodentine, with a thin +investment of hard dentine, and a thick outer coating of cement; +without any succession. Fore-limbs greatly longer than the +hind-limbs; the extremities terminating in narrow, curved feet; +with the digits never exceeding three in number, and encased +for nearly their whole length in a common integument, and +armed with long, strong claws. Stomach complex. No caecum. +Placenta deciduate and dome-like, composed of an aggregation of +numerous discoidal lobes.</p> + +<p>A remarkable feature connected with sloths is the development +of a green colour in their hair, due to the growth of an alga. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span> +According to Dr W.G. Ridewood, in the three-toed sloth the +hair is invested with a thick extra-cortical layer. “The hair +has a tendency to crack in a transverse direction, and in the +cracks there come to lodge unicellular algae, to which Kühn +has given the name <i>Pleurococcus bradypi</i>. The moisture of the +climate in which <i>Bradypus</i> lives enables the alga to live and +propagate in this curious position, and the sloth acquires a +general green tint which must render it very difficult to distinguish +as it hangs among the green foliage.” In the two-toed sloth, +on the other hand, the bulk of the hair is composed of an outer +coat, or cortex, which is longitudinally fluted or grooved, the +grooves being filled with strands of extra-cortex in which +flourishes an alga (<i>Pleurococcus choloepi</i>) distinct from the one +infesting the hairs of the three-toed species. Of quite a different +type are the hairs of the extinct ground-sloths (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mylodon</a></span>), +which are smooth and solid, Dr Ridewood rejecting the idea that +they were originally coated with a cortex that has disappeared.</p> + +<p>The typical genus <i>Bradypus</i> is represented by the various +species of ai, or three-toed sloth, in which none of the teeth +project greatly beyond the others; the first in the upper jaw +is much smaller than any of the others, while the first in the +lower jaw is broad and compressed, and the grinding surfaces of +all are much cupped. Vertebrae: C 9, D and L 20 (of which +15 to 17 bear ribs), S 6, Ca 11. All the species present the +peculiarity of possessing nine cervical vertebrae; but the ninth, +and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs. +The fore-limbs are considerably longer than the hind-legs, and +the bones of the fore-arm are complete, free and capable of +pronation and supination. The fore-feet are long, very narrow, +habitually curved and terminate in three pointed curved claws, +in close apposition to each other; they are, in fact, incapable +of being divaricated, so that the foot is reduced to the condition +of a triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension from the +boughs of trees. The hind-foot closely resembles the fore-foot +in general structure and mode of use, and has the sole habitually +turned inwards so that it cannot be applied to the ground in +walking. The tongue is short and soft, and the stomach large +and complex, bearing some resemblance to that of ruminants. +The windpipe or trachea has the remarkable peculiarity—not +unfrequent among birds and reptiles—of being folded on itself +before it reaches the lungs. The two teats are pectoral in +position. The premaxilla is rudimentary and loosely attached +to the maxilla. Except in <i>B. torquatus</i>, there is no perforation +in the lower end of the humerus. Some of the species are covered +uniformly with a grey or greyish-brown coat; others have a +dark collar of elongated hairs around the shoulders (<i>B. torquatus</i>); +some have the hair of the face shorter than that of the rest of +the head and neck; and others have a remarkable-looking patch +of soft, short hair on the back between the shoulders, consisting, +when best marked, of a median stripe of glossy black, bordered +on each side by bright orange, yellow or white. There are also +structural differences in the skulls, as in the amount of inflation +of the pterygoid bones. The habits of all are apparently alike. +They are natives of Guiana, Brazil and Peru, and two species +(<i>B. infuscatus</i> and <i>B. castaneiceps</i>) extend north of the Isthmus +of Panama as far as Nicaragua. Of the former of these a specimen +in captivity uttered a shrill sound like a monkey when forcibly +pulled away from the tree to which it was holding.</p> + +<p>In the species of unau, or two-toed sloths, <i>Choloepus</i>, the front +tooth in both jaws is separated by an interval from the others, +and is large and caniniform, wearing to a sharp bevelled edge +against the opposing tooth, the upper shutting in front of the +lower when the mouth is closed, unlike true canines. Vertebrae: +C 6 or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8, Ca 4-6. One species (<i>C. didactylus</i>) +has the ordinary number of vertebrae in the neck; but an otherwise +closely allied form (<i>C. hoffmanni</i>) has but six. The tail is +very rudimentary. The fore-feet generally resemble those of +<i>Bradypus</i>, but there are only two functional digits, with claws; +these answering to the second and third of the typical five-toed +limb. The structure of the hind-limb generally resembles that +of <i>Bradypus</i>, the appellation “two-toed” referring only to the +anterior limb, for in the foot the three middle toes are functionally +developed and of nearly equal size. The premaxilla is well +developed, and firmly attached to the maxilla; and there is +always a perforation, or foramen, on the inner side of the lower +end of the humerus. <i>C. didactylus</i>, which has been longest known, +and is commonly called by the native name of unau, inhabits +the forests of Brazil. <i>C. hoffmanni</i> has a more northern +geographical range, extending from Ecuador through Panama +to Costa Rica. Its voice, which is seldom heard, is like the bleat +of a sheep, and if the animal is seized it snorts violently. Both +species are very variable in external coloration (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sloth</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The second family is that of the anteaters, <i>Myrmecophagidae</i>, +distinguished from the last by the absence of teeth, the elongated +tongue and the long tail. The long and slender head has a +tubular mouth, with a small terminal aperture through which +the worm-like tongue, covered with the sticky secretion of the +enormous submaxillary salivary glands, is rapidly protruded in +feeding, and withdrawn again with the adhering particles of +food which are then sucked into the gullet. In the foot the third +toe is greatly developed, and has a long sickle-like claw; the +others are reduced or suppressed. The hind-foot has four or five +subequal digits with claws. The long tail is sometimes prehensile. +Placenta dome-like or discoidal. Externally the body +is covered with hair. Anteaters feed exclusively on animal +substances, mostly insects. One species is terrestrial, the others +arboreal; none burrow in the ground. They are all inhabitants +of tropical America. In the typical genus <i>Myrmecophaga</i> the +skull is remarkably elongated and narrow, with its upper surface +smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is produced into +a long tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below, +with terminal nostrils, and composed of the mesethmoid (ossified +for more than half its length), the vomer, the maxillae, and the +long and narrow nasal bones, the premaxillae being extremely +short and confined to the margin of the nostrils. The zygomatic +arch is incomplete, the rod-like jugal only articulating with the +maxilla in front, and not reaching the short zygomatic process +of the squamosal. The lachrymal foramen is in front of the +margin of the orbit. There are no post-orbital processes to the +frontals or any other demarcation between the orbits and the +temporal fossae. Palate extremely elongated, and produced +backwards as far as the level of the external auditory meatus +by the meeting in the middle line of the largely developed +pterygoids. The glenoid fossa for the lower jaw, a shallow oval +facet, with its long diameter from before backwards. Lower +jaw long and slender, with an exceedingly short symphysis, no +distinct coronoid process, and a slightly elevated, elongated, +flattened, condylar articular surface. Vertebrae: C 7, D 15-16, +L 3-2, S 6, Ca 31. Clavicles rudimentary. In the fore-foot the +first digit is very slender, the second also slender, with compressed +phalanges of nearly equal length, but the third is immensely +developed, though its first phalanx is extremely short, while +the terminal one is so long that the entire length of the +digit exceeds that of the second. The fourth has a long and +rather slender metacarpal, and three phalanges diminishing in +size, the terminal phalange being very small. The fifth has the +metacarpal nearly as long, but not so stout as the fourth, and +followed by two small phalanges, the last rudimentary and +conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth. In walking +the toes are kept bent, with their points turned upwards and +inwards, the weight being supported on a pad over the end of the +fifth digit, and the upper surfaces of the third and fourth digits. +The hind feet are short and rather broad, with five subequal +claws, the fourth rather longest, the first shortest; the whole +sole is placed on the ground in walking. Body rather compressed, +clothed with long, coarse hair. Tail about as long as the body, +and covered with very long hair; not prehensile. Ears small, +oval, erect. Eyes very small. Stomach consisting of a sub-globular, +thin-walled, cardiac portion, and a muscular pyloric +gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileocolic valve; but a +short, wide, ill-defined caecum. The two teats are pectoral.</p> + +<p>The tamandua anteaters (<i>Tamandua</i>, or <i>Uroleptes</i>), of which +several species (or races) are now recognized, are smaller animals +than the last, in which the head is much less elongated, the fur +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span> +short and bristly, and the tail, tapering, prehensile, with the under +side throughout, and the whole of the terminal portion naked +and scaly. The stomach is similar to that of <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, +but with the muscular pyloric gizzard less strongly developed. +There is a distinct ileocolic valve and short globular caecum. +The fore-foot has a very large claw on the third toe, moderate-sized +claws on the second and fourth, a minute one on the first, +and none on the fifth, which is entirely concealed within the +skin. The hind-foot has five subequal claws. Vertebrae: C 7, +D 17, L 2, S 5, Ca 37. There are very rudimentary clavicles.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:294px" src="images/img926.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Tamandua Anteater (<i>Tamandua tetradactyla</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The last representative of the family is the tiny golden-haired +pigmy or two-toed anteater, <i>Cyclopes</i> (or <i>Cycloturus</i>) <i>didactylus</i>, +in which the skull is much shorter even than in the preceding +genus, and arched considerably in the longitudinal direction. +It differs from that of the other members of the family mainly in +the long canal for the posterior nostrils not being closed by bone +below, as the greater part of the palatines and the pterygoids +do not meet in the middle line. The lower jaw has a prominent, +narrow, recurved coronoid, and a well-developed angular process, +and is strongly decurved in front. Vertebrae: C 7, D 16, L 2, +S 4, Ca 40. Ribs remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well +developed. Fore-foot remarkably modified, having the third +digit greatly developed at the expense of all the others; it has +a short stout metacarpal and but two phalanges, of which the +terminal one is large, compressed, pointed and much curved, +with a strong hook-like claw. The second digit has the same +number of phalanges, and bears a claw, but is much more +slender than the third. The fourth is represented only by the +metacarpal, and one nailless phalange, the first and fifth only +by rudimentary metacarpals. The hind-foot is also modified +into a climbing organ, the first toe being rudimentary and consisting +of a metatarsal and one phalange concealed beneath +the skin, but the other four toes subequal and much curved, +with long, pointed, compressed claws. The tuberosity of the heel-bone +or calcaneum is directed towards the sole, and parallel +with it and extending to about double its length is a greatly +elongated sesamoid ossicle. These together support a prominent +cushion to which the nails are opposed in climbing. Stomach +pyriform, with muscular walls, but no distinct gizzard-like +portion. The commencement of the colon provided with two +small caeca, narrow at the base, but rather dilated at their +terminal blind ends, and communicating with the general cavity +by very minute apertures. Tail longer than the body, tapering, +bare on the under surface and prehensile. Fur soft and silky.</p> + +<p>The third and last existing family of the Xenarthra is that +of the armadillos, or <i>Dasypodidae</i>, in which there are at least +seven pairs of teeth in each jaw, while the tongue is normal, +the tail generally long, and the body covered with an armour of +bony plates overlain by horny scales. All the species are terrestrial, +and insectivorous or more or less omnivorous.</p> + +<p>The union of the numerous polygonal bony shields on the +back and sides forms a hard shield, usually consisting of an +anterior (scapular) and posterior (pelvic) solid portion (which +overhang on each side the parts of the body they respectively +cover, forming chambers into which the limbs are withdrawn), +and a variable number of rings between, connected by soft +flexible skin so as to allow of curvature of the body. The top of +the head has also a similar shield, and the tail is usually encased +in bony rings or plates. The outer or exposed surfaces of the +limbs are protected by irregular bony plates, not united at their +margins; but the skin of the inner surface of the limbs and under +side of the body is soft and more or less clothed with hair. Hairs +also in many species project through apertures between the +bony plates of the back. The bony plates are covered by a +layer of horny epidermis. Teeth numerous, simple, of persistent +growth and usually without milk predecessors. Zygomatic +arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebrae with extremely short, +broad and depressed bodies; the first free, but the second and +third, and often several of the others united together both by +their bodies and arches. Clavicles well developed. A third +trochanter on the femur. Tibia and fibula united at their lower +extremities. Fore-feet with strongly developed, curved claws, +adapted for digging and scratching, three, four or five in number. +Hind-feet plantigrade, with five toes, all provided with nails. +Tongue long, pointed and extensile, though to a less degree +than in the anteaters. Submaxillary glands largely developed. +Stomach simple. Placenta discoidal and deciduate.</p> + +<p>The typical genus <i>Dasypus</i>, with several others, represents +the subfamily <i>Dasypodinae</i>, which usually have all five toes +developed and with nails, though the first and fifth may be suppressed. +The first and second are long and slender, with the +normal number and relative length of phalanges, the others stout, +with short broad metacarpals, and the phalanges reduced in +length and generally in number by coalescence; the terminal +phalange of the third being large, that of the others gradually +diminishing to the fifth. <i>Dasypus</i> has the most normal form +of fore-foot, but the modifications developed in all the others +(culminating in <i>Tolypeutes</i>) are foreshadowed. Ears wide apart. +Teats, one pair, pectoral. In <i>Dasypus</i> the teeth are <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> or <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span>, +of which the first in the upper jaw is usually implanted in the +premaxillary bone. The series extends posteriorly some distance +behind the anterior root of the zygoma, almost level with the +hind edge of the palate. The teeth are large, subcylindrical, +slightly compressed, diminishing in size towards each end of the +series; the anterior two in the lower jaw smaller and more +compressed than the others. Cranial portion of the skull broad +and depressed, facial portion triangular, broad in front and +depressed. Auditory bulla completely ossified, perforated on +the inner side by the carotid canal, and continued externally +into an elongated bony meatus auditorius, with its aperture +directed upwards and backwards. (In all the other genera of +<i>Dasypodinae</i> the tympanic bone is a mere half-ring, loosely +attached to the cranium.) Lower jaw with a high ascending +branch, broad transversely placed condyle, and high slender +coronoid process. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, Ca 17-18. +Head broad and flat above, with the muzzle obtusely pointed. +Ears of moderate size or rather small, placed laterally far apart. +Body broad and depressed. Armour with six or seven movable +bands between the scapular and pelvic shields. Tail shorter +than the body, tapering, covered with plates forming distinct +rings near the base. Fore-feet with five toes; the first much +more slender than the others, and with a smaller ungual phalange +and nail; the second, though the longest, also slender. The third, +fourth and fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with +strong, slightly curved compressed claws, sloping from an elevated, +rounded inner border to a sharp, outer and inferior edge. The +hind-foot is rather short, and has all five toes armed with stout, +compressed, slightly curved, obtusely pointed claws—the third +the longest, the second nearly equal to it, the fourth the next, +the first and fifth shorter and nearly equal.</p> + +<p>To this genus belongs one of the best-known species of the +group, the six-banded armadillo or encoubert (<i>D. sexcinctus</i>) +of Brazil and Paraguay; a very similar species, <i>D. villosus</i>, +the hairy armadillo, replacing it south of the Rio Plata. There +are also two small species, <i>D. vellerosus</i> and <i>D. minutus</i>, from the +Argentine Republic and North Patagonia; the latter, which +differs from the other three in having no tooth implanted in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span> +premaxillary bone and is often referred to a genus apart, as +<i>Zäedius</i>.</p> + +<p>In <i>Tatoua</i> (<i>Cabassous</i> or <i>Lysiurus</i>) the teeth are <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span> or <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>, of +moderate size and subcylindrical: the most posterior placed a +little way behind the anterior root of the zygoma, but far from +the hinder margin of the palate. Skull somewhat elongated, +much constricted behind the orbits, and immediately in front of +the constriction considerably dilated. Lower jaw slender, with +the coronoid process small and sharp pointed, sometimes obsolete. +Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-13, L 5, S 10, Ca 18. Head broad behind. +Ears rather large and rounded, wide apart. Movable bands of +armour 12-13. Tail considerably shorter than the body, and +slender, covered with nearly naked skin, with a few small, +scattered, bony plates, chiefly on the under surface and near the +apex. On the fore-feet the first and second toes are long and +slender, with small claws and the normal number of phalanges. +The other toes have but two phalanges; the third has an immense +sickle-like claw; the fourth and fifth similar but smaller claws. +The hind-feet are comparatively small, with five toes, and small, +triangular, blunt nails; the third longest, the first shortest. +The best-known species of this genus, the tatouay or cabassou, +<i>T. unicinctus</i>, is, after <i>Priodon gigas</i>, the largest of the group. +It is found, though not abundantly, in Surinam, Brazil and +Paraguay. Others, such as <i>T. hispidus</i> and <i>T. lugubris</i>, have +been described.</p> + +<p>In the giant armadillo (<i>Priodon gigas</i>) the teeth are variable +in number, and generally differ on the two sides of each jaw, +being usually from 20 to 25 on each side above and below, so +that as many as a hundred may be present altogether; but as +life advances the anterior teeth fall out, and all traces of their +sockets disappear. The series extends as far back as the hinder +edge of the anterior root of the zygoma. They are all very small, +in the anterior half of each series strongly compressed, with flat +sides and a straight free edge, but posteriorly more cylindrical, +with flat, truncated, free surfaces. Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, L 3, +S 10, Ca 23. Head small, elongated, conical. Ears moderate, +ovate. Armour with 12-13 movable bands. Tail nearly equal +to the body in length, gradually tapering, closely covered with +quadrangular scales, arranged in a quincunx pattern. Fore-feet +with five toes, formed on the same plan as those of <i>Tatoua</i>, but +with the claw of the third of still greater size, and that of the +others, especially the fifth, proportionally reduced. Hind-foot +short and rounded, with five very short toes, and short, broad, +flat obtuse nails. The giant armadillo is by far the largest +existing member of the family, measuring rather more than 3 ft. +from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the tail being +about 20 in. long. It inhabits the forest of Surinam and Brazil. +The powerful claws of its fore-feet enable it to dig with great +facility; and its food consists chiefly of termites and other +insects, although it is said to attack and uproot newly-made +graves for the purpose of devouring the flesh of the bodies +contained in them.</p> + +<p>The apar (<i>Tolypeutes tricinctus</i>) typifies a genus in which the +teeth are <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span> or <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span>, and are rather large in proportion to the size +of the skull, with the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to +the posterior margin of the palate. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 12, +Ca 13. Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large, +broadly ovate. Armour with its scapular and pelvic shields +very free at the sides of the body, forming large chambers into +which the limbs can be readily withdrawn, and only three +movable bands. Tail short, conical, covered with large bony +tubercles. The fore-feet formed on the same type as in the last +genus, but the peculiarities carried to a still greater extent. The +claw of the third toe is very long, while those of the first and +fifth are greatly reduced and sometimes wanting. On the hind-foot +the three middle toes have broad, flat, subequal nails, +forming together a kind of tripartite hoof; the first and fifth +much shorter, with more compressed nails.</p> + +<p>The armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling themselves +up into a ball, the shield on the top of the head and the +tuberculated dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and +filling up the apertures left by the notches at either end of the +body-armour. This appears to be their usual means of defence +when frightened or surprised, as they do not burrow like the +other species. They run very quickly, with a very peculiar +gait, only the tips of the claws of the fore-feet touching the +ground. In addition to the apar, there are the Argentine and +Bolivian <i>T. conurus</i>, and <i>T. muriei</i> from Argentina or Patagonia.</p> + +<p>The last group of existing armadillos forms the genus <i>Tatusia</i> +and the subfamily <i>Tatusiinae</i>; the subfamily rank being based +on the fact that of the seven or eight pairs of small subcylindrical +teeth, all but the last, which is considerably smaller than the +rest, are preceded by milk-teeth not changed until the animal +has nearly attained full size. Vertebrae: C 7, D 9-11, L 5, S 8, +Ca 20-27. Head narrow, with a long, narrow, subcylindrical +obliquely truncated snout. Ears rather large, ovate and erect, +placed close together on the occiput. Armour with seven to nine +distinct movable bands. Body generally elongated and narrow. +Tail moderate, or long, gradually tapering; its plates forming +distinct rings for the greater part of its length. Fore-feet with +four visible toes, and a concealed clawless rudiment of the fifth; +the claws long, slightly curved, and slender, the third and fourth +subequal and alike, the first and fourth much shorter. Hind-feet +with five toes, armed with strong, slightly curved, conical, +obtusely pointed nails, and the third longest, then the second +and fourth, and the first and fifth much shorter than the others. +This genus differs from all the other armadillos in having a pair +of inguinal teats in addition to the usual pectoral pair, and in +producing a large number (4 to 10) of young at a birth, all the +others having usually but one or two. The peba armadillo, +<i>T. septemcincta</i>, is a well-known species, having an extensive +range from Texas to Paraguay. It is replaced in the more +southern regions of South America by a smaller species, with +shorter tail, the mulita (<i>T. hybrida</i>) so called from the resemblance +of its head and ears to those of a mule. <i>T. kappleri</i> is a large +species from Guiana.</p> + +<p>Finally we have the pichiciago, or fairy armadillo, <i>Chlamydophorus +truncatus</i>, typifying the subfamily <i>Chlamydophorinae</i>. +In most anatomical characters, especially the structure of the +fore-foot, this group resembles the <i>Dasypodinae</i>, but it differs +remarkably from all other known armadillos, living or extinct, +in the peculiar modification of the armour.</p> + +<p>The teeth, which number <span class="spp">8</span>⁄<span class="suu">8-9</span>, are subcylindrical, somewhat +compressed, moderate in size, and smaller at each end (especially +in front) than at the middle of the series. Skull broad and +rounded behind, pointed in front. Muzzle subcylindrical and +depressed. A conspicuous rounded rough prominence on the +frontal bone, just before each orbit. Tympanic prolonged into a +tubular auditory meatus, curving upwards round the base of the +zygoma. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 10, Ca 15. Upper part of +head and trunk covered with four-sided horny plates (with small +thin ossifications beneath), forming a shield, free and overhanging +the sides of the trunk, and attached only along the middle line +of the back. The plates are arranged in a series of distinct +transverse bands, about twenty in number between the occiput +and the posterior truncated end, and not divided into solid +scapular and pelvic shields with movable bands between. The +hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated and covered by a +vertically placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an oval (transversely +extended) form, covered by thin horny plates. This +shield is firmly welded by five bony processes to the hinder part +of the pelvis. Through a notch in the middle of its lower border +the tail passes out. The latter is rather short, cylindrical in its +proximal half, and expanded and depressed or spatulate in its +terminal portion, and covered with horny plates. The dorsal +surfaces of the fore and hind-feet are also covered with horny +plates. The remainder of the limbs and under surface and sides +of the body beneath the overlapping lateral parts of the back +shield are clothed with rather long, soft silky hair. Eyes and +ears very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short. +Feet large, each with five well-developed claws, those on the +fore-feet very long, stout and subcompressed, the structure +of the digits being essentially the same as those of <i>Tatoua</i> +and <i>Priodon</i>. Teats two, pectoral. Visceral anatomy closely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span> +resembling that of <i>Dasypus</i>, the caecum being broad, short and +bifid. The pichiciago, a burrowing animal, about 5 in. long, +inhabits the sandy plains of western Argentina, especially the +vicinity of Mendoza. Its horny covering is pinkish, and its silky +hair white. A second species, <i>C. retusus</i>, from Bolivia is rather +larger and has the dorsal shield attached to the skin of the back +as far as its edge, instead of only along the median line. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armadillo</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Tubulidentata.</i>—The second suborder of edentates, namely +the Tubulidentata, is represented at the present day only by +the aard-varks, or ant-bears, of Africa, constituting the family +<i>Orycteropodidae</i> and the genus <i>Orycteropus</i>. Together with the +following group, they differ from the Xenarthra in the absence +of additional articular facets to the lumbar vertebrae; for +which reason the term Nomarthra has been proposed for the +Tubulidentata and Pholidota as collectively distinct from the +Xenarthra. In the present group the external surface is scantily +covered with bristle-like hairs. The teeth are numerous, and +traversed by a number of parallel vertical pulp-canals. Femur +with a third trochanter. Fore-feet without the first toe, but all +the other digits well developed, with strong moderate-sized nails, +suited to digging, the plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground +in walking. Hind-feet with five subequal toes. Placenta +broadly zonular. The brain is very like that of the Ungulata; +and there are two pairs of teats, one abdominal, and the other +inguinal. Aard-varks feed on animal substances; and are +terrestrial and fossorial in habits. The total number of teeth +is from eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the +lower jaw; but they are never all in place at one time, as the +small anterior ones are shed before the series is completed behind. +In the adult they number usually five on each side above and +below, of which the first two are simple and compressed, the next +two larger and longitudinally grooved at the sides, the most +posterior simple and cylindrical. Their summits are rounded +before they are worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but are +evenly truncated and continually growing. Each tooth is made +up of an aggregation of parallel dental systems, having a slender +pulp cavity in the centre, from which the dentinal tubes radiate +outwards, and being closely packed together each system assumes +a polygonal outline as seen in transverse section. A series of +milk-teeth is developed. Skull moderately elongated with the +facial portion subcylindrical and slightly tapering, and the +zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends posteriorly in +the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is not +continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular, +and not welded to the surrounding bones. The lower jaw is +slender anteriorly, but rises high posteriorly, with a slender +recurved coronoid, and an ascending pointed process on the +hinder edge below the condyle, which is small, oval, and looks +forward as much as upwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 8, S 6, +Ca 25. The large number of lumbar vertebrae is peculiar among +Edentates. The tongue is less worm-like than in <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, +being thick and fleshy at the base and gradually tapering to the +apex. The salivary apparatus is developed much in the same +manner as in that genus, but the duct of the submaxillary gland +has no reservoir. The stomach consists of a large subglobular +cardaic portion, with a thick, soft, and corrugated lining membrane, +and a smaller muscular, pyloric part, with a comparatively +thin and smooth lining. There is a distinct ileocaecal valve +and a considerable sized caecum; also a gall-bladder. Head +elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal nostrils and small +mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect. Tall nearly as +long as the body, cylindrical, thick at the base, tapering to the +extremity.</p> + +<p>According to the researches of Dr E. Lönnberg, the teeth of +the aard-varks correspond only to the roots of those of other +mammals, the crowns being unrepresented, except to a very +small degree when the teeth first cut the gum. This explanation +renders the peculiar internal structure of these teeth much less +difficult to understand than if they represented both crown and +root. In Dr Lönnberg’s opinion, the teeth indicate the descent +of the aard-vark from an ungulate stock,—a view in harmony +with the evidence of the brain. If this idea prove well founded, +and if the aard-varks are rightly classed with the Edentata, the +whole order must apparently be regarded as an offshoot from +primitive Ungulata. The fact of the frequent distinctness of the +coracoid bone requires, however, explanation in connexion with +such a descent (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aard-Vark</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Pholidota.</i>—The Pholidota, constituting the third and last +group of the Edentata, are represented by the pangolins, or +scaly anteaters, of Asia and Africa, all of which are included +in the family <i>Manidae</i> and the genus <i>Manis</i>. Pangolins differ +from all other mammals by the armour of overlapping horny +scales (often with hairs growing between them) which invests +the whole animal, with the exception of the under surface of +the body, and sometimes a small patch near the tip of the under +side of the tail. There are no teeth; and although the tongue is +long and worm-like, it is not extensile. The scaphoid and lunar +bones of the carpus are united. The uterus is bicornuate, and +the placenta diffused and non-deciduate. The skull has somewhat +the form of an elongated cone, with the small end turned +forwards, and is smooth and free from crests and ridges. No +distinction between the orbits and temporal fossae. The zygomatic +arch usually incomplete, owing to the absence of the jugal +bone; no distinct lacrymal bone; and the palate long and +narrow. The pterygoids extend backwards as far as the tympanics, +but do not meet in the middle line below. Tympanic +welded to the surrounding bones, and more or less bladder-like, +but not produced into a tubular auditory meatus. Two halves +of lower jaw very slender and straight, without any angle or +coronoid process, on the anterior extremity of the upper edge a +sharp, conical, tooth-like process projecting upwards and outwards. +No clavicles. No third trochanter to the femur. Terminal +phalanges cleft at the tip. Caudal vertebrae with very +long transverse processes and numerous chevron-bones. Stomach +with thick muscular walls and lining membrane, and a special +gland near the middle of the great curvature, consisting of a +mass of complex secreting follicles, the ducts of which terminate +in a common orifice. No caecum, but a gall-bladder. Head +small, depressed, narrow, and pointed in front, with a very +small mouth-opening. Eyes and ears very small. Body elongated, +narrow. Tail more or less elongated, convex above, flat underneath. +Limbs short, and in walking the surface and outer +sides of the phalanges of the two outer digits of the front feet +alone rest on the ground, with the points of the nails turning +upwards and inwards. The third toe the longest, with a powerful +compressed curved claw, the second and fourth with similar +but smaller claws, but that of the first toe often almost rudimentary. +Hind-feet plantigrade with the first toe very short, +and the four other toes subequal, and carrying moderate, curved, +compressed nails. Pangolins are of small or moderate size, +terrestrial and burrowing, and feed mainly on termites or white +ants; some of the species being more or less arboreal. They +can roll themselves up in a ball when in danger. Their peculiar +elongated form, short limbs, long tapering tail, and scaly covering +give them on a superficial inspection more the appearance of +reptiles than of mammals. The species are not numerous and +may be divided into two sections, one comprising the Asiatic +species, such as <i>M. javanica</i>, <i>M. aurita</i> of China, and the Indian +<i>M. pentadactyla</i>, and the other the African, as represented by +the large <i>M. gigantea</i>, <i>M. temminchi</i>, the long-tailed <i>M. macrura</i>, +and the small arboreal <i>M. tricuspis</i>. In the Asiatic group the +middle series of scales continues to the tip of the tail; but in +the African forms this row splits into two a few inches from the +tail-tip. The latter have also no hairs between the scales and +no external ears. The climbing species have a small bare patch +on the under side of the tail near the tip (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pangolin</a></span>).</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Extinct Edentates.</i></p> + +<p>Beyond remains of species closely allied to or identical with +the existing forms, the sloths and anteaters appear to be unknown +in a fossil state. On the other hand the extinct family of ground +sloths, or <i>Megatheriidae</i>, which includes the largest of all edentates, +is an exceedingly large one, and extends in South America from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span> +the Miocene to the Pleistocene, and was also represented during +the latter epoch in North America. It serves to connect the +<i>Bradypodidae</i> with <i>Myrmecophagidae</i>. The alleged occurrence +of an allied form in Madagascar is somewhat doubtful (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Megatherium</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mylodon</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Of <i>Dasypodidae</i> numerous representatives occur in the South +American Tertiaries. From the higher beds many of the species +are referable to existing genera, such as <i>Dasypus</i> and <i>Tatusia</i>, +although some are much larger than any living forms, the skull +in one case being nearly a foot in length. In other instances, +when lower formations are reached, the genera are also distinct, +<i>Eutatus</i> having the whole armour divided into movable bands, +and the allied <i>Stegotherium</i> representing the group in the Santa +Cruz formation of Patagonia. Even in the Argentine Pleistocene +there is an extinct genus, <i>Chlamydotherium</i>, represented by a +species of the size of a rhinoceros, with grooved teeth approximating +to those of the glyptodonts. The latter represent a family +(<i>Glyptodontidae</i>) by themselves, and typically may be described +as giant solid-shelled armadillos, although some of their smaller +Santa Cruz representatives (<i>Propalaeohoplophorus</i>) approximate +in some degree to true armadillos (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glyptodon</a></span>).</p> + +<p>A very remarkable Santa Cruz armadillo, <i>Peltephilus</i>, has an +altogether peculiar type of head-shield, developed into horns +in front of the eyes; and, what is still more noteworthy, teeth +in the front of the jaws, thereby rendering the ordinary definition +of the order Edentata incorrect. It has been made the type of +a distinct family, <i>Peltephilidae</i>.</p> + +<p>The past history of the armadillo group does not, however, +by any means end here. True armadillos, it should be observed, +are known in North America as far north as Texas, from +the Pleistocene onwards; but in formations of middle Tertiary +age are unrepresented. Recent discoveries apparently indicate, +however, the occurrence of armadillos of a primitive type in the +lower Tertiary or Eocene formations of Wyoming. The first +evidence of these Eocene armadillos was afforded by portions +of the jaws, which, together with a leg-bone of a totally different +animal, were believed to indicate creatures nearly allied to the +aye-aye (<i>Chiromys</i>) of Madagascar, and for which the name +<i>Metachiromys</i> was consequently proposed. According to modern +usage, this name, in spite of its inappropriate nature, is retained +for the armadillos, although in the writer’s opinion it ought to be +replaced. According to Professor H.F. Osborn, by whom their +remains have been described, the North American fossil armadillos +were closely related to the existing members of the group, +from which they differ chiefly by the armour, or shield, having +probably been formed of tough leathery skin instead of bony +plates, by the presence of a single pair of large enamel-capped +tusk-like teeth in each jaw, and by the degeneration of the other +teeth. If these determinations are trustworthy, the question +arises whether we should regard the armadillos of South America +as the descendants of North American forms which migrated +southwards before that separation of the two continents was +established, which lasted for a large portion of the Tertiary +period, or whether a migration took place at the same early epoch +in the opposite direction.</p> + +<p>More interesting still is the occurrence of remains of reputed +armadillos (<i>Necrodasypus</i>) from the Oligocene of France and +Germany. In the opinion of Dr F. Ameghino these Oligocene +armadillos, which had bony shields on both the head and body, +were near akin to some of the modern South American forms.</p> + +<p>Passing on to the aard-varks (<i>Orycteropodidae</i>), we find these +represented by a species closely allied to the existing ones in the +Lower Pliocene formations of Spain, France, Hungary, Samos +and Asia Minor. A single tibia from the French Oligocene is +identified by Dr Ameghino with the present family, and the genus +<i>Archaeorycteropus</i> established for its reception; this genus, in +its founder’s opinion, being also represented in the Santa Cruz +beds of Patagonia. As regards the pangolins, the only fossils +referred to this group (apart from a few discovered in a cave in +India) appear to be certain limb-bones from the Oligocene of +France and Germany, for which the names <i>Necromanis</i> and +<i>Teutomanis</i> have been proposed. The occurrence of the characteristic +cleft terminal toe-bones among these remains seems to +leave little doubt as to the correctness of the determination.</p> + +<p>The alleged occurrence of remains of giant pangolins in the +upper Tertiary of Europe is due to misidentification (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ancylopoda</a></span>). By some authorities the Eocene group of +Ganodonta has been affiliated to the Edentata, but this reference +is not accepted by Prof. W.B. Scott.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The above article is to some extent based on the +articles by Sir W.H. Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See +also O. Thomas, “A Milk-dentition in <i>Orycteropus</i>,” <i>Proc. Royal Soc.</i> +vol. xlvii. (1890); R. Lydekker, “The Extinct Edentates of Argentina,” +<i>Palaeont. Argentina</i>, vol. iii., An. Mus. (La Plata, 1894); +C.W. Andrews, “On a Skull of <i>Orycteropus gaudryi</i> from Samos,” +<i>Proc. Zool. Soc. London</i> (1896); G.E. Smith, “The Brain in the +Edentata,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc. London</i>, vol. vii. (1899); W.B. Scott, +“Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds—<i>Dasypoda</i>,” <i>Rep. Princeton +Exped. to Patagonia</i>, vol. v. (1903); H.F. Osborn, “An Armadillo +from the Middle Eocene of North America,” <i>Bull. Amer. Mus.</i> vol. +xx. art. 12 (1904); J.A. Allen, “The Tamandua Anteaters,” <i>T.C.</i>, +art. 33 (1904); F. Ameghino, “Les Édentes fossiles de +France et d’Allemagne,” <i>Ann. Mus. Buenos Aires</i>, vol. xiii. (1905); +E. Lönnberg, “On a new <i>Orycteropus</i>,” and “Remarks on the +dentition of the Tubulidentata,” <i>Archiv für Zoologie</i>, vol. iii. +No. 3 (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDENTON,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Chowan county, +North Carolina, U.S.A., on Edenton Bay, an estuary of Albemarle +sound, near the mouth of Chowan river, in the N.E. part of +the state. Pop. (1890) 2205; (1900) 3046 (2090 negroes); (1910) +2789. It is served by the Norfolk & Southern railway, and +by the Albemarle Steam Navigation Co. In 1907 the former +projected a great bridge across Albemarle sound near the city. +Edenton is an old and interesting town, has a number of fine +old homesteads, and has broad and well-shaded streets. Lumbering +and the shad and herring fisheries are the most important +industrial interests, and the town is a shipping point for fish, +truck and other farm products, cotton and peanuts. There is a +Fish Cultural Station here, established by the Federal government. +The court-house was built about 1750.</p> + +<p>Edenton was settled about 1658, and was for some time known +as the “Towne on Queen Anne’s Creek” or the “Port of +Roanoke”; in 1722 the present name was adopted in honour +of Governor Charles Eden (1673-1722), whose grave is in St +Paul’s churchyard here. Throughout the 18th century Edenton +was a place of considerable social and political importance; the +legislative assembly of North Carolina met here occasionally, +and here lived the royal governors and various well-known +citizens of the province, among them: Joseph Hewes (1730-1779), +a signer of the Declaration of Independence; James +Iredell, Sr. (1750-1799), a Federalist leader and after 1790 a +justice of the United States Supreme Court, and his son James +Iredell, Jr. (1788-1853), a prominent lawyer, for many years a +member of the state legislature, governor of North Carolina in +1827-1828, and a member of the United States Senate in 1828-1831. +Near Edenton lived Samuel Johnston (1733-1816), a +prominent leader of the American Whigs preceding and during +the War of American Independence, a member of the Continental +Congress in 1780-1782, governor of North Carolina in 1787-1789, +and a Federalist member of the United States Senate in 1790-1793. +In 1907 the Hewes, Iredell and Johnston homesteads +were still standing. In a house facing the court-house green the +famous “Edenton Tea Party” of fifty-one ladies met on the +24th of October 1774 and signed resolutions that they would +not conform “to that Pernicious Custom of Drinking Tea” and +would not “promote the wear of any manufacture from England” +until the tax on tea should be repealed. Near Edenton the +Confederate ram “Albemarle,” on emerging from the Roanoke +river, was met by the Union “double-enders,” “Sassacus,” +“Mattabesett,” and “Miami,” on the 5th of May 1864; the +battle, which resulted in favour of the Confederates, was a duel +between the Confederate ironclad and the Union wooden side-wheeler, +the “Sassacus,” which rammed the “Albemarle” and +had her bows, fitted with a three-ton bronze beak, twisted off +and carried away.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDESSA<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (mod. <i>Vodena</i>), the ancient capital of Macedonia, +previously known as Aegae, situated 46 m. W. of Thessalonica +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span> +on the banks of a beautiful stream in the very centre of the +kingdom, and at the head of a defile commanding the approaches +from the coast to the interior. It was the original residence of +the Macedonian kings; and even after the seat of government +was removed by Philip II. to the more accessible Pella, it +continued to be the burial-place of the royal family. At the +celebration of his daughter’s marriage here, Philip II. was +murdered by Pausanias in 336 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His son Alexander was +buried at Memphis through the contrivance of Ptolemy; but +the bodies of his granddaughter Eurydice and her husband +Arrhidaeus were removed by Cassander to the ancestral sepulchre. +On the occupation of the town by Pyrrhus the royal tombs were +plundered by the Gallic mercenaries. Owing to its position +commanding the Via Egnatia, the town retained its importance +during the Roman and Byzantine periods. For its present +condition, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vodena</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDESSA,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> the Greek name of an ancient city of N.W. Mesopotamia +(in 37° 21′ N. lat. and 39° 6′ E. long.), suggested perhaps +by a comparison of its site, or its water supply,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> with that of its +Macedonian namesake. It still bears its earlier name, modified +since the 15th century (by the Turks?) to Urfa.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The oldest certain form is the Aramaic <i>Urhāi</i> (“Western” +pronunciation <i>Urhōi</i>), which appears in Greek as an adjective as +<span class="grk" title="Horrhoênhê">Ὀρροηνή</span><a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a>, <span class="grk" title="-noi">-νοί</span><a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (perhaps also as a fortress with spring, as <span class="grk" title="Orrha">Ὀρρά</span>),<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +and in Latin as Orr(<i>h</i>)ei,<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and (in the inscription on Abgar’s grave) +<i>Orrhenoru</i>(<i>m</i>).<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> The Syriac Chronicle ascribed to Dionysius of +Tell-maḥrē derives the name from a first king Urhāi, son of Hewyā, +whom Procopius (<i>De bello persico</i>, i. 17) calls Osroes (cf. below), +connected by Bayer<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> with Chosroes,<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> from which G. Hoffmann +would also derive the Syriac Urhāi (<i>Z.D.M.G.</i> xxxii. 742). The Syriac +town name has, however, the form of an ethnic, and we may therefore +with Duval leave it unexplained (<i>Hist.</i> 22). The fact that the +Arabic name is Ruhä supports the hint of the Graeco-Latin forms +that there was a vowel between the R and the H. There is little +plausibility in the suggestion of Assemani and others that Ruhā +comes from <span class="grk" title="rhoê">ροη</span> of Callirrhoe. A gentilic of the form Ru-u-ai occurs +in a letter (of an Assyrian king?) to chiefs in a (Babylonian?) town +as the designation of three captives (Harper, <i>Ass. and Bab. Letters</i>, +No. 287 [= K 94], line 6; cf. Bezold, <i>Die Achämenideninschriften</i>, +p. xii.), who have Semitic names; and Ru-‘-u-a is the name of +an Aramaic people mentioned with other Aramaeans by Tiglath-pileser +IV., Sargon and Sennacherib. It is not impossible that some +such people may have settled at Urhāi and given it their name, +although the Ru-‘-u-a are always mentioned in connexions that +imply seats near the Persian Gulf.<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The district name Osroēnē for +<span class="grk" title="Orrhoênhê">Ὀρροηνή</span>, is Greek, perhaps due to analogy of Chosroes. It occurs +but rarely in Syriac (Uzroina); <i>e.g.</i> Chronicle of Edessa. § 35;<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> +elsewhere Bēth-Urhāyē (<i>e.g.</i> Cureton, <i>Spicileg. Syr.</i> 20). In the +time of Tiglath-pileser I. (<i>c.</i> 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the name seems to have been +“District of (not Edessa, but) Ḥarrān” (Annals, vi. 71). The Arabs +pronounced the name er-Ruhā (see above), and that form prevailed +till it gave place to Urfa in the 15th century.</p> + +<p>The Greek name Edessa appears in the Jerusalem Targum to +Gen. x. 10 as Hădas (<span title="hadas">הדס</span>, myrtle); it has been proposed (cf. Duval, +<i>Hist. d’Édesse</i>, 23) to derive Edessa from Aram. <span title="hadat">הדת</span>, as though += Carthage, New Town; but Syriac writers, when they occasionally <a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> +use the name (Edessa, <span title="adasa">אדסא</span>; so Yāqūt, Adāsā), show no +suspicion of its being Semitic. According to Pliny, v. 86, Edessa +was also called Antioch, and coins of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes with +the legend “Antioch on the Callirrhoe” may imply that he rebuilt +and renamed the place (so Ed. Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, +col. 1933, 66; otherwise Duval, <i>Hist.</i> 23; cf. art. +<span class="sc">Osroene</span>). Pliny indeed seems to call the city itself Callirrhoe, and +S. Funk finds it so named in the Talmud (<i>Bab. Mez.</i>, 18a <span title="raal raham bahara shuiar meta">רעל רכם נהרא שויר מתא</span>: +<i>Die Juden in Babylonien 200-500</i>, ii. 148; 1908); +but K. Regling (<i>Klio</i>, i. 459 n. 1) may be right in his emendation +which applies the title in Pliny to the sacred spring.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History: Pre-Hellenistic.</i>—Until excavation gives us more +definite data we can only infer from its position on one of the +main thoroughfares between the Mediterranean and the East +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mesopotamia</a></span>) that Urhāi-Edessa, possibly bearing some +other name, was already a town of some importance in the early +Babylonian-Assyrian age. Whatever may have been the +ethnographical type of the early inhabitants, it must by the +beginning of the second last millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> have included +Hittites in the large sense of the term, probably Aryans, and +certainly Semites of some of the types characteristic of early +Assyrian history. Most probably its people belonged to the +domain of the then more famous Ḥarrān-Carrhae, between +which and Samosata (on the Euphrates) Urhāi lies midway +(some 25-30 m. distant from each) in the district watered by the +Balīh. Although at Edessa itself no cuneiform documents have +yet been found, a little more than four hours journey eastwards, +at Anaz (= Gullāb?) = Dūr of Tiglath-pileser IV. was found in +1901 a slab with a bas-relief and an inscription; and 15-20 min. +W. of Eski-Ḥarrān, in 1906 a very interesting 6th-century +Assyrian inscription (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mesopotamia</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the later Assyrian empire the population was largely +Aramaic-speaking; but S. Schiffer’s theory (Beiheft I. zur +<i>Orientalistischen Litteratur-Zeitung</i>) finds contemporary evidence +of Israelites settled in the neighbourhood of Edessa in the second +half of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At the fall of Nineveh many towns in +Mesopotamia suffered severely at the hands of the Medes. The +period remains dark, notwithstanding the obscure light that has +been thrown on it lately (Pognon, <i>Inscriptions</i>). When Aramaic +began to take the place of Assyrian in written documents is not +known; but just across the Euphrates the change had occurred +as early as the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Zengīrli, Hamath; see also +Pognon). Certain it is that the earliest documents that have +survived in Syriac, or Edessene Aramaic, do not represent an +experimental stage. Moreover, although the Syriac of the +Story of Aḥīqār is of a late type, the sources of the story, traces +of which are to be found in the Hebrew Tobit (<i>q.v.</i>), go back to +the pre-Hellenistic period.</p> + +<p><i>Graeco-Roman Times.</i>—According to a credible tradition +found in Eusebius (<i>Excerpta</i>, 179), the Syriac Chronicle ascribed +to Dionysius of Tell-maḥrē (Tullberg, 61), and elsewhere, Urhāi +was renovated, like other Mesopotamian sites, in 304 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by +Seleucus I. Nicator, who gave it its Greek name.<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> It would share +in the Hellenistic culture of Syria, although the language of the +common people would continue to be Aramaic (E.R. Bevan, +<i>House of Seleucus</i>, i. 227 f. with reff.). With the decay of the +Seleucid power, weakened by Rome and Parthia, the old influx +from the desert would recommence, and an Arabic element +begin to show. Von Gutschmid (<i>Untersuch.</i>, cf. Duval, ch. iii. +end) argues plausibly that it was in 132 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in the reign of +Antiochus VII. Sidetes, that Edessa became the seat of a dynasty +of some thirty local kings, whose succession has been preserved +in native sources. The name of the first king, however, appears +in different forms (cf. above), and one (Osroës-Orhai) is so +like that of the town that Ed. Meyer suspects the historicity +of the first reign, of five years. The names of the other kings—Abgar, +Ma’nu, Bekr, &c.—are for the most part Arabic, as the +people (in whose inscriptions the same mixture of names occurs) +are called by classical authors; but the rulers, among whom +an occasional Iranian name betrays the influence of the dominant +Parthians,<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> would hardly maintain their distinctness from the +Aramaic populace. This state which lasted for three centuries +and a half, naturally varied in extent.<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Bounded on the W. and +the N. by the Euphrates, it reached at its widest as far as the +Tigris. At such times, therefore, it included such towns as +Ḥarrān (Carrhae), Nisibis, Sarūg, Zeugma-Birejik, Resaena, +Singara, Tigranocerta, Samosāta, Melitene. Its position “on +the dangerous verge of two contending empires,” Parthia and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span> +Rome, determined its changeful fortunes. Parthian predominance +yielded for a time to Armenian (Tigranes, 88-86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Then, at the time of the expeditions of Lucullus, Pompey and +Crassus, Edessa was an ally of Rome, though Abgar II. Ariamnes +(68-53) played an ambiguous part. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 114 Abgar VII. +entertained Trajan on his way back to Syria (Dio Cass. xviii. 21); +but in 116, in consequence of a general rising, his consul L. +Quietus sacked the city, Abgar perhaps dying in the flames, +and made the state tributary. Hadrian, however, abandoning +Trajan’s forward policy in favour of a Euphrates boundary, +restored it as a dependency of Rome. When L. Verus (163-165) +recovered Mesopotamia from Parthia, it was not Edessa but +Ḥarrān that was chosen as the site of a Roman colony, and +made the metropolis by Marcus Aurelius (172).</p> + +<p>To one of the native kings doubtless is to be ascribed the +Syriac inscription<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> on one of the pair of pillars, 50 ft. high, +which stood, no doubt, in front of a temple connected with some +local cult. Trustworthy data for determining its nature are +lacking. One or both of the pools below the citadel containing +sacred fish may have been sacred to Atargatis (<i>q.v.</i>), an Ishtar-Venus +deity; and according to the <i>Doctrine of Addai</i>, alongside +of Venus were worshipped the sun and the moon.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Nergal and +Sin were known as “twins,” and connected with the sign Gemini, +under the name <i>ellamme</i>, “the youths” (cf. Zimmern, <i>K.A.T.</i> +363). This makes more plausible than it otherwise would be +the suggestion of J. Rendel Harris that the great twin pillars +were connected with the cult of the Dioscuri, and that in the +Acts of Thomas is to be seen a later attempt to substitute other +“twins,” viz. Jesus and Judas-Thomas (Addai), whom legend +buried “in Britio Edessenorum” (explained by Harnack as +the Edessan citadel: Aram. <i>birtha</i>).<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<p>Whether it was at Edessa that a Jewish translation of the +Old Testament into Syriac was made,<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a> under the encouragement +perhaps of the favour of the royal house of Adiabene (Josephus, +<i>Bell. Jud.</i> ii. 19. 4), or whether that work was done <i>in</i> Adiabene,<a name="fa19e" id="fa19e" href="#ft19e"><span class="sp">19</span></a> +cannot be discussed here. That the translation did not share +the fate of the other non-Christian Syriac writings, which did +not survive the 13th century (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syriac Literature</a></span>), is +due to the fact that it was adopted (after being revised) by +the Christians, and thus rescued. Although the beginnings of +Christianity at Edessa are enshrouded in the mists of legend, +and the first mention of Christian communities in Osrhoëne and +the towns there is connected with the part they played in the +paschal controversy (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 192), it has been reasonably urged +that the legends imply a fact, namely that Christianity began +in the Jewish colony, perhaps by the middle of the 2nd century, +although the earliest seat of the Syrian church may have been +farther east, in Adiabene.<a name="fa20e" id="fa20e" href="#ft20e"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Parts of the New Testament were +certainly translated into Syriac in the 2nd century, although +whether the “Old Syriac” (so <i>e.g.</i> Hjelt) or the Diatessaron (so +Burkitt) came first is uncertain. About the end of the 2nd +century Edessene Christianity seems to have made a fresh +beginning: the ordination of Palūṭ by Serapion of Antioch may +mean that things ecclesiastical took a westward trend, and it +is possible (so Burkitt) that the “Old Syriac” New Testament +version was now introduced. A strong man offered himself in +Bardaiṣān (<i>q.v.</i>; Bardesanes), to whom perhaps we owe the finest +Syriac poem extant, the “Hymn of the Soul,” though orthodoxy +rejected him. He was a contemporary of Abgar IX., at whose +court Julius Africanus stayed for a while. A Syrian official +record from this reign, preserved in the <i>Edessene Chronicle</i>, +gives a somewhat detailed account of a violent flood (autumn, +201) of the Daiṣān river which did much damage, destroying +amongst other things “the palace of Abgar the Great,” rebuilt +as a summer palace by Abgar IX., and “the temple of the church +of the Christians.” The form of this last statement shows that +at the time of writing (206) the rulers had not adopted Christianity +themselves. Abgar IX. is now commonly supposed to be the +ruler to whom the famous legend was first attached (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abgar</a></span>); +but though he visited Rome there is no proof that he ever became +a Christian (Gomperz, in <i>Archäologisch-epigraphische Mitteilungen +aus Österreich-Ungarn</i>, xix. 154-157). It was at Edessa that +Caracalla, who made it a military colony under the style of +Colonia Marcia Edessenorum, spent the winter of 216-217, and +near there that he was murdered. The religious philosophical +treatise preserved under the title of <i>Book of the Laws of the Lands</i> +was probably produced at this time by a pupil of Bardesanes, +and the <i>Acts of Thomas</i> in its original form may have followed +not long after.</p> + +<p><i>Sassanian Period.</i>—In 226 the Parthian empire gave place +to the new kingdom of the Sassanidae, whose claim to the ancient +Achaemenian empire led to constant struggle with Rome in +which Edessa naturally suffered. The native state was restored +by Gordian in 242; but in 244 it became again directly subject +to Rome. The Edessan martyrs Sharbēl and Barsamyā, whose +“Acts” in legendary form have come down to us, may have +perished in the Decian persecution. In 260 the city was besieged +by the Persians under Shapur I., and Valerian was +defeated and made prisoner by its gates. Odaenathus of Palmyra +(d. 267), however, wrested Mesopotamia from the Persians; +but Aurelian defeated his successor Zenobia at Emesa (273), +and Carus, who died in 283 in an expedition against the Persians, +and Galerius (297) carried the frontier again to the Tigris. +Diocletian’s persecution secured the martyr’s crown for the +Edessenes Shamōna, Guria (297), and Ḥabbīb (309), and shortly +thereafter Lucian “the martyr,” who though born at Samosata +received his training at Edessa; but the bishop Qōna, who laid +the foundations of “the great church” by the sacred pool, +somehow escaped. Edessa can claim no share in “the Persian +Sage” Aphrahaṭ or Afrahaṭ (Aphraates); but Ephraem, after +bewailing in Nisibis the sufferings of the great Persian war under +Constantius and Julian, when Jovian in 363 ceded most of +Mesopotamia to Shapur II., the persecutor of the Christians, +settled in Edessa, which as the seat of his famous school (called +“the Persian”) grew greatly in importance, and attracted +scholars from all directions. He taught and wrote vigorously +against the Arians and other heretics, and although just after his +death (373) the emperor Valens banished the orthodox from +Edessa, they returned on the emperor’s death in 378. Under +Zenobius, disciple of Ephraem, studied the voluminous writer, +Isaac of Antioch (d. circ. 460). Rabbūla perhaps owed his +elevation to the see of Edessa (411-435), in the year which produced +the oldest dated Syriac MS., to his asceticism, and it +was to his time that the sojourn there of the “Man of God” +(Alexis) was assigned; but he won from the Nestorians the +title of the Tyrant of Edessa. In particular he exerted himself +to stamp out the use of the Diatessaron in favour of the four +Gospels, the Syriac version of which probably now took the form +known as the Peshitta. When the popular Nestorianism of the +Syrians was condemned at Ephesus (431) it began to gravitate +eastwards, Nisibis becoming its eventual headquarters; but +Edessa and the western Syrians refused to bow to the Council +of Chalcedon (451) when it condemned Monophysitism. In +and around Edessa the theological strife raged hotly.<a name="fa21e" id="fa21e" href="#ft21e"><span class="sp">21</span></a> When, +however, Zeno’s edict (489) ordered the closing of the school of +the Persians at Edessa, East and West drifted apart more and +more; the ecclesiastical writer Narsai, “the Harp of the Holy +Spirit,” fled to Nisibis about 489. Till about this time Syriac +influence was strong in Armenia, and some Syriac works have +survived only in Armenian translations. In the opening years +of the 6th century the Persian-Roman War (502-506) found a +chronicler in the anonymous Edessene history known till recently +as the Chronicle of Joshua Stylites. Whether Edessa received +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span> +from the emperor Justin I. the additional name of Justinopolis +may be uncertain (see Hallier, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 128); but it seems to +have been renewed and fortified after the “fourth” flood in +525 (Procop. <i>Pers.</i> ii. 27; <i>De aedific.</i> ii. 7). About this time, +according to Nöldeke, an anonymous Edessene wrote the +Romance of Julian the Apostate, which so many Arab writers +use as a history. Chosroes I. Anushirwān succeeded in 540, +according to the last entry in the Edessene Chronicle, in exacting +a large tribute from Edessa; but in 544 he besieged it in vain. +A few years later Jacob Baradaeus, with Edessa as centre of +his bishopric, was carrying on the propaganda of Monophysitism +which won for the adherents of that creed the name of Jacobites +(<i>q.v.</i>). The valuable Syriac Chronicle just referred to probably +was compiled in the latter half of this century.</p> + +<p><i>Islam.</i>—In the first decade of the next century Edessa was +taken by Chosroes II., and a large part of the population transported +to eastern Persia. Within a score of years it was recovered +by the emperor Heraclius, who reviewed a large army under +its walls. The prophet of Islam was now, however, building up +his power in Arabia, and although Heraclius paid no heed to +the letter demanding his adhesion which he received from +Medina (628), and the deputation of fifteen Rahāwiyīn who +paid homage in 630 were not Edessenes but South Arabians, +a few years later (636?) Heraclius’s attempts, from Edessa +as a centre, to effect an organized opposition to the victorious +Arabs were defeated by Sa’d, and he fell back on Samosāta. +The terms on which Edessa definitely passed into the hands of the +Moslems (638) under Riyād are not certain (Balādhurī). As it +now ceased to be a frontier city it lost in importance. In 668 +occurred another destructive flood (Theophanes, p. 537), and +in 678 an earthquake which destroyed part of the “old church,” +which the caliph Mo‘āwiya I. is said to have repaired. To the +latter part of the century belongs the activity of Edessa’s bishop +Jacob, whose chronicle is unfortunately lost. It may have been +the impulse given by the final supremacy of the caliphate to +the long process which eventually substituted a new branch +of Semitic speech for the Aramaic (which had now prevailed +for a millennium and a half), that led Jacob to adopt the Greek +vowel signs for use in Syriac. A century later Theophilus of +Edessa (d. 785), author of a lost history, translated into Syriac +“the two books of the poet Homer on the Conquest of the city +of Ilion.” When the Bagdād caliphs lost control of their +dominions, Edessa shared the fortunes of western Mesopotamia, +changing with the rise and fall of Egyptian dynasties and Arab +chieftains. In the 10th century al-Mas’ūdī, writing in the very +year in which it happened, tells how the Mahommedan ruler +of Edessa, with the permission of the caliph, purchased peace +of the emperor Romanus Lecapenus by surrendering to him the +napkin of Jesus of Nazareth, wherewith he had dried himself after +his baptism. The translation of the Holy Icon of Christ from +Edessa is commemorated on the 16th of August (Cal. Byzant). +A few years later Ibn Ḥauḳal (978) estimates the number of +churches in the city at more than 300, and al-Moḳaddasī (985) +describes its cathedral, with vaulted ceiling covered with mosaics, +as one of the four wonders of the world. In 1031 the emperor +recovered Edessa; but in 1040 it fell into the hands of the +Seljuks, whose progress had added a large element of Armenian +refugees to the population of Osrhoëne. There is no reason, +therefore, to discredit Maqrīzī’s statement that it was three +brother architects from Edessa that the Armenian minister +Badr al-Gamāli employed to build three of the fine city gates of +Cairo (1087-1091). The empire soon recovered Edessa, but the +resident made himself independent. Thoros applied for help +to Baldwin, brother and successor of Godfrey of Bouillon in the +First Crusade, who in 1098 took possession of the town and +made it the capital of a Burgundian countship, which included +Samosata and Sarūg’, and was for half a century the eastern +bulwark of the kingdom of Jerusalem.<a name="fa22e" id="fa22e" href="#ft22e"><span class="sp">22</span></a> The local Armenian +historian, however, Matthew of Edessa, tells of oppression, +decrease of population, ruin of churches, neglect of agriculture. +With the campaign of Maudud in 1110 fortune began to favour +the Moslems. Edessa had to endure siege after siege. Finally, +in 1144 it was stormed, Matthew being among the slain, by +‘Imād ud-Dīn Zengī, ruler of Mosul, under Joscelin II., an +achievement celebrated as “the conquest of conquests,” for +laying the responsibility of which not on God but on the absence +of the Frankish troops, an Edessan monk, John, bishop of +Ḥarrān (d. 1165), brought down upon himself the whole bench +of bishops. Edessa suffered still more in 1146 after an attempt +to recover it. Churches were now turned into mosques. The +consternation produced in Europe by the news of its fate led +to “the Second Crusade.” In 1182 it fell to Saladin, whose +nephew recovered it when it had temporarily passed (1234) +to the sultan of Rūm; but the “Eye of Mesopotamia” never +recovered the brilliance of earlier days. The names it contributed +to Arabic literature are unimportant. By timely surrender +(1268) it escaped the sufferings inflicted by Hūlākū and +his Monguls on Sarū’g (Barhebraeus, <i>Chron. Arab.</i>, Beirūt ed., +486). Mostaufī describes a great cupola of finely worked stone +still standing by a court over a hundred yards square (1340). +Ali b. Yazd in his account of the campaigns of Tīmūr, who +reduced Mesopotamia in 1393, still calls the city (1425) Ruhā. +In 1637, when Amurath IV. conquered Bagdād and annexed +Mesopotamia, it passed finally into the hands of the Turks, by +whom it is called Urfa.</p> + +<p><i>The Modern Town.</i>—Urfa lies north-east of the Nimrud Dagh. +It is surrounded by a wall, strengthened by square towers at +distances of 18-20 steps, probably dating in its present condition +from medieval Mahommedan times. On a height in a corner +towards the west, overtopping the town by 100-200 ft., are the +remains of the old citadel, and the two famous Corinthian +columns<a name="fa23e" id="fa23e" href="#ft23e"><span class="sp">23</span></a> known as “the Throne of Nimrūd.” In the hollow +between this height and the town rise two springs which form +ponds, the farther removed of which from the citadel is known +as Birket al-Khalīl, doubtless the Callirrhoe of the classical +writers, and contains the sacred fish, estimated by J.S. Buckingham +at 20,000, and the nearer as ‘Ain Zalkha (<i>i.e.</i> Zuleikha, the +wife of Potiphar). On the north edge of the Birket al-Khalīl +(see plan in Sachau, p. 197) is the great mosque of Abraham, +the interior of which is described by J.S. Buckingham (<i>Travels</i>, +pp. 108-110). Diagonally opposite the mosque is a house with a +square tower, which is locally believed to occupy the place of the +famous ancient school. The waters of the two pools make their +way in a single stream southwards out of the town. The once +dangerous stream Daiṣān (<span class="grk" title="Skirtos">Σκιρτός</span>) no longer flows southwards +through the town, but encircles it on the north and east in the +channel of the old moat. This stream, now called Kara Kuyun, +and the other are exhausted in the irrigation of the gardens +lying south-east of the town, except when fuller than usual, +when they reach the Balīh. Not far east of the sacred pool is +the largest building in the town, the recent Armenian Gregorian +cathedral, whose American bells were first heard during Sachau’s +visit in 1879. About the middle of the town is the largest mosque, +Ulu ’Gamī (parts of it probably pre-Islamic), which probably +occupies the site of the Christian church reckoned by the early +Mahommedan writers as one of the wonders of the world. In +the bazaar, which lies between the chief mosque and the sacred +pool, and contains several streets, are displayed not only the +native woollen stuffs, pottery and silver work, but also a considerable +variety of European goods, especially cloth stuffs. The +principal manufactures are fine cotton stuffs and yellow leather. +The streets are of course narrow and winding; but the houses +are well built of stone. The outskirts are occupied by melon +gardens, vineyards and mulberry plantations. The fertile plain +south of the town is noted for its wheat and fine pasture. The +climate is healthy except in summer; the “Aleppo button” +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagdad</a></span>, vilayet), a painful boil, is common. The rocky +heights south and west of the town, whence the building material +is largely obtained, are full of natural and artificial caverns, once +used as dwellings, cloisters and graves, where are most of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span> +inscriptions published by Sachau, who also visited and describes +(pp. 204-206) the Dēr Ya‘qūb, nearly two hours distant.</p> + +<p>Urfa is the capital of a sanjak of the same name, in the vilāyet +of Aleppo. The population was estimated by Olivier in 1796 +at 20,000 to 24,000, by Buckingham at 50,000, by Chernik in +1873 at 40,000, by Sachau in 1879 at 50,000, in Baedeker’s +Handbook in 1906 at 30,000. Vice-Consul Fitzmaurice said +that before December 1895 it was close on 65,000, of whom about +20,000 were Armenian, 3000 or 4000 Jacobites, Syrian-Catholic, +Greek-Catholic, Maronites and Jews, and the remaining 40,000 +Turkish, Kurdian and Arab Mahommedans. Two barbarous +massacres occurred on the 28th and 29th of October and the +28th and 29th of December 1895; 126 Armenian families were +absolutely wiped out. He believes that 8000 Armenians perished +in the second massacre. The Deutsche Orient-Mission has its +chief seat in Urfa, and there have for years been American and +French missions. The Germans have an orphanage with 300 +Armenian children, a carpet factory and a medical station. The +American school had some years ago 250 pupils.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Inscriptional: H. Pognon, <i>Inscriptions sémitiques +de la Syrie, de la Mésopotamie et de la région de Mossoul</i> (1907, 1908); +Sachau, “Edessenische Inschriften,” in <i>Z.D.M.G.</i> xxxvi. 142-167; +F.C. Burkitt, “The Throne of Nimrod,” in <i>P.S.B.A.</i> xxviii. 149-155 +(1906); J. Rendel Harris, <i>The Cult of the Heavenly Twins</i> (1906); +Nöldeke, “Syrische Inschriften,” in <i>Z.A.</i> xxi. 151-161, 375-388 +(1908). Literary: Ludwig Hallier, <i>Untersuchungen über die Edessenische +Chronik mit dem Syrischen Text</i> (1892); F. Nau, <i>Analyse des +parties inédites de la chronique attribuée à Denys de Tell-maḥré</i> (1898); +J.-B. Chabot, <i>Chronique de Denys de Tell-Maḥré, quatrième partie</i> +(1895); W. Wright, <i>The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite</i> (1882); Bayer, +<i>Historia Osrhoena et Edessena</i> (St Petersburg, 1784), collects the references +in classical authors; for the coinage see references in von Gutschmid +(see below). Discussions: A. von Gutschmid, “Untersuchungen +über die Geschichte des Königreichs Osroëne” (in <i>Mémoires +de l’acad. imper. des sciences de St-Pétersb.</i> vii. sér. tome 35, No. 1, +1887); L.-J. Tixeront, <i>Les Origines de l’église d’Édesse et la légende +d’Abgar</i> (1888); R.A. Lipsius, <i>Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch +untersucht</i> (1880); K.C.A. Matthes, <i>Die Edess. Abgarsage auf ihre +Fortbildung untersucht</i> (1882); F. Nau, <i>Une Biographie inédite de +Bardesane l’astrologue</i> (1897); <i>Bardesane l’astrologue: le livre des +Lois des Pays</i> (1899); A. Hilgenfeld, <i>Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker</i> +(1864); A.A. Bevan, “The Hymn of the Soul” (in <i>Texts and Studies</i>, +1897); F.C. Burkitt, <i>Early Eastern Christianity</i> (1904); J.R. +Harris, <i>The Dioscuri in Christian Legend</i> (1903), and <i>The Cult of the +Heavenly Twins</i> (1906); the histories of Rome, Persia, Crusades, +Mongols, &c.; Rubens Duval, <i>Histoire politique, religieuse et +littéraire d’Édesse jusqu’à la première croisade</i> (1892), a useful compilation +reprinted from the <i>Journ. As.</i>; the excellent article by E. +Meyer in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, 1933-1938. Topography: +J.S. Buckingham, <i>Travels in Mesopotamia</i> (1827); E. +Sachau, <i>Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien</i> (1883), 189-210; cf. Duval, +<i>op. cit.</i> chap, i.; C. Ritter, <i>Erdkunde</i>, xi. 315-356. Map of town in +Niebuhr, <i>Voyage en Arabie</i>, reproduced with modifications in Wright, +<i>Chron. Josh. Styl.</i>; also a map in Reclus, <i>Univ. Geog.</i> ix. 232. Four +pictures of the town in Burkitt, <i>Early East. Christ.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Appian, <i>Syr.</i> 57; cp. Steph. Byz., s.v. <span class="grk" title="Edessa: dia tên tôn +hudatôn rhumên.">Εδεσσα: διὰ τὴν τῶν ὑδάτων ῥύμην.</span></p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Steph. Byz., s.v. <span class="grk" title="Batnai">Βατναι</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Dio, <i>passim.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Isidore Charac. 1 (Müller, <i>Geog. Gr. Min.</i>, i. 246).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Several times in Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>CIL.</i> vi. 1797.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Hist. Osrhoena et Edessena</i>, p. 33.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Written <span class="grk" title="Osroês">Ὀσρόης</span> in Dio Cassius, <i>Excerpta</i>, lxviii. 22.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See the reff. collected by M. Streck, <i>M.V.G.</i>, 1906. The name +occurs in the same company in the fragmentary tablet K. 1904. +The mountain Ru-u-[a], mentioned thrice by Tiglath-pileser IV., +is placed by Billerbeck near Hamadān (<i>Sandschak Suleimania</i>, 82, +86, and map, 1898).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See further Payne Smith, <i>Thesaurus</i> 110 <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> In translating from the Greek; also in Ephraim (Duval, <i>Hist.</i> +22, n. 4) and the Acts of Sharbīl (Cureton, <i>Anc. Syr. Doc.</i> 41).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> On a possible restoration under the name of “Antioch on the +Callirrhoė” see above.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The Edessans used to call their town “the city,” or “the +daughter,” “of the Parthians” (Cureton, <i>Anc. Syr. Doc.</i>, 41 ult., +97 l. 7; 106 l. 12).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> The portion of the Mesopotamian steppe under Osrhoënic +influence was, according to Nöldeke (<i>Zeitsch. Ass.</i> xxi. 153, 1908), +called ‘Arābh in Syriac.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The inscription, which is difficult to read, connects the structure +with Shalmat the queen, daughter of Ma’nu, who cannot be identified +with certainty, and refers to some image(<i>s</i>), which probably excited +the pious vandalism of the Arabs.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Nebo and Bel (<i>Doctr. Addai</i>, 31) may come from the Old Testament +(Burkitt).</p> + +<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>S.B.A.W.</i>, 1904, 910 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> So, <i>e.g.</i> F.C. Burkitt, <i>Early Eastern Christianity</i>, 72.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19e" id="ft19e" href="#fa19e"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Marquart, <i>Ostasiat. und osteurop. Streitzüge</i>, 292 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20e" id="ft20e" href="#fa20e"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Marquart, <i>op. cit.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft21e" id="ft21e" href="#fa21e"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Some one found time, however, to produce the oldest <i>dated</i> MS. +of a portion of the Bible in any language.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22e" id="ft22e" href="#fa22e"><span class="fn">22</span></a> The counts were: Baldwin I. (1098), Baldwin II. (1100), +Joscelin I. (1119), Joscelin II. (1131-1147).</p> + +<p><a name="ft23e" id="ft23e" href="#fa23e"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Pictures in Burkitt, <i>Early East. Christ.</i>, frontispiece; <i>P.S.B.A.</i> +xxviii. 151 f.; J.R. Harris, <i>The Heavenly Twins</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDFU,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> in Coptic <i>Atbō</i>, a town of Upper Egypt, 484 m. S.S.E. +of Cairo by rail, on the W. bank of the Nile, the railway station +being on the opposite side of the river. Pop. (1907) 19,262. +The inhabitants manufacture earthenware, which finds ready +sale all through Egypt. The ancient Atbō (<i>Apollinopolis Magna</i>) +was capital of the second nome of Upper Egypt. The great +sandstone temple is practically complete (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>: +<i>Egypt</i>). It was built on the site of an earlier structure entirely +in the time of the Ptolemies. The central part of the building, +begun by Ptolemy III. Euergetes in 237 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was finished by +his successor in 212; the portico, court, pylons and surrounding +wall were added by Ptolemy Euergetes II., Soter II. and +Alexander I.; but the decoration was not finished till 57 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +in the reign of Ptolemy XIII. Neos Dionysus. The god of Atbō +was a form of Horus (Apollo) as the sun-god; his most characteristic +representation is as the disk of the sun with outspread +wings, so often seen over the doors of shrines, at the top of +stelae, &c. In the temple, where he is often figured as a falcon-headed +man, he is associated with Hathor of Dendera and the +child Harsemteus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Baedeker’s <i>Egypt</i>; Ed. Naville, <i>Textes relatifs au mythe d’Horus +recueillis dans le temple d’Edfou</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDGAR<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Eadgar</span>), king of the English (944-975), was the +younger son of Edmund the Magnificent and Ælfgifu. As early +as 955 he signed a charter of his uncle Eadred, and in 957 the +Mercian nobles, discontented with the rule of his elder brother +Eadwig, made him king of England north of the Thames. On +the death of his brother in October 959 Edgar became king of +a united England. Immediately on his accession to the throne +of Mercia Edgar recalled St Dunstan from exile and bestowed +on him first the bishopric of Worcester, and then that of +London. In 961 Dunstan was translated to Canterbury, and +throughout Edgar’s reign he was his chief adviser, and to +him must be attributed much of the peace and prosperity of +this time.</p> + +<p>The reign of Edgar was somewhat uneventful, but two things +stand out clearly: his ecclesiastical policy and his imperial +position in Britain. Edgar and Dunstan were alike determined +to reform the great monastic houses, and to secure that they +should be restored once more to their true owners and not remain +in the hands of the secular priests or <i>canonici</i>, whose life and +discipline alike seem to have been extremely lax. In this reform +Edgar was helped not only by St Dunstan but also by Oswald +of Worcester and Æthelwold of Winchester. The priests of the +old and new monasteries at Winchester, at Chertsey and at +Milton Abbas were replaced by monks, and in monastic discipline +the old rule of St Benedict was restored in all its strictness.</p> + +<p>The coronation of Edgar was, for some unexplained reason, +delayed till the Whitsunday of 973. It took place with much +ceremony at Bath, and was followed shortly after by a general +submission to Edgar at Chester. Six, or (according to later +chroniclers) eight kings, including the kings of Scotland and +Strathclyde, plighted their faith that they would be the king’s +fellow-workers on sea and land. The historical truth of this +story has been much questioned; there seems to be little doubt +that it is true in its main outlines, though we need not accept +the details about Edgar’s having been rowed on the Dee by +eight kings.</p> + +<p>Two isolated and unexplained incidents are also recorded in +the chronicle: first, the ravaging of Westmorland by the +Scandinavian Thored, son of Gunnere, in 967; and second, the +ravaging of Thanet by Edgar’s own command in 970.</p> + +<p>Edgar’s death took place in the year 975, and he was buried at +Glastonbury. By his vigorous rule and his statesmanlike policy +Edgar won the approval of his people, and in the Saxon chronicle +we have poems commemorating his coronation and death, and +describing his general character. The only fault ascribed to him +is a too great love for foreigners and for foreign customs. Edgar +strengthened the hands of the provincial administration, and to +him has been attributed the reorganization of the English fleet. +The characteristic feature of his rule was his love of peace, and +by efficient administration he secured it.</p> + +<p>Edgar formed an irregular union in 961 with Wulfthryth, an +inmate of the convent at Wilton, who bore him a daughter +Eadgyth. He next married Æthelflæd, “the white duck,” +daughter of Earl Ordmær, who bore him a son, afterwards +known as Edward the Martyr. Finally he was united to +Ælfthryth, daughter of Earl Ordgar, who became the mother +of the Ætheling Edmund (d. 971) and of Æthelred the +Unready.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Plummer and Earle, Oxford), +<i>sub. ann.</i>; <i>Vita Sancti Oswaldi</i> (<i>Historians of the Church of York</i>, ed. +Raine, Rolls Series); William of Malmesbury, <i>Gesta regum</i> (ed. +Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, vol. iii. Nos. +1047-1319; F. Liebermann, <i>A.-S. Laws</i>, i. 192-216; “Florence of +Worcester” (<i>Mon. Hist. Brit.</i>); E.W. Robertson, <i>Historical Essays</i>, +pp. 189-215.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDGAR,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Eadgar</span> (<i>c.</i> 1050-<i>c.</i> 1130), called the Ætheling, +was the son of Edward, a son of the English king Edmund +Ironside, by his wife Agatha, a kinswoman of the emperor +Henry II., and was born probably in Hungary some time before +1057, the year of his father’s death. After the death of Harold +in 1066, Archbishop Aldred and the citizens of London desired +to make him king, but on the advance of William, Edgar and +his supporters made their submission. In 1068, after the failure +of the first rising of the north, Edgar retired to Scotland, when +his sister Margaret married the Scottish king, Malcolm Canmore. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span> +Next year he returned to take part in the second rising, but, +this proving no more successful than the first, he again took +refuge in Scotland. In 1074 he went to Normandy and made +peace with William. In the struggle between Henry I. and +Robert of Normandy, Edgar sided with the latter. He was +taken prisoner at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106, but was +subsequently released. The date of his death is uncertain, but +he was certainly alive about 1125.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDGECUMBE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Edgecombe</span>, the name of a celebrated west +of England family, taken from the manor of Edgecumbe in +Cornwall. One of its earlier members was Sir Richard Edgecumbe +(d. 1489), who was descended from a Richard Edgecumbe who +flourished during the reign of Edward I. Richard was a member +of parliament in 1467; afterwards he joined Henry, earl of Richmond, +in Brittany, returned with the earl to England, and fought +at Bosworth, where he was knighted. He received rich rewards +from Henry, now King Henry VII., who also sent him on errands +to Scotland, to Ireland and to Brittany, and he died at Morlaix +on the 8th of September 1489. His son and successor, Sir Piers +Edgecumbe, went to France with Henry VIII. in 1513, and when +he died on the 14th of August 1539 he left with other issue a son, +Sir Richard Edgecumbe (1499-1562), a cultured and hospitable +man, who is celebrated through Richard Carew’s <i>Friendly +Remembrance of Sir Richard Edgecumbe</i>. Sir Richard’s eldest +son, Piers or Peter Edgecumbe (1536-1607), was a member of +parliament under Elizabeth for about thirty years.</p> + +<p>Another famous member of this family was Richard, 1st baron +Edgecumbe (1680-1758), a son of Sir Richard Edgecumbe. +Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was successively +member of parliament for St Germans, Plympton and Lostwithiel +from 1701 to 1742; on two occasions he served as a lord of the +treasury; and from 1724 to 1742 he was paymaster-general for +Ireland, becoming chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1743. +Edgecumbe was a faithful follower of Sir Robert Walpole, in +whose interests he managed the elections for the Cornish +boroughs, and his elevation to the peerage, which took place in +1742, was designed to prevent him from giving evidence about +Walpole’s expenditure of the secret service money. He died on +the 22nd of November 1758. His son and successor, Richard, +the 2nd baron (1716-1761), was comptroller of the royal household, +a member of parliament, and a major-general in the army. +A wit, a writer of verse, a gambler and an intimate friend of +Horace Walpole, “Dick Edgecumbe” died unmarried on the +10th of May 1761.</p> + +<p>Edgecumbe’s brother, George, 1st earl of Mount Edgecumbe +(1721-1795), was a naval officer who saw a great deal of service +during the Seven Years’ War. Succeeding to the barony on the +1st baron’s death in 1761 he became an admiral and treasurer +of the royal household; he was created Viscount Mount-Edgecumbe +in 1781 and earl of Mount-Edgecumbe in 1789. He died +on the 4th of February 1795, his only son being his successor, +Richard, the 2nd earl (1764-1839), the ancestor of the present +earl and the author of <i>Musical Reminiscences of an Old Amateur</i>. +He died on the 26th of September 1839. His son, Ernest +Augustus, the 3rd earl (1797-1861), wrote <i>Extracts from Journals +kept during the Revolutions at Rome and Palermo</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDGE HILL,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> an elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England, +near the border of Oxfordshire. The north-western face is an +abrupt escarpment of the lias, and the summit of the ridge is +almost level for nearly 2 m., at a height somewhat exceeding +700 ft. The escarpment overlooks a rich lowland watered by +streams tributary to the Avon; the gentle eastern slope sends +its waters to the Cherwell, and the ridge thus forms part of the +divide between the basins of the Severn and the Thames. Edge +Hill gave name to the first battle of the Great Rebellion (<i>q.v.</i>), +fought on the 23rd of October 1642. Charles I., marching on +London from the north-west, was here met by the parliamentary +forces under Robert Devereux, earl of Essex. The royalists +were posted on the hill while the enemy was in the plain before +Kineton. But the rash advice of Prince Rupert determined the +king to give up the advantage of position; he descended to the +attack, and though Rupert himself was successful against the +opposing cavalry, he was checked by the arrival of a regiment +with artillery under Hampden, and, in the meantime, the +royalist infantry was driven back. The parliamentarians, +however, lost the more heavily, and though both sides claimed +the advantage, the king was able to advance and occupy +Banbury.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDGEWORTH, MARIA<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1767-1849), Irish novelist, second +child and eldest daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (<i>q.v.</i>) +and his first wife, Anna Maria Elers, was born in the house of +her maternal grandparents at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire, on +the 1st of January 1767. Her early efforts in fiction were of a +sufficiently melodramatic character; for she recollected one of +her schoolgirl compositions, in which the hero wore a mask made +of the dried skin taken from a dead man’s face. Her holidays +were often spent in the house of the eccentric Thomas Day, for +whom she entertained a genuine respect. She had ample +opportunities for society among her father’s neighbours in +Ireland, among whom were the second Lord Longford, whose +daughter, “Kitty” Pakenham, became later duchess of +Wellington, Lady Moira at Castle Forbes, and Maria’s aunt, +Margaret Ruxton, at Black Castle. She gained a first-hand +experience of the Irish peasantry by acting as her father’s +assistant in the management of the estate. The Edgeworths +were in Ireland from 1793 onwards through that dangerous +period, and Maria’s letters, always gay and natural, make very +light of their anxieties and their real perils.</p> + +<p>Mr Edgeworth encouraged his daughter’s literary instincts. +It has been the fashion to regard his influence over Maria’s +work as altogether deplorable, but against the disadvantages +arising from his interference must be weighed the stimulus she +undoubtedly derived from his powerful mind. Her first publication +was a plea for female education, <i>Letters to Literary Ladies</i> +(1795), and in 1796 appeared the collection of stories known as +<i>The Parent’s Assistant</i> (2nd ed., 6 vols., 1800), an unpromising +title which was not chosen by the author. The stories had been +submitted as they were written to the juvenile critics of the +Edgeworth nursery. They were therefore children’s stories +for children, even though the morals were Mr Edgeworth’s. +In 1798 Mr Edgeworth’s fourth marriage threatened the family +harmony, but Maria soon became a close friend of her stepmother. +<i>Practical Education</i> (2 vols., 1798) was written in conjunction +with her father, who also collaborated with her in the +<i>Essay on Irish Bulls</i> (1802). Miss Edgeworth’s first novel, +<i>Castle Rackrent, an Hibernian Tale taken from Facts, and from +the Manners of the Irish Squires before the year 1782</i>, was written +without her father’s supervision, and appeared anonymously +in 1800. It is the story of an Irish estate and its owners, the +Rackrents, as told by Thady, the steward. Its success was +immediate, and a second edition soon appeared with the author’s +name. Perhaps because of the absence of Richard Lovell +Edgeworth’s co-operation, the book is the most natural and +vigorous of her novels. The course of the story is not altered +to suit any moral, and the personages appear to be drawn +immediately from the natives of Edgeworthstown, though +Miss Edgeworth asserts that only Thady himself was an actual +portrait. In her realistic pictures of Irish peasant life she +opened up a new vein in fiction, and even if the unquestionable +excellences of <i>Castle Rackrent</i> were less, it would still be a noteworthy +book. In the “General Preface” to the 1829 edition of +his novels Sir Walter Scott, writing of the publication of <i>Waverley</i>, +says: “I felt that something might be attempted for my own +country, of the same kind with that which Miss Edgeworth so +fortunately achieved for Ireland,” and in the “Postscript, +which should have been a preface,” in the original edition of +<i>Waverley</i>, he describes his aim as being “in some distant degree to +emulate the admirable Irish portraits of Miss Edgeworth, so +different from the ‘Teagues’ and ‘dear joys’ who so long, +with the most perfect family resemblance to each other, occupied +the drama and the novel.” <i>Belinda</i> (1801) is a society novel, +and one of her best books. Mr Saintsbury thinks that Miss +Austen’s heroines owe something of their naturalness to Belinda, +who was one of the earliest to break with the tradition of fainting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span> +and blushing. <i>Moral Tales for Young People</i> (5 vols.) and +<i>Early Lessons</i>, which included “Harry and Lucy,” “Rosamond” +and “Frank,” appeared in 1801.</p> + +<p>In 1802 the Edgeworths went abroad, first to Brussels and +then to Paris. They had already connexions in Paris through +their kinsman, the abbé Henri Allen Edgeworth de Firmont, +who was, however, then in exile. They met all the notabilities +in Paris, and Maria refused an offer of marriage from a Swedish +count named Edelcrantz. Although <i>Leonora</i>, not published +until four years later, is said to have been written to meet his +taste, she apparently remained then and always heart-whole; but +her stepmother thought otherwise, and maintained that she +suffered severely for her decision (<i>Memoir</i>, i. 144). Returning +to Edgeworthstown, Miss Edgeworth resumed her writing, +which was always done in the rooms commonly used by the whole +family. <i>Popular Tales</i> was published in 1804, and <i>The Modern +Griselda</i> in the same year; <i>Leonora</i> in 1806; and in 1809 the +first series of <i>Tales of Fashionable Life</i>, three volumes containing +“Ennui,” “Madame de Fleury,” “Almeria,” “The Dun” and +“Manœuvring”; the second series (3 vols., 1812) included +“The Absentee,” one of her best tales, which was originally +designed as a play, “Vivian” and “Émilie de Coulanges.” +In 1813 Maria and her parents spent a considerable time in +London, and her society was much sought after. When <i>Waverley</i> +was published, Miss Edgeworth received a copy from the publishers, +and at once recognized the authorship. She wrote a +long letter of appreciation (23rd of October 1814) to “the author +of <i>Waverley</i>,” which she began with the phrase <i>aut Scotus, aut +diabolus</i>, but the letter was merely acknowledged by the publishers. +<i>Patronage</i> (4 vols., 1814), the longest of her novels, +and <i>Harrington, a tale</i>, and <i>Ormond, a tale</i> (3 vols., 1817) complete +the list of the works which received what her father called his +<i>imprimatur</i>.</p> + +<p>After his death in 1817 Miss Edgeworth occupied herself with +completing his <i>Memoirs</i>, which were published in 1820. The +book was the excuse for an attack on Mr Edgeworth’s reputation +in the July number of the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, which Miss Edgeworth +had the courage to leave unread. Her life at Edgeworthstown +was varied by visits to London, to Lord Lansdowne at +Bowood, Wiltshire, to the Misses Sneyd in Staffordshire, and to +many other friends. In 1820 she was again in Paris, and in 1823 +she spent a happy fortnight with the Scotts at Abbotsford. +In 1825 Scott went to Edgeworthstown, and their relations were +always cordial.</p> + +<p>Miss Edgeworth’s production was less after her father’s +death. Sequels to “Rosamond,” “Frank,” “Harry and Lucy” +in the <i>Early Lessons</i> were published in 1822-1825. <i>Comic +Dramas</i> appeared in 1817, and <i>Helen</i> in 1834. She worked to +the last, and in 1846 laboured strenuously for the relief of the +famine-stricken Irish peasants. She died on the 22nd of May +1849.</p> + +<p>Miss Edgeworth’s novels are distinguished by good sense, +humour and an easy flowing style. As the construction of a +plot is not her strong point, she is generally more successful +in tales than in lengthy novels. The vivacity of her dialogues +is extraordinary; and in them her characters reveal themselves +in the most natural way possible. Her books are character-studies +rather than intensely interesting narratives. Sobriety +of judgment is seen throughout; and passion, romance and +poetry rarely, if ever, shed their lustre on her pages. Three +of her aims were to paint national manners, to enforce morality, +and to teach fashionable society by satirizing the lives of the +idle and worldly. She expressly calls some of her stories “Moral +Tales”; but they all fall under this category. In her pages +the heroic virtues give place to prudence, industry, kindness +and sweetness of temper. There are few instances of overwhelming +emotions or tumultuous passions in her works; and +it is remarkable how little the love of nature appears. She never +uses material which does not yield some direct moral lesson. +But the freshness of her stories, her insight into character, +lively dialogues, originality of invention, and delightfully clear +style render it quite possible to read her works in succession +without any sense of weariness. Among the many sweet +memories her unsullied pages have bequeathed to the world, +not the least precious is her own noble character, which ever +responded to all that is best and most enduring in human nature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A Memoir of Maria Edgeworth, with a Selection from her Letters</i> +(1867), by her stepmother, F.A. Edgeworth, privately printed. A +selection from this was made by Augustus J.C. Hare, and printed +under the title of <i>The Life and Letters of Maria Edgeworth</i> (2 vols., +1894). See also <i>Maria Edgeworth</i> (1883), by Helen Zimmern, in the +“Eminent Women” series; Grace A. Oliver, <i>A Study of Maria +Edgeworth</i> ... (3rd ed., Boston, U.S.A., 1882); and <i>Maria Edgeworth</i> +(1904), by the Hon. Emily Lawless in the “English Men of +Letters” series. Among the numerous shorter articles dealing with +Maria Edgeworth and the family circle at Edgeworthstown may be +mentioned a friendly appreciation of Miss Edgeworth’s novels by +George Saintsbury in <i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i> (July 1895), and a +charming description of her family circle and surroundings in the +preface supplied by Lady Thackeray Ritchie to Macmillan’s edition +of the novels (1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1744-1817), British +writer, was born at Bath on the 31st of May 1744. The greater +part of his life, however, was spent at Edgeworthtown, or +Edgeworthstown, in the county of Longford, Ireland, where the +Edgeworth family had been settled for upwards of 150 years. +He was of gentle blood—his father being the son of Colonel +Francis Edgeworth, and his mother, Jane Lovell, being the +daughter of Samuel Lovell, a Welsh judge. Richard’s mother +taught him to read at a very early age; and from childhood he +had a strong love for mechanical science. The Rev. Patrick +Hughes initiated him in Lilye’s <i>Latin Grammar</i>—an office he +also performed for Goldsmith, who was born on the property +of the Edgeworths—and his public education began, in August +1752, in a school at Warwick. He subsequently attended +Drogheda school, then reputed the best in Ireland; and, after +spending two years at a school in Longford, entered Trinity +College, Dublin, in April 1761, but was transferred to Corpus +Christi College, Oxford, in October of the same year. While +still at college, he made a runaway match, marrying at Gretna +Green, Anna Maria, one of the daughters of Paul Elers of Black +Bourton, Oxfordshire, an old friend of his father. His eldest +son was born before Edgeworth reached his twentieth birthday, +and his daughter Maria in 1767.</p> + +<p>Shortly after the birth of his son, he and his wife went to +Edgeworthstown, but in 1765 they took a house at Hare Hatch, +near Maidenhead. Edgeworth devoted much time to scientific +reading and experiments; and he made an attempt to establish +telegraphic communication (<i>Memoirs</i>, 2nd edition, i. 144). He +also invented a turnip-cutter, a one-wheeled chaise and other +contrivances. In the pursuit of his mechanical inventions he +visited Erasmus Darwin at Lichfield, where he met Anna Seward, +and her cousin, Honora Sneyd. His home was now at Hare +Hatch, in Berkshire, where he endeavoured to educate his son +according to the method explained in Rousseau’s <i>Émile</i>. In +later life, however, the ill-success of this experiment led him to +doubt many of Rousseau’s views (<i>Memoirs</i>, ii. 374). At the +same time he kept terms at the Temple, and formed the greatest +friendship of his life with Thomas Day, the author of <i>Sandford +and Merton</i>, which was written at Edgeworth’s suggestion. In +1769, on the death of his father, he gave up the idea of being a +barrister; but, instead of immediately settling on his Irish +estate, he spent a considerable time in England and France, +mainly in Day’s company. In Lyons, where he resided for about +two years, he took an active part in the management of public +works intended to turn the course of the Rhone. He was +summoned to England by the death of his wife (March 1773), +with whom he was far from happy. Edgeworth hurried to +Lichfield, to Dr Erasmus Darwin’s, and at once declared his +passion for Honora Sneyd, which had been the cause of his flight +to France two years before. Miss Sneyd had been the object +of attention from Thomas Day, but her views on marriage were +not submissive enough to please him. She had other suitors, +among them the unfortunate Major André. She married +Edgeworth (July 1773), and after residing at Edgeworthstown +for three years, they settled at Northchurch, in Hertfordshire. +After six years of domestic happiness, Honora Edgeworth died +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span> +(April 1780), recommending her husband to marry her sister +Elizabeth; and they were actually married on Christmas Day, +1780.</p> + +<p>In 1782 Edgeworth returned to Ireland, determined to improve +his estate, educate his seven children, and ameliorate the +condition of the tenants. Up to this point Edgeworth has told +his own story in his <i>Memoirs</i>. The rest of his life is written by +his daughter, who opens with a lengthy panegyric on her father +as a model landlord (<i>Memoirs</i>, ii. 12-36). In 1785 he was +associated with others in founding the Royal Irish Academy; +and, during the two succeeding years, mechanics and agriculture +occupied most of his time. In October 1789 his friend Day was +killed by a fall from his horse, and this trial was soon followed +by the loss of his daughter Honora, who had just reached her +fifteenth year. In 1792 the health of one of Edgeworth’s sons +took him to Clifton, where he remained with his family for about +two years, returning in 1794 to Edgeworthstown. Ireland was, +at that time, harassed by internal disturbances, and threats of a +French invasion, and Edgeworth offered to establish telegraphic +communication of his own invention throughout the country. +This offer was declined. A full account of the matter is given in +Edgeworth’s <i>Letter to Lord Charlemont on the Telegraph</i>; and his +apparatus is explained in an “Essay on the art of Conveying +Swift and Secret Intelligence,” published in the sixth volume +of the <i>Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy</i>. In the autumn +of 1797 the third Mrs Edgeworth died.</p> + +<p><i>Practical Education</i> (1798) was written in collaboration with +his daughter Maria, and embodied the experience of the authors +in dealing with children. “So commenced,” says Miss Edgeworth, +“that literary partnership which, for so many years, was +the pride and joy of my life” (<i>Memoirs</i>, ii. 170). This book, +generally regarded as old-fashioned, has a real value in the history +of education. Mr Edgeworth’s interest in the subject had been +inspired by the study of Rousseau and by his friendship with +Thomas Day. But he went beyond Rousseau, who developed +his theories from his own ingenious mind and related an imaginary +process. The Edgeworths brought a scientific method to their +work. The second Mrs Edgeworth (Honora Sneyd) began the +collection of actual examples of conversations between the +children and their elders. This was continued patiently by the +writers of the book; and their reasonings were thus founded +on an accurate record of childish methods of thought. They +deprecated especially any measures that interrupted the child’s +own chain of reasoning. The chapters on special subjects of +study, chronology, geometry, &c., were written by Richard +Lovell Edgeworth; those on toys, on rewards and punishments, +on temper, &c., by his daughter.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1798 Edgeworth married Miss Beaufort, and was elected +M.P. for the borough of St John’s Town, Longford. The same +year, too, saw a hostile landing of the French and a formidable +rebellion; and for a short time the Edgeworths took refuge in +Longford. The winter of 1802 they spent in Paris. In 1804 +the government accepted his telegraphic apparatus, but the +installation was left incomplete when the fear of invasion was +past. In 1802 appeared the <i>Essay on Irish Bulls</i> by Mr and Miss +Edgeworth; and in 1806 Edgeworth was elected a member of +the board of commissioners to inquire into Irish education. From +1807 till 1809 much of his time was spent on mechanical experiments +and in writing the story of his life. In 1808 appeared +<i>Professional Education</i>, and in 1813 his <i>Essay on the Construction +of Roads and Carriages</i>. He died on the 13th of June 1817, +and was buried in the family vault in Edgeworthstown churchyard.</p> + +<p>Many of Edgeworth’s works were suggested by his zeal for the +education of his own children. Such were <i>Poetry Explained for +Young People</i> (1802), <i>Readings in Poetry</i> (1816), <i>A Rational +Primer</i> (unpublished), and the parts of <i>Early Lessons</i> contributed +by him. His speeches in the Irish parliament have also been +published; and numerous essays, mostly on scientific subjects, +have appeared in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, the <i>Transactions +of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, the <i>Monthly Magazine</i> and <i>Nicholson’s +Journal</i>. The story of his early life, told by himself, is fully as +entertaining as the continuation by Maria, as it contains less +dissertation and more incident. One of his daughters by his +first marriage, Anna Maria, married Dr Beddoes and became +the mother of T.L. Beddoes, the poet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Esq.</i>, begun by himself +and concluded by his daughter, Maria Edgeworth (2 vols., 1820, +3rd and revised ed. 1844). A selection from this, giving an optimistic +view of him, <i>Richard Lovell Edgeworth</i> (1896), was edited by +Mrs Lionel Tollemache.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For an appreciation of the two Edgeworths from the teacher’s +point of view, see Prof. L.C. Miall in the <i>Journal of Education</i> +(August 1, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY ESSEX<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1745-1807), +last confessor to Louis XVI., was the son of Robert Edgeworth, +rector of Edgeworthstown in Ireland, his mother being a granddaughter +of Archbishop Ussher. When he was three years old +his father became a Roman Catholic, resigned his living and +emigrated to Toulouse, where the boy was brought up by the +Jesuits. In 1769, after his father’s death, he went to Paris to be +trained for the priesthood. On taking orders he assumed the +additional surname of de Firmont, from the family estate of +Firmount near Edgeworthstown. Though originally studying +with a view to becoming a missionary, he decided to remain +in Paris, devoting himself especially to the Irish and English +Roman Catholics. In 1791 he became confessor to the princess +Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., and earned the respect even of the +<i>sans-culottes</i> by his courage and devotion. By Madame Elizabeth +he was recommended to the king when his trial was impending; +and after Louis’ condemnation to death he was able to obtain +permission to celebrate mass for him and attend him on the +scaffold, where he recommended the king to allow his hands +to be tied, with the words: “Sire, in this new outrage I see only +the last trait of resemblance between your Majesty and the God +who will be your reward.” It is said that at the moment of the +execution, the confessor uttered the celebrated words: “Son +of St Louis, ascend to heaven.” But it is certain that the +phrase was never spoken. The abbé himself does not quote it, +either in his memoirs or in a letter written in 1796 to his brother, +in which he describes the death of the king. Moreover, +Edgeworth declared to several persons who asked him about +it, that the words were not his. In spite of the danger +he now ran, Edgeworth refused to leave France so long as he +could be of any service to Madame Elizabeth, with whom he +still managed to correspond. At length, in 1795, his mother +having meanwhile died in prison, where his sister was also +confined, he succeeded in escaping to England, carrying with him +Elizabeth’s last message to her brother, the future King Charles X. +whom he found in Edinburgh. He afterwards went with some +papers to Monsieur (Louis XVIII.) at Blankenburg in Brunswick, +by whom he was induced to accompany him to Mittau, where, +on the 22nd of May 1807, he died of a fever contracted while +attending some French prisoners.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Edgeworth’s <i>Memories</i>, edited by C.S. Edgeworth, were first +published in English (London, 1815), and a French translation (really +the letters and some miscellaneous notes, &c.) was published in +Paris in 1816. A translation of the <i>Lettres de l’abbé Edgeworth avec des +mémoires sur sa vie</i> was published by Madame Elizabeth de Bow in +Paris in 1818, and <i>Letters from the Abbé Edgeworth to his Friends, with +Memoirs of his Life</i>, edited by T.B. England, in London in 1818. +See J.B.A. Hanet-Cléry, <i>Journal de ce qui s’est passé, &c.</i> (Paris, +1825); A.H. du D. de Beauchesne, <i>Vie de Madame Elisabeth</i> (Paris, +1869); J.C.D. de Lacretelle, <i>Précis historique de la Révolution +française</i> (Paris, 1801-1806).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDGREN-LEFFLER, ANNE CHARLOTTE,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> duchess of +Cajanello (1849-1892), Swedish author, daughter of the mathematician +Prof. C.O. Leffler, was born on the 1st of October 1849. +Her first volume of stories appeared in 1869, but the first to which +she attached her name was <i>Ur Lifvet</i> (“From Life,” 1882), a +series of realistic sketches of the upper circles of Swedish society, +followed by three other collections with the same title. Her +earliest plays, <i>Skådespelerskan</i> (“The Actress,” 1873), and its +successors, were produced anonymously in Stockholm, but in +1883 her reputation was established by the success of <i>Sanna +Kvinnor</i> (“True Women”), and <i>En Räddande engel</i> (“An Angel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span> +of Deliverance”). <i>Sanna Kvinnor</i> is directed against false +femininity, and was well received in Germany as well as in +Sweden. Anne Leffler had married in 1872 G. Edgren, but about +1884 she was separated from her husband, who did not share her +advanced views. She spent some time in England, and in 1885 +produced her <i>Hur man gör godt</i> (“How men do good”), followed +in 1888 by <i>Kampen för lyckan</i> (“The Struggle for Happiness”), +in which she had the help of Sophie Kovalevsky. Another +volume of the <i>Ur Lisvet</i> series appeared in 1889; and <i>Familjelycka</i> +(“Domestic Happiness,” 1891) was produced in the year +after her second marriage, with the Italian mathematician, +Pasquale del Pezzo, duca di Cajanello. She died at Naples on +the 21st of October 1892. Her dramatic method forms a connecting +link between Ibsen and Strindberg, and its masculine +directness, freedom from prejudice, and frankness gave her work +a high estimation in Sweden. Her last book was a biography +(1892) of her friend Sophie (Sonya) Kovalevsky, by way of +introduction to Sonya’s autobiography. An English translation +(1895) by A. de Furnhjelm and A.M. Clive Bayley contains a +biographical note on Fru Edgren-Leffler by Lily Wolffsohn, +based on private sources.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Ellen Key, <i>Anne Charlotte Leffler</i> (Stockholm, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDHEM PASHA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1815-1893), Turkish statesman, was of +Greek origin, and is said to have been taken into a Turkish +household at the time of the Chio massacre in 1822, and to have +been brought up as a Mussulman. He entered the Turkish +government service and rose to high office, being successively +minister of public works, grand vizier for eleven months (1878), +ambassador at Vienna (1879) and minister of the interior. He +was quick-tempered, but of kindly disposition, intelligent and +patriotic, and he left a reputation of unblemished honesty and +uprightness.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDICT<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Lat. <i>edictum</i>, from <i>e</i>, out, and <i>dicere</i>, to say, speak), +an order or proclamation issued under authority and having the +force of law. The word is especially used of the promulgations +of the Roman praetor (<i>q.v.</i>), of the Roman emperors, and also +of the kings of France (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDINBURGH,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a city and royal burgh, and county of itself, +the capital of Scotland, and county town of Edinburghshire or +Midlothian, situated to the south of the Firth of Forth, 396 m. +by rail N. of London. The old Royal Observatory on Calton +Hill stands in 55° 57′ 23″ N. and 12° 43′ 05″ W. Edinburgh +occupies a group of hills of moderate height and the valleys +between. In the centre is a bold rock, crowned by the castle, +between which and the new town lies a ravine that once contained +the Nor’ Loch, but is now covered with the gardens of Princes +Street. To the east rises Calton Hill (355 ft.) with several conspicuous +monuments, the city prison and the Calton cemetery. +On the south-east, beyond the Canongate limits, stands the hill +of Arthur’s Seat (822 ft.). Towards the north the site of the +city slopes gently to the Firth of Forth and the port of Leith; +while to the south, Liberton Hill, Blackford Hill, Braid Hills +and Craiglockhart Hills roughly mark the city bounds, as +Corstorphine Hill and the Water of Leith do the western limits. +The views of the city and environs from the castle or any of +the hills are very beautiful, and it is undoubtedly one of the most +picturesque capitals in the world. Its situation, general plan +and literary associations suggested a comparison that gave +Edinburgh the name of “the modern Athens”; but it has a +homelier nickname of “Auld Reekie,” from the cloud of smoke +(reek) which often hangs over the low-lying quarters.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Buildings.</i>—Of the castle, the oldest building is St +Margaret’s chapel, believed to be the chapel where Queen +Margaret, wife of Malcolm Canmore, worshipped, and belonging +at latest to the reign of her youngest son, David I. (1124-1153). +Near it is the parliament and banqueting hall, restored (1889-1892) +by the generosity of William Nelson (1817-1887) the +publisher, which contains a fine collection of Scottish armour, +weapons and regimental colours, while, emblazoned on the +windows, are the heraldic bearings of royal and other figures +distinguished in national history. Other buildings in the +Palace Yard include the apartments occupied by the regent, +Mary of Guise, and her daughter Mary, queen of Scots, and the +room in which James VI. was born. Here also are deposited +the Scottish regalia (“The Honours of Scotland”), with the +sword of state presented to James IV. by Pope Julius II., and +the jewels restored to Scotland on the death (1807) of Cardinal +York, the last of the Stuarts. The arsenal, a modern building +on the west side of the rock, is capable of storing 30,000 stand +of arms. In the armoury is a collection of arms of various dates; +and on the Argyll battery stands a huge piece of ancient artillery, +called Mons Meg, of which repeated mention is made in Scottish +history. Argyll Tower, in which Archibald, 9th earl of Argyll, +spent his last days (1685), was also restored in 1892 by Mr +William Nelson.</p> + +<p>Holyrood Palace was originally an abbey of canons regular +of the rule of St Augustine, founded by David I. in 1128, and +the ruined nave of the abbey church still shows parts of the +original structure. Connected with this is a part of the royal +palace erected by James IV. and James V., including the apartments +occupied by Queen Mary, the scene of the murder of +Rizzio in 1566. The abbey suffered repeatedly in invasions. +It was sacked and burnt by the English under the earl of Hertford +in 1544, and again in 1547. In a map of 1544, preserved among +the Cotton MSS. in the British Museum, the present north-west +tower of the palace is shown standing apart, and only joined +to the abbey by a low cloister. Beyond this is an irregular group +of buildings, which were replaced at a later date by additions +more in accordance with a royal residence. But the whole of this +latter structure was destroyed by fire in 1650 while in occupation +by the soldiers of Cromwell; and the more modern parts were +begun during the Protectorate, and completed in the reign of +Charles II. by Robert Milne, after the designs of Sir William +Bruce of Kinross. They include the picture gallery, 150 ft. in +length, with 106 mythical portraits of Scottish kings, and a +triptych (<i>c.</i> 1484) containing portraits of James III. and his +queen, which is believed to have formed the altar-piece of the +collegiate church of the Holy Trinity, founded by the widowed +queen of James II. in 1462, demolished in 1848, and afterwards +rebuilt, stone for stone, in Jeffrey Street. The picture gallery is +associated with the festive scenes that occurred during the +short residence of Prince Charles in 1745; and in it the election +of representative peers for Scotland takes place. Escaping +from France at the revolution of 1789, the comte d’Artois, +afterwards Charles X. of France, had apartments granted for +the use of himself and the emigrant nobles of his suite, who +continued to reside in the palace till August 1799. When driven +from the French throne by the revolution of 1830, Charles once +more found a home in the ancient palace of the Stuarts. George +IV. was received there in 1822, and Queen Victoria and the prince +consort occupied the palace for brief periods on several occasions, +and in 1903 Edward VII., during residence at Dalkeith Palace, +held his court within its walls. A fountain, after the original +design of that in the quadrangle of Linlithgow Palace, was +erected in front of the entrance by the prince consort. The royal +vault in the Chapel Royal, which had fallen into a dilapidated +condition, has been put in order; Clockmill House and grounds +have been added to the area of the parade ground, and the +abbey precincts generally and the approaches to the King’s +Park have been improved. With the abolition of imprisonment +for debt in 1881 the privileges of sanctuary came to +an end.</p> + +<p>Parliament House, begun in 1632 and completed in 1640, +in which the later assemblies of the Scottish estates took place +until the dissolution of the parliament by the Act of Union of +1707, has since been set apart as the meeting-place of the supreme +courts of law. The great hall, with its fine open-timbered oak +roof, is adorned with a splendid stained-glass window and several +statues of notable men, including one (by Louis François Roubiliac) +of Duncan Forbes of Culloden, lord president of the court +of session (1685-1747), and now forms the ante-room for lawyers +and their clients. The surrounding buildings, including the courtrooms, +the Advocates’ and the Signet libraries, are all modern +additions. The Advocates’ library is the finest in Scotland. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span> +Founded in 1682, at the instance of Sir George Mackenzie, king’s +advocate under Charles II., and then dean of the faculty, it is +regarded as the national library, and is one of the five entitled +by the Copyright Act to receive a copy of every work published +in Great Britain.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:638px; height:612px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img938.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The General Register House for Scotland, begun in 1774 from +designs by Robert Adam, stands at the east end of Princes +Street. It contains, in addition to the ancient national records, +adequate accommodation, in fireproof chambers, for all Scottish +title-deeds, entails, contracts and mortgages, and for general +statistics, including those of births, deaths and marriages.</p> + +<p>The Royal Institution, in the Doric style, surmounted by a +colossal stone statue Of Queen Victoria by Sir John Steell, +formerly furnished official accommodation for the Board of +Trustees for Manufactures and the Board of Fishery, and also +for the school of art, and the libraries and public meetings of +the Royal Society (founded in 1783), and the Society of Antiquaries +of Scotland (founded in 1780). In 1910 it was renamed and +appropriated to the uses of the Royal Scottish Academy of Painting, +Sculpture and Architecture, which was instituted in 1826, +and incorporated by royal charter in 1838, on the model of the +Royal Academy in London. It is situated on the Mound close +to the National Gallery, of which the prince consort laid the +foundation stone in 1850. These collections, especially rich in +Raeburn’s works, include also Alexander Nasmyth’s portrait of +Robert Burns, Gainsborough’s “The Hon. Mrs. Graham” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Painting</a></span>, Plate VI. fig. 20), Sir Noel Paton’s “Quarrel” +and “Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania,” several works by +William Etty, Robert Scott Lauder and Sam Bough, Sir Edwin +Landseer’s “Rent Day in the Wilderness,” and the diploma +pictures of the academicians, besides many specimens of the +modern Scottish school. The National Portrait Gallery and +Antiquarian Museum are housed in Queen Street, in a building +designed by Sir Rowand Anderson and constructed at the expense +of J.R. Findlay of Aberlour (1824-1898), the government +providing the site.</p> + +<p><i>Churches.</i>—In conformity with the motto of the city, <i>Nisi +Dominus frustra</i>, there are numerous handsome places of public +worship. St Giles’s church, which was effectively restored +(1879-1883) by the liberality of Dr William Chambers the +publisher, has interesting historical and literary associations. +The regent Moray, the marquess of Montrose, and Napier of +Merchiston were buried within its walls and are commemorated +by monuments, and among the memorial tablets is one to R.L. +Stevenson by Augustus St Gaudens. The choir (restored in +1873 by public subscription) is a fine example of 15th-century +architecture, and the Gothic crown surmounting +the central tower forms one of the most characteristic +features in every view of the city. Just +outside the church in Parliament Square, the +supposed grave of John Knox is indicated by a +stone set in the pavement bearing his initials, and +in the pavement to the west a heart indicates the +site of the old Tolbooth,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which figures prominently +in Scott’s <i>Heart of Midlothian</i>. Other +churches having historical associations are the +two Greyfriars churches, which occupy the two +halves of one building; Tron church, the scene +of midnight hilarity at the new year; St Cuthbert’s +church; St Andrew’s church in George Street, +whence set out, on a memorable day in 1843, +that long procession of ministers and elders to +Tanfield Hall which ended in the founding of the +Free Church; St George’s church in Charlotte +Square, a good example of the work of Robert +Adam. The United Free Church claims no buildings +of much historic interest, but St George’s Free +was the scene of the ministrations of Dr Robert S. +Candlish (1806-1873), Dr Oswald Dykes (b. 1835), +Dr Alexander Whyte (b. 1837), a man of great +mark and influence in the city, and his successor +Hugh Black (b. 1868). Preachers like Robert +Candlish, Thomas Guthrie (1803-1873), Marcus +Dods (b. 1834), occupied many pulpits, besides +those of the particular congregations whom each +served. The most imposing structure belonging +to the Scottish Episcopal Church is St Mary’s +cathedral, built on ground and chiefly from funds +left by the Misses Walker of Coates, and opened for worship +in 1879. It is in the Early Pointed style, by Sir +Gilbert Scott, is 278 ft. long, and is surmounted by a +spire 275 ft. high. The old-fashioned mansion of East Coates, +dating from the 17th century, still stands in the close, and is +occupied by functionaries of the cathedral. St John’s Episcopal +church at the west end of Princes Street was the scene of the +ministrations of Dean Ramsay, and St Paul’s Episcopal church +of the Rev. Archibald Alison, father of the historian. The +Catholic Apostolic church at the foot of Broughton Street is +architecturally noticeable, and one of its features is a set of mural +paintings executed by Mrs Traquair. The Central Hall at Tollcross +testifies to Methodist energy. John Knox’s house at the east +end of High Street is kept in excellent repair, and contains several +articles of furniture that belonged to the reformer. The Canongate +Tolbooth adjoins the parish church, in the burial-ground of +which is the tombstone raised by Burns to the memory of Robert +Fergusson, and where Dugald Stewart, Adam Smith and other +men of note were buried. Almost opposite to it stands Moray +House, from the balcony of which the 8th earl of Argyll watched +Montrose led to execution (1650). The city gaol, a castellated +structure on the black rock of Calton Hill, forms one of the +most striking groups of buildings in the town. In the Music Hall +in George Street, Carlyle, as lord rector of the university, +delivered his stimulating address on books to the students, and +Gladstone addressed the electors in his Midlothian campaigns. +St Bernard’s Well, on the Water of Leith, was embellished +and restored (1888) at the cost of Mr William Nelson. A +sum of £100,000 was bequeathed by Mr Andrew Usher (1826-1898) +for a hall to be called the Usher Hall and to supplement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span> +the municipal buildings. The library of the solicitors to the +supreme courts presents to the Cowgate a lofty elevation in red +sandstone. The Sheriff Court Buildings stand on George IV. +Bridge, and facing them is Mr Andrew Carnegie’s free library +(1887-1889). At the corner of High Street and George IV. Bridge +stand the County buildings. The <i>Scotsman</i> newspaper is housed +in an ornate structure in North Bridge Street, the building of +which necessitated the demolition of many old alleys and wynds, +such as Fleshmarket Close and Milne Square. Ramsay Gardens, +a students’ quarter fostered by Prof. Patrick Geddes (b. 1854), +grew out of the “goose-pie” house where Allan Ramsay lived, +and with its red-tiled roof and effective lines adds warmth to the +view of the Old Town from Princes Street. Not the least interesting +structure is the old City Cross (restored at the cost of W.E. +Gladstone), which stands in High Street, adjoining St Giles’s. +Several of the quaint groups of buildings of Auld Reekie have +been carefully restored, such as the White Horse Close in the +Canongate; the mass of alleys on the north side of the Lawnmarket, +from Paterson’s Close to James’s Court have been +connected, and here Lord Rosebery acquired and restored the +17th-century dwelling which figures in the legend of <i>My Aunt +Margaret’s Mirror</i>. Another model restoration of a historic +close is found in Riddle’s Close, which contains a students’ +settlement. If these and other improvements have led to the +disappearance of such old-world picturesque buildings as Allan +Ramsay’s shop “at the sign of the Mercury, opposite Niddry +Wynd,” Cardinal Beaton’s palace, the old Cunzie House, or mint, +the beautiful timber-fronted “land” that stood at the head of +the West Bow, and even such “howffs” as Clerihugh’s tavern, +where Mr Counsellor Pleydell and the rest played the “high +jinks” described in <i>Guy Mannering</i>, it must be conceded that +the changes in the Old Town (many of a drastic nature) have +been carried out with due regard to the character of their +environment.</p> + +<p><i>Monuments.</i>—Edinburgh is particularly rich in monuments +of every description and quality. Of these by far the most +remarkable is the Scott monument in East Princes Street +Gardens, designed by George Meikle Kemp (1795-1844); it is +in the form of a spiral Gothic cross with a central canopy beneath +which is a seated statue of Scott with his dog “Maida” at his +side, by Sir John Steell, the niches being occupied by characters +in Sir Walter’s writings. A column, 136 ft. high, surmounted +by a colossal figure of Viscount Melville, Pitt’s first lord of the +Admiralty, rises from the centre of St Andrew Square. At the +west end of George Street, in the centre of Charlotte Square, +stands the Albert Memorial, an equestrian statue of the prince +consort, with groups at each of the four angles of the base. +Burns’s monument, in the style of a Greek temple, occupies a +prominent position on the Regent Road, on the southern brow +of the lower terrace of Calton Hill. It was originally intended to +form a shrine for Flaxman’s marble statue of the poet (now in the +National Portrait Gallery), but it proved to be too confined +to afford a satisfactory view of the sculptor’s work and was at +length converted into a museum of Burnsiana (afterwards removed +to the municipal buildings). On Calton Hill are a number +of finely placed monuments. The stateliest is the national +monument to commemorate the victory of Waterloo, originally +intended to be a reproduction of the Parthenon. The plan was +abandoned for lack of funds, after twelve out of the twenty-four +Greek pillars had been erected, but it is perhaps more effective +in its unfinished state than if it had been completed. The +Nelson monument, an elongated turreted structure, stands +on the highest cliff of the hill. Close by is the monument to +Dugald Stewart, a copy of the choragic monument of Lysicrates. +Sir John Steell’s equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington +stands in front of the Register House, and in Princes Street +Gardens are statues of Livingstone, Christopher North, Allan +Ramsay, Adam Black and Sir J.Y. Simpson. In George Street +are Chantrey’s figures of Pitt and George IV., and a statue of +Dr Chalmers; the 5th duke of Buccleuch stands beside St +Giles’s. Charles II. surveys the spot where Knox was buried; +the reformer himself is in the quadrangle of New College: Sir +David Brewster adorns the quadrangle of the university; Dr +William Chambers is in Chambers Street, and Frederick, duke +of York (1763-1827), and the 4th earl of Hopetoun are also +commemorated.</p> + +<p><i>Cemeteries.</i>—Obviously the churchyards surrounding the +older and more important parish churches—such as Greyfriars’, +St Cuthbert’s and the Canongate, contain the greatest number +of memorials of the illustrious dead. In Greyfriars’ churchyard +the Solemn League and Covenant was signed, and among its +many monuments are the Martyrs’ monument, recording the +merits of the murdered covenanters, and the tomb of “Bluidy” +Mackenzie. To the three named should be added the Calton +burying-ground, with its Roman tomb of David Hume, and the +obelisk raised in 1844 to the memory of Maurice Margarot, +Thomas Muir (1765-1798), Thomas Fyshe Palmer (1747-1802), +William Skirving and Joseph Gerrald (1765-1796), the political +martyrs transported towards the end of the 18th century for +advocating parliamentary reform. The Scottish dead in the +American Civil War are commemorated in a monument bearing +a life-sized figure of Abraham Lincoln and a freed slave. The +cemeteries are all modern. In Warriston cemetery (opened in +1843) in the New Town, were buried Sir James Young Simpson, +Alexander Smith the poet, Horatio McCulloch, R.S.A., the +landscape painter, the Rev. James Millar, the last Presbyterian +chaplain of the castle, and the Rev. James Peddie, the pastor +of Bristo Street church. In Dean cemetery, partly laid out on +the banks of the Water of Leith, and considered the most beautiful +in the city (opened 1845), were interred Lords Cockburn, +Jeffrey and Rutherford; “Christopher North,” Professor +Aytoun, Edward Forbes the naturalist, John Goodsir the +anatomist; Sir William Allan, Sam Bough, George Paul +Chalmers, the painters; George Combe, the phrenologist; +Playfair, the architect; Alexander Russel, editor of the <i>Scotsman</i>; +Sir Archibald Alison, the historian; Captain John Grant, +the last survivor of the old Peninsular Gordon Highlanders; +Captain Charles Gray, of the Royal Marines, writer of Scottish +songs; Lieutenant John Irving, of the Franklin expedition, +whose remains were sent home many years after his death by +Lieut. Frederick Schwatka, U.S. navy; and Sir Hector Macdonald, +“Fighting Mac” of Omdurman. In the south side are +the Grange, Newington or Echobank, and Morningside cemeteries. +In the Grange repose the ashes of Chalmers, Guthrie and Lee, +Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Sir Hope Grant, Hugh Miller and the +2nd Lord Dunfermline.</p> + +<p><i>Parks and Open Spaces.</i>—Edinburgh is exceptionally well +provided with parks and open spaces. The older are Princes +Street Gardens, covering the old Nor’ Loch, Calton Hill, the +Meadows and the Bruntsfield Links. The municipal golf links +are on the Braid Hills. On the southern side Blackford Hill +has been set apart for public use. Here stands the Royal +Observatory, in which the great Dunecht telescope was erected +in 1896. Harrison Park is a breathing spot for the congested +district of Fountainbridge, and the park at Saughton Hall, +opened in 1905, for the western district of the city. To the north +of the Water of Leith lie Inverleith Park, the Arboretum and +the Royal Botanical Garden. This institution has undergone +four changes of site since its foundation in 1670 by Sir Andrew +Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald, and now occupies an area of +34 acres in Inverleith Row. It includes a herbarium and palm +house, with an extensive range of hot-houses, a museum of +economic botany, a lecture-room and other requisites for the +study of botany. The most important open spaces, however, +surround Arthur’s Seat (822 ft.). This basaltic hill, the name +of which is believed to commemorate the British king Arthur, +who from its height is said to have watched the defeat of the +Picts by his followers, is shaped like a lion <i>couchant</i>, with head +towards the north. It is separated from the narrow valley, in +which lie the Canongate and Holyrood Palace, by Salisbury +Crags, named after Edward III.’s general William Montacute, +1st earl of Salisbury (1301-1344). At their base is the Queen’s +Drive (3½ m. long), named by Queen Victoria. Adjoining +Holyrood Palace is the King’s Park, used as a parade ground. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span> +Facing the crags on the south-west are the spots familiar to +readers of <i>The Heart of Midlothian</i>, where stood Jeanie Deans’s +cottage, and between the crags and Arthur’s Seat lies Hunter’s +Bog, used as a shooting range. Near here too are three small +lakes, Duddingston, Dunsappie and St Margaret’s, the last +overlooked by the ruins of St Anthony’s chapel.</p> + +<p><i>Environs.</i>—In several directions many places once to be +described among the environs have practically become suburbs +of Edinburgh. Newhaven (population of parish, 7636), so called +from the harbour constructed in the reign of James IV., had a +shipbuilding yard of some repute in former times. The village +has always been a fishing-place of importance, the “fishwives” +in their picturesque garb being, till recently, conspicuous figures +in the streets of the capital. It used to be a popular resort for +fish dinners, and it plays a prominent part in Charles Reade’s +novel of <i>Christie Johnstone</i>. To the west lies Granton (pop. 1728), +where the 5th duke of Buccleuch constructed a magnificent +harbour. Before the building of the Forth Bridge the customary +approach to Fifeshire and the north-east of Scotland was by +means of a steam ferry from Granton to Burntisland, which is +still used to some extent. There is regular communication with +Iceland, the continental ports and London. A marine station +here was established by Sir John Murray, but has been discontinued. +Still farther west lies the village of Cramond (pop. +of parish, 3815), at the mouth of the river Almond, where Roman +remains have often been found. It was the birthplace of several +well-known persons, among others of John Law (1671-1729), +originator of the Mississippi scheme, Lauriston Castle being +situated in the parish. Cramond Brig was the scene of one of the +“roving” adventures of James V., when the life of the “Gudeman +of Ballengeich” was saved by Jock Howieson of the +Braehead. Corstorphine (pop. 2725), once noted for its cream +and also as a spa, is now to all intents and purposes a western +suburb of the capital. The parish church contains the tombs +of the Forresters, of old the leading family of the district, with +full-length sculptured figures, and at the base of Corstorphine +Hill—from one point of which (“Rest and be Thankful”) +is to be had one of the best views of Edinburgh—are the seats of +several well-known families. Among these are Craigcrook Castle +(where Lord Jeffrey spent many happy years, and the gardens +of which are said to have given Scott a hint for Tullyveolan in +<i>Waverley</i>), and Ravelston House, the home of the Keiths. To +the south of the metropolis are Colinton (pop. 5499), on the Water +of Leith, with several mansions that once belonged to famous +men, such as Dreghorn Castle and Bonally Tower; and Currie +(pop. 2513), which was a Roman station and near which are +Curriehill Castle (held by the rebels against Queen Mary), the +ruins of Lennox Tower, and Riccarton, the seat of the Gibson-Craigs, +one of the best-known Midlothian families. At Dalmahoy +Castle, near Ratho (pop. 1946), the seat of the earl of +Morton, are preserved the only extant copy of the bible of the +Scottish parliament and the original warrant for committing +Queen Mary to Lochleven Castle in Kinross-shire. Craigmillar, +though situated in the parish of Liberton, is really a part of +Edinburgh. Its picturesque castle, at least the oldest portion +of it, probably dates from the 12th century. Its principal +owners were first the Prestons and latterly the Gilmours. After +playing a varied rôle in local and national story, now as banqueting-house +and now as prison, it fell gradually into disrepair. +It was advertised as to let in 1761, and early in the 19th +century, along with the chapel adjoining, was in ruins, but has +been restored by Colonel Gordon-Gilmour. It was a favourite +residence of Mary Stuart, and its associations with the hapless +queen give it a romantic interest. Duddingston (pop. 2023), +once a quiet village, has become a centre of the distilling and +brewing industries. The parish church, effectively situated on +an eminence by the side of the lake, was the scene of the ministration +of the Rev. John Thomson (1778-1840), the landscape painter, +who numbered Sir Walter Scott among his elders. Duddingston +House is a seat of the duke of Abercorn. Liberton (pop. of parish, +7233), a name that recalls the previous existence of a leper’s +hospital, is prominently situated on the rising ground to the south +of Edinburgh, the parish church being a conspicuous landmark. +Adjoining is the village of Gilmerton (pop. 1482), which used +to supply Edinburgh with yellow sand, when sanded floors were +a feature in the humbler class of houses. Portobello (pop. 9180), +being within 3 m. of the capital, must always enjoy a large share +of public patronage, though it is not in such favour as a watering-place +as it once was. Its beautiful stretch of sands is flanked +by a promenade extending all the way to Joppa. The beach +was at one time used for the purpose of reviews of the yeomanry. +The town dates from the middle of the 18th century, when a +cottage was built by a sailor and named Portobello in commemoration +of Admiral Vernon’s victory in 1739. The place +does a considerable trade in the making of bricks, bottles, +earthenware, pottery, tiles and paper. Joppa, which adjoins +it, has salt works, but is chiefly a residential neighbourhood. +Inveresk (pop. 2939), finely situated on the Esk some 6 m. from +Edinburgh, is a quaint village with several old-fashioned mansions +and beautiful gardens. Alexander Carlyle, the famous divine +(1772-1805), whose <i>Memorials of his Times</i> still affords fascinating +reading, ministered for fifty-five years in the parish church, in +the graveyard of which lies David Macbeth Moir (1798-1851), +who under the pen-name of “Delta” wrote <i>Mansie Wauch</i>, a +masterpiece of Scots humour and pathos. Lasswade (pop. of +parish, 9708), partly in the Pentlands, famous for its oatmeal, +was often the summer resort of Edinburgh worthies. Here +Sir Walter Scott lived for six years and De Quincey for nineteen, +and William Tennant (1784-1848), author of <i>Anster Fair</i>, was the +parish dominie. Many interesting mansions were and are in the +vicinity, amongst them Melville Castle, the seat of the Dundas +Melvilles, and Auchendinny, where Henry Mackenzie, author +of <i>The Man of Feeling</i>, resided. The two most celebrated +resorts, however, amongst the environs of Edinburgh are Roslin +(pop. 1805) and Hawthornden. Roslin Castle is romantically +situated on the beautifully wooded precipitous banks of the +Esk. It dates from the 12th century and is a plain, massive +ruin, architecturally insignificant. Partially destroyed by fire in +1447 and afterwards rebuilt, it was sacked in 1650 and again in +1688, and then gradually fell into decay. The chapel, higher +up the bank, a relic of great beauty, was founded in 1446 by +William St Clair, 3rd earl of Orkney. It is believed to be the +chancel of what was intended to be a large church. Although it +suffered at the hands of revolutionary fanatics in 1688, the +damage was confined mainly to the external ornament, and the +chapel, owing to restoration in judicious taste, is now in perfect +condition. The Gothic details are wonderful examples of the +carver’s skill, the wreathed “Prentice’s pillar” being the subject +of a well-known legend. The walk to Hawthornden, about 1½ m. +distant, through the lovely glen by the river-side, leads to the +mansion of the Drummonds, perched high on a lofty cliff falling +sheer to the stream. The caverns in the sides of the precipice +are said to have afforded Wallace and other heroes (or outlaws) +refuge in time of trouble, but the old house is most memorable +as the home of the poet William Drummond, who here welcomed +Ben Jonson; the tree beneath which the two poets sat still +stands. Near Swanston, on the slopes of the Pentlands, where +R.L. Stevenson when a boy used to make holiday occasionally, +is a golf-course which was laid out by the Lothianburn Club. +The Pentland range contains many points of interest and beauty, +but these are mostly accessible only to the pedestrian, although +the hills are crossed by roads, of which the chief are those by +Glencorse burn and the Cauld Stane Slap. Habbie’s Howe, the +scene of Allan Ramsay’s pastoral <i>The Gentle Shepherd</i>, is some +2 m. from Carlops, and Rullion Green is noted as the field on +which the Covenanters were defeated in 1666. At Penicuik +(pop. 5097), where the Clerks were long the ruling family, S.R. +Crockett was minister until he formally devoted himself to +fiction. The town is, industrially, remarkable for its paper mills +and mines of coal and other minerals.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The two trunk railways serving Edinburgh +are the North British and the Caledonian. The North British +station is Waverley, to which the trains of the Great Northern, +North Eastern and the Midland systems run from England. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span> +Caledonian station is Princes Street, where the through trains from +the London & North-Western system of England arrive. Leith, +Granton and Grangemouth serve as the chief passenger seaports +for Edinburgh. Tramways connect the different parts of the city +with Leith, Newhaven, Portobello and Joppa; and the Suburban +railway, starting from Waverley station, returns by way of +Restalrig, Portobello, Duddingston, Morningside and Haymarket. +In summer, steamers ply between Leith and Aberdour and other +pleasure resorts; and there is also a service to Alloa and Stirling. +In the season brakes constantly run to Queensferry (for the +Forth Bridge) and to Roslin, and coaches to Dalkeith, Loanhead +and some Pentland villages.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—In 1801 the number of inhabitants was +66,544; in 1851 it was 160,302; in 1881 it was 234,402; and +in 1901 it was 316,479. In 1900 the birth-rate was 26.90 per +thousand, 7.8% of the births being illegitimate; the death-rate +was 19.40 per thousand, and the marriage-rate 10 per +thousand.</p> + +<p>The area of the city has been enlarged by successive extensions +of its municipal boundaries, especially towards the west and +south. An important accession of territory was gained in 1896, +when portions of the parishes of Liberton and Duddingston and +the police burgh of Portobello were incorporated. Under the +Edinburgh Corporation Act 1900, a further addition of nearly +1800 acres was made. This embraced portions of South Leith +parish (landward) and of Duddingston parish, including the +village of Restalrig and the ground lying on both sides of the main +road from Edinburgh to Portobello; and also part of Cramond +parish, in which is contained the village and harbour of Granton. +The total area of the city is 10,597½ acres. The increase in wealth +may best be measured by the rise in assessed valuation. In 1880 +the city rental was £1,727,740, in 1890 it was £2,106,395, and in +1900-1901 £2,807,122.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the city was +divided for parliamentary purposes into East, West, Central and +South Edinburgh, each returning one member; the parliamentary +and municipal boundaries are almost identical. The town +council, which has its headquarters in the Municipal Buildings +in the Royal Exchange, consists of fifty members, a lord +provost, seven bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, a convener +of trades, seven judges of police, and thirty-two councillors. +The corporation has acquired the gas-works, the cable tramways +(leased to a company), the electric lighting of the +streets, and the water-supply from the Pentlands (reinforced +by additional sources in the Moorfoot Hills and Talla Water). +Among other duties, the corporation has a share in the +management of the university, and maintains the Calton Hill +observatory.</p> + +<p><i>May Meetings.</i>—During the establishment of Episcopacy in +Scotland, Edinburgh was the seat of a bishop, and the ancient +collegiate church of St Giles rose to the dignity of a cathedral. +But the annual meeting of the General Assembly of the Church of +Scotland at Edinburgh is now the public manifestation of the +predominance of Presbyterianism as the national church. In +May each year the sovereign appoints a representative as lord +high commissioner to the General Assembly of the Established +Church, who takes up his abode usually in the palace of Holyrood, +and thence proceeds to the High Church, and so to the assembly +hall on the Castle Hill. The lord provost and magistrates offer to +him the keys of the city, and levees, receptions and state dinners +revive in some degree the ancient glories of Holyrood. The +General Assembly of the United Free Church is usually held at +the same time.</p> + +<p><i>University.</i>—The university of Edinburgh, the youngest of the +Scottish universities, was founded in 1583 by a royal charter +granted by James IV., and its rights, immunities and privileges +have been remodelled, ratified and extended at various periods. +In 1621 an act of the Scottish parliament accorded to the +university all rights and privileges enjoyed by other universities +in the kingdom, and these were renewed under fresh guarantees +in the treaty of union between England and Scotland, and in +the Act of Security. Important changes were made in the constitution +by acts passed in 1858 and 1889. It was one of the first +universities to admit women students to its classes and degrees, +and its <i>alumni</i> are brought into close bonds of sympathy and +activity by a students’ union. The number of students averages +nearly three thousand a year. As a corporation it consists of a +chancellor, vice-chancellor, lord rector (elected by the students +every three years), principal, professors, registered graduates and +matriculated students. The chancellor is elected for life by the +general council, of which he is head; and the rights of the city as +the original founder have been recognized by giving to the town +council the election of four of the seven curators, with whom rest +the appointment of the principal, the patronage of seventeen of +the chairs, and a share in other appointments. Along with that +of St Andrews, the university sends one member to parliament. +While the college, as such, bears the name of the College of King +James, or King’s college, and James VI. is spoken of as its founder, +it really originated in the liberality of the citizens of Edinburgh. +William Little of Craigmillar, and his brother Clement Little, +advocate, along with James Lawson, the colleague and successor +of John Knox, may justly be regarded as true founders. In +1580 Clement Little gave all his books, three hundred volumes, +for the beginning of a library, and this was augmented by other +valuable benefactions, one of the most interesting of which was the +library of Drummond of Hawthornden. The library now contains +upwards of 220,000 volumes, and more than 7000 MSS. The +buildings of the university occupy the site of the ancient collegiate +church of St. Mary in the Field (the “Kirk of Field”), the scene of +the murder of Darnley. The present structure, the foundation-stone +of which was laid in 1789, is a classical building, enclosing an +extensive quadrangle. The older parts of it, including the east +front, are from the design of Robert Adam, his plans being +revised and modified by W.H. Playfair (1789-1857), but it was +not till 1883 that the building was completed by the dome, +crowned by the bronze figure of Youth bearing the torch of +Knowledge, on the façade in South Bridge Street. This edifice +affords accommodation for the lecture rooms in the faculties of +arts, law and theology, and for the museums and library. The +opening up of the wide thoroughfare of Chambers Street, on the +site of College Wynd and Brown and Argyll Squares, cleared the +precincts of unsightly obstructions and unsavoury neighbours. +The Royal Scottish Museum, structurally united to the university, +contains collections illustrative of industry, art, science and +natural history; and Minto House college and Heriot-Watt +college are practically adjuncts of the university. The library hall +was restored and decorated, largely through the generosity of Sir +William Priestley (1829-1900), formerly M.P. for the university; +while munificent additions to the academic funds and resources +were made by the 15th earl of Moray (1840-1901), Sir William +Fraser (1816-1898), and others. The university benefits also, +like the other Scottish universities, from Mr Andrew Carnegie’s +endowment fund. The medical school stands in Teviot Row, +adjoining George Square and the Meadows. To this spacious and +well-equipped group of buildings the faculty of medicine was +removed from the college. The medical school is in the Italian +Renaissance style from the designs of Sir Rowand Anderson. +The magnificent hall used for academic and public functions was +the gift of William M’Ewan, some time M.P. for the Central +division of Edinburgh. Closely associated with the medical +school, and separated from it by the Middle Meadow Walk, is the +Royal Infirmary, designed by David Bryce, R.S.A. (1803-1876), +removed hither from Infirmary Street. Its wards, in which +nearly ten thousand patients receive treatment annually, are +lodged in a series of turreted pavilions, and cover a large space of +ground on the margin of the Meadows, from which, to make room +for it, George Watson’s College—the most important of the +Merchant Company schools—was removed to a site farther west, +while the Sick Children’s hospital was moved to the southern side +of the Meadows.</p> + +<p><i>Scientific Institutions.</i>—The old Observatory is a quaint +structure on Calton Hill, overlooking the district at the head +of Leith Walk. The City Observatory stands close by, and on +Blackford Hill is the newer building of the Royal Observatory. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span> +The Astronomer-Royal for Scotland also holds the chair of +practical astronomy.</p> + +<p>The museum and lecture-rooms of the Royal College of +Surgeons occupy a handsome classical building in Nicolson +Street. The college is an ancient corporate body, with a charter +of the year 1505, and exercises the powers of instructing in surgery +and of giving degrees. Its graduates also give lectures on the +various branches of medicine and science requisite for the degree +of doctor of medicine, and those extra-academical courses are +recognized, under certain restrictions, by the University Court, +as qualifying for the degree. The museum contains a valuable +collection of anatomical and surgical preparations.</p> + +<p>The Royal College of Physicians is another learned body +organized, with special privileges, by a charter of incorporation +granted by Charles II. in 1681. In their hall in Queen Street +are a valuable library and a museum of materia medica. But the +college as such takes no part in the educational work of the +university.</p> + +<p><i>Educational Institutions.</i>—After the Disruption in 1843, and +the formation of the Free Church, New College was founded +in connexion with it for training students in theology. Since +the amalgamation of the United Presbyterian and the Free +Churches, under the designation of the United Free Church of +Scotland, New College is utilized by both bodies. New College +buildings, designed in the Pointed style of the 16th century, +and erected on the site of the palace of Mary of Guise, occupy a +prominent position at the head of the Mound.</p> + +<p>Edinburgh has always possessed exceptional educational +facilities. The Royal high school, the burgh school <i>par excellence</i>, +dates from the 16th century, but the beautiful Grecian buildings +on the southern face of Calton Hill, opened in 1829, are its third +habitation. It was not until 1825, when the Edinburgh Academy +was opened, that it encountered serious rivalry. Fettes College, +an imposing structure in a 16th-century semi-Gothic style, +designed by David Bryce and called after its founder Sir William +Fettes (1750-1836), is organized on the model of the great English +public schools. Merchiston Academy, housed in the old castle +of Napier, the inventor of logarithms, is another institution +conducted on English public school lines. For many generations +the charitable foundations for the teaching and training of youth +were a conspicuous feature in the economy of the city. Foremost +among them was the hospital founded by George Heriot—the +“Jingling Geordie” of Scott’s <i>Fortunes of Nigel</i>—the goldsmith +and banker of James VI. At his death in 1624 Heriot left his +estate in trust to the magistrates and ministers of Edinburgh +for the maintenance and teaching of poor fatherless sons of +freemen. The quadrangular edifice in Lauriston, sometimes +ascribed to Inigo Jones, is one of the noblest buildings in the city. +Even earlier than Heriot’s hospital was the Merchant Maiden +hospital, dating from 1605, which gave to the daughters of +merchants similar advantages to those which Heriot’s secured +for burgesses’ sons. In 1738 George Watson’s hospital for boys +was founded; then followed the Trades’ Maiden hospital for +burgesses’ daughters, John Watson’s, Daniel Stewart’s, the +Orphans’, Gillespie’s,<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Donaldson’s<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> hospitals, and other institutions +founded by successful merchants of the city, in which poor +children of various classes were lodged, boarded and educated. +Nearly all these buildings are characterized by remarkable +distinction and beauty of design. This is especially true of +Donaldson’s hospital at the Haymarket, which has accommodation +for three hundred children. As the New Town expanded, +the Heriot Trust—whose revenues were greatly benefited thereby—erected +day-schools in different districts, in which thousands +of infants and older children received a free education, and, in +cases of extreme poverty, a money grant towards maintenance. +Public opinion as to the “hospital” system of board and +education, however, underwent a revolutionary change after +the Education Act of 1872 introduced school boards, and the +Merchant Company—acting as governors for most of the institutions—determined +to board out the children on the foundation +with families in the town, and convert the buildings +into adequately equipped primary and secondary day-schools. +This root-and-branch policy proved enormously successful, and +George Watson’s college, Stewart’s college, Queen Street ladies’ +college, George Square ladies’ college, Gillespie’s school, and +others, rapidly took a high place among the educational institutions +of the city. Nor did the Heriot Trust neglect the claims +of technical and higher education. The Heriot-Watt college +is subsidized by the Trust, and Heriot’s hospital is occupied as +a technical school. Concurrently with this activity in higher +branches, the school board provided a large number of handsome +buildings in healthy surroundings. The Church of Scotland and +the United Free Church have training colleges.</p> + +<p><i>Charities.</i>—Besides the Royal Infirmary there are a considerable +number of more or less specialized institutions, two of +the most important being situated at Craiglockhart. On the +Easter Hill stands the Royal Edinburgh asylum for the insane, +which formerly occupied a site in Morningside, while the City +infectious diseases hospital is situated at Colinton Mains. The +Royal blind asylum at Powburn in its earlier days tenanted +humbler quarters in Nicolson Street. Chalmers’s hospital in +Lauriston was founded in 1836 by George Chalmers for the +reception of the sick and injured. The home for incurables is +situated in Salisbury Place. The infirmary convalescents are +sent to the convalescent house in Corstorphine. Other institutions +are the Royal hospital for sick children, the home for +crippled children, the Royal maternity hospital, and the deaf +and dumb asylum. Though Trinity hospital no longer exists +as a hospital with resident pensioners, the trustees disburse +annually pensions to certain poor burgesses and their wives and +children; and the trust controlling the benevolent branch of +the Gillespie hospital endowment is similarly administered.</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—Although Edinburgh is a residential rather than +a manufacturing or commercial centre, the industries which it +has are important and flourishing. From 1507, when Walter +Chapman, the Scottish Caxton, set up the first press, to the +present day, printing has enjoyed a career of almost continuous +vitality, and the great houses of R. & R. Clark, T. & A. Constable, +the Ballantyne Press, Morrison & Gibb, Turnbull & Spears, and +others, admirably maintain the traditional reputation of the +Edinburgh press. Publishing, on the other hand, has drifted +away, only a few leading houses—such as those of Blackwood, +Chambers and Nelson—still making the Scottish capital their +headquarters. Mapmakers, typefounders, bookbinders and +lithographers all contribute their share to the prosperity of the +city. Brewing is an industry of exceptional vigour, Edinburgh +ale being proverbially good. The brewers and distillers, such as +M’Ewan, Usher and Ure, have been amongst the most generous +benefactors of the city. The arts and crafts associated with +furniture work, paper-making and coach-building may also be +specified, whilst tanneries, glassworks, india-rubber and vulcanite +factories, brass-founding, machinery works, the making of +biscuits, tea-bread and confectionery are all prominent. In +consequence of the large influx of tourists every year the North +British and Caledonian railway companies give employment to +an enormous staff. Building and the allied trades are chronically +brisk, owing to the constant development of the city. Fine +white freestone abounds in the immediate vicinity (as at Craigleith, +from the vast quarry of which, now passing into disuse, +the stone for much of the New Town was obtained) and furnishes +excellent building material; while the hard trap rock, with +which the stratified sandstones of the Coal formation have been +extensively broken up and overlaid, supplies good materials for +paving and road-making. On this account quarrying is another +industry which is seldom dormant. Owing to the great changes +effected during the latter part of the 19th century, some of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span> +old markets were demolished and the system of centralizing +trade was not wholly revived. The Waverley Market for +vegetables and fruit presents a busy scene in the early morning, +and is used for monster meetings and promenade and popular +concerts. Slaughter-houses, cattle markets and grain markets +have been erected at Gorgie, thus obviating the driving of +flocks and herds through the streets, which was constantly +objected to. An infantry regiment is always stationed in +the castle, and there are in addition the barracks at Piers-hill +(or “Jock’s Lodge”), half-way between Edinburgh and +Portobello.</p> + +<p><i>Social Life.</i>—Edinburgh society still retains a certain old-fashioned +Scottish exclusiveness. It has been said that the +city is “east-windy” and the folk “west-endy.” But this +criticism needs judicious qualification. The local patriotism +and good taste of the citizens have regulated recreation and +have also preserved in pristine vigour many peculiarly Scottish +customs and pastimes. Classical concerts and concerts of the +better sort, chiefly held in the M’Ewan and Music Halls, are well +attended, and lectures are patronized to a degree unknown in +most towns. In theatrical matters in the old days of stock +companies the verdict of an Edinburgh audience was held to +make or mar an actor or a play. This is no longer the case, but +the Lyceum theatre in Grindlay Street and the Theatre Royal +at the head of Leith Walk give good performances. Variety +entertainments are also in vogue, and in Nicolson Street and +elsewhere there are good music halls. Outdoor recreations +have always been pursued with zest. The public golf-course on +Braid Hills and the private courses of the Lothianburn club +at Swanston and the Barnton club at Barnton are usually full +on Saturdays and holidays. The numerous bowling-greens +are regularly frequented and are among the best in Scotland—the +first Australian team of bowlers that visited the mother +country (in 1901) pronouncing the green in Lutton Place the +finest on which they had played. Cricket is played by the university +students, at the schools, and by private clubs, of which +the Grange is the oldest and best. In winter the game of curling +is played on Duddingston Loch, and Dunsappie, St Margaret’s +Loch, Lochend and other sheets of water are covered with +skaters. Rugby football is in high favour, Edinburgh being +commonly the scene of the international matches when the +<i>venue</i> falls to Scotland. Hockey claims many votaries, there +usually being on New Year’s day a match at shinty, or <i>camanachd</i>, +between opposing teams of Highlanders resident in the city. +The central public baths in Infirmary Street, with branch +establishments in other parts of the town, including Portobello, +are largely resorted to, and the proximity of the Firth of Forth +induces the keener swimmers to visit Granton every morning. +Facilities for boating are limited (excepting on the Forth), but +rowing clubs find opportunity for practice and races on the +Union Canal, where, however, sailing is scarcely possible. Edinburgh +maintains few newspapers, but the <i>Scotsman</i>, which may +be said to reign alone, has enjoyed a career of almost uninterrupted +prosperity, largely in consequence of a succession of able +editors, like Charles Maclaren, Alexander Russel, Robert Wallace +and Charles Cooper. The <i>Edinburgh Evening News</i> and the +<i>Evening Dispatch</i> are popular sheets. In the past the <i>Edinburgh +Evening Courant</i>, the chief organ of the Tory party, of which +James Hannay was editor for a few years, had a high reputation. +<i>The Witness</i>, edited by Hugh Miller, the <i>Daily Review</i>, edited +first by J.B. Manson and afterwards by Henry Kingsley, and +the <i>Scottish Leader</i>, were conducted more or less as Liberal +organs with a distinct bias in favour of the then Free Church, +but none of these was long-lived. Volunteering has always +attracted the younger men, and the highest awards at Wimbledon +and Bisley have been won by the Queen’s Edinburgh.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—In remote times the seaboard from the Tyne to +the Forth was occupied by the Ottadeni, a Welsh tribe of the +Brigantes, the territory immediately to the west of it being +peopled by the Gadeni. It is probable that the Ottadeni built +a fort or camp on the rock on which Edinburgh Castle now +stands, which was thus the nucleus around which, in course of +time, grew a considerable village. Under the protection of the +hill-fort, a native settlement was established on the ridge running +down to the valley at the foot of Salisbury Crags, and another +hamlet, according to William Maitland (1693-1757), the earliest +historian of Edinburgh, was founded in the area at the north-western +base of the rock, a district that afterwards became +the parish of St Cuthbert, the oldest in the city. The Romans +occupied the country for more than three hundred years, as is +evidenced by various remains; but James Grant (1822-1887), +in <i>Old and New Edinburgh</i>, doubts whether they ever built on +the castle rock. When they withdrew, the British tribes reasserted +their sway, and some authorities go so far as to suggest +that Arthur was one of their kings. The southern Picts ultimately +subdued the Britons, and the castle became their chief +stronghold until they were overthrown in 617 (or 629) by the +Saxons under Edwin, king of Northumbria, from whom the name +of Edinburgh is derived. Symeon of Durham (854) calls it +Edwinesburch, and includes the church of St Cuthbert within +the bishopric of Lindisfarne. Its Gaelic name was Dunedin. +This name is probably a translation of the Saxon name. James +Grant’s view that it may have been the earlier name of the +castle, from <i>dun</i> (“the fort”), and <i>edin</i> (“on the slope”), +conflicts with the more generally received opinion that the +Britons knew the fortress as <i>Castelh Mynedh Agnedh</i> (“the hill +of the plain”), a designation once wrongly interpreted as the +“castle of the maidens” (<i>castrum puellarum</i>), in allusion to +the supposed fact that the Pictish princesses were lodged within +it during their education. In the 16th century the latinized +form Edina was invented and has been used chiefly by poets, +once notably by Burns, whose “Address” begins “Edina! +Scotia’s darling seat.” Long after Edwin’s conquest the lowland +continued to be debatable territory held by uncertain tenure, but +at length it was to a large extent settled anew by Anglo-Saxon +and Norman colonists under Malcolm Canmore and his sons.</p> + +<p>In the reign of Malcolm Canmore the castle included the +king’s palace. There his pious queen, Margaret, the grand-niece +of Edward the Confessor, died in 1093. It continued to be a royal +residence during the reigns of her three sons, and hence the first +rapid growth of the upper town may be referred to the 12th +century. The parish church of St Giles is believed to have been +erected in the reign of Alexander I., about 1110, and the huge +Norman keep of the castle, built by his younger brother, +David I., continued to be known as David’s Tower till its destruction +in the siege of 1572. Soon after his accession to the Scottish +throne David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood (1128), which +from an early date received the court as its guests. But notwithstanding +the attractions of the abbey and the neighbouring chase, +the royal palace continued for centuries to be within the fortress, +and there both the Celtic and Stuart kings frequently resided. +Edinburgh was long an exposed frontier town within a territory +only ceded to Malcolm II. about 1020; and even under the +earlier Stuart kings it was still regarded as a border stronghold. +Hence, though the village of Canongate grew up beside the abbey +of David I., and Edinburgh was a place of sufficient importance +to be reckoned one of the four principal burghs as a judicatory +for all commercial matters, nevertheless, even so late as 1450, +when it became for the first time a walled town, it did not extend +beyond the upper part of the ridge which slopes eastwards from +the castle. So long, however, as its walls formed the boundary, +and space therefore was limited, the citizens had to provide +house-room by building dwellings of many storeys. These tall +tenements on both sides of what is now High Street and Canongate +are still a prominent characteristic of the Old Town. The +streets were mostly very narrow, the main street from the castle +to Holyrood Palace and the Cowgate alone permitting the passage +of wheeled carriages. In the narrow “wynds” the nobility and +gentry paid their visits in sedan chairs, and proceeded in full +dress to the assemblies and balls, which were conducted with +aristocratic exclusiveness in an alley on the south side of High +Street, called the Assembly Close, and in the assembly rooms +in the West Bow. Beyond the walls lay the burghs of Calton, +Easter and Wester Portsburgh, the villages of St Cuthbert’s, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span> +Moutrie’s Hill, Broughton, Canonmills, Silvermills and Deanhaugh—all +successively swallowed up in the extension of the modern +city. The seaport of Leith, though a distinct burgh, governed +by its own magistrates, and electing its own representative to +parliament, has also on its southern side become practically +united to its great neighbour.</p> + +<p>The other three royal burghs associated with Edinburgh were +Stirling, Roxburgh and Berwick; and their enactments form +the earliest existing collected body of Scots law. The determination +of Edinburgh as the national capital, and as the most frequent +scene of parliamentary assemblies, dates from the death of +James I. in 1436. Of the thirteen parliaments summoned by +that sovereign, only one, the last, was held at Edinburgh, but his +assassination in the Blackfriars’ monastery at Perth led to the +abrupt transfer of the court and capital from the Tay to the +Forth. The coronation of James II. was celebrated in Holyrood +Abbey instead of at Scone, and the widowed queen took up +her residence, with the young king, in the castle. Of fourteen +parliaments summoned during this reign, only one was held at +Perth, five met at Stirling and the rest at Edinburgh; and, +notwithstanding the favour shown for Stirling as a royal residence +in the following reign, every one of the parliaments of James III. +was held at Edinburgh. James II. conferred on the city various +privileges relating to the holding of fairs and markets, and the +levying of customs; and by a royal charter of 1452 he gave it +pre-eminence over the other burghs. Further immunities and +privileges were granted by James III.; and by a precept of +1482, known as the Golden Charter, he bestowed on the provost +and magistrates the hereditary office of sheriff, with power to +hold courts, to levy fines, and to impose duties on all merchandise +landed at the port of Leith. Those privileges were renewed +and extended by various sovereigns, and especially by a general +charter granted by James VI. in 1603.</p> + +<p>James III. was a great builder, and, in the prosperous era +which followed his son’s accession to the throne, the town reached +the open valley to the south, with the Cowgate as its chief +thoroughfare. But the death of James IV. in 1513, along with +other disastrous results of the battle of Flodden, brought this +era of prosperity to an abrupt close. The citizens hastened to +construct a second line of wall, enclosing the Cowgate and the +heights beyond, since occupied by Greyfriars churches and +Heriot’s hospital, but still excluding the Canongate, as pertaining +to the abbey of Holyrood. In the 16th century the movements +connected with John Knox and Mary, queen of Scots, made +Edinburgh a castle of much activity. With the departure, +however, of the sixth James to fill the English throne in 1603, +the town lost for a long period its influence and prestige. Matters +were not bettered by the Act of Union signed in a cellar in High +Street in 1707, amidst the execrations of the people, and it was +not till the hopes of the Jacobites were blasted at Culloden (1746) +that the townsfolk began to accept the inevitable. This epoch, +when grass grew even in High Street, long lingered in the popular +memory as the “dark age.”</p> + +<p>By the accession of George III. (1760), Edinburgh showed +signs of revived enterprise. In 1763 the first North Bridge, connecting +the Old Town with the sloping ground on which afterwards +stood the Register House and the theatre in Shakespeare +Square, was opened; a little later the Nor’ Loch was partially +drained, and the bridging of the Cowgate in 1785 encouraged +expansion southwards. Towards the end of the 18th century +the New Town began to take shape on the grand, if formal, +lines which had been planned by James Craig (d. 1795), the +architect, nephew of the poet Thomson, and the erection of +Regent Bridge in Waterloo Place (formally opened in 1819 on +the occasion of the visit of Prince Leopold, afterwards king of +the Belgians) gave access to Calton Hill. The creation of Princes +Street, one of the most beautiful thoroughfares in the world, +led to further improvement. The earth and débris from the +excavation of the sites for the houses in this and adjoining +streets had been “dumped” in the centre of the drained Nor’ +Loch. This unsightly mass of rubbish lay for a while as an eye-sore, +until the happy thought arose of converting it into a broad +way joining the new road at Hanover Street with the Old Town +at the Lawnmarket. Upon this street, which divides Princes +Street and its gardens into east and west, and which received +the title of the Mound, were erected the National Gallery and +the Royal Institution. Speaking generally, the New Town was +resorted to by professional men—lawyers, doctors and artists,—and +in its principal streets will be found the head offices of the +leading banks and insurance offices, all lodged in buildings of +remarkable architectural pretensions. The Commercial, the +Union and the Clydesdale banks are in George Street, the +National Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of Scotland, and +the British Linen Company’s Bank are in St Andrew Square, +the Bank of Scotland is at the head of the Mound. The extensive +building operations engaged in by the town council in the early +part of the 19th century resulted in the insolvency of the city +in 1833. The property of the corporation was valued at £271,658 +against a debt of £425,195, which was compounded for by the +issue of 3% annuity bonds—the loss to the creditors amounting +to 25% of their claims.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the progress of letters, science and learning +manifested the recovery of the city. The names of Knox +(d. 1572), Buchanan (1582), Alexander Montgomery (1605), +Drummond of Hawthornden (1649), Allan Ramsay (1757), +Smollett (1771), Fergusson (1774), and Burns (1796), carried on +the literary associations of the Scottish capital nearly to the +close of the 18th century, when various causes combined to give +them new significance and value. The university was served by +a body of teachers and investigators who won for it a prominent +position among European schools. Then succeeded the era of +Scott’s <i>Marmion</i> and <i>The Lady of the Lake</i>, followed by the +Waverley novels and the foundation of <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> +and the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>.</p> + +<p>Modern conditions have changed the character of Edinburgh +society. In Scott’s early days a journey to London was beset +with difficulties and even dangers; but railways have now +brought it within a few hours’ distance, and Scottish artists and +literary men are tempted to seek a wider field. Nevertheless, +the influence of the past survives in many ways. Edinburgh +is not markedly a manufacturing city, but preserves its character +as the Scottish capital.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—James Grant, <i>Old and New Edinburgh</i> (London, +1880 et seq.); W. Maitland, <i>History of Edinburgh</i> (1753); Hugo +Arnot, <i>History of Edinburgh</i> (1789); B. Chambers, <i>Traditions of +Edinburgh</i> (1824); D. Wilson, <i>Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden +Time</i> (1846-1848); O. Smeaton, <i>Edinburgh and its Story</i> (1904). +<i>The Municipal Buildings of Edinburgh</i>, by Robert Miller, Lord Dean +of Guild, printed by order of the town council (Edinburgh, 1895); +<i>Royal Edinburgh</i>, by Mrs Oliphant, illustrations by Sir George Reid, +R.S.A. (London, 1890).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The original Tolbooth was completed in 1501, but a new one +took its place in 1563-1564, and was subsequently altered. At first +occupied by the parliament and courts of justice, it served later as a +prison, and was removed in 1817.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> James Gillespie (1726-1797) was a tobacco and snuff manufacturer, +and when he set up his carriage Henry Erskine suggested +as a motto the homely couplet:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Wha wad hae thocht it,</p> +<p class="i05">That noses wad bocht it?”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> James Donaldson (1751-1830) was a printer who bequeathed +nearly the whole of his large fortune for the purposes of a hospital +for poor boys and girls, and the trustees have usually selected half +of the children admitted from the ranks of the deaf and dumb.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDINBURGHSHIRE,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Midlothian</span>, a county of Scotland, +bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. by the shires of Haddington, +or East Lothian, and Berwick, S.E. by Roxburghshire, S. by +Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire and Lanarkshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire, +and W. by Linlithgowshire or West Lothian. Its area is 234,339 +acres or 3662 sq. m. The island of Cramond belongs to the +county. There are no mountains, but the Pentland Hills +advance boldly from the south-west to within 5 m. of the sea. +The loftiest summits are Scald Law (1898 ft.), Carnethy (1881), +West and East Cairn Hill (1844 and 1839), and West Kip (1806). +They are generally of rounded form, and covered with heath or +grass. The Moorfoot Hills, in the south-east, are a continuation +of the Lammermuirs, and attain in Blackhope Scar a height of +2136 ft. Of more or less isolated eminences there are the Braid +Hills (698 ft.), Blackford Hill (500), Arthur’s Seat (822), Corstorphine +Hill (500)—all practically within Edinburgh—and +Dalmahoy Craig (800), 7 m. south-west of the city. Of the +rivers the Gala rises on the south-east of the Moorfoot Hills and +flows south to join the Tweed, and the Tyne after a course of +7 m. passes into Haddingtonshire. All the others flow into the +Firth of Forth. Of these the Esk, which is the longest, drains +the district between the Pentlands and the Moorfoot Hills, and +empties into the sea at Musselburgh. The southern branch has +its source near Blackhope Scar, receives on its right Gore Water +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span> +and, on its left, Dalhousie Burn, and flows past Newbattle Abbey; +the northern rises in the Pentlands, and proceeds through much +picturesque scenery past Penicuik, Roslin, Hawthornden and +Lasswade; the two streams uniting within the grounds of +Dalkeith Palace. Braid Burn from Capelaw Hill passes between +the Braid Hills and Blackford Hill, and reaches the sea at Portobello. +The Water of Leith, with its head streams on the western +slope of the Pentlands, flows past Balerno, Currie, Juniper Green, +Colinton, Edinburgh and Leith. The Almond, rising in Lanarkshire, +and its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, form the +boundary between Midlothian and Linlithgowshire. Several +of these streams, especially the Esk and the Water of Leith, +furnish much water power. The only loch is that at Duddingston, +but there are several large reservoirs connected with the water +supply of Edinburgh. Cobbinshaw reservoir, situated at the +head of Bog Burn, a tributary of the Almond, is used for the +supply of the Union Canal connecting the Forth with the Clyde.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The southern portion of the county, embracing the +Moorfoot Hills and a large part of the catchment basin of the Gala +Water, lies within the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland. +From Bowland northwards to Crookston in the Gala valley the +Silurian strata are mainly of Tarannon age and consist of greywackes, +grits, flags and shales, with thin dark seams which yield graptolites +sparingly. To the north of this area, older sediments, comprising +Arenig cherts, black shales, greywackes and grits of Llandeilo and +Caradoc age, rise from underneath the Tarannon strata and spread +over the hills north to the margin of the tableland. In some of the +folds of Arenig cherts diabase lavas appear, which occupy small +lenticular areas. All the Silurian strata are repeated by folds +striking north-east and south-west and frequently dipping in one +direction, to the north-west as in the Gala valley. North of the +Silurian tableland and within the area occupied by the younger +palaeozoic rocks of the Pentland Hills, there are various inliers of +Upper Silurian strata. These isolated patches occur (1) in the North +Esk section, (2) at Loganlee reservoir, (3) near Bavelaw Castle, and +(4) in Bavelaw Burn. The section in the North Esk is by far the +most complete, as the strata embrace Wenlock, Ludlow and Downtonian +rocks with a north-east strike similar to that of the beds in the +Silurian tableland. The Wenlock rocks have yielded a rich suite of +organic remains. In the Pentland Hills the folded and denuded +Silurian strata are covered unconformably by Lower Old Red +Sandstone rocks, comprising conglomerates and red sandstones, +which are succeeded by a great volcanic series, the latter extending +from the West Kip Hill to the Braid Hills. The pebbles of the basal +conglomerates are derived chiefly from the underlying platform of +greywackes and shales and from the Radiolarian cherts and volcanic +rocks in the tableland to the south. The contemporaneous igneous +rocks include olivine basalts, andesites, trachytes, rhyolites and tuffs, +which are pierced by the microgranite of the Black Hill and by +several vents filled with agglomerate, as near Swanston.</p> + +<p>The Upper Old Red Sandstone rests unconformably on all older +formations. The red sandstones and cornstones of this division form +the Cairn Hills, and are traceable north-eastwards along the north-west +slope of the Pentland Hills towards the Clubbiedean reservoir, +where they are overlapped by Carboniferous strata. They occupy +the south part of the city of Edinburgh, they occur in the lower slope +of Salisbury Crags, and south by Craigmillar and Liberton towards +Mortonhall. Recently the horizon of these beds has been proved +by the discovery of fish remains (<i>Holoptychius</i>), a zonal form of the +Upper Old Red Sandstone. The remainder of the county embracing +the fertile low ground west of the city of Edinburgh and along the +basin of the Esk is occupied by Carboniferous strata and various +igneous rocks associated with that formation. The Pentland Hills, +formed of older Palaeozoic deposits, appear as a prominent ridge, +throwing off the Carboniferous beds to the north-west and south-east. +In the former direction only the Calciferous Sandstone series +is represented, and in the latter all the Carboniferous divisions are +well developed. The lowest subdivision of the Calciferous Sandstone +series, consisting of sandstones, red and green shales, marls and +cement-stones, appears in the ridge of the old part of the city between +the Castle and Holyrood, in the Hunter’s Bog and on the north-west +side of the Pentland Hills. Intercalated in this series near the top, +there are interbedded volcanic rocks, comprising olivine basalts, +mugearites, tuffs and agglomerates, which form conspicuous features +on Arthur’s Seat, on Calton Hill, at Craiglockhart and Corston Hill +south of Mid Calder. Next in order come the Granton sandstones +and Wardie shales, which are best seen on the shore at Granton, +and extend up the Water of Leith in the direction of Colinton, where +they are succeeded by the Hailes sandstone. The upper portion of +the Calciferous Sandstone series, overlying the Hailes sandstone, +embraces the valuable oil-shales, which give rise to one of the chief +industries of the Lothians. Recently, however, it has been proved +that some of the bands in the Wardie shales give a low yield of oil +and sulphate of ammonia. The oil-shale-fields in the county lie +partly along its west margin from Mid Calder south to Breich and +also on the south-east side of the Pentland Hills between Straiton +and Carlops along the west side of the Midlothian basin. From an +economic point of view the Midlothian coalfield is of special importance, +the strata being arranged in a syncline, the long axis of which +trends north-north-east and south-south-west. In the centre of the +basin lie the Coal-Measures covered by the barren red sandstone of +Dalkeith, probably on the same horizon as the red sandstones of +Wemyss in Fife (Middle Coal-Measures). The underlying Millstone +Grit and Carboniferous Limestone series with its middle-coal-bearing +group rise from underneath the Coal-Measures, forming parallel bands +curving round the basin. Along the west side of the syncline, the +strata dip at high angles to the south-east, are sometimes vertical +and even in some cases inverted, while in the centre they become +flat and rise at gentle angles towards the east. The Coal Measures +and the coal-bearing group of the Carboniferous Limestone series +contain numerous valuable coals and ironstones, and there still +remains a large field for development. The intrusive igneous rocks +forming prominent features in the county are divisible into two +main groups, which are separated from each other by a considerable +interval of time. The coarse agglomerate filling the old volcano on +the top of Arthur’s Seat is associated with the eruption of the volcanic +rocks of Calciferous Sandstone age near Edinburgh. The fine grained +basalt appearing as a plug on the Castle Rock closely resembles the +basalt on the top of Arthur’s Seat, and is likewise of the same age. +The intrusive sheets of Salisbury Crags and Corstorphine Hill composed +of olivine-dolerite belong to the same general period. But the +quartz-dolerites represented by the Ratho sill are in all probability +of late Carboniferous age.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—In the hill country the average +rainfall is 37.4 in., but on the coast only 28.4 in. The average +temperature ranges from 38° F. in January to 59°.5 in July, +the mean for the year being 47.7. The north-east and easterly +winds prevailing in spring are, especially in Edinburgh and its +vicinity, remarkable for their cold and blighting character. +Excepting in the uplands, snow seldom lies long, but frosts +sometimes occur at night as late as the beginning of June, and +severe enough to destroy the young shoots of seedling trees in +nurseries. But the winter is often astonishingly mild. The +common snowdrop (<i>Galanthus nivalis</i>) blossoms as early as the +25th of January, the kidney liverleaf (<i>Hepatica triloba</i>) by the +31st of January and the rhododendron (<i>R. nobleanum</i>) by the +25th of February. On the shores of the Forth along the Almond +and the Esk, and on some of the richer flats, grain crops ripen +early; 2 m. nearer the hills and 200 ft. higher the harvest is +ten days later; and at 600 ft. still another week later. High +farming is the rule in the three Lothians. All the area on which +wheat can be profitably grown is so occupied; oats, however, +is the predominant grain crop, though barley is also raised. +Turnips and potatoes are the chief roots, and beans are grown +to a limited extent. A large area is occupied by pasture and +sown grasses, fallow land having practically disappeared. Near +Edinburgh sewage farming has been largely developed. There +are 200 acres at Craigentinny between Restalrig and the Forth, +besides smaller tracts under similar treatment at Lochend, Dalry +and the Grange. The produce consists principally of natural +grasses. Sheep and cattle raising is an important pursuit. In +the neighbourhood of the capital dairy farming is conducted +on an extensive scale. Horse breeding flourishes, several of the +studs being of excellent character, Clydesdales predominating. +Pig-keeping has grown considerably and poultry-farming is +carried on near Edinburgh. The nursery gardens are extensive, +and, besides market gardening, which prospers near the capital, +there are many orchards.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—Though as a whole not a mining county, +Midlothian possesses some mineral wealth. Coal is extensively +mined at various points on the North Esk, like Penicuik, +Loanhead, Bonnyrigg, Eskbank and at Gorebridge, Newbattle, +Newbigging, Niddrie, Gilmerton, Mid and West Calder. Ironstone +is obtained chiefly at Lasswade and Penicuik and fire-clay +occurs at various points. In the vicinity of West Calder there +is a large amount of valuable oil-bearing shale. Limestone is of +frequent occurrence—at Esperston, Cousland, Crichton near +Dalkeith, Burdiehouse, Gilmerton near Edinburgh, the Camps +in Kirknewton parish, and at Muirieston and Leven Seat in the +south-west. Freestone is quarried at Craigleith, Hailes, Redhall +and Craigmillar. It is used for pavements and stairs, and for +the great docks at Leith. Barnton Mount supplies large blocks +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span> +of whinstone, also used for docks and for fortifications; the +causeway stones for the streets of Edinburgh are mainly procured +from the quarries at Ratho; and a number of smaller quarries +for the supply of road-material are scattered throughout the +county. Owing no doubt to the growth of printing and publishing +in the metropolis, the chief manufacturing industry in Midlothian +is paper-making. Most of the mills are extensive and +equipped with the most modern processes and have an enormous +yearly output. The most important mills, some of them dating +from the beginning of the 18th century, are situated on the +North Esk between Penicuik and Musselburgh, and on the +South Esk at Newbattle. At Balerno, Currie, Colinton and +elsewhere on the Water of Leith there are several mills, as well +as near Mid Calder and at Portobello. The ancient vat-mill +called Peggy’s Mill, at Cramond, produces handmade papers. +There are carpet factories on the Esk at Roslin and at +Lasswade. The manufacture of gunpowder is also carried on +at Roslin, the works being distributed in recesses on the Esk. +Iron foundries exist at Dalkeith, Westfield, Loanhead, Penicuik, +Millerhill and in the suburbs of Edinburgh; brick and tile works +at Portobello, Millerhill, Newbattle, Bonnyrigg and Rosewell; +and candle works at Dalkeith and Loanhead. Leather also is +tanned at Edinburgh and Dalkeith. The shipping trade is +concentrated at Leith and Granton, and Newhaven is still an +important fishery centre, while there are also fleets at Fisherrow +and Granton.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government.</i>—The population in 1891 was +434,276, and in 1901 488,796, of whom 5765 spoke both Gaelic +and English, and 75 Gaelic only. The chief towns, besides +Edinburgh, the capital (pop. in 1901, 316,837), are Bonnyrigg +(1924), Dalkeith (6812), Leith (77,439), Loanhead (3071), +Musselburgh (11,711), Newton Grange (2406), Penicuik (3574), +and West Calder (2652). The county forms a single parliamentary +constituency, exclusive of Edinburgh city and Leith +burghs. It has been divided by the county council into four +county districts (Calder, Gala Water, Lasswade, Suburban) for +the purposes of the Roads and Bridges Act 1878, and the Public +Health Acts. The management of special districts formed for +water supply, drainage and other sanitary purposes is entrusted +to sub committees appointed by the respective district committees. +The grant under the Local Taxation (Customs and +Excise) Act is administered by the Technical Education Committee +appointed by the Council; and, subject to the same +authority, the Secondary Education Committee provides for the +distribution of the grant under the Local Taxation (Scotland) Act. +In respect of education the shire is under school-board jurisdiction.</p> + +<p><i>History and Antiquities.</i>—Cramond was once a Roman seaport, +and various objects of Roman art and workmanship have been +discovered in its vicinity and along the banks of the Almond. +On several heights are remains of early military works—the most +important being that on Dalmahoy Hill, Braidwood Castle in +the parish of Penicuik, and Castle Greg on the Harburn estate in +Mid Calder parish. Picts’ houses are found at Crichton Mains, +at Borthwick Castle, near Middleton House and elsewhere, the +first being especially interesting from the fact that some of the +stones bear marks of Roman masonry. There are hut-circles +and a fort on Kaimes Hill, near Ratho; a large tumulus, with +three upright stones, at Old Liston; a smaller tumulus at +Newbattle; a cistvaen or stone burial chest at Carlowrie; and +standing stones at Lochend, at Comiston (the Caiy stone), and +the “Cat Stane” near Kirkliston. Temple, on the South Esk, +was at one time the chief seat of the Knights Templars in Scotland +for whom David I. here built a church, now in ruins.</p> + +<p>The history of the county is almost identical with that of the +capital. Traces of Celtic occupation are obvious in such names +as Inveresk, Almond, Leith, Dalry, Dalmahoy, Dalkeith and +others; though most of the villages, hamlets and castles received +their present designation from Saxon possessors. The termination +<i>ton</i> is very frequent. Following upon the withdrawal +of the Romans the land was the scene of intertribal strife, but +it was in a measure subdued by the Saxons and passed under the +rule of the Northumbrian kings, who held it till 1020, when the +Lothians were handed over to the Scottish king, Malcolm II. +The people of the Lothians, however, stipulated that they were +to retain their manners and customs, and in this way the south-eastern +lowlands became the centre from which Anglo-Saxon +and Norman civilization gradually spread throughout Scotland, +and hence, too, was assured the pre-eminence of Edinburgh. +Within the county lie the battlefields of Roslin, where (in 1303) +the English suffered three reverses in one day; Burghmuir, +where the English were defeated by the earl of Moray in 1334; +Pinkie near Inveresk, where (in 1547) the duke of Somerset +inflicted heavy loss upon the Scots; and Rullion Green, on the +eastern slopes of the Pentlands, where (in 1666) the Covenanters +were routed by the royal troops under General Dalziel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See James Grant, <i>Old and New Edinburgh</i> (London, 1880 et seq.); +Miss Warrender, <i>Walks near Edinburgh</i> (Edinburgh, 1890); J.C. +Oliphant, <i>Rambles round Edinburgh</i> (Edinburgh, 1892); J.M. Bell, +<i>Castles of the Lothians</i> (Edinburgh, 1893); W. Baird, <i>Annals of +Duddingston and Portobello</i> (Edinburgh, 1898); J. Geddie, <i>The +Water of Leith</i> (Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. J. Dickson, <i>Ruined Castles +of Midlothian</i> (Edinburgh, 1895); <i>The Islands of the Forth</i> (Edinburgh +1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDISON, THOMAS ALVA<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1847-  ), American inventor, +was born on the 11th of February 1847, at Milan, Erie county, +Ohio, of mixed Dutch and Scottish descent; but his parents +moved to Port Huron, Michigan, when he was seven years old. +At the age of twelve he became a train news-boy on the railway +to Detroit, and managed to gratify his youthful interest in +chemistry by performing experiments while travelling. At +fifteen he became a telegraph operator, and was employed in +many cities in the United States and Canada, but frequently +neglected his duties in order to carry on studies and experiments +in electrical science. Before he was twenty-one he had constructed +an automatic repeater, by means of which a message could be +transferred from one wire to another without the aid of an +operator; and he had also directed his attention to the problem +of duplex telegraphy, of which he later invented a successful +system. In 1869 Edison came to New York city, and soon +afterwards became connected with the Gold & Stock Company. +He invented an improved printing telegraph for stock quotations, +for which he received $40,000. He then established a laboratory +and factory in Newark, N.J., for further experiments and for +the manufacture of his inventions. In 1876 he removed to +Menlo Park, and later to West Orange, N.J., where he continued +his experiments. Since then his name has been prominently associated +with all kinds of novelties in practical electricity. Among +his principal inventions are his system of duplex telegraphy, +which he later developed into quadruplex and sextuplex transmission; +his carbon telephone transmitter; the microtasimeter, +for the detection of small variations in temperature; the phonograph, +which records and reproduces all manner of sounds; the +cinematograph, which his improvements made practicable; and +his method of preparing carbon filaments for the incandescent +electric lamp. In 1878 Edison was made a chevalier of the +Legion of Honour by the French government.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDMONTON,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the capital city of the province of Alberta, +Canada, which was constituted in 1905. Pop. (1901) 2652; +(1906) 11,167. It is picturesquely situated on the north bank +of the North Saskatchewan river in 113° 37′ W. and 53° 32′ N. +It is on a high tableland which rises 200 ft. above the river, and +overlooks the thickly wooded valley of the North Saskatchewan +river—at this point a mile in width, the river itself being one-eighth +of a mile wide. Directly opposite Edmonton on the +south bank of the river stands Strathcona, a town with a population +of 2927. The streets of Edmonton are wide and laid out in +rectangular form. Its excellent drainage makes street grading +an easy matter. In 1896 it was scarcely a village; in 1901 it +assumed some importance, but three-quarters of the city were +built between 1901 and 1906. Its choice as capital in 1905 gave +it a great impetus. The buildings, largely of brick, give a +substantial appearance to the place. The public school buildings, +high school and Alberta College are attractive. The church +buildings, many in number, include several architecturally +beautiful. Three well planned and commodious hospital +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span> +buildings represent the benevolent work of the community. The +banks and the wholesale warehouses are well built, and many +beautiful private residences are worthy of note. Its growth may +be realized from the fact that during a part of 1906, $806,015 +worth of building permits were granted; the customs receipts, +$57,994 in 1905, grew to $104,416 in 1906; the mail parcels +handled increased from 6800 to 12,079; and the express parcels +handled from 1277 to 2347. Edmonton is the depot of the fur +traders for the great region on the north and west. The Hudson’s +Bay Company has great interest in Edmonton, but is vigorously +opposed by a strong French firm, Revillon Frères of Paris. +These two companies have their posts wide spread over the +north country. The city, being incorporated, is governed by a +mayor and a board of aldermen. It operates its own water +service, electric light plant, and telephone system. Its schools +are managed by an elected public school board.</p> + +<p>Edmonton was begun as a post of the North West Company +about the year 1778. Early in the 19th century the Hudson’s +Bay Company also established a fort at this point. On the +union of the two companies under the name of the latter, Fort +Edmonton sprang into new importance. It became a north-western +centre, and in its neighbourhood many employees of +the fur company, both Scottish and French, took up land as +settlers. As freighters for the Hudson’s Bay Company many +of these settlers made, with their ox or pony carts, the long +journey over the natural prairie roads to Fort Garry, fording +or swimming the streams, carrying furs for a thousand miles or +more on the eastern trip, and returning brought loads of +merchandise for the company. Its inaccessibility made the +Edmonton settlement grow very slowly, so that its great +increase in population belongs to the period subsequent to 1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDMONTON,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> an urban district in the Enfield parliamentary +division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 7½ m. N. +of London Bridge, on the Old North Road, on the west side of +the Lea Valley. Pop. (1891) 25,381; (1901) 46,899. There are +numerous factories in the valley, and Edmonton consists largely +of the cottages of artisans. The church of All Saints has been +extensively restored, but retains part of the ancient fabric of +Perpendicular and earlier date. It contains brasses of interest, +and in the churchyard is the memorial of Charles Lamb, who +lived and died (1834) at Edmonton, and his sister. Cowper and +Keats were also residents, and the Bell Inn is famed through +Cowper’s poem <i>John Gilpin</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDMUND, SAINT<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Edmund Rich</span>] (d. 1240), English saint +and archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Abingdon, near +Oxford, about 1175. His father was a merchant of that town +who retired, with his wife’s consent, to the monastery of Eynsham, +leaving in her hands the education of their family. Her name was +Mabel; she was a devout woman who lived an ascetic life and +encouraged her children to do the same. Both her daughters +took the veil; three of her sons served the church in different +capacities. Edmund, her first-born, began his education in a +grammar school at Oxford. Of weak health and a contemplative +disposition, he showed, from his earliest years, a remarkable +taste for learning and religious exercises. He saw visions while +still at school, and at the age of twelve took a vow of perpetual +chastity in the Virgin’s church at Oxford. Later he was sent, +with his brother Robert, to study the liberal arts at Paris. His +mother’s death and family affairs recalled him for a time to +England; but he afterwards graduated at Paris. For six years +he lectured in the liberal arts, partly in Paris and partly in +Oxford; his career as an Oxford teacher commenced before +1205, and is noteworthy for the fact that he was the first who +lectured there on Aristotle. He then returned to Paris for a +course of theological studies, and rapidly made himself proficient +in that branch of learning.</p> + +<p>After spending a year in retirement with the Augustinian canons +of Merton (Surrey) he became a theological lecturer in Oxford. +In this capacity he gained some reputation, and it is related +that his audience were often moved to tears by his eloquence. +He spent the fees which he received in charity, and refused to +spend upon himself the revenues which he derived from several +benefices. He not infrequently retired for solitude to Reading +Abbey; it is probable that he would have become a monk if +that profession had afforded more scope for his gifts as a preacher +and expositor. As his fame increased he became alarmed by +the temptations which it threw in his way. He ceased to lecture +in Oxford, and about 1222 accepted, at the invitation of Bishop +Richard Poore, the treasurership of Salisbury cathedral. Little +is known of his life for the next ten years. But he attracted +the notice of the Roman court, and was appointed in 1227 to +preach the Crusade in England; he formed a friendship with +Ella, countess of Salisbury, and her husband, William Longsword, +and he won general admiration by his works of charity and the +austerity of his life.</p> + +<p>In 1233 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury at the express +suggestion of Gregory IX., after the monks of Canterbury had +in vain suggested three other candidates for the pope’s approval. +Edmund at once leaped into prominence by the outspoken +manner in which he rebuked the king for following the advice +of foreign favourites. In common with the baronial opposition +he treated Henry III. as responsible for the tragic fate of Richard +Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and threatened the king with excommunication. +The king bowed before the storm, dismissed +the foreign counsellors, made peace with Marshal’s adherents, +and was publicly reconciled with the barons. But the new +ministers were as unpopular as the old; nor was the archbishop +allowed that political influence which he claimed in virtue of his +office. It was with the object of emancipating himself from +Edmund’s control that the king asked the pope to send him a +legate (1236). On the arrival of Cardinal Otho (1237) the archbishop +found himself thwarted and insulted at every point. +The marriage between Simon de Montfort and the Princess +Eleanor, which Edmund had pronounced invalid, was ratified +at Rome upon appeal. The king and legate upheld the monks +of Canterbury in their opposition to the archbishop’s authority. +On all public occasions the legate took precedence of the archbishop. +By the advice of his suffragans Edmund laid a protest +before the king, and excommunicated in general terms all who +had infringed the liberties of Canterbury. These measures led +to no result; nor could the pope be moved to reverse the legate’s +decisions. Edmund complained that the discipline of the +national church was ruined by this conflict of powers, and began +to meditate retiring. He was confirmed in this intention by the +papal encroachments of the year 1240, when the English clergy +were required to pay a subsidy of a fifth for the war against +Frederick II., and simultaneously three hundred Romans were +“provided” with English benefices in return for their political +services to the Holy See. Edmund withdrew to Pontigny in +the summer of 1240. A little later the state of his health compelled +him to seek the cooler air of Soissy (near Provins). Here +he died on the 16th of November 1240.</p> + +<p>His canonization was at once demanded by his admirers, and +only delayed (till 1247) through the opposition of Henry III. The +honour was well deserved. He is one of the most saintly and +attractive figures in the history of the English church. It was +his misfortune to be placed at the head of the national hierarchy +in a crisis for which he had not been prepared by practical +training or experience. As archbishop he showed no great +capacity or force of character; but the purity of his motives +and the loftiness of his ideals commanded universal respect.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the Life printed by Martène and Durand in the <i>Thesaurus +novus anecdotorum</i> (1717). Other lives of importance exist in +manuscript at the British Museum, in the Cambridge University +library and in that of St John’s College, Cambridge. The last-named +is printed by W. Wallace in the appendix to his <i>Life of St Edmund</i> +(1893). An account of the manuscript lives and many extracts +(translated) will be found in the Rev. B. Ward’s <i>St Edmund</i> (1903). +See also <i>St Edmund of Abingdon</i> (1898), by the Baroness Paravicini; +and the <i>English Historical Review</i>, xxii. pp. 84 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDMUND,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> king of East Anglia (<i>c.</i> 840-870), succeeded to +the East Anglian throne in 855 while he was yet but a boy. +According to Abbo, followed by Florence of Worcester, he was +“<i>ex antiquorum Saxonum prosapia</i>,” which would seem to mean +that he was of foreign origin and that he belonged to the Old +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span> +Saxons of the continent. This very doubtful tradition was +expanded later into a fuller legend which spoke of his Old Saxon +parentage, his birth at Nuremberg, his nomination as successor +to Offa, king of East Anglia, and his landing at Hunstanton to +claim his kingdom. His coronation took place in the next year +at “Burna” (<i>i.e.</i> probably Bures St Mary, Suffolk), which was +then the royal capital.</p> + +<p>Of the life of St Edmund during the next fourteen years +we know nothing. In the year 870 the Danes, who had been +wintering at York, marched through Mercia into East Anglia +and took up their quarters at Thetford. Edward engaged them +fiercely in battle, but the Danes under their leaders Ubba and +Inguar were victorious and remained in possession of the field +of battle. The king himself was slain, whether on the actual +field of battle or in later martyrdom is not certain, but the widely +current version of the story which makes him fall a martyr to +the Danish arrows when he had refused to renounce his faith or +hold his kingdom as a vassal from the heathen overlords, may +very probably be true. The story is a very old one, and according +to Abbo of Fleury (945-1004), St Edmund’s earliest biographer, +it was told him by Dunstan, who heard it from the lips of +Edmund’s own standard-bearer. This is chronologically just +possible, but that is all. The battle was fought at Hoxne, some +20 m. south-east of Thetford, and the king’s body was ultimately +interred at Beadoricesworth, the modern Bury St Edmunds. +The shrine of Edmund soon became one of the most famous in +England and the reputation of the saint was European. The +date of his canonization is unknown, but churches dedicated to +his memory are found all over England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Asser’s Life of Alfred</i>, ed. W.H. Stevenson; <i>Annals of St +Neots</i>; <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>; <i>Memorials of St Edmund’s Abbey</i> (Rolls +Series), including the <i>Passio Sancti Edmundi</i> of Abbo of Fleury; +and the <i>Corolla Sancti Eadmundi</i>, edited by Lord Francis Hervey +(1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDMUND I.,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> king of the English (d. 946), was the son of +Eadgifu, third wife of Edward the Elder, and half-brother to +his predecessor Æthelstan. He succeeded to the throne in 940, +but had already played an active part in the previous reign, +especially when he fought by the side of his half-brother in the +great battle of Brunanburh.</p> + +<p>In the first year of his reign Edmund had trouble with Olaf +or Anlaf Sihtricsson, called Cuaran. The latter had just crossed +from Ireland and had been chosen king by the Northumbrians, +who threw off their allegiance to Edmund. Anlaf took York, +besieged Northampton and destroyed Tamworth, but was met +by Edmund at Leicester. The enemy escaped, but a peaceful +settlement was made by the good offices of Odo of Canterbury +and Wulfstan of York. Simeon of Durham states that a division +of the kingdom was now made, whereby Edmund took England +south of Watling Street and Anlaf the rest. This division seems +incredible, especially in face of the poem inserted in the chronicle +(<i>sub anno</i> 942). There can be little doubt that the story told +there of the reconquest of Northern Mercia by Edmund refers +to the compact with Anlaf, made as a result of the campaign, +and it is probable that Simeon’s statement is a wide exaggeration, +due in part at least to a confused reminiscence of the earlier pact +between Alfred and Guthrum. All Mercia south of a line from +Dore (near Sheffield), through Whitwell to the Humber, was now +in Edmund’s hands, and the five Danish boroughs, which had +for some time been exposed to raids from the Norwegian kings +of Northumbria, were now freed from that fear. The peace was +confirmed by the baptism of Kings Anlaf and Rægenald, Edmund +standing as sponsor, but in 944 or 945 the peace was broken and +Edmund expelled Anlaf and Rægenald from Northumbria.</p> + +<p>In 945 Edmund ravaged Strathclyde, and entrusted it all to +Malcolm, king of Scotland, “on condition that he should be his +fellow-worker by sea and land,” the object of this policy being +apparently to detach the king of Scots from any possible confederacy +such as had been formed in 937.</p> + +<p>On the 26th of May 946 Edmund’s brief but energetic reign +came to a tragic conclusion when he was stabbed at the royal +villa of Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by an exiled robber +named Liofa, who had returned to the court unbidden. Edmund, +the “deed-doer” as the chronicle calls him, “Edmundus +magnificus” as Florence of Worcester describes him, perhaps +translating the Saxon epithet, was buried at Glastonbury, an +abbey which he had entrusted in 943 to the famous Dunstan.</p> + +<p>Edmund was twice married; first to Ælfgifu, the mother of +Eadwig and Edgar; second to Æthelflæd “æt Damerhame” +(<i>i.e.</i> of Damerham, Co. Wilts). Ælfgifu died in 944, according +to Ethelwerd.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Earle and Plummer, +Oxford); <i>Simeon of Durham</i> (Rolls Series); <i>A.S. Laws</i>, ed. Liebermann, +pp. 184-191; Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, Nos. 745-817; +<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, s.v.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDMUND,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Eadmund</span> (<i>c.</i> 980-1016), called <span class="sc">Ironside</span>, king +of the English, was the son of Æthelred II. by his first wife +Ælfgifu. When Canute invaded England in 1015, Edmund +sought to resist him, but, paralysed by the treachery and desertion +of the ealdorman Edric, he could do nothing, and Wessex +submitted to the Danish king. Next year Canute and Edric +together harried Mercia, while Edmund with infinite difficulty +gathered an army. Returning into Northumbria, he in his turn +harried the districts which had submitted to the invader, but a +march northward by Canute brought about the speedy submission +of Northumbria and the return of Edmund to London. +The death of Æthelred on the 23rd of April 1016 was followed +by a double election to the English crown. The citizens of +London and those members of the Witan who were present in the +city chose Edmund, the rest of the Witan meeting at Southampton +elected Canute. In the warfare which ensued Edmund +fought at the severest disadvantage, for his armies dispersed +after every engagement, whatever its issue. Canute at once +fiercely besieged London, but the citizens successfully resisted +all attacks. Edmund meanwhile marched through Wessex +and received its submission. At Pen in Somersetshire he engaged +the Danes and defeated them. Canute now raised the siege of +London and soon afterwards encountered Edmund at Sherston +in Wiltshire. The battle was indecisive, but Canute marched +back to London and left Edmund in possession of Wessex. +Edmund hastened after him and relieved London, which he had +again besieged. He defeated the Danes at Brentford and again +at Otford, and drove them into Sheppey. He was now joined +by Edric, in conjunction with whom he followed the Danes into +Essex, overtaking them at Assandun (or Ashington). In the +battle which ensued Edric again played the traitor, and the +English were routed with terrible slaughter. Edmund retired +into Gloucestershire, whither he was followed by Canute. He +himself was anxious to continue the struggle, but Edric and the +Witan persuaded him to accept a reconciliation. At Olney +the two rivals swore friendship, and a division of the kingdom +was effected—Canute taking the north, Edmund the south. +Soon afterwards Edmund died (30th of November 1016), probably +from natural causes, though later historians hint at foul +play.</p> +<div class="author">(C. S. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDMUND,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> king of Sicily and earl of Lancaster (1245-1296), +was the second son of Henry III. of England by Eleanor of +Provence. At ten years of age Edmund was invested by Pope +Alexander IV. with the kingdom of Sicily (April 1255); the +pecuniary obligations which Henry III. undertook on his son’s +behalf were not the least among the causes which led to the +Provisions of Oxford and the Barons’ War. Alexander annulled +his grant in 1258, but still pressed Henry for the discharge of +unpaid arrears of subsidies. In 1265, after Montfort’s fall, +Edmund received the earldom of Leicester, and two years later +was created earl of Lancaster. He joined the crusade of his elder +brother, the Lord Edward (1271-1272); and Edward, on his +accession, found in Edmund a loyal supporter. In 1275, two +years after the death of his first wife, Aveline de Fortibus, +Edmund married Blanche of Artois, the widow of Henry III. +of Navarre and Champagne. Although the county of Champagne +had descended to his wife’s infant daughter, Joan, Edmund +assumed the title “Count Palatine of Champagne and Brie,” +and is described in the English patent rolls as earl of Lancaster +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span> +and Champagne. Until 1284 he held, in his wife’s right, the +custody of Champagne. This he was compelled to renounce upon +the marriage of Joan to Philip the Fair, the heir to the crown +of France. But he retained the possession of his wife’s dowerlands +in Champagne, and is described in an official document +of Champagne so late as the year 1287, as “the Count Edmund.” +He was employed by his brother as a mediator with Philip the +Fair in 1293-1294. When Philip’s court pronounced that the +king of England had forfeited Gascony, Edmund renounced his +homage to Philip and withdrew with his wife to England. He +was appointed lieutenant of Gascony in 1296, but died in the +same year, leaving a son Thomas to succeed him in his English +possessions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Edmund, Earl of Lancaster,” by W.E. Rhodes, in the +<i>English Historical Review</i>, vol. x. pp. 19, 209.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1828-  ), American +lawyer and political leader, was born in Richmond, Vermont, +on the 1st of February 1828. He began the practice of law in +1849. He was a member of the Vermont House of Representatives +in 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858 and 1859, acting for the last two +years as speaker, and was a member and president <i>pro tem.</i> +of the state Senate in 1861-1862. In 1866 he became a member, +as a Republican, of the United States Senate, where he remained +until 1891, when he resigned in order to have more time for the +practice of his profession. He took an active part in the attempt +to impeach President Johnson. He was influential in providing +for the electoral commission to decide the disputed presidential +election of 1876, and became one of the commissioners. In +the national Republican nominating conventions of 1880 and +1884 he was a candidate for the presidential nomination. From +1882 to 1885 he was president <i>pro tem.</i> of the Senate. As senator +he was conspicuous on account of his legal and parliamentary +attainments, his industry and his liberal opinions. He was the +author of the so-called Edmunds Act (22nd of March 1882) for +the suppression of polygamy in Utah, and of the anti-trust law +of 1890, popularly known as the Sherman Act.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDOM,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> the district situated to the south of Palestine, between +the Dead Sea and the Gulf of ‘Akaba (Aelanitic Gulf), the +inhabitants of which were regarded by the Israelites as a +“brother” people (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Esau</a></span>). On the E. it touched Moab, +the tribes of the great desert and the northern part of Arabia; +on the W. its boundaries were determined by the Sinaitic peninsula, +Egypt and Israel. Both Kadesh and Mt. Hor (perhaps +Jebel Mādera) are represented as lying on its border (Num. xx. +16, 22), and the modern Wadi el-Fikreh, in which the “Scorpion +pass” was probably situated (Judg. i. 36; Num. xxxiv. 4), +may have marked its limits from Jebel Mādera north-west +towards the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. Kadesh +(<i>‘Ain Ḳadis</i>), however, lies about 50 m. south of Beersheba +(the southern end of Israel as opposed to Dan in the north), and +the precise borders must always have been determined by +political conditions: by the relations between Edom and its +neighbours, Judah, the Philistine states, Moab, and the restless +desert tribes with which Edom was always very closely allied.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The northern part of Edom became known by a separate name as +Gebalene (Gebal in Ps. lxxxiii. 7), the modern Jibāl, “mountain +country.” Seir or Mt. Seir, a synonym for Edom, not to be confused +with the Judaean locality (Josh. xv. 10), has been identified with +the modern <i>eš-šarah</i>, the hilly region to the south of Petra; though +its use probably varied in ancient times as much as that of Edom +certainly did. Mt. Ḥalaḳ, apparently one of its offshoots (Josh. xi. +17, xii. 7), is of uncertain identification, nor can the exact position +of Paran (probably desert of <i>et-Tih</i>) or Zin (Sin) be precisely determined. +The chief Edomite cities extended from north to south on +or adjoining an important trade-route (see below); they include +Bozrah (Buseire), Shōbek, Petra (the capital), and Ma‘ān; farther +to the south lay the important seaports Ezion-Geber (mod. ‘Ain el-Ghudyān, +now 15 m. north of the head of the Aelanitic Gulf) and +Elath (whence the gulf derives its name). Petra (<i>q.v.</i>) is usually +identified with the biblical Sela, unless this latter is to be placed at +the south end of the Dead Sea (Judg. i. 36). The sites of Teman and +Dedan, which also were closely associated with Edom (Jer. xlix. 7 seq.; +Ez. xxv. 13), are uncertain. No doubt, as a general rule, the relations +between Edomites and the “sons of the east” (Ezek. xxv. 10; Job +i. 3) and the “kingdoms of Hazor” (nomad states; Jer. xlix. 28, +30, 33) varied considerably throughout the period of O.T. history.</p> +</div> + +<p>The land of Edom is unfruitful and forbidding, with the +notable exception of fertile districts immediately south of the +Dead Sea and along its eastern border. It was traversed by an +important trade-route from Elath (the junction for routes to +Egypt and Arabia) which ran northwards by Ma’ān and Moab; +but cross-routes turned from Ma’ān and Petra to Gaza or up +the Ghor (south end of Dead Sea) to Hebron and Jerusalem.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +Thus Edom formed a prominent centre for traffic from Arabia +and its seats of culture to Egypt, the Philistine towns, +Palestine and the Syrian states, and it enjoyed a commercial +importance which made it a significant factor in Palestinian +history.</p> + +<p>The earliest history of Edom is that of the “sand-dwellers,” +“archers” or <i>Shasu</i> (perhaps “marauders”), whose conflicts +with ancient Egypt are not infrequently mentioned. The first +clear reference is in the eighth year of Mineptah II. (close of 13th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), when a tribe of Shasu from Aduma received +permission to enter Egypt and feed their flocks.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> A little more +than a century later Rameses III. claims to have overthrown +the Saaru among the tribes of the Shasu, and the identification +of this name with Seir is usually recognized, although it is +naturally uncertain whether the Edomites of Old Testament +tradition are meant. According to the latter, the Edomites +were a new race who drove out the Horites from Mt. Seir. The +designation suggests that these were “cave-dwellers,” but +although many caves and hollows have been found about Petra +(and also in Palestine), this tradition probably “serves only to +express the idea entertained by later generations concerning their +predecessors” (Nöldeke).</p> + +<p>Not only is Edom as a nation recognized as older than Israel, +but a list of eight kings, who reigned before the Israelite monarchy, +is preserved in Gen. xxxvi.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first Bela, son of Beor, is often identified with Balaam, but +the traditions of the Exodus are not precise enough to warrant the +assumption that the seer was the king of a hostile land in Num. xx. +14 sqq., which in Deut. ii. 1-8 appears to have been peaceful; see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balaam</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus</a></span>. In Husham, the third king, several scholars +(Grätz, Klostermann, Marquart, &c.) have recognized the true +adversary of Othniel (<i>q.v.</i>; Judg. iii.). The defeat of Midian in the +land of Moab by his successor Hadad has been associated with the +Midianite invasion in the time of Gideon (<i>q.v.</i>; Judg. vi. sqq.). The +sixth is Shaul, whose name happens to be identical with Saul, king of +Israel, whilst the last Hadad (so 1 Chron. i. 50) of Pau (or Peor in +Moab, so the Septuagint) should belong to the time of David. The +list, whatever its value, together with the other evidence in Gen. +xxxvi., implies that the Edomites consisted of a number of local +groups with chieftains, with a monarchy which, however, was not +hereditary but due to the supremacy of stronger leaders. The +tradition thus finds an analogy in the Israelite “judges” before the +time of Saul and David.</p> +</div> + +<p>Saul, the first king of Israel, conquered Edom (1 Sam. xiv. 47).<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +Of the conquest of Edom by David, the first king of the united +Judah and Israel, several details are given (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.; +1 Kings xi. 14 sqq.; 1 Chron. xviii. 11 seq.; cf. Ps. lx. title and +ver. 8 seq.), although the account of the slaughter is certainly +exaggerated. The scene was the valley of Salt, probably to the +south of the Dead Sea. Of the escape of the Edomite prince +Hadad, and of his residence in Egypt, a twofold account is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span> +preserved.<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> After the death of David he returned to Edom; if, +as the narrative implies, he became a troublesome adversary to +Solomon, nothing is known of his achievements, and if the royal +trading-journeys from Ezion-geber were maintained, Edom +could have done little. However, in the first half of the 9th +century Edom was under the rule of Jehoshaphat of Judah, and +this king together with Israel held Ezion-geber (1 Kings xxii. +47 sqq.; 2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.). But some catastrophe befell the +fleet, and shortly afterwards Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram had to +face a revolt in which Edom and the men of Libnah (the Philistines) +were concerned. It was about this period that Israel had +conquered Moab, thrusting it farther south towards Edom, and +the subsequent success of Moab in throwing off the yoke, and the +unsuccessful attempt of Jehoram of Israel to regain the position, +may show that Edom was also in alliance with Moab.<a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a> In the +time of Adad-nirari of Assyria (812-783 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Edom is mentioned +as an independent tributary with Beth-Omri (Israel) and +Palashtu (Philistia); the absence of Judah is perplexing. +Amaziah of Judah had gained a signal victory over Edom in the +valley of Salt (2 Kings xiv. 7), but after his defeat by Jehoash of +Israel there is a gap and the situation is obscure. Consequently +it is uncertain whether Edom was the vassal of the next great +Israelite king Jeroboam II., or whether the Assyrian evidence +for its independent position belongs to this later time. However, +Uzziah, a contemporary of Jeroboam II., and one of the most +successful of Judaean kings, overcame Edom and its natural +allies (2 Chron. xxvi. 6 sqq.), and at this stage Edomite history +becomes more prominent. It joined the great coalition in which +Philistia and Israel were leagued against Assyria, and drove out +the Judaeans who had been in possession of Elath.<a name="fa6h" id="fa6h" href="#ft6h"><span class="sp">6</span></a> On the +events that followed see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ahaz</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hezekiah</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philistines</a></span>. The +Assyrian inscriptions name as tributary kings of Edom, Kauš-melek +(time of Tiglath-Pileser IV.), Malik (?)-ram (701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and +Kauš-gabri (7th century). In the middle of the 7th century both +Edom and Moab suffered from the restlessness of the desert +tribes, and after another period of obscurity, they joined in +the attempt made by Zedekiah of Judah to revolt against +Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxvii. 3). In the last years before the fall of +Jerusalem many of the Jews found a refuge in Edom (Jer. xl. 11), +although other traditions throw another light upon the attitude of +Edom during these disasters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>That Edomites burned the temple after the destruction of Jerusalem +(1 Esd. iv. 45, cf. <i>v.</i> 50) is on a line with the repeated denunciation +of their “unbrotherly” conduct in later writings. Certainly +the weak state of Palestine invited attacks from the outlying tribes, +but the tone of certain late writings implies a preliminary period of, +at least, neutrality (cf. Deut. ii. 4 sqq., xxiii. 7 seq.; the omission of +Edom in xxiii. 3; Neh. xiii. 1; and in Ezra ix. 1—contrast 1 Esd. +viii. 69). Subsequently Edom is execrated for revengeful attacks +upon the Jews, and its speedy destruction is foretold; but the +passages appear to be much later than the disaster of 587 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and +may even imply conditions after the restoration (Ob. 10 sqq.; +Ezek. xxv. 12-14; Jer. xlix. 7; Ps. cxxxvii. 7; Lam. iv. 21 seq., +v. 2 sqq.). But at length the day of reckoning came (cf. Is. xxxiv. 5; +lxiii. 1-6), and the fate of Edom is still fresh in the mind of Malachi +(i. 1-5).</p> +</div> + +<p>The problem is complicated by the possibility that during the +ages over which the references can range many changes of fortune +could have occurred. The pressure of the Nabataeans (<i>q.v.</i>) forced +Edom to leave its former seats and advance into the south of +Judah with Hebron as the capital. This had been fully accomplished +by 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but the date of the first occupation cannot be +ascertained from the literary evidence alone. Thus the district +in question is Jewish in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. xi. 25-30), +but it is uncertain whether the Edomite occupation was earlier +(a fusion being assumed) or later, or whether the passage may +be untrustworthy. Henceforth, the new home of the Edomites +is consequently known as Idumaea. See, for further history, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Herod</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>.<a name="fa7h" id="fa7h" href="#ft7h"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>Although but little is known of the inhabitants of Edom, their +close relationship to Judah and their kinship with the surrounding +tribes invest them with particular interest. The ties which +united Lot (the “father” of Ammon and Moab), Ishmael, +Midian and Edom (Esau) with the southern tribes Judah and +Simeon, as manifested in the genealogical lists, are intelligible +enough on geographical grounds alone, and the significance of this +for the history of Judah and Palestine cannot be ignored. The +traditions recording the separation of Lot from Abraham, of +Hagar and Ishmael from Isaac, and of Esau from Jacob, although +at present arranged in a descending scheme of family relationship, +are the result of systematic grouping and cannot express any +chronological order of events (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genesis</a></span>). Many motives have +worked to bring these legends into their present form, and while +they depict the character of Israel’s wilder neighbours, they +represent the recurrent alternating periods of hostility and +fellowship between it and Edom which mark the history. Esau +(Edom) although the older, loses his superiority, and if the +oracles declare that the elder shall serve the younger (Jacob, <i>i.e.</i> +Israel), the final independence of Esau (Gen. xxv. 23, xxvii. 39 +seq.), as foretold, obviously alludes to some successful Edomite +revolt. As an enemy, Edom in alliance with the tribes along the +trade-routes (Philistines, Moabites, &c.) was responsible for many +injuries, and in frequent forays carried away Judaeans as slaves +for Gaza and Tyre (Am. i. 6 seq., 9). As an ally or vassal, it was in +touch with the wealth of Arabia (Ezek. xxvii. 16, read “Edom” +for “Aram”), and Judah and Israel as well as Gaza and Damascus +enjoyed the fruits of its commerce. In view of the evidence for +the advanced culture of early Arabia, the question of Edom is +extremely suggestive, and although speculation at this stage +would be premature, it is interesting to observe that Edomite and +allied tribes were famed for their wisdom,<a name="fa8h" id="fa8h" href="#ft8h"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and that apart from +the <i>possibility</i> of Arabian influence upon Israelite culture, the +influence of Midian and related tribes is <i>certain</i> from the traditions +of Moses and of his work (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jethro</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kenites</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moses</a></span>), and +the Edomite district was a traditional home of Yahweh himself +(Deut. xxxiii. 2; Judg. v. 4; Hab. iii. 3); see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hebrew Religion</a></span>. +It should be added, however, that the Edomite names +and other evidence point to the cult of other gods, viz. Baal, +Hadad, Malik (cf. <span class="sc">Moloch</span>), Kauš, or Kuš, and Kozeh (Jos. <i>Ant.</i> +xv. 7, 9), who was probably a sky or lightning deity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The names Esau and Edom are possibly old divine names; see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Esau</a></span> and <i>Ency. Bib.</i> <i>s.v.</i> “Obed edom” (the name appears to mean +“servant of Edom”). For Kauš, see Baethgen, <i>Beitr. z. semit. +Religionsgeschichte</i>, p. 11 seq.; G.A. Cooke, <i>N. Sem. Inscr.</i> p. 234; +<i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 2682, n. 2 and 2688 (<i>s.v.</i> “Kushaiah”); and Zimmern, +<i>Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test.</i><span class="sp">3</span>, pp. 472 seq. On the question of early +Arabian civilization see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yemen</a></span>. That the name Mizraim (Miṣraim), +“Egypt,” was extended eastwards of the Delta is in itself probable, +but it is still uncertain whether the term (also Ass. Muṣri) was +applied to Edom. The evidence (which is of mixed value) makes the +view a plausible one, but the theory has often been exaggerated +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mizraim</a></span>). For Edom see, generally, Buhl, <i>Gesch. d. Edomiter</i> +(1893); Nöldeke’s article in <i>Ency. Bib.</i>; W. Libbey and F.E. +Hoskins, <i>The Jordan Valley and Petra</i> (1905); the conjectural sketch +by I. Levy in <i>Rev. d’études juives</i> (Jan. 1906). For the history and +culture of the latest period, see J.P. Peters and Thiersch, <i>Painted +Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa</i> (1905), ch. i.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See further, E. Robinson, <i>Biblical Researches</i>, vol. ii.; E. Hull, +<i>Mt. Seir</i>; E.H. Palmer, <i>Desert of the Exodus</i>; Baedeker’s <i>Palestine +and Syria</i>; C.W. Wilson, “Quart. Stat.” (<i>Pal. Explor. Fund</i>), 1899, +p. 307, and G.A. Smith, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 5162 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In the old story of Sinuhit (ascribed to the 12th dyn.) the hero +visits the land of <i>Kedem</i>, which, it was suggested, lay to the south-east +or south of the Dead Sea; see, however, now A.H. Gardiner, <i>Sitz.-Ber.</i> +of the Berlin Academy, 1907, pp. 142 sqq. The suggestion +that the city Udumu, in the land of Gar, mentioned in the 15th +century (<i>Amarna Tablets</i>, ed. Winckler, No. 237), is Edom, Gar being +the Eg. <i>Kharu</i> (Palestine) and the O.T. Horites (see above), is extremely +hazardous. That the name Aduma (above) refers to Etham +(so Naville, &c.) is improbable.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> That the Edomites preserved this tradition of Saul’s sovereignty +and (from their standpoint) enrolled him among their kings (Gen. +xxxvi. 37) cannot of course be proved. The account of the ferocious +slaughter of the priests of Nob at Saul’s command by Doeg the +Edomite is a secondary tradition and probably of late origin (1 Sam. +xxi. 1-9, xxii. 6-23); cf. the hostility of Edom in exilic and post-exilic +times (p. 878, col. 1).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> 1 Kings l.c., see the Septuagint and, especially, H. Winckler, +<i>Alttest. Untersuch.</i>, pp. 1-15; C.F. Burney, <i>Kings</i>, pp. 158 sqq.; +J. Skinner, <i>Kings</i>, pp. 443 sqq.; Ed. Meyer, <i>Israeliten</i>, pp. 358 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> On 2 Kings iii. see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jehoram</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jehoshaphat</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moab</a></span>; and for +the biblical traditions relating to this period see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kings</a></span> (Book) and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>. The chronicler’s account of Judaean successes +(2 Chron. xvii. 10 seq.; xx.) and reverses (xxi. 16, xxii. 1) may rest +originally upon the source from which 1 Kings xxii. 47 seq.; 2 Kings +viii. 20, 22, have been abbreviated. It is hardly probable that there +was enmity between Edom and Moab as 2 Kings iii. now implies, +although hostile relations at other periods are likely (cf. Am. ii. 1); +for Edom in Moabite territory see above on Gen. xxxvi. and “Quart. +Stat.” (<i>Pal. Explor. Fund</i>), 1902, pp. 10 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6h" id="ft6h" href="#fa6h"><span class="fn">6</span></a> 2 Kings xvi. 6; on the text see the commentaries.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7h" id="ft7h" href="#fa7h"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For the Jewish hatred of Edom in later times see the book of +Enoch lxxxix. 11-12; Jubilees, xxxvii. 22 seq., and on the Talmudic +custom of applying to the Romans the references to Edom or Esau, +see <i>Jewish Ency.</i> vol. v. p. 41.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8h" id="ft8h" href="#fa8h"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Ob. 8; Jer. xlix. 7 sqq.; Baruch iii. 22, cf. 1 Kings iv. 30; +see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Job</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDRED<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Eadred</span>), king of the English (d. 955), was the +youngest son of Edward the Elder and his wife Eadgifu. He +succeeded his brother Edmund in the year 946 and at this time +received the formal submission both of the Northumbrians and +Scots. In the next year Edred himself went to Tanshelf, near +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span> +Pontefract, in Yorkshire, where he received from Wulfstan, archbishop +of York, and the Northumbrian “witan” confirmation of +their submission. Shortly after they threw their pledges to the +winds and took the Norwegian Eric Bloodaxe, son of Harold +Fairhair (Harald Harfagar), as their king. Edred recklessly +ravaged all Northumbria in revenge, burning Ripon during his +march. On his return home Edred’s rearguard was attacked at +Castleford, and the infuriated king once more turned to ravage +Northumbria, which was only saved by its abandonment of Eric +and by compensation made to Edred. Archbishop Wulfstan +seems to have been a centre of disaffection in the north, and in +952 Edred caused him to be imprisoned in the castle of “Judanburh,” +while in the same year the king, in revenge for the slaying +of Abbot Eadelm, slew many of the citizens of Thetford. After +the brief rule of Anlaf Cuaran in Northumbria, Eric was once +more restored, probably in 950, only to be expelled again in 953 +or 954, when Edred took the Northumbrian kingdom into his own +hands. In the same year Wulfstan was liberated and appointed +to the Mercian bishopric of Dorchester. Edred died on the 23rd +of November 955 at Frome, in Somersetshire, and was buried in +the old minster at Winchester. During the whole of his life +Edred was troubled by ill-health, a fact which may help to +explain some of the more passionate acts of violence attributed +to him. The king was throughout his life on terms of personal +intimacy with St Dunstan, and his public policy was largely +guided by that prelate and by his own mother Eadgifu. So far as +we know, Edred was never married.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The <i>Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Earle and Plummer, +Oxford), <i>sub ann.</i>; <i>Memorials of St Dunstan</i> (Rolls Series, ed. +Stubbs); Florence of Worcester; Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, vol. +iii., Nos. 815-834 and 860-931; <i>D.N.B.</i>, art. <i>sub voce</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDRIC,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Eadric</span>, <b>STREONA</b> (d. 1017), ealdorman of the +Mercians, was a man of ignoble birth who was advanced to high +dignity through the favour of the English king Æthelred II. In +1007 he became ealdorman of the Mercians, and subsequently +married Æthelred’s daughter Eadgyth. In the struggle between +the English and the Danes he appears in the character of an arch-traitor. +When Æthelred in 1009 proposed a great attack on the +Danes, Edric dissuaded him from carrying it into effect. Again, +on the invasion of England by Canute in 1015 Edric deserted +Edmund Ironside and joined him. After the battle of Otford he +returned to Edmund, but only by his treachery at the battle of +Assandun to secure the utter defeat of the national cause. When +peace was at length made, Canute restored to Edric the earldom +of Mercia; but at Christmas 1017, fearing further treachery, he +had him slain—“very rightly” says the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDUCATION.<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> In the following treatment of this subject, the +theory and early history of education is first dealt with, and +secondly the modern organization of education as a national +concern. Many definitions have been given of the word “education,” +but underlying them all is the conception that it denotes +an attempt on the part of the adult members of a human +society to shape the development of the coming generation in +accordance with its own ideals of life. It is true that the word has +not infrequently been used in wider senses than this. For +example, J.S. Mill included under it everything which “helps to +shape the human being”; and, with some poetic licence, we +speak of the education of a people or even of the whole human +race. But all such usages are rhetorical extensions of the +commonly accepted sense of the term, which includes, as an +essential element, the idea of deliberate direction and training +(Lat. <i>educare</i>, to bring up; <i>educere</i>, to draw out, lead forth). No +doubt, all education is effected through the experiences of the +educated, and much of it is indirect, consisting mainly in the +determination of the form of experiences other than those of +direct precept, compulsion and instruction. But it does not +follow that all experiences are educative. Whether an experience +is part of an individual’s education or not is determined by its +origin. Whatever be its effect, it is educative in so far as its form +has been arranged with greater or less deliberation by those who +are concerned with the training of him whose experience it is. It +follows that an education may be good or bad, and that its +goodness or badness will be relative to the virtue, wisdom and +intelligence of the educator. It is good only when it aims at the +right kind of product, and when the means it adopts are well +adapted to secure the intended result and are applied intelligently, +consistently and persistently.</p> + +<p>Education is, thus, a definitely personal work, and will vary +between wide extremes of effectiveness and worth in any given +society. For in all times and places there are wide differences in +virtue, wisdom and capacity among those who have in their +hands the care and nurture of the young. But the inference that, +therefore, no comparative estimate of the education of different +times and places can be made would be fallacious. For, despite +all differences in conception and efficiency among individual +educators, each expresses, more or less perfectly and clearly, the +common conception and energy of his age and country. As these +rise or fall the general level of the actual educative practice rises +or sinks with them. The first essential for successful educative +effort is, then, that the community as a whole should have a true +estimate of the nature and value of education.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Educational Theory</p> + +<p>In any comparative estimate of different places and times, as +tested by the standard just given, it must be borne in mind that, +except in the most general and abstract form, we cannot speak +of an ideally best education. Looking at the individual to be +educated, we may say with Plato that the aim of education is +“to develop in the body and in the soul all the beauty and all the +perfection of which they are capable,” but this leaves quite +undecided the nature and form of that beauty and perfection, and +on such points there has never been universal agreement at any +one time, while successive ages have shown marked differences of +estimate. We get nearer to the point when we reflect that +individual beauty and perfection are shown, and only shown, in +actual life, and that such life has to be lived under definite +conditions of time, place, culture, religion, national aspirations +and mastery over material conditions. Perfection of life, then, in +the Athens of the age of Plato would show a very different form +from that which it would take in the London or Paris of to-day. +So an individualistic statement of the purpose of education leads +on analysis to considerations that are not, in themselves, individualistic. +The personal life is throughout a relation between +individual promptings to activity and the environment in which +alone such promptings can, by being actualized, become part of +life. And the perfection of the life is to be sought in the perfection +of the relations thus established. So far, then, as any conception +of education can give guidance to the actual process it must be +relative in every way to the state of development of the society in +which it is given. Indeed, looked at in the mass, education may +be said to be the efforts made by the community to impose its +culture upon the growing generation. Here again is room for +difference. The culture in question may be accepted as absolute +at least in its essentials, and then the ideal of education will be to +secure its stability and perpetuation, or it may be regarded as a +stage in a process of development, and then the ideal will be to +facilitate the advance of the next generation beyond the point +reached by the present. So some ages will show a relatively +fixed conception of the educative process, others will be times of +unrest and change in this as in other modes of social and +intellectual life.</p> + +<p>It is in these latter times that the actual work of education +is apt to lose touch with the culture of the community. For +schools (<i>q.v.</i>) and universities (<i>q.v.</i>), which are the ordinary +channels through which adult culture reaches the young, are +naturally conservative and bound by tradition. They are slow +to leave the old paths which have hitherto led to the desired +goal, and to enter on new and untried ways. If the opposition to +change is absolute, there must come a time when the instruments +of education are out of true relation to the desired end. For +change in culture ideals means change in the specific form of +the goal of education, and consequently the paths of educative +effort need readjustment. When the goal of the past is no +longer the goal of the present, to follow the ways which led to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span> +the former is to fail to reach the latter. Continuous readjustment, +by small and almost imperceptible degrees, is the ideal at which +the educator should aim. When this is not secured, the educational +domain is liable to sudden and violent revolutions which +are destructive of successful educative effort at the time they +occur, however beneficial their results may be in the future.</p> + +<p>But the relation of adjustment is not entirely one-sided. +The tone of thought and feeling and the direction of will induced +by education necessarily affect the common ideals of the next +generation, and may make them better or worse than those of +the present. Hence, the educator must not blindly accept all +current views of life, but rather select the highest. For the +average thought of every community is obviously below its best +thought; and may, in some points at any rate, be lower than +the best thought of a past age. While, then, all true education +must be in direct relation with the culture of its age and country, +yet, especially on the ethical side, it should aim at transcending +the average thought and tone.</p> + +<p>Still more does this imply that education strives to transcend +the present condition of the educated by making their life more +rational, more volitional, and more attracted by goodness and +beauty than it would otherwise be. It can never be a passive +watching of the child’s development. No more fundamental +error can be made than the assumption that education can be +determined wholly, or even mainly, by the tendencies and impulses +with which a child is endowed. Its real guiding principle +must be a conception of the nature to which the child may attain, +not a knowledge of that with which it starts. The educator +studies the original endowment of the child and the early stages +in the development of that innate nature in order that he may, +wisely and successfully, employ appropriate means to direct +further development and to accelerate its progress towards a +more rational, complete and worthy life; not that he may the +more skilfully give facilities to the child to drift about on the +unregulated currents of caprice.</p> + +<p>Such considerations show the importance of an insight into +the theory of education on the part of all who are practically +concerned with its direction. But the theory required is no +system of abstract ideas ignoring the real concrete conditions +of the life for which the actual education it is to guide is a +preparation. To approach the subject only from the standpoint +of the mental sciences which underlie it is to run the risk of setting +up such a body of abstractions, whose relation to real life is +neither very close nor very direct. The most profitable way of +developing an educational theory for the present is to trace how +in the past education has consciously adapted itself, more or less +truly and fully, to the conditions of culture and social life; and +by analysis to discover the reasons for comparative success or +failure in the degree of clearness with which the end to be sought +was apprehended and the nature of the children to be trained +was understood.</p> + +<p>In all ages the claims of the individual and those of the community +have struggled for the mastery as the ultimate principles +of life. As one or the other has prevailed the conception of education +has emphasized social service or individual success as the +primary end. The true harmony of human life will only be +attained when these two impulses, contradictory on their own +level, are united in a higher synthesis which sees each as the +complement of the other in a life whose purpose is neither simple +egoism nor pure altruism. Until that conception of life is +attained and held generally there can be no sure and universally +accepted conception of the aim and function of education. Much +of the interest of the history of education<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> turns on the relation +of these two principles as determinants of its aim.</p> + +<p>In ancient Greece the supremacy of the state was generally +unquestioned, and, especially in the earlier times, the good man +was identified with the good citizen. No doubt, in +later days philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, +<span class="sidenote">Old Greek education.</span> +saw clearly that the round of the duties of citizenship +did not exhaust the life of the individual. With them the highest +life was one of cultured leisure in which the energies were mainly +concentrated on the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. +But this “diagogic” life was only for the select few; for the +undistinguished many the fulfilment by each of the duties of +his station remained the measure of worthy life, though such +duties were regarded as affecting the individual and private +relations of the citizens in a much more intimate way than in +former and ruder ages. And for those who devoted their lives +to the highest culture, the essential preliminary condition was +the existence of such a state as would form the most favourable +environment for their pursuits and the most stable foundation +for their leisured life. Thus Greek thought was saturated with +the conception of life as essentially a set of relations between +the individual and the city-state of which he formed an integral +part. The first aim of education was therefore to train the young +as citizens.</p> + +<p>This training must, of necessity, be of a specific kind; for, like +other small communities, the Greek city-states showed a life +fundamentally one in conception, under various specific forms. +Each state had its special character, and to this character the +education given in it must conform if it were to be an effective +instrument for training the citizens. From these fundamental +conceptions flowed the demands of Plato and Aristotle that +education should be regulated in all its details by the state +authority, should be compulsory on all free citizens, and should +be uniform—at any rate in its earlier stages—for all. In the +<i>Republic</i> and the <i>Laws</i>, Plato shows to what extreme lengths +theory may go when it neglects to take account of some of the +most pertinent facts of life. For the guardian-citizens of the +ideal state family life and family ties are abolished; no lower +community is to be allowed to enter into competition with the +state. Aristotle, indeed, did not go to these extreme lengths; +he allowed the family to remain, but he seems to have regarded +it as likely to affect children more for evil than for good.</p> + +<p>In the essential principles laid down by both philosophers as to +the relation of the state to education, and in the corollaries they +drew from that relation, they were not at variance with the +accepted Greek theory on the subject. It is true that the actual +practice of Greek states departed, and often widely, from this +ideal, for, especially in later centuries, the Greek always tended to +live his own life. The nearest approach to the theory was found +in Sparta, where the end of the state as a military organization +was kept steadily in view, and where, after early childhood, the +young citizens were trained directly by the state in a kind of +barrack life—the boys to become warriors, the girls the mothers +of warriors. It was this feature of Spartan education, together +with the rude simplicity of life it enforced, which attracted Plato, +and, to a less extent, Aristotle. In Athens there had of old been +state laws insisting on the attendance of the children of the free +citizens at school, and, in some degree, regulating the schools +themselves. But at the time of Plato these had fallen into +desuetude, and the state directly concerned itself only with +the training of the ephebi, for which, we learn from Aristotle’s +<i>Constitution of Athens</i>, somewhat elaborate provisions were made +by the appointment of officers, and the regulation of both intellectual +and physical pursuits. For children and youths under +the ephebic age there was no practical regulation of schools or +palaestra by the state. Yet there is no doubt that the education +really given was in conformity with Athenian ideals of culture and +life, and that it was generally received by the children of free +citizens, though of course the sons of the wealthy, then as now, +could and did continue their attendance at school to a later age +than their poorer brethren. The education of girls was essentially +a domestic training. What Plato and Aristotle, with the +theorist’s love of official systematic regulation, regarded as the +greatest defect of Athenian education was in reality its strongest +point. In practice, the harmony between individual liberty and +social claims was much more nearly attained under a system of +free working out of common thoughts and ideals than would have +been the case under one of the irresistible imposition from without +of a rigid mould.</p> + +<p>The instruments of education everywhere found to be in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span> +harmony with the Greek conception of life and culture +were essentially twofold,—“music” (<span class="grk" title="mousikê">μουσική</span>), or literary +and artistic culture, for the mind, and systematic gymnastic +(<span class="grk" title="gymnastikê">γυμναστική</span>) for the body. Plato, in the <i>Republic</i>, shows that +the latter, as well as the former, affects the character, and +doubtless, though not formulated, this was generally more or less +vaguely felt. But Greek gymnastic was really an individual +training, and therefore made only indirectly for the aim of +cultivating the social bonds of citizenship. Ancient Greece had +nothing corresponding in value in this respect to the organized +games which form so important a feature in the school life of +modern England. The “musical” training was essentially in the +national literature and music of Greece, and this could obviously +be carried to very different lengths. The elements of mathematical +science were also commonly taught. The essential purpose +throughout was the development of the character of a loyal +citizen of Athens. As Athenian culture advanced, increasing +attention was paid to diagogic studies, especially in the ephebic +age, with a corresponding decrease of attention to merely +physical pursuits; hence the complaints of such satirists as +Aristophanes of a growing luxury, effeminacy and corruption of +youths: complaints apparently based on a comparison of the +worst features of the actual present with an idealized and +imaginative picture of the virtues of the past. Such comparison +is, indeed, implicit in much of Plato and Aristotle as well as in +Aristophanes.</p> + +<p>But a disintegrating force was already at work in the +educational system of Greece which Plato and Aristotle vainly +opposed. This was the rhetorical training of the Sophists, the +narrowly practical and individualistic aim of which was entirely +out of harmony with the older Greek ideals of life and culture. +In a democratic city-state the orator easily became a demagogue, +and generally oratory was the readiest path to influence and +power. Thus oratory opened the way to personal ambition, and +young men who were moved by that passion eagerly attended the +Sophist schools where their dominant motive was strengthened.</p> + +<p>Further, the closer relations between the Greek states, both in +nearer and farther Hellas, led naturally to the diminution of +differences between civic ideals, and, as a consequence, to a more +cosmopolitan conception of higher education. This process was +completed by the loss of political independence of the city-states +under the Macedonian domination. Henceforth, higher education +became purely intellectual, and its relation to political and +social life increasingly remote. This, combined with the growing +rhetorical tendency already noticed, accounts for the sterility of +Greek thought during the succeeding centuries. The means +of higher education were, indeed, more fully organized. The +university of Athens was the outcome of a fusion of the private +philosophical schools with the state organization for the training +of the ephebi, and there were other such centres of higher +culture, especially in after years at Alexandria, where the +contact of Greek thought with the religions and philosophies +of Egypt and the East gave birth in time to the more or less +mystical philosophies which culminated in Neo-platonism. +But at Athens itself thought became more and more sterile, and +education more and more a mere training in unreal rhetoric, till +the dissolution of the university by Justinian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529.</p> + +<p>Thus when Rome conquered Greece, Greek education had lost +that reality which is drawn from intimate relation to civic life, +and the fashionable individualistic schools of philosophy +could do nothing to replace the loss. It was, then, an +<span class="sidenote">Old Roman education.</span> +education which had largely lost its life-springs that was +transferred to Rome. In the earlier centuries of the republic, +Roman education was given entirely in family and public life. +The father had unlimited power over his son’s life, and was open +to public censure if he failed to train him in the ordinary moral, +civic and religious duties. But it is doubtful if there were any +schools (<i>q.v.</i>), and it is certain there was no national literature to +furnish an instrument of culture. A Roman boy learnt to +reverence the gods, to read, to bear himself well in manly +exercises, and to know enough of the laws of his country to +regulate his conduct. This last he acquired directly by hearing +his father decide the cases of his clients every morning in his hall. +The rules of courtesy he learnt similarly by accompanying his +father to the social gatherings to which he was invited. Thus +early Roman education was essentially practical, civic and +moral, but its intellectual outlook was extremely narrow.</p> + +<p>When a wider culture was imported from Greece it was, +however, the form rather than the spirit of true Hellenic education +that was transferred. This was, indeed, to some +extent inevitable from the decadent state of Greek +<span class="sidenote">Hellenized Roman education.</span> +education at the time, but it was accentuated by the +essentially practical character of the Roman mind. +The instrument of education first introduced was Greek literature, +much of which was soon translated into Latin. In time the +schools of the <i>grammatici</i>, teaching grammar and literature, were +supplemented by schools of rhetoric and philosophy, though the +philosophy taught in them was itself little more than rhetorical +declamation. These furnished the means of higher culture for +those youths who did not study at Alexandria or Athens, and +were also preparatory to studies at those universities. Under the +Empire the rhetorical schools were gradually organized into a +state system, the general principles of administration being laid +down by imperial decree, and even such details as the appointment +and rate of payment of the professors, at first left to the +municipalities, being in time assumed by the central government. +There is no evidence of any state regulation or support of the +lower schools. This widening of culture affected both boys and +girls, the domestic education of the latter being supplemented +by a study of literature. But it is the higher training in +rhetoric which is especially characteristic of Hellenized Roman +education.</p> + +<p>The conception of a rhetorical culture is seen at its best +in Quintilian’s <i>Institutio oratoria</i>, the most systematic treatise +on education produced by the ancient world. With Quintilian +the ideal of an orator was a widely cultured, wise and honourable +man. And at first the teaching of rhetoric undoubtedly made +for higher and true culture. But with the autocracy, soon +passing into tyranny, of the empire, rhetoric ceased to be a +preparation for real life. The true function of oratory is to +persuade a free people. When it cannot be applied to this +purpose it becomes little more than a means of intellectual +frivolity, or, at the best, an exhibition of cultured ingenuity. +Under the empire a rhetorical training was, indeed, turned in +not a few instances to practical but most unworthy uses by +the delators; a result made possible by the legal system which +rewarded delation with a considerable portion of the estate +of the condemned. Even apart from this, the education in +rhetoric had an increasingly evil effect both on the culture and +on the character of the higher classes in the Roman empire. +Out of real connexion with life as it was, it sought its subjects +in the realms of the fanciful and the trivial, and with unreality +of topic went of necessity deterioration of style. The vivid +presentment of living thought gave way to that inflated and +bombastic abuse of meretricious ornament and far-fetched +metaphor in which human speech is always involved when it +sets forth ideas, or shadows of ideas, which grow out of no conviction +in the speaker and are expected to carry no conviction +to the hearer. Imitation of the form of great models, without +the substance of thought which underlay them, led to a general +unreality and essential falseness of mental life. Further, the +continual gazing with admiration on the productions of the past, +and the conception of excellence as consisting in closeness of +imitation, induced a servile attitude of mind towards authority +in all too close agreement with the political servility which +marked the Roman court. Such an attitude was essentially +hostile to mental initiative, and thus rhetoric became not merely +an art of expression but a type of character.</p> + +<p>Nor was there anything in the general conditions of society +to counterbalance the ill effects of school and university education. +Quintilian lamented that, even in his time, the old Roman +family education by example was corrupted; and the moral +degradation of later times, though it has doubtless been exaggerated, +was certainly real and widespread. Nor does the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span> +religious revival of Paganism which synchronized with the early +centuries of Christianity appear to have effected any reform in life. +Alexandria, the birthplace of Neo-platonism and the intellectual +centre of the later empire, was also a very sink of moral obliquity.</p> + +<p>It was into such a decaying civilization, which by its want of +vitality sterilized education, oppressing it under the weight of +a dead tradition, that Christianity brought new life. +Of course, careful instruction in the Faith was given +<span class="sidenote">Christianity and Pagan education.</span> +in catechetical schools, of which that at Alexandria +was the most famous. But the question as to the +attitude of Christians towards the ordinary classical culture was +important. On the one hand, literature was saturated with +Paganism, and the Pagan festivals formed a regular part of school +life. On the other hand, the Pagan education offered the only +means of higher culture, and thus furnished the only weapon +with which Christians could successfully meet their controversial +antagonists. Quite at first, no doubt, when the converts to the +new faith were few and obscure, the question scarcely arose; +but as men of culture and position were attracted to the Church +it became urgent. The answers given by the Christian leaders +were various, and largely the outcome of temperament and +previous training. The Greek Fathers, especially Clement of +Alexandria (150-217) and Origen (185-253), regarded Christianity +as essentially the culmination of philosophy, to which the way +must be found through liberal culture. Without a liberal education +the Christian could live a life of faith and obedience but could +not attain an intellectual understanding of the mysteries of +the Faith. On the other hand, Tertullian (160-240) was very +suspicious of Pagan culture; though he granted the necessity of +employing it as a means of education, yet he did so with regret, +and would forbid Christians to teach it in the public schools, +where some recognition of Paganism would be implied. The +general practice of the Christians, however, did not conform +to Tertullian’s exhortations. Indeed, many of the cultivated +Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries were little more than +nominal adherents to the Faith, and the intercourse between +Christian and Pagan was often close and friendly. The general +attitude of Christians towards the traditional education is +evidenced by the protest raised against the edict of Julian, which +forbade them to teach in the public schools. The ultimate outcome +seems to be fairly expressed in the writings of St Augustine +(354-430) and St Jerome (346-420), who held that literary and +rhetorical culture is good so long as it is kept subservient to the +Christian life.</p> + +<p>In another way Greek philosophy exercised an abiding influence +over the culture of future ages. The early centuries of +Christianity felt the need of formulating the Faith to preserve +it from disintegration into a mass of fluid opinions, and such +formulation was of necessity made under the influence of the +philosophy in which the early Fathers had been trained—that +Neo-platonism which was the last effort of Paganism to attain a +conception of life and of God. In the West, this formulation had +to be translated into Latin, for Greek was no longer generally +understood in Italy, and thus the juristic trend of Roman +thought also became a factor in the exposition of Christian +doctrine. This formulation of the Faith was one of the chief +legacies the transition centuries passed on to the middle ages.</p> + +<p>Had classical culture been less formal than it was during +the early centuries of Christianity, the innate antagonism of +the Pagan and Christian views of life and character must have +been so apparent that the education which prepared for the +one could not have been accepted by the other. It was only +because rhetorical culture was so emphatically intellectual, and +so little, if at all, moral in its aims, that its inherent opposition +to the Christian conception of character was not obvious. That +its antagonistic influence was not inoperative is shown by the +not infrequent perversions of cultured Christians to Paganism. +But generally the opposition was so obscured that the ethical +writings of St Ambrose (340-397) are largely Stoic in conception +and reasoning. Yet the Pagan ideal of life, especially as it had +been developed in the individualistic ethics which had prevailed +for more than six centuries, was antithetical in essence to that +of the Christian Church. The former was essentially an ethics +of self-reliance and self-control showing itself in moderation +and proportion in all expressions of life. An essential feature in +such a character was high-mindedness and a self-respect which +was of the nature of pride. On the contrary, Christian teaching +exalted humility as one of the highest virtues, and regarded pride +and self-confidence as the deadliest of sins. It recognized no +doctrine of limitation; what was to be condemned could not be +abhorred too violently, nor could what was good be too strongly +desired or too ardently sought. The highest state attainable by +man was absorption in loving ecstasy in the mystic contemplation +of God. The practical attempt to realize this gave rise to +monasticism, with its minutely regulated life expressing unlimited +obedience and the renunciation of private will at every +moment. The monastic life was regarded as the nearest approach +to the ideal which a Christian could make on earth. Naturally, +as this conception gathered strength in generations nurtured +in it, the value of classical culture became less and less apparent, +and by the time of St Gregory the Great (d. 604) the use of +classical literature except as means of an education having +quite another end than classical culture was discouraged.</p> + +<p>Of course, during these centuries, the gradual subjugation +of the western empire by the barbarians had been powerfully +operative in the obscuring of culture. Most of the +public schools disappeared, and generally the light of +<span class="sidenote">Effect of barbarian inroads.</span> +learning was kept burning only in monasteries, and in +them more and more faintly as they became more or +less isolated units exposed to attack by ruthless foes or living in +continual dread of such attack. Though the barbarians absorbed +the old culture in various degrees of imperfection, yet the four +centuries following the death of St Augustine were plunged in +intellectual darkness, relieved by transitory gleams of light in +Britain and by a more enduring flame in Ireland. The utmost +that could be done was to preserve to some extent the heritage +of the past. This, indeed, was essentially the work of men like +Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore and Bede.</p> + +<p>During these same centuries another process had been advancing +with accelerating steps. This was the modification of the +Latin language. In the early centuries of Christianity +literary Latin was already very different from colloquial +<span class="sidenote">Modification of Latin.</span> +Latin, especially in the provinces; and, as has been +said, the literary output of the last age of Paganism +was marked by sterility of thought and meretricious redundancy +of expression. On the other hand, the writings of Christianity +show a real living force seeking to find appropriate expression +in new forms. Thus, with Christian writers, slavish imitation +of the past gradually gave way to the evolution of a new and +living Latin, which showed itself more and more regardless of +classical models. To express the new ideas to which Christianity +gave birth fresh words were coined, or borrowed from colloquial +speech or from the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures. This Christian +Latin was a real living instrument of expression, which conformed +itself in its structure much more closely to the mode of thought +and expression of actual life than did the artificial imitation of +antiquity in which the literary productions of Paganism were +clothed. It is the Latin in which St Jerome wrote the Vulgate. +But with the obscuring of culture during the barbarian invasions +this current Latin became more and more oblivious of even such +elements of form as grammatical inflexions and concords.</p> + +<p>It was to the reformation of this corrupt Latin by a return +to classical models, and to the more general spread of culture, +especially among clergy and nobles, that the Carolingian +revival addressed itself. The movement was essentially +<span class="sidenote">The Carolingian revival.</span> +practical and conservative. Alcuin (735-804), who +was Charlemagne’s educational adviser and chief +executive officer in scholastic matters, was probably the best +scholar of his time, and himself loved the classical writings with +which he was acquainted; but the text-books he wrote were but +imperfect summaries of existing compendia, and the intellectual +condition of his pupils forbade a very generous literary diet even +had he thought it desirable, of which there is some doubt. The +most valuable outcome of the movement was the establishment +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span> +of the palace school, and of bishops’ schools and monastic schools +throughout the empire. Of these the latter were the most +important, and each of the chief monasteries had from the time +of Charlemagne an external school for pupils not proposing to +enter the order as well as an internal school for novices. Thus, +the educational system north of the Alps was pre-eminently +ecclesiastical in its organization and profoundly religious in its +aims. For two centuries the new intellectual life was obscured +by the troubled times which followed the death of Charlemagne, +but the learning which the Carolingian revival had restored was +preserved here and there in cathedral and monastic schools, +and the sequence of well-educated ecclesiastics was never altogether +interrupted.</p> + +<p>The scope of that learning was comprised within the seven +liberal arts and philosophy, on the secular side, together with +some dogmatic instruction in the doctrines of the +Church, the early fathers, and the Scriptures. Theology +<span class="sidenote">The medieval curriculum.</span> +was as yet not organized into a philosophical system: +that was the great work the middle ages had to perform. +The seven liberal arts (divided into the <i>Trivium</i>—grammar, +dialectic, rhetoric; and the more advanced <i>Quadrivium</i>—geometry, +arithmetic, music, astronomy) were a legacy from +old Roman education through the transition centuries. They +appear in the <i>Disciplinarum libri IX.</i> of Varro in the 2nd +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, where are added to them the more utilitarian arts +of medicine and architecture. But they reached the middle +ages chiefly through the summaries of writers in the transition +centuries, of which the best known were the <i>De nuptiis Philologiae +et Mercurii</i> of the Neo-platonist Martianus Capella, who +wrote probably early in the 5th century; the <i>De artibus ac +disciplinis liberalium litterarum</i> of the Christian Cassiodorus +(468-562); and the <i>Etymologiarum libri XX.</i> of St Isidore of +Seville (570-636).</p> + +<p>The scope of the arts was wider than their names would +suggest in modern times. Under grammar was included the +study of the content and form of literature; and in practice +the teaching varied from a liberal literary culture to a dry and +perfunctory study of just enough grammar to give some facility +in the use of Latin. Dialectic was mainly formal logic. Rhetoric +covered the study of law, as well as composition in prose and +verse. Geometry was rather what is now understood by geography +and natural history, together with the medicinal properties +of plants. Arithmetic, with the cumbrous Roman notation, +included little more than the simplest practical calculations +required in ordinary life and the computation of the calendar. +Music embraced the rules of the plain-song of the Church, some +theory of sound, and the connexion of harmony and numbers. +Astronomy dealt with the courses of the heavenly bodies, and +was seldom kept free from astrology. In philosophy the current +text-books were the <i>De consolatione philosophiae</i> of Boethius +(470-524), an eclectic summary of pagan ethics from the standpoint +of the Christian view of life, and the same writer’s adapted +translations of the <i>Categories</i> and <i>De interpretatione</i> of Aristotle +and of Porphyry’s <i>Introduction to the Categories</i>.</p> + +<p>It is evident that though such a scheme of studies might in +practice, during ages of intellectual stagnation and general +ignorance, be arid in the extreme, it was capable in time of +revival of giving scope to the widest extension of culture. It +was, indeed, at once comprehensive and unified in conception, +and well adapted to educate for the perfectly definite and clear +view of life which the Church set before men.</p> + +<p>In the 11th century Europe had settled down, after centuries +of war and invasion, into a condition of comparative political +stability, ecclesiastical discipline, and social tranquillity: +the barbarians had been converted, and, as in +<span class="sidenote">The scholastic revival.</span> +the case of the Normans, had pressed to the forefront +of civilization; civic life had developed in the fortified +towns of Italy, raised as defences against the pressure of Saracen +and Hungarian invasions. Soon, communication with the East +by trade and in the Crusades, and with the highly cultivated +Moors in Spain, further stimulated the new burst of intellectual +life. Arabic renderings of some of the works of Aristotle and +commentaries on them were translated into Latin and exercised +a profound influence on the trend of culture. A new translation +of Aristotle’s <i>Metaphysics</i> appeared in 1167, and by the beginning +of the 13th century all his physical, metaphysical and ethical +treatises were available, and during the next half century the +translations from Arabic versions were superseded by renderings +direct from the original Greek. As expositions of the real +doctrines of Aristotle the translations from the Arabic left much +to be desired. Renan calls the medieval edition of the <i>Commentaries</i> +of Averroës “a Latin translation of a Hebrew translation +of a commentary made upon an Arabic translation of a +Syriac translation of a Greek text.” The study of such works +often led to the enunciation of doctrines held heretical by the +theologians, and it was only when the real Aristotle was known +that it was found possible to bring the Peripatetic philosophy +into the service of theology.</p> + +<p>There were thus two broad stages in the educational revival +commonly known as scholasticism. In the first the controversies +were essentially metaphysical, and centred round the question +of the nature of universals; the orthodox theological party +generally supporting realism, or the doctrine that the universal +is the true reality, of which particulars and individuals are only +appearances; while the opposite doctrine of nominalism—that +universals are “mere sounds” and particulars the only true +existences—showed a continual disposition to lapse into heresies +on the most fundamental doctrines of the Church. The second +stage was essentially constructive; the opposition of philosophy +to theology was negated, and philosophy gave a systematic +form to theology itself. The most characteristic figure of the +former period was Abelard (1079-1142), of the latter St Thomas +Aquinas (1225-1274). The former knew little of Aristotle +beyond the translations and adaptations of Boethius, but he was +essentially a dialectician who applied his logic to investigating +the fundamental doctrines of the Church and bringing everything +to the bar of reason. This innate rationalism appeared to bring +theology under the sway of philosophy, and led to frequent +condemnations of his doctrines as heretical. With St Thomas, +on the other hand, the essential dogmas of Christianity must be +unquestioned. In his <i>Summa theologiae</i> he presents all the +doctrines of the Church systematized in a mould derived from +the Aristotelian philosophy.</p> + +<p>It is evident, then, that during the period of the scholastic +revival, men’s interests were specially occupied with questions +concerning the spiritual and the unseen, and that +the great instrument of thought was syllogistic logic, +<span class="sidenote">Scholastic education.</span> +by which consequences were deduced from premises +received as unquestionably true. There was a general acceptance +of the authority of the Church in matters of belief and +conduct, and of that of Aristotle, as approved by the Church, in +all that related to knowledge of this world.</p> + +<p>Before the rediscovery of Aristotle exerted such a general +influence on the form of education, there was a real revival of +classical literary culture at Chartres and a few other schools, and +John of Salisbury (d. 1182) in his <i>Metalogicus</i> advocated literature +as an instrument of education and lamented the barrenness of +a training confined to the subtleties of formal logic. But the +recrudescence of Aristotle accelerated the movement in favour of +dialectic, though at the same time it furnished topics on which +logic could be exercised which only a bare materialism can +esteem unimportant. The weaknesses of the general educational +system which grew up within scholasticism were that haste to +begin dialectic led to an undue curtailment of previous liberal +culture, and that exclusive attention to philosophical and +theological questions caused a neglect of the study of the physical +world and a disregard of the critical functions of the intellect. +Doubtless there were exceptions, of which perhaps the most +striking is the work in physical science done at Oxford by Roger +Bacon (1214-1294). But Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), the +master of St Thomas, was also a student of nature and an +authority for his day on both the natural and the physical +sciences. And the work of Grosseteste (d. 1253), as chancellor of +the university of Oxford, shows that care for a liberal literary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span> +culture was by no means unknown. Always there were such +examples. But too often boys hastened to enter upon dialectic +and philosophy as soon as they had acquired sufficient smattering +of colloquial Latin to engage in the disputes of the schools. A +deterioration of Latin was the unavoidable consequence of such +premature specialization. The seven liberal arts were often not +pursued in their entirety, and students remained satisfied with +desiccated compendia of accepted opinions. Thus the encyclopaedias +of general information which were in general use during +the middle ages show little or no advance in positive knowledge +upon the treatment of similar subjects in Isidore of Seville.</p> + +<p>The services of scholasticism to the cause of education, +however, cannot well be overestimated, and the content of +scholastic studies was in fundamental harmony with +the intellectual interests of the time. Above all other +<span class="sidenote">The foundation of universities.</span> +benefits owed by future ages to scholasticism is the +foundation of the universities of western Europe. The +intellectual activity of the 11th century led everywhere to a +great increase in the number of scholars attending the monastic +and cathedral schools. Round famous teachers, such as Abelard, +gathered crowds of students from every country. In the 12th +century the need for organizing such bodies of teachers and +students was imperative, and thus the earlier universities arose +in Italy, France and England, not by deliberate foundation of +secular or ecclesiastical ruler, but as spontaneous manifestations +of the characteristic medieval impulse to organize into institutions. +Afterwards, charters conferring powers and privileges were sought +from both Church and state, but these only confirmed the self-governing +character the universities had borne from the first. +Each of the early universities was a specialized school of higher +study: Salerno was a school of medicine; Bologna was the +centre of that revival of Roman law which wrought so profound +an effect upon the legal systems of France and Germany towards +the close of the medieval period. But the greatest of medieval +universities was that of Paris, emphatically the home of philosophy +and theology, which was the model upon which many other +universities, including Oxford and Cambridge, were organized.</p> + +<p>The German universities were of later origin, the earliest +being Prague (1348) and Vienna (1365). They indicate the more +recognized position the movement had attained; for nearly all +were founded by the civic authority, and then obtained the +recognition of the Church and charters from the emperor.</p> + +<p>The concentration of higher instruction in universities was not +antagonistic to the medieval conception of the Church as the +teacher of mankind. University life was modelled on +that of the cloister, though the monastic ideal could not +<span class="sidenote">University work and life.</span> +be fully realized, and the scholars not infrequently +exhibited considerable licence in life. This was inevitable +with the very large numbers of the scholars and the +great variations of age among them. Moreover students, and to a +less extent teachers, passed from university to university, so that +the universities of medieval Europe formed a free confederacy of +learning in close relation to the Church but untrammelled by state +control. Nevertheless, they were less definitely ecclesiastical +than the cathedral seminaries which they largely supplanted, and +the introduction of studies derived from the Greeks through the +Arabians led to an increased freedom of thought, at first within +authorized limits, but prepared, when occasion served, to +transcend those limits.</p> + +<p>The scheme of instruction was arranged on the assumption that +special studies should be based on a wide general culture. Thus +of the four faculties into which university teaching was organized, +that of arts, with its degrees of <i>Baccalaureat</i> and <i>Magister</i>, was +regarded as propaedeutic to those of theology, law and medicine. +It often included, indeed, quite young boys, for the distinction +between grammar school and university was not clearly drawn. +Attention was concentrated on those subjects which treat of man +and his relations to his fellow-men and to God, and no attempt +was made to extend the bounds of knowledge. The aim was to +pass on a body of acquired knowledge regarded as embracing all +that was possible of attainment, and the authority of Aristotle in +physics as well as in philosophy, and of Galen and Hippocrates +in medicine was absolute. The methods of instruction—by +lecture, or commentary on received texts; and by disputation, +in which the scholars acquired dexterity in the use of the +knowledge they had absorbed—were in harmony with this +conception, and were undoubtedly thoroughly well suited to the +requirements of an age in which the ideal of human thought was +not discovery but order, and in which knowledge was regarded as +a set of established propositions, the work of reason being to +harmonize these propositions in subordination to the authoritative +doctrines of the Church.</p> + +<p>Such an extension of the means of higher education as was +given by the universities was naturally accompanied by a +corresponding increase in schools of lower rank. Not +only were there grammar schools at cathedral and +<span class="sidenote">Medieval schools.</span> +collegiate churches, but many others were founded in +connexion with chantries, and by some of the many gilds into +which medieval middle-class life organized itself. The Dominican +and Franciscan friars were enthusiastic promoters of learning +both in universities and in schools, and in the Netherlands the +Brethren of the Common Life, founded by Gerard Groote and +approved by Eugenius IV. in 1431, regarded school teaching as +one of their main functions, and the promotion of learning by the +multiplication of manuscripts as another. The curriculum was +represented broadly by the <i>Trivium</i>. The greatest attention was +paid to grammar, which included very various amounts of reading +of classical and Christian authors, the most commonly included +being Virgil, parts of Ovid and Cicero, and Boethius. The text-books +in grammar were the elementary catechism on the eight +parts of speech by Donatus, a Roman of the 4th century, said +to have been the tutor of St Jerome, and the more advanced +treatise of Priscian, a schoolmaster of Constantinople about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +500, which remained the standard text-book for over a thousand +years. In rhetoric Cicero’s <i>De oratore</i> was read, and dialectic +was practised, as in the universities, by means of disputations.</p> + +<p>In addition to the grammar schools were writing and song +schools of an elementary type, in which instruction was usually in +the vernacular. Girls were taught in women’s monasteries and in +the home, and those of the upper classes at least very generally +learned to read, write and keep accounts, as well as fine needlework, +household duties and management, and such elementary +surgery and medicine as served in cases of slight daily accidents +and illnesses. Even those boys and girls who did not receive +formal scholastic instruction were instructed orally by the parish +priests in the doctrines and duties of the Faith; while the pictures +and statues with which the churches were adorned aided the +direct teaching of sermons and catechizing in giving a general +knowledge of Bible history and of the legends of the saints.</p> + +<p>No doubt, in times of spiritual and intellectual lethargy, +the practice fell short of the theory; but on the whole it may +be concluded that in medieval times the provision for higher +instruction was adequate to the demand, and that, relatively +to the culture of the time, the mass of the people were by no +means sunk in brutish ignorance. Indeed, especially when the +paucity of books before the invention of printing is borne in +mind, the number of people who could read the vernacular, as +evidenced by the demand for books in the vulgar tongue as soon +as printing made them available, is clear proof that the latter +part of the middle ages was by no means a time of general +illiteracy.</p> + +<p>Feudalism, the other characteristic aspect of medieval society, +had also its system of education, expressing its own view of life, +and preparing for the adequate performance of its +duties. This was the training in chivalry given to +<span class="sidenote">Education of chivalry.</span> +pages and squires in the halls and castles of the great. +Hallam has well said: “There are, if I may so say, +three powerful spirits which have from time to time moved over +the face of the waters, and given a predominant impulse to the +moral sentiments and energies of mankind. These are the +spirits of liberty, of religion and of honour. It was the principal +business of chivalry to animate and cherish the last of these.” +And this was not in opposition to the spirit of religion which +animated the scholastic education which went on side by side +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span> +with it. Throughout chivalry was sanctified by the offices of the +Church. The education of chivalry aimed at fitting the noble +youth to be a worthy knight, a just and wise master, and a +prudent manager of an estate. Much was acquired by daily +experience of a knightly household, but in addition the page +received direct instruction in reading and writing; courtly +amusements, such as chess and playing the lute, singing and +making verses; the rules and usages of courtesy; and the +knightly conception of duty. As a squire he practised more +assiduously the knightly exercises of war and peace, and in the +management of large or small bodies of men he attained the +capacity of command.</p> + +<p>With the unification of existing knowledge and the systematization +of theology the constructive work of scholasticism was +done. At the same time the growth of national +feeling was slowly but surely undermining feudalism. +<span class="sidenote">Decadence of scholasticism.</span> +Moreover, deep resentment was accumulating throughout +western Europe against the practical abuses +which had become prevalent in the Church, and especially in the +court of Rome and in the prince-bishoprics of Germany. In +short, Europe was out-growing medieval institutions, which +appeared more and more as empty forms unable to satisfy the +needs and longings of the human soul. In such conditions, the +customary and traditional education of school and university +tended to lose touch more and more completely with the new +aspirations and views of life which were everywhere gathering +adherents among the keenest and most active intellects. Had +a new cultural movement not begun, the education of Europe +threatened to become as arid as the rhetorical education of the +last centuries of the Roman empire had been. From this it was +saved by the renaissance of classical studies which began in the +14th century.</p> + +<p>Italy, by its greater wealth and its more intimate commerce +with the eastern empire, was the seed-plot of this new tree of +knowledge. Ever since the 11th century the cities +of northern Italy had been in advance of Europe +<span class="sidenote">The Renaissance.</span> +beyond the Alps both in culture and in material +progress. The old classical spirit and the feeling of Roman +citizenship had never quite died out, and the <i>Divina Commedia</i> +of Dante (1265-1321) furnishes evidence that the poet of the +scholastic philosophical theology was also a keen student and +lover of the old Latin poets. But the greatest impulse to the +revived study of the classics was given by Petrarch (1304-1374) +and Boccaccio (1313-1375). Generally throughout western +Europe the 14th century, though full of war and political unrest, +was a time of considerable intellectual activity, shown in the +increase of schools and universities, as well as in the literary and +artistic revival in Italy, in the social and theological movement +in England and Bohemia associated with the names of Wycliffe +and Huss, and in the more or less perfect substitution of Roman +law everywhere except in England for the law of custom which +had hitherto prevailed.</p> + +<p>But it was the literary movement which most affected education, +and indeed the whole life of Europe. A decisive step was +taken when Manuel Chrysoloras was invited to teach Greek +in the university of Florence in 1397. The enthusiasm for +classical culture, to which Petrarch had given so great an impetus, +gathered force and extended over the whole of Italy, though, +of course, felt only by a select few and leaving the mass of the +people little, if at all, affected. From Italy it spread gradually +to countries north of the Alps. In the old writers men found +full expression of that new spirit of self-conscious freedom which +was vaguely striving for expression throughout the whole of +Christendom. In the free political atmosphere of the Italian +communes, with their wealthy and leisured merchant class, that +spirit could flourish much more readily than in the feudalized +Europe across the Alps. Moreover, the antique spirit was in +direct line of ancestry with that of medieval Italy. Thus, for a +couple of centuries, Italy stood in the van of European culture.</p> + +<p>The stages of the movement cannot be traced here: suffice +it to say it showed itself especially in an enthusiastic search for +manuscripts, followed by their multiplication and wider distribution; +in an intense devotion to literary form; in a revival +of classic taste in architecture; in a wonderful development of +painting and sculpture from symbolism of spiritual qualities +towards naturalism and romanticism; in a return to Platonism +in philosophy; in a contempt, often unreasoning and wanting +a foundation in knowledge, for the scholastic Aristotelian +philosophy itself, and not simply for the trivialities into which +its actual exercise had so commonly degenerated. The invention +of printing necessarily gave the movement both a stronger and a +wider influence than it could otherwise have attained. And +in its search after knowledge it was in full harmony with the +spirit of adventure which marked the age, and by the discovery +of the New World wrought so profound a change in the relative +importance and prosperity of the countries of western Europe.</p> + +<p>It is the spirit of the movement which is of interest to the +student of education. And that spirit was essentially one of +opposition to authority and of assertion of individual +liberty, which worked itself out in various forms +<span class="sidenote">Influence of the Renaissance on education.</span> +among peoples of different temperaments. In Italy +the form was literary and artistic, and the full development +of the Renaissance spirit was seen in a practical +Paganism which substituted the attractions of art for the claims +of religion and morality, and eventuated in deep and widespread +immorality and a contemptuous tolerance of the outward +observances of religion without faith in the doctrines they +symbolized. The movement became an attempt to reconstitute +the past intellectual life of Italy, and, as such, was foredoomed +to sterility as soon as the work of re-discovery was completed; +for the revived forms were not inspired with the vital spirit +which had once made them realities, and consequently men’s +minds once again were occupied with mere verbal subtleties. +The really valuable service of the Italian humanists to Europe +was the restoration to man of the heritage of knowledge which +he had allowed to slip from his grasp, and the leading the way to a +freer intellectual atmosphere. In Germany the spirit manifested +itself in a rebellion against the doctrinal system of the Church +as the only effectual means of attaining reform of ecclesiastical +abuses. The Protestant reformation of Luther was the real +German outcome of the Renaissance. In no other country of +Europe did the movement take so distinctive a form.</p> + +<p>It was, then, not merely the revival of interest in classical +studies which so profoundly affected the life and education of +western Europe. It was rather that in those literatures men +found a response to intellectual and moral cravings which had +been blindly gathering force for generations, and which found +themselves formulated and objectified in the writings which set +forth the Pagan view of life with its assumption of the essential +worth and self-reliance of the individual and its frank delight +in all the pleasures of existence. It was, in short, in proportion +as men not only found delight in Pagan literature but returned +in essence to the Pagan view of individual worth and the supremacy +of the human intellect, that the Church realized the danger +to herself which lurked in the new movement.</p> + +<p>At first the revival of interest in the classical literatures did not +show any antagonism to Catholic faith and practice, and its +warmest supporters were faithful sons of the Church. The view of +the relation of classical literature to Christianity adopted by the +great humanist schoolmaster Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446) was +broadly that of the early Fathers, and in his school at Mantua he +showed that culture was not inconsistent with loyalty to the +Church or with purity of life. With him classical literature was +not the end and sum of education, but was a means of implanting +ideas, of developing taste, and of acquiring knowledge, all as +helps and ornaments of a Christian life. Though Pagan literature +was the means of education, the Pagan spirit had not supplanted +that of Christianity. The school at Mantua may, indeed, be said +to have exhibited in practice a Christianized application of the +doctrines of Quintilian and Plutarch.</p> + +<p>So was it in the other countries of Christendom. In the +Netherlands the Brethren of the Common Life introduced +humanistic studies into their schools side by side with definite +religious teaching and observances and their work was always +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span> +dominated by the Christian spirit. The earlier German +humanists, such as Nicholas de Cusa, Hegius, Agricola and +Wimpheling, adopted the same attitude, and Erasmus himself, +bitterly as he attacked the practical abuses of the Church, +remained in communion with it, and aimed at harmonizing +classical culture with the Christian life. In England the same +love of culture combined with devotion to the Church was seen in +Selling, prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, the first real English +humanist, in Grocyn, Linacre, More, Fisher, Colet and many +others whose enthusiasm for culture was as undoubted as was +their loyalty to Catholicism. It seemed, then, at first as if the +greatest educational effect of the classical revival would be the +deepening of literary culture, and the substitution of real inquiry +for dialectic subtleties in the courses of schools and universities, +without any break with established religious teaching. It is true +that the majority of schools were but little affected, and many +of the universities had given but a half-hearted welcome to +humanistic studies when the religious revolt in Germany under +the leadership of Luther threw the whole of Europe into two +hostile camps. But even the conservative university of Paris—the +headquarters of scholastic philosophical theology—had +permitted the teaching of Greek as early as 1458, and both +Oxford and Cambridge had welcomed the new studies. That the +influence of the new movement for classical study was gradually +permeating the schools is shown not only by the practice of the +Brethren of the Common Life but by the curriculum laid down by +the statutes of the schools refounded by Wolsey at Ipswich and by +Colet at St Paul’s.</p> + +<p>The immediate effect of the religious controversies of the 16th +century on education was emphatically, if unintentionally, disastrous. +The secularization of ecclesiastical property +too often absorbed the endowments of the schools, +<span class="sidenote">Immediate influence of the Reformation on education.</span> +so that, both in Germany and in England, the majority +of grammar schools either disappeared or continued +a starved existence with diminished funds; the +doctrine of salvation by faith alone and the futility +of good works dried up the source from which such endowments +had flowed; the violent fulminations of the German +reformers against the universities as the homes of the hated +scholastic theology and philosophy found an echo in minds fired +with the renaissance enthusiasm for poetry and oratory, and +correlative distaste for the more severe and abstract speculations +of logic and philosophy, which expressed itself in abstention from +those seats of learning; the preoccupation of men’s minds with +theological speculations and quarrels led those few who did resort +to the universities to neglect their appointed studies and to +devote their energies to interminable wrangling over the points in +dispute. This decadence in culture was attended by an outbreak +of licence and immorality, especially among the young, which +called forth violent denunciations from Luther and many of his +followers in Germany, and from Latimer and other reformers in +England. In some respects these results were only transitory. +Humanism and Protestantism, which had so far diverged that +Erasmus (1467-1536) had declared that where Lutheranism +flourished learning decayed, were brought together again by +Melanchthon (1497-1560) under whose influence universities were +founded or reorganized and schools re-established in Protestant +German states; and in England the reign of Elizabeth saw many +new educational foundations. But this restoration of the means +of education was only partial, and the doctrine of the worthlessness +of “carnal knowledge,” which led the Barebones Parliament +to propose the suppression of the English universities, was held +by many fervent Protestants both in England and in Germany +all through the 17th century.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the schools established a tradition of curriculum and +instruction which ignored the new directions of men’s thoughts +and the new view of knowledge as something to be +enlarged, and not merely a deposit to be handed down +<span class="sidenote">Protestant schools.</span> +from generation to generation. The later humanist +theories of education, which the schools continued to follow +generally for over two centuries, and in many cases for another +hundred years after that, were drawn mainly from Erasmus and +Melanchthon, who found in the classical languages and literatures, +and especially in Latin, the only essential instruments of education. +General knowledge of natural facts might be desirable +to the cultured man as ornaments to his rhetoric, but it was +to be sought in the writings of antiquity. Even so revolutionary +a thinker on education as Rabelais (1495-1553) with all his +demand for an encyclopaedic curriculum, held the writings of the +ancients as authoritative on natural phenomena. Melanchthon, +whose conception of instruction was much narrower, exercised +enormous influence in the moulding of Protestant universities and +secondary schools, both directly and through such disciples as +Trotzendorf and Neander, but especially through his friend +Sturm (1507-1589), whose Latin gymnasium at Strassburg +became the model which the grammar schools of Protestant +Europe strove to imitate. In this school nearly the whole of the +energies of the boys was given to acquiring a mastery of the +Latin language after the model of Cicero. Sturm, indeed, did not +go to the extreme length of the Ciceronians, opposed and satirized +by Erasmus, who would allow no word or construction which +could not be found in the extant writings of their master, but a +like spirit dominated him.</p> + +<p>In Catholic countries the Church retained control of education. +The practical reformation of abuses by the Council of Trent, and +the energy and skill of the Society of Jesus, founded by +St Ignatius Loyola, in 1534, brought back most of +<span class="sidenote">The Society of Jesus.</span> +south Germany into the fold of the Church. Everywhere +Catholic universities were mainly taught by +Jesuit fathers; and under their influence, scholasticism, purged +from the excretions which had degraded it, was restored, and +continued to satisfy the longings of minds which felt the need of +an authoritative harmonizing of faith and knowledge. Everywhere +the society established schools, which, by their success in +teaching and the mildness of their discipline, attracted thousands +of pupils who came even from Protestant homes. Their curriculum +was purely classical, but it was elaborated with much +skill, and the methods of instruction and discipline were made +the subject of much thought and of long-continued experiment. +In the methods thus determined all Jesuit fathers were trained, so +that the teachers in Jesuit schools attained a degree of skill in +their art which was too generally wanting elsewhere.</p> + +<p>So long as Latin remained the language of learning, and new +fields of knowledge were not appropriated, the schools remained +in harmony with the culture of their time, though, as +Mulcaster (1530-1611) pointed out, such a training +<span class="sidenote">Early proposals for reform.</span> +was not of value to the majority of boys. For them he +urged an elementary education in the vernacular; but +neither in this nor in his advocacy of the training of teachers was +his advice followed.</p> + +<p>In the 17th century the dislocation between the Latin schools +and the needs of life began to be accentuated as Latin gradually +ceased to be the language of learning; and, as a consequence, the +numbers attending the schools decreased, and the mass of the +people sunk continually lower in ignorance. In vain Hoole urged +the establishment of a universal system of elementary schools +giving instruction in the vernacular, Petty put forth his plan for +elementary trade schools, and Cowley proposed the establishment +of a college devoted to research. Ideas of reform were in the air, +but the main current of scholastic practice flowed on unaffected +by them. Some attention was, indeed, paid to the conservative +reforms advocated by the Port Royalists, of which the most +important was the inclusion of the vernacular as a branch of +instruction, but the cry for more fundamental changes based on +the philosophy of Bacon was unheeded. Of these, none was a more +active propagandist than Comenius (1571-1635). Unfortunately +his <i>Great Didactic</i>, in which he set forth his general principles, +attracted little attention and won less adherence, though his +school books, in which he attempted with very little success to +apply his principles, were widely used in schools. But these were +little more than bald summaries of real and supposed facts, +stated in Latin and the vernacular in parallel columns. In +content they differed from such medieval summaries of knowledge +as the well-known work of Bartholomew Anglicus, which had been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span> +widely used since the 13th century, chiefly by their greater +baldness and aridity of statement.</p> + +<p>In the universities, too, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a +continuous decadence. The 16th century was not ripe for +real intellectual freedom; and Protestantism, having +based its revolt on the right of private judgment, +<span class="sidenote">Decadence of universities.</span> +soon produced a number of conflicting theological +systems, vying with each other in rigidity and narrowness, +which, as Paulsen says, “nearly stifled the intellectual +life of the German people.” Further, the idea of national +autonomy, which exercised so great an effect on the politics of +the time, included the universal adherence of the citizens to +the religion of the state. Hence, till the end of the 17th century +the universities of Protestant Europe were regarded mainly as +instruments for securing adhesion to the national theological +system on the part of future clergy and officials, and the state +interfered more and more with their organization and work. +Theology occupied the most important place in the higher +studies pursued, which for the rest differed little in content and +less in spirit from those of preceding centuries, except that more +attention was paid to the study of classical literature. Even that +decayed into formal linguistics as the Renaissance enthusiasm +for poetry and oratory died out, and interest in logical and +philosophical questions, fostered by the dominance of dogmatic +controversial theology, again became dominant. In Paris, on +the other hand, the faculty of theology had decayed through the +withdrawal of those preparing for the priesthood into episcopal +seminaries, and the higher studies pursued were mainly law and +medicine. Thus, generally, the universities were less and less +fulfilling the function of providing a general liberal education. +Another change, due to the same causes and making for the +same results, was the isolation of universities, often directly +fostered by the state governments, which for the universal +interchange of medieval thought substituted a narrow provincial +culture and outlook. It is no wonder that numbers everywhere +decayed and that complaints as to the habits of the students +were loud and frequent.</p> + +<p>At the close of the 17th century, then, universities as well +as schools had reached a very low level of efficiency and were +held in little respect by the cultured. Indeed, from +the middle of the century, the main current of intellectual +<span class="sidenote">Education of the higher classes.</span> +life had drifted away from the orthodox +centres of learning. The formation of the Berlin +Academy in Germany and of the Royal Society in England, +and the refusal of Leibnitz to accept a chair in any German +university, were signs of the times. In France, and later in +Germany, the education of the noble youth was increasingly +carried on apart from the schools, and was really an outgrowth +from the education of chivalry. In the 16th century Castiglione +and Montaigne had advocated a training directly adapted to +prepare for polite life, and Elyot wrote on similar lines. But the +most important movement in this direction was the formation +of the courtly academies which flourished in France in the 17th +century, and were soon imitated in the <i>Ritterakademien</i> of +Germany. In these schools of the nobility French was more +honoured than classics, and the other subjects were chosen as +directly adapted to prepare for the life of a noble at the court. +Milton in his <i>Tractate</i> advocated the foundation of such academies +in England, though he proposed a curriculum far more extensive +than had ever been found possible. More and more, too, foreign +travel had, from the middle of the 16th century, been looked +upon as a better mode of finishing the education of a gentleman +than a course at a university.</p> + +<p>The later years of the 17th century saw a revival of university +life in Cambridge, through the work of Newton and the increasing +attention paid to mathematics and the physical +sciences, though the number of students continued +<span class="sidenote">Revival of university life.</span> +very small. In Germany, also, a new era opened +with the foundation of the universities of Halle (1694) +and Göttingen (1737), which from the first discarded the old +conception that the function of a university is to pass on knowledge +already complete, and so opened the door of the German +universities to the new culture and philosophy. It was soon +seen that students could thus be attracted, and the influence +spread to the other German universities, which by the end of +the 18th century had regained their position as homes of the +highest German thought.</p> + +<p>At Halle, too, was set the example by Francke of providing +for the education of the children of the poor, and to his disciple +Hecker Germany owes the first <i>Realschule</i>. Simultaneous +<span class="sidenote">Education of the poor.</span> +movements for the education of the poor were +made by St Jean-Baptiste de la Salle and the Brothers +of the Christian Schools in France, and by the Society +for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge in England. But the +total results were not great; the mass of the people in every +European country remained without schooling throughout the +18th century.</p> + +<p>The intellectual movements of that century were, indeed, +essentially aristocratic. Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists aimed +at the enlightenment of the select few, and Rousseau +declared baldly that the poor need no education. +<span class="sidenote">18th-century thought and education.</span> +That these movements influenced education profoundly +is undoubted. The individualistic and abstract +rationalism of Voltaire, derived from the sensationist +philosophy of Locke through the more thorough-going Condillac, +and finding its logical outcome in the materialistic atheism +of La Mettrie and the refined selfishness of Rochefoucault, +infected the more cultured classes. In Lord Chesterfield’s +<i>Letters to his Son</i> is shown its educational outcome—a veneer +of superficial culture and artificial politeness covering, but not +hiding, the most cold-blooded selfishness. Against this fashionable +artificiality, as well as against the obvious social and political +abuses of the time, Rousseau’s call for a return to nature was a +needed protest.</p> + +<p>Rousseauism, however, was not merely a transitory revolt +against a conventionality of life that had become unbearable; +it was emphatically the voicing of a view of life and +of education which has profoundly influenced Europe +<span class="sidenote">Rousseauism.</span> +ever since. In that Rousseau (1712-1778) attempted +to look at life as a whole he was on truer ground than were the +intellectualists of the “Enlightenment”; but in that he found +the essence of life in the gratification of the desires and impulses +of the moment, he enunciated a doctrine which banished high +principle and strenuous effort from life and consequently from +education. In the <i>Émile</i> is presented a purely fantastic scheme +of education based on a psychology of development so crude +as to be absolutely false, and producing a young man utterly +unable to guide his own life or to control his emotions and +impulses. Rousseauism is, indeed, in its essence the application +to education of the doctrines of naturalism—the philosophy +which regards human life as a mere continuation of physical +process, and consequently as determined wholly by environment. +So Rousseau would abolish all moral training and leave the +child to the reactions of the physical world upon his actions.</p> + +<p>Against this position the educational teaching of Kant (1724-1804), +influenced though he was by the <i>Émile</i>, is essentially a +protest. The most necessary element in education, +<span class="sidenote">Kant.</span> +according to Kant, is constraint, which by the +formation of habit prepares the young to receive as principles +of conduct the laws at first imposed upon them from without. +And the supreme guide of life is the law of duty which is always +more or less opposed to the promptings of inclination. Kant +exaggerates the dualism: Rousseau would abolish it by ignoring +the more important of the two antitheses.</p> + +<p>The French Revolution—the natural outcome of the teachings +of Voltaire and of Rousseau—was the second stage in the movement +of which the Reformation was the first. It +was essentially the assertion of the natural rights of +<span class="sidenote">Educational outcome of the Revolution.</span> +man, and, as a logical sequence, of the right of every +child to be properly trained for life. The reaction +due to the excesses of the revolutionists no doubt +delayed the acknowledgment for a time, but its gradual recognition +is emphatically the characteristic mark of the educational +history of the 19th century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span></p> + +<p>Preached and practised by Pestalozzi (1746-1827) in Switzerland, +the general education of the poor was first made a reality +by Prussia after the crushing defeat of Jena. In +France and England it remained for nearly three-quarters +<span class="sidenote">State education.</span> +of the century the work of the Church and +other voluntary agencies, though aided by the state. Finally +a state system of schools has been more or less fully set up in +every state of western Europe and in America, and subjected +to more or less state regulation and control. Equally marked +has been the growing care for the scholastic education of girls +as well as boys, though only in America are the two regarded +as practically identical in form and content.</p> + +<p>Thus the 19th century saw the final working out of the idea +that the state should be substituted for the Church as the official +agent of education, an idea which had its roots in the Renaissance +conception of the right of man to direct his life apart from +theological determinations. The more direct outcome of the +same idea is apparent in the absolute liberty with which the +presuppositions of knowledge are questioned, and the maxim +of Descartes—to prove everything by the reason and to accept +nothing which fails to stand the test—is acted upon. No greater +contrast is possible than that between the medieval student and +the modern searcher after truth.</p> + +<p>The influence of the same spirit has wrought an equally +momentous change in the methods of instruction. The impetus +given by the exaggerated doctrine of Rousseau to the +view that the nature of the child should determine +<span class="sidenote">Methods of instruction.</span> +the means of education, led to more thorough-going +attempts than had hitherto been made to base educational +method on a knowledge of child psychology. Pestalozzi +and Froebel (1782-1852), by their insistence on the need of +educating a child through his own activity, and by their widespread +influence, made the new view of method an actuality. +The influence of Rousseau has, thus, passed into modern educational +practice in a form that, in its essence, is true, though in +practice it has shown itself apt to run into the same excess of +emphasis on impulse and feeling which vitiated the teaching of +Rousseau himself. The influence of Herbart (1776-1841) has +tended to counteract this. The essence of Herbartianism is that +mental life consists of presentations, or reactions of the mind on +the environment, and that will springs from the circle of thought +thus developed. The emphasis is therefore placed on intellect +and instruction while in Froebelianism it is placed on spontaneous +activity and on the arrangement of the environment. Each +exaggerates the function of the one factor in concrete experience +which it makes the centre of interest, and each is tinged with the +individualistic conception of life which characterized the 18th +and early 19th century.</p> + +<p>The most marked change in the outward aspect of education +has been the modification of the curriculum of school and university +by the introduction of various branches of natural +science. Conjointly with this has been much increase +<span class="sidenote">Curriculum of instruction.</span> +of specialization, and that not only in the university +but in the school. There is no longer a universally +recognized circle of knowledge constituting a liberal education +preparatory to specialist studies, as there was in the middle ages. +Nor is there general agreement as to what such educational institutions +as schools and universities should attempt to do, or +even as to the end that should be sought by education as a whole. +Nor can agreement on such points be expected while men differ +widely as to the meaning and purpose of life. The work of the +organization of the material means of education has largely been +accomplished by the civilized world: that of determining the +true theory and practice of the educative process itself is still +incomplete. To that, both discussion of the philosophy of life +and of the relative values in life, of various kinds of experience +and experiment in the light of the conclusions reached, are needed. +The problem will never be absolutely solved, for that would +imply an absolutely best education irrespective of conditions, +but its practical solution will be reached when a true adjustment +is made between the process of education and the life for which +that education is intended to be a preparation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Academies</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Classics</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Co-education</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Examinations</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polytechnic</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schools</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Technical Education</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Women</a></span>; &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Wn.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. National Systems of Public Education</p> + +<p>A statement of the principles commonly recognized by modern +communities as governing the action of the state in relation to +education may facilitate at the outset a clearer understanding +of the problems which the organization of public education +presents. The cardinal doctrine of state interference in the +educational domain is universally accepted by all the great +nations of the modern world; and in regard to its extent and +limits a large measure of agreement has now been reached.</p> + +<p>In the first place, it is recognized as the duty of the state to +insist upon a certain minimum of education for every future +citizen. This does not necessitate a monopoly of +education on the part of the state, such as was claimed +<span class="sidenote">Principles of state interference.</span> +by the Napoleonic despotism under the traditional +influence (it would seem) of the old authoritative +Gallo-Roman tradition, transformed in its outward manifestation +but not in its inward spirit by the French Revolution. Such a +monopoly would be plainly repugnant to the spirit of Anglo-Saxon +individualism, and it is interesting to note that attempts +to reassert it have in recent times been repudiated in republican +France by some of the best exponents of modern free thought, +as an infringement of personal liberty not calculated to justify +itself by any corresponding public gain. Nevertheless, the +recognition of this primary duty of the state plainly implies a +state system of at least elementary education. The masses of +the industrial population cannot afford the necessary minimum of +instruction which the public interest demands, and private and +voluntary effort cannot efficiently supply the want resulting +from the unequal distribution of wealth. But it is in the nature +of things that, so far as private effort attempts anything in +this direction, it should be motived in the main by religion and +associated with the great historical religious organizations; +thus it comes about that the moment the state steps in to make +good the deficiency of voluntary effort a fruitful and embittering +source of difficulty and friction is disclosed. Hence, in England, +the history of public elementary education since the beginning +of the 19th century has been very largely the history of what is +called the religious difficulty. Here we find ourselves in the +region of acute controversy in which it is useless to do more than +note empirically the various solutions adopted by different +states. Perhaps all that can safely be indicated as commanding +universal acceptance is the principle that the state must not +impose upon an individual citizen in the person of his child any +form of religious instruction to which he conscientiously objects. +Modern controversies show the difficulty of applying even this +rudimentary principle to the complicated circumstances of a free +community split up into a number of groups differing profoundly +in religious sentiment, and zealous each for the recognition of its +own ideal within the common system. So far, however, as +secular instruction (<i>i.e.</i> the teaching of other subjects than +religion) is concerned it is now generally accepted that the +elementary minimum must be both compulsory and free for every +individual child whose parents will not or cannot (as the case +may be) provide such instruction for it efficiently elsewhere than +in the state-supported schools.</p> + +<p>Next, the action of the modern state cannot stop short at +elementary education. The principle of “the career open to +talent” is no longer a matter of abstract humanitarian theory, +a fantastical aspiration of revolutionary dreamers; for the great +industrial communities of the modern world it is a cogent +practical necessity imposed by the fierce international competition +which prevails in the arts and industries of life. The +nation that is not to fail in the struggle for commercial success, +with all that this implies for national life and civilization, +must needs see that its industries are fed with a constant supply +of workers adequately equipped in respect both of general +intelligence and technical training.</p> + +<p>On political grounds too, the increasing democratization of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page961" id="page961"></a>961</span> +institutions renders a wide diffusion of knowledge and the +cultivation of a high standard of intelligence among the people a +necessary precaution of prudent statesmanship, especially for the +great imperial states which confide the most momentous issues of +world policy to the arbitrament of the popular voice. The state +then must satisfy itself that the means of education are placed +within the reach of all, in grades adapted to the varying degrees of +intelligence and educational opportunity to be found among a +community upon the majority of whose members is imposed the +necessity of entering upon the practical business of life at a more +or less early age. The organization of the higher grades of +education constitutes a task of less formidable magnitude than the +organization of elementary education, for the reason that, at any +rate in the prevailing social conditions, it is only a minority who +can benefit by it, and that of this minority a large proportion can +afford the whole or a considerable portion of the cost in each +individual case. The class, however, whose education must needs +be assisted by the state if it is not to remain inefficient must +always be considerable; and account must be taken also of the +necessities of the further class whose exceptional mental development +is such as to make it worth while for the state to bestow +gratuitously an education higher than elementary at the public +expense. University education is distinguished from education +of the lower grades by the fact that, being necessarily restricted +to an élite of intellect or birth, it cannot, save in very exceptional +circumstances, usefully be organized locally. Although universities +are the necessary complement of a public educational +system they do not in strictness or necessity form part of such a +system, and in so far as they are brought within the purview of +public authority it must be as a matter of national, rather than +municipal or provincial, concern. Accordingly university education +is separately treated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>), and will not be +referred to, save incidentally, in the present article.</p> + +<p>Reserving to a final section the history of education in the +United States of America, a brief description is given here of the +educational systems of the leading European countries by way of +introduction to a more detailed, but still summary, historical +sketch of public education in England. The highly organized +educational systems of France and Prussia (as representing +Germany) are manifestly suitable for the purposes of a general +study of the principles of educational polity as worked out upon +logical and consistently thought-out plans by highly centralized +states. As to other European countries, a brief mention must +suffice of certain features of special interest presented by smaller +progressive states of such different types as Switzerland, +Belgium and Holland. Similarly, in the case of the United +Kingdom, considerations of space forbid more than a brief notice +of the educational systems of Scotland (<i>q.v.</i>) and Ireland (<i>q.v.</i>). +For other countries see the sections in the articles under the +headings of the respective states.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>France.</i></p> + +<p>France (<i>q.v.</i>) presents the most complete type of a state system +of education organized under a strongly centralized administration +in all grades. This centralized administration in education, as in +other departments, represents the Napoleonic heritage of the +Republic, and, although there has been an increasing tendency +of recent years to study local conditions in the internal organization +of schools, anything approaching to local autonomy is +unknown in educational affairs. The necessary checks upon +bureaucracy are supplied not by popularly elected municipal +bodies but by a strong infusion of the pedagogic element in the +administrative machinery. The pedagogic element in turn does +but represent another side of the collective activities of the state. +The teaching profession both in the primary and higher spheres—and +the two are sharply marked off from one another—consists of +a highly organized body of state functionaries, united by a strong +<i>esprit de corps</i> and actuated by ideals and aims which are inspired +by the state. The importance of this condition of things lies in the +fact that the Republic is something more than a form of government: +it is the social and moral expression of the democratic ideal +as conceived by a people profoundly imbued by tradition with the +sense of social solidarity, or collectivism; and nowhere has this +expression been more characteristic or more complete than in the +domain of public education. Yet the educational system of +modern France is by no means exclusively the creation of the +Third Republic, and the main stages in its development deserve to +be traced historically.</p> + +<p>No historical sketch, however slight, of French education can +ignore the great Catholic religious educator of the 18th century, +Jean Baptiste de la Salle, the founder of <i>Les Frères +de la Doctrine chrétienne</i>, commonly known as the +<span class="sidenote">Frères de la Doctrine chrétienne.</span> +“Christian Brothers.” The Brothers were not merely +pioneers of elementary education, they may also be +regarded (as M. Buisson, formerly director of public instruction, +has shown) as the originators of higher primary instruction. +Under the Restoration they upheld the method of simultaneous +teaching against the partisans of the mutual (or monitorial) +method, successfully demonstrating the superiority of the trained +teacher. The unfortunate effects of the monitorial system upon +English education show the reality of the service which this +religious congregation rendered to the national pedagogy in +France.</p> + +<p>The Constitution of 1791 decreed that primary instruction +should be compulsory and gratuitous. (It may be explained that +the term “free education,” <i>instruction libre</i>, does not +bear the same meaning in France as in England. In +<span class="sidenote">The Revolution and Napoleon.</span> +France a free school means a school not under state +control and not forming part of the state system.) In +this as in much else the Revolution was powerless to do more than +enunciate general principles which it left for later generations, in +the present instance after the lapse of nearly a century, to carry +into effect. True to its theories of individualistic liberty, the +Revolution admitted liberty of teaching. Napoleon, on the other +hand, by the law of 1806, centralized all forms of education in one +official teaching body under the name of the Imperial University, +thus securing a monopoly of teaching to the state. The +Napoleonic idea of the university, doubtless because a true +expression of the national genius, has never ceased to exert a +profound influence upon French education, an influence which of +late years has been revivified and reinforced by the modern ideal +of social solidarity.</p> + +<p>Under the Restoration education fell inevitably under the +control of the church, but under the Liberal Monarchy Guizot in +1833 passed a law which laid the foundations of modern +primary instruction, obliging the communes to maintain +<span class="sidenote">Reforms of Guizot.</span> +schools and pay the teachers. It is also to the +credit of Guizot as an educational reformer that he perceived +the necessity for the higher primary as distinct from +the secondary school. The higher primary schools which he +founded were unfortunately suppressed by the <i>Loi Falloux</i>; +their restoration constitutes one of the great positive services +rendered by the Third Republic to the cause of popular +education.</p> + +<p>The <i>Loi Falloux</i> of 1850, passed by the Second Republic under +the influence of the prince president, is chiefly memorable for its +restoration of the liberty of teaching, which in a +Catholic country means in effect free scope for priestly +<span class="sidenote">Loi Falloux.</span> +schools. This law also made provision for separate +communal schools for girls, for adult classes and for the technical +instruction of apprentices. In 1854 France was divided for +purposes of educational administration into sixteen academies, +each administered by a rector with an academy inspector +under him for each department. This organization survives +to-day, with the difference that for each academy (except +Chambéry) there is now a local teaching university.</p> + +<p>The ministry of the well-known educationist M. Duruy (1865-1869), +corresponding to the period of the Liberal Empire, was +notable for marked administrative progress. A permanent +<span class="sidenote">Ministry of M. Duruy.</span> +memorial of this epoch is the enactment +rendering primary schools for girls obligatory in +communes of over 500 inhabitants. Duruy also provided for +the introduction of gratuitous instruction at the option of the +commune.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page962" id="page962"></a>962</span></p> + +<p>The task of educational reform imposed itself upon the +republic by a twofold necessity. The wars of 1866 and 1870 were +victories for the Prussian schoolmaster, and aroused all +western Europe to the national importance of popular +<span class="sidenote">The Third Republic.</span> +education. For France then the reform of popular +education was an essential part of the work of national restoration. +For the republic too, menaced by older and hostile +traditions, the creation of a national system of education inspired +by its own spirit was an essential condition of the permanence and +security of its government and the social ideals of which that +government was the expression. Hence the energy with which +the republican state addressed itself to the organization of primary +instruction, “obligatory, gratuitous, secular.”</p> + +<p>By the law of June 1, 1878, there was imposed upon the communes +the obligation of acquiring their school buildings; and +as a grant in aid a sum of £2,400,000 was set aside for +this purpose by the state. In 1879 a law was passed +<span class="sidenote">Acquisition of elementary school buildings and organization of teaching profession.</span> +compelling every department to maintain a training +college for male and female teachers respectively. +The two higher normal schools of Fontenay and St +Cloud were also founded to supply the training colleges +with professors. During the same period, among other +<i>certificats</i> or professional diplomas, there were established +the <i>certificat d’aptitude pédagogique</i>, which qualifies probationer-teachers +(<i>stagiaires</i>) for appointment as teachers in full +standing (<i>titulaires</i>), and the <i>certificat d’aptitude</i> for primary +inspectors and heads of normal schools. The law of June 16, +1881, rendered obligatory for all teachers, whether public or +private, the <i>brevet de capacité</i>. It was found impracticable to +carry this law into immediate effect, and as late as 1902 only +about 60% of the men and 52% of the women were provided +with the professional certificate necessary for becoming <i>titulaires</i>.</p> + +<p>The laws making primary education gratuitous, compulsory +and secular, are indissolubly associated with the name of Jules +Ferry. The law of June 16, 1881, abolished fees in +all primary schools and training colleges, the law of +<span class="sidenote">Reforms of Jules Ferry. Laicization.</span> +1882 established compulsory attendance, and finally +the law of October 30, 1886, enacted that none +but lay persons should teach in the public schools, and +abolished in those schools all distinctively religious teaching. +In the boys’ schools members of religious communities were to be +displaced within five years, but in girls’ schools the <i>religieuses</i> +might remain till death or resignation.</p> + +<p>Religious teaching was replaced in the state schools under +the Ferry law by moral instruction according to official curricula, +a change which has been described by M. Séailles +(<i>Éducation ou révolution</i>) as a revolution of the profoundest +<span class="sidenote">Moral instruction.</span> +philosophical meaning. The difficult and +delicate topics of the relation of the state school to religion and +the value of the substituted moral instruction have recently +received illuminating and objective treatment from different +points of view in the series of reports on <i>Moral Instruction and +Training in Schools</i>, edited by Professor M.E. Sadler (1908, +vol. ii.); the barest reference to the questions at issue must +here suffice. As regards the character of the moral instruction, +it would appear to have shifted from a Kantian to a purely +sociological basis. Roman Catholic opinion is at least not +unanimous in regarding the “lay” or neutral school as essentially +or necessarily anti-religious, and plainly there is no inherent +reason why the neutrality should not be a real neutrality, but +with the existing relations between the Catholic Church and +modern thought in France the influence of the Normalist +teachers is in fact apt to be anti-religious, and moreover no system +of independent moral doctrine, whether based upon a priori +or inductive reasoning, can be acceptable to the Roman Catholic +Church. In whatever degree the blame may be rightly apportionable +between church and state, the fact is that the two find +themselves in acute conflict, and that from the conflict there has +resulted a certain moral confusion which Christian and non-Christian +moralists alike view with alarm. It may be that the +mischief would have been mitigated had more moderate counsels +prevailed at the time of the Ferry law, and had the church been +willing to accept (as the Republic might then have been willing +to concede) right of entry for the clergy into the schools. But +the real causes of the trouble lie deep in the philosophical and +religious problems of our time, and in the constant and self-sacrificing +devotion of the French to logical ideals on either side. +Perhaps it is not too sanguine to discern in the growing tendency +to idealism in French philosophy, and to liberal ideas in French +and Catholic religious thought, the promise of a happier state of +things. In the meantime, the religious difficulty in the schools +divides the nation into two hostile camps (<i>les deux Frances</i>, +as a Swiss Protestant writer puts it) in the shape of the state +secular schools on the one side and the private religious schools +on the other.</p> + +<p>In the year 1903-1904 the total number of pupils in private +primary schools was 1,298,591, as against 4,935,000 in the public +primary schools, but these figures were liable to be materially +affected by the rigorous enforcement of the laws against the +religious orders.</p> + +<p>In 1889 an important change was made in educational finance +by transferring the cost of teachers’ salaries in primary schools +from the communes to the state, a right consequence +of the changes which made the teacher a state official. +<span class="sidenote">Financial reform of 1889.</span> +Thus the state assumed the greater part of the burden +of primary instruction, leaving to the communes +merely the cost of fabric, and to the department the maintenance +of the fabric of the normal schools and certain expenses of +inspection.</p> + +<p>At this point it will be convenient to describe shortly the +various central and local authorities that constitute the official +machine. The minister, the head of the entire hierarchy, +is assisted by a <i>conseil supérieur</i> consisting of +<span class="sidenote">Administrative machinery. Minister and conseil supérieur.</span> +fifty-seven members, of whom the majority are elected +by the higher teaching profession, while a few are +nominated by the president, including a small number +to represent private schools, and a few are elected +by the primary teachers. Practically the ordinary +work of the council is carried on by a sub-committee consisting +of the nine nominees of the president and six others designated +for this purpose by the minister. The council has administrative, +judicial and disciplinary, as well as advisory, powers which +enable it to exert a direct influence upon the internal organization +of schools. There is also a pedagogic <i>comité consultatif</i> and a legal +<i>comité contentieux</i>, whose respective functions are purely advisory.</p> + +<p>The <i>inspecteurs généraux</i> “act,” says Mr Brereton in his +official report to the English Board of Education, “as the eyes +and ears of the central authority.” Their duties are: +<span class="sidenote">Inspecteurs généraux.</span> +first to inspect the normal schools; next to supervise +the work of the ordinary inspectorate; lastly to give +general and comparative information on the progress +of primary instruction in the various parts of France. For the +purpose of general inspection France is divided into seven +districts.</p> + +<p>As already indicated, for the purpose of educational administration, +the departments of France are grouped in seventeen +divisions called academies. At the head of each +academy is the rector. He is appointed directly by the +<span class="sidenote">Rector and council of academy.</span> +president and must hold the doctor’s degree. He is +not only the head of the local teaching university, +but is also charged in a general way with the oversight of all +three departments of education, superior, secondary and primary; +in regard to the last, however, his functions are confined to the +pedagogic side. The direct share of the rector in administration +is mainly confined to the normal schools and the higher primary +schools. The rector is assisted by an academic council composed +almost exclusively of pedagogic elements.</p> + +<p>Each department of France has an academy inspector appointed +by the minister. The duties of the academy inspector +embrace both higher and primary education. In the +<span class="sidenote">The academy inspector.</span> +latter sphere he is the real head of the local administration, +and the primary inspectors are his subordinate +officers. He appoints the probationer-teachers and +nominates the regular teachers for appointment by the <i>préfet</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page963" id="page963"></a>963</span></p> + +<p>The <i>préfet</i>, the chief administrative officer of each department, +not only appoints the teachers upon the proposition of the +academy inspector, he is also as president of the +<i>conseil départemental</i> concerned generally with the +<span class="sidenote">Préfet and conseil départemental.</span> +externa of school administration, including the supply +of schools. The <i>conseil départemental</i> with respect to +its powers corresponds in some degree to our own local education +authorities, but as regards its constitution it is in no sense a +municipal body, the representatives of the <i>conseil général</i> of the +department (which corresponds to the county council) being +greatly outnumbered by the pedagogical members.</p> + +<p>The inspectors of primary schools, as has already been stated, +act under the academy inspector. They are appointed upon +the result of examination and not by direct nomination +<span class="sidenote">Primary inspectors.</span> +as in England. The examination is severe, and it is +from the body of the professors of the normal schools +rather than from the ranks of the primary teachers that the +successful candidates are chiefly drawn.</p> + +<p>Very limited powers are entrusted to certain communal and +cantonal authorities. The <i>commission scolaire</i> is a committee +organized in each commune for the purpose of improving +school attendance, to which end they administer +<span class="sidenote">Minor local authorities.</span> +a <i>caisse des écoles</i> or school fund for supplying +clothing and meals to needy children. The <i>maire</i> of +the commune has the right of visiting the schools, but neither +he nor any of the minor local authorities can interfere with the +teaching. Similar duties are assigned to the <i>délégués cantonaux</i>, +who are appointed by the <i>conseil départemental</i> for each canton +(a wider area than the commune), and can best be described as +local visitors or visiting committees rather than managers in our +sense of the word. “All this hierarchy of central and local +officials,” says Mr Brereton, “will doubtless seem complicated +to English minds. The extraordinary thing is that, so far as I +could learn, the machine, for all its complexity, works smoothly +enough. The truth is that the province of each particular +functionary is so clearly defined that there is no debateable +ground over which ambitious rival authorities can wrangle.”</p> + +<p>In proceeding to sketch the French system of higher primary +and secondary schools, it may be observed that European +systems of higher education have generally been +framed upon the view that the divisions of education +<span class="sidenote">Conception of secondary education.</span> +are longitudinal, not latitudinal, and that secondary +education is a training complete in itself from the +preparatory stage to the university, with aims and ideals of +general culture which differentiate it radically and at the very +outset from education of the elementary type. On the other +hand, in the United States the view has prevailed that the +divisions of education must be latitudinal, that the secondary +school must be complementary to the elementary school, in +which even the élite must receive their preparatory or elementary +training. At any rate down to the reform of 1902, which will +presently be explained, the French system could be regarded +as a typical and even extreme example of the European theory, +little consistent as this might seem to be with the broader +principles of democracy. This view of the matter is expressed +by the French terminology, by which what in England is called +“elementary” is in France termed “primary” education.</p> + +<p>The thoroughness with which the principle of the autonomous +character of the two divisions of education was carried out +undoubtedly favoured in a special degree the complete +organization given to higher primary instruction in +<span class="sidenote">Higher primary schools.</span> +the <i>écoles primaires supérieures</i> under the Third +Republic. The aim of these schools is to fill the void +which must otherwise exist for those who need a higher education +than the primary school can give, but for whose subsequent +careers secondary education would be ill-adapted and injudicious. +Throughout the organization of primary education the French +have kept steadily in view the danger of creating an intellectual +proletariate. “Nous poursuivons la culture générale du caractère +et de l’esprit, mais nous cherchons en même temps à orienter +l’enfant vers la vie pratique,” says an official report. The aim +of the higher primary school is to continue education in this +spirit up to the age of sixteen so as to prepare the scholar to take +an honourable place in the higher ranks of skilled industry +rather than to deflect him towards a professional career or +intellectual pursuits for which he is unfitted, not so much by +the accidents of birth and social circumstance as by his own +natural aptitudes. Within the limits necessarily marked out +for them the higher primary schools of France have aimed at +imparting what may be termed a general culture as distinct +from purely technical or trade teaching, and this development +has been greatly furthered by the separate organization given +to the latter teaching in the <i>écoles professionnelles</i>. At the same +time, prominence is given in the higher primary schools to +practical training of an educational character with special +reference to the industries and circumstances of the locality, +and in the rural districts a special agricultural bias is imparted +to the curriculum. It is interesting to note that the institution +of the higher primary schools was due in large part to the spontaneous +initiative of the municipalities, and that in the later +phases of state organization special care has been taken to avoid +anything in the nature of a rigid uniformity in these schools.</p> + +<p>A wider extension has been given to higher primary instruction +by the establishment of <i>cours complémentaires</i> in certain schools, +at centres at which it would be impossible to organize +separate higher primary schools. A similar solution +<span class="sidenote">Supplementary courses.</span> +of the continuation school problem has recently commended +itself to the consultative committee of the +Board of Education for England.</p> + +<p>Admission to the higher primary schools in France is +only accorded to those who have obtained the elementary +school leaving certificate, <i>certificat d’études primaires</i>. A feature +of importance for continuation work in rural districts is the +provision made for boarding scholars in attendance at these +schools. The boarding arrangements are generally, as in the +case of the secondary schools, left to the head teacher, but in +some instances municipal hostels have been provided. No fees +may be charged for higher primary instruction, and scholarships +(<i>bourses</i>) are provided to a certain extent in the form either of +boarding scholarships or maintenance allowances to compensate +the parent for the loss of the child’s labour. The number of +scholars in the public higher primary schools for the year 1903-1904 +was 34,084, and in <i>cours complémentaires</i> 21,777, making a +total of 55,861. In addition there were 8891 scholars in receipt +of higher primary instruction in private schools.</p> + +<p>French secondary education is given in the <i>lycées</i> which are +first-grade schools maintained and controlled by the state, +and the <i>collèges</i>, which are schools of the second grade +maintained partly by the state and partly by the +<span class="sidenote">Secondary schools, lycées and collèges.</span> +municipality. A considerable number of scholars +pass annually from the collèges to the lycées. In both +grades of schools the teachers are paid by the state and nominated +directly or indirectly by the minister of education. They +are required to possess certain specified academic qualifications +which can only be obtained from the <i>université</i>, but failing +teachers with the prescribed qualifications the classes are taught +by teachers styled <i>chargés de cours</i> as distinct from professors.</p> + +<p>With a view to supplying teachers for the secondary schools, +the state maintains the École Normale Supérieure, +a college in which instruction, board and lodging are +given free to a number of scholars selected by competition +<span class="sidenote">École Normale Supérieure.</span> +from the best secondary school boys, though residence +in the institution is no longer compulsory. By the decrees +of November 10, 1903, and May 10, 1904, the École Normale +became practically the College of Pedagogy of the University of +Paris. Its students are entered as students of the university, and +study for their qualifying examination as teachers in secondary +schools (<i>agrégation</i>) under university professors, partly at the +Sorbonne, partly at the École Normale, while their professional +preparation is entrusted solely to the latter institution.</p> + +<p>The Republic has not reorganized secondary education by a +comprehensive law; it has, however, introduced by decree, +under parliamentary authority, an important reform in the +internal organization of the schools which marks a notable +<span class="sidenote">Classical and modern education. Reform of 1902.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page964" id="page964"></a>964</span> +departure from the traditional view of secondary education as +a self-contained whole. Article 1 of the decree of May 31, 1902, +declares that secondary education is co-ordinated with +primary education in such a way as to constitute a continuation +of a course of primary studies of a normal +duration of four years. The decree goes on to provide for +a full course of secondary studies of seven years’ duration, +divided into two cycles of four and three years +respectively. In the first cycle the scholar has two options. In +section 1 Latin is obligatory and Greek optional from the beginning +of the third year (<i>classe iv.</i>). In section 2 there is no Latin. +At the end of the first cycle the state grants a <i>certificat d’études +secondaires du premier degré</i>. In the second cycle one of four +courses may be taken; section 1 with Latin and Greek continues +the old classical education; section 2 with Latin and modern +languages corresponds to the German Realgymnasium; section +3 with Latin and science, and section 4 with modern languages +and science, to the Oberrealschule. The <i>baccalauréat</i>, or secondary +school-leaving examination, conducted by the university, is +adapted to all the courses on the principle that courses of study of +equal length, whether classical or modern, literary or scientific, +are entitled to equal advantages. This system of alternative +courses with leaving examinations of equal value is mainly +German in origin, and may be said to represent the results of the +best European thought upon the problem of the organization of +secondary education.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable in view of the thoroughness with which the +principle of laicization has been applied to the primary schools +that the lycées still retain their chaplains (<i>aumôniers</i>) +for the purpose of giving religious instruction. This +<span class="sidenote">Religious instruction in lycées.</span> +difference of treatment is apparently based upon the +consideration that the gratuitous and compulsory +character of primary education demanded a much stricter +interpretation of the principle of the neutrality of the state than +was necessary in the case of secondary education, which is neither +compulsory nor gratuitous.</p> + +<p>In addition to the state schools there have until lately been in +France a large number of private secondary schools, the most +important of which have been associated with the +Catholic religious orders. The enforcement of the laws +<span class="sidenote">Private secondary schools.</span> +against these communities has resulted in the closure of +a number of these schools, and in the reorganization of +others under a lay teaching staff. It is conceivable that the +action of the Republic may largely forward the movement, +otherwise perceptible in the Roman Catholic Church, to transfer +education, even when combined with specific religious teaching, +from ecclesiastical to lay hands. Evidence of this tendency is to +be found in the boarding-schools (some four in number) founded +upon the plan of M. Demolins (author of <i>A quoi tient la supériorité +des Anglo-Saxons</i>) after the English public school model, but +with a distinctly Catholic colouring.</p> + +<p>Apart from the position of the religious orders, the future of +private education in France is far from secure at the present +time. The liberty of teaching secured by the <i>Loi Falloux</i> is +regarded as a pseudo-liberty by the advanced republican educationists, +and the principle that education is a function of the state +and not a matter of supply and demand is deeply rooted in the +public mind. Proposals have been mooted for making the baccalauréat +strictly a school leaving examination attached to the state +schools. The adoption of any such measure would practically +destroy liberty of teaching by reason of the power which the +baccalauréat secures to the state as the key to the professions.</p> + +<p>The foundation of secondary schools for girls in connexion with +the educational reform of Jules Ferry is in its way one of the most +notable achievements of the republic. There is little +doubt that the expulsion of the religious orders is +<span class="sidenote">Secondary education for girls.</span> +destined to exercise a profound influence upon the +education of women in France. The place of the closed +convent schools is being taken either by new state schools or by +Catholic schools under lay teachers, and the number of scholars +affected by this process of laicization is far larger in the case of +girls than of boys. This change is calculated to produce far-reaching +effects in the social and religious order, by no means +necessarily, however, of an anti-Catholic or irreligious kind.</p> + +<p>For an account of the resuscitation by the Republic of the +local universities under the one great state teaching body +collectively known as the University, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Germany.</i></p> + +<p>Under the German empire education is left to the exclusive +control of each of the federated states. The only point of direct +contact between the Empire and education lies in the mutual +undertaking of the federated states to bring the law of compulsory +school attendance to bear upon all subjects of the empire +resident within their respective borders. Of far greater moment +is the moral influence exerted upon the other states by the +Prussian hegemony, in virtue of which the Prussian educational +system comes to be in all essential characteristics typical and +representative of Germany as a whole. It is remarkable that +though, as Matthew Arnold was able to report to the Schools +Inquiry Commission in 1866, “the school system of Germany in +its completeness and carefulness is such as to excite the foreigner’s +admiration,” neither Prussia herself, nor Bavaria, nor several +other of the principal states of the Empire, have found it practicable +to pass a comprehensive education law, owing to the +religious and political difficulties with which any general legislative +assertion of principle is attended in Germany as in England. +The consequence is that the Prussian system in particular is the +result of a long and complicated series of special laws, decrees and +administrative regulations. In such circumstances it is inevitable +that, especially in secondary education, some considerable local +variations and anomalies should remain, but the centralized +authority of the state has confined these to questions of patronage +and external administration, and even within this sphere has +successfully asserted its own ultimate supremacy as the guardian +of the educational interests of its citizens. A detailed historical +study would bring out clearly the intimate connexion between +the development of the educational system and the growth of the +Prussian state, and again between these and the expansion of the +national life of the German people; incidentally it would +exhibit the supremacy of Prussia in the modern Empire as the +inevitable result not merely of military force but of a genuine +hegemony of intellect and culture.</p> + +<p>Stress is rightly laid by all educational writers upon Luther’s +famous letter to the German municipalities in 1524, urging upon +them the duty of providing schools and upon parents +the duty of sending their children to school. An +<span class="sidenote">Influence of Luther.</span> +attempt to give effect to this teaching was at once +made by the electoral government of Saxony, which by a school +ordinance of 1528 provided for the establishment in every town +and village of Latin schools, for in Germany as in England the +influence of the Protestant reformers was solidly on the side of +classical education as the key to the study of the Scriptures and +theological learning. All the more remarkable, therefore, was +the initiative of the electorate of Württemberg, whose school +ordinance of 1559 represents the first systematic attempt to make +provision for both elementary and higher education, directing that +elementary schools should be set up throughout the country, +and <i>Particularschulen</i> or Latin schools in every considerable +centre of population. The educational efforts both of the early +Reformers and of the remarkable Jesuit educationists, who contributed +so largely to the partial reconquest of south Germany +for the Catholic Church, were brought to naught amid the +troublous times of the Thirty Years’ War, and the desolation and +national decadence which that calamity brought in its train. To +this result the aridity of the Protestant scholastics who succeeded +Luther and Melanchthon, and the frivolity, incompetence and +petty despotism of the small German courts, contributed in no +slight measure. The permanent and positive value of Luther’s +pronouncement of 1524 consists not so much in the direct effects +which it produced as in the hallowed association which it established +for Protestant Germany between the national religion and +the educational duties of the individual and the state, and +doubtless this association largely contributed to the creation of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page965" id="page965"></a>965</span> +that healthy public opinion which in Prussia rendered the +principle of compulsory school attendance easy of acceptance at a +much earlier date than in England and elsewhere, save only +Scotland, where a similar historical religious influence was +supplied by John Knox.</p> + +<p>State interference in education is almost coincident with the +rise of the Prussian state. Already in 1717 Frederick William I. +ordered all children to attend school where schools +existed, and fixed the fee at 5 pf. (½d.) a week. This +<span class="sidenote">Early Prussian measures.</span> +was followed in 1736 by edicts for the establishment of +schools in certain provinces and by a royal grant of +50,000 thalers for that purpose in the following year. In 1763 +the <i>General Landschulreglement</i> of Frederick the Great laid +down the broad lines upon which the Prussian state has since +proceeded, asserting the principle of compulsory school attendance, +fixing the fees, with provision for the assistance of very +poor children, prescribing the course of instruction, and giving +directions for the examination and supervision of teachers. +Much progress was made, more especially in the organization of +higher education, under Baron von Zedlitz, who was appointed +minister for Lutheran church and school affairs by Frederick +the Great in 1771, and retired under Frederick William II. in +1788. The last-mentioned year saw the establishment of the +<i>Abiturientenexamen</i>, or leaving examinations, which form the +determining element in the state organization of secondary +education in Germany. As in England, the fear of the French +Revolution produced a corresponding reaction in educational +affairs, and the policy of Frederick William II. was to bind ever +closer school and church in a system practically independent of +state control. The first departure from this policy was marked +by the <i>Allgemeines Landrecht</i> of 1794, which boldly proclaims +that schools and educational institutions may be founded only +with the knowledge and consent of the state, and must always be +under its supervision and subject to its examination and control. +This law also laid upon heads of families in every place the duty +of providing and maintaining schools.</p> + +<p>It was not till the disaster of Jena and the prostration of +Prussia at the feet of Napoleon awoke the dormant spirit of +patriotism, and concentrated all the intellectual forces +of north Germany upon the task of national regeneration, +<span class="sidenote">Reconstruction after Jena.</span> +that the principles of the <i>Allgemeines Landrecht</i> of +1794 bore full fruit. “The organization of the Prussian +school system,” says Dr James E. Russell in his work on <i>German +Higher Schools</i>, “waited on the reorganization of the Prussian +State.” One of the first acts of the great patriotic minister von +Stein, upon his assuming control of the civil administration in +1807, was to abolish the semi-ecclesiastical Oberschulkollegium +which had been set up as the central authority under the churchly +policy of Frederick William II., and to place education under +the Ministry of the Interior as a special section. Wilhelm von +Humboldt was placed at the head of this section in 1809, and the +work which this “great master of the science and art of education” +(as Professor Seeley terms him in his <i>Life of Stein</i>) inaugurated +in his one year of office entitles him to be ranked +among the founders of German unity. Humboldt’s greatest +positive achievements—the foundation of the university of +Berlin and its organization under a professorial staff which +included Fichte, Schleiermacher, Savigny, Wolf and Niebuhr, +as also the internal reform of secondary schools undertaken with +the pedagogical assistance of Wolf and under the inspiration of +Fichte—lie beyond the scope of this article. It may, however, +be observed that Humboldt’s policy in secondary education +represents a compromise between the narrow philological +pedantry of the old Latin schools and the large demands of the +new humanism of the period; and the recent reform of the +Prussian secondary schools may be said to represent a return to +the spirit of Humboldt in this respect. The measure introduced +by Humboldt in 1810 for the state examination and certification +of teachers checked the then common practice of permitting +unqualified theological students to teach in the schools, and at +once raised the teaching profession to a high level of dignity +and efficiency which of itself sufficed to place Prussia in the +forefront of educational progress. It was due also to the initiative +of Humboldt that the methods of Pestalozzi were introduced into +the teachers’ seminaries, through them to vitalize the elementary +schools. To the period of the national struggle belong the revival +in 1812 of the Abiturientenexamen which had fallen into +abeyance, and the institution about the same time of the +local authorities called <i>Schulvorstände</i> for the country and +<i>Schuldeputationen</i> for the towns.</p> + +<p>Though the period which succeeded the peace of 1815 was +one of political reaction, the cabinet order of Frederick William +III. in 1825 strengthened the law of compulsory +attendance and carried on the work of administrative +<span class="sidenote">Reforms of 1825 and 1834. Abiturientenexamen.</span> +organization by defining the duties of the Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium +and the Regierung. In 1834 an +important development was given to secondary education +by making it necessary for candidates for the learned +professions as well as for the civil service, and for university +studies, to have passed the leaving examination of the gymnasia. +Thus through the leaving examination the state holds the key to +the liberal careers, and has thereby been able to impose its own +standard upon all secondary schools. Apart from the privileges +relative to professional studies, the system of leaving examinations +has exerted a wide influence upon popular education in +connexion with the institution of compulsory military service, +in virtue of a regulation which entitles those who pass the leaving +examination of any of the recognized kinds of secondary schools +to the much-coveted privilege of service for one year as a +“volunteer” instead of two years as an ordinary conscript.</p> + +<p>The revolutionary and national movement of 1848 was +followed by a period of further educational activity. The Act +of Constitution of 1850 declared teachers civil servants and +elementary education free. In practice, the abolition of school +fees did not become general until 1888. Since then the view +has more and more prevailed that elementary education must be +free,<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and, broadly speaking, fees in elementary schools are now +charged only for children attending from another school district.</p> + +<p>In connexion with the <i>Kulturkampf</i>, or struggle between the +state and the Roman Catholic Church, the <i>Schulaufsichtsgesetz</i> +of 1872 reasserted the absolute right of the state alone +to the supervision of the schools; but the severity +<span class="sidenote">Kulturkampf and the confessional system.</span> +of this law as a measure against Roman Catholic +clerical education was considerably modified as a result +of the subsequent reconciliation with the papacy under +Leo XIII., and the Prussian system remains to-day both for +Catholics and Protestants essentially denominational. All +schools, whether elementary or secondary, are Evangelical, +Catholic, Jewish or mixed. In the elementary sphere, in +particular, recourse is only had to the mixed school (<i>Simultanschule</i> +or <i>paritätische Schule</i>), where the creeds are so intermingled +that a confessional school is impracticable. In all cases +the teachers are appointed with reference to religious faith; +religious instruction is given compulsorily in school hours and is +inspected by the clergy. The general purport of the Prussian +school law of 1906 is to strengthen the system of separate confessional +schools, which it extends to certain provinces where it +had not previously been in operation.</p> + +<p>In financial respects the last-mentioned law effected some +readjustment of burdens by charging a proportion of the expenditure +upon landed property. Other recent changes relate +to the reform of secondary education referred to below. The +system of educational administration as it stood in 1909 may +shortly be described as follows.</p> + +<p>Under the ministerium in Berlin stands the Provinzial-Schul-Kollegium, +the chairman of which is the <i>Ober-Präsident</i> +of the province, composed of four or five <i>Räte</i> or +<span class="sidenote">Administrative machinery.</span> +councillors, generally selected from the directors of +training colleges and gymnasia. This body is concerned +mainly with higher education.</p> + +<p>Each province is divided for purposes of general administration +into two <i>Regierungen</i> or governments, and in each Regierung +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page966" id="page966"></a>966</span> +there is a section of usually three or four Schulräte, which controls +the elementary schools. This council is usually recruited from +the ranks of directors of training colleges and from the inspectorate. +The Regierung is divided into <i>Kreise</i> or districts, and +in each district an administrative officer, called the <i>Landrat</i>, +represents the government. The Landrat is concerned with +the provision and repair of elementary school buildings; as +regards internal organization, the elementary schools are under +the Kreisschulinspektor.</p> + +<p>In the Protestant districts the inspectors (<i>Kreisschulinspektoren</i>) +are usually Evangelical clergymen holding the +position of superintendent in the Lutheran Church. +In the Catholic and certain other exceptional districts +<span class="sidenote">Inspection.</span> +inspectors with pedagogical qualifications and the status of +full government inspectors are appointed. Every candidate for +Lutheran ordination is required to spend six months at a training +college, but pedagogical opinion is hostile to the system, which +must be regarded as a survival of the traditional union of church +and state in educational affairs, retained at the present day from +motives of economy and a desire to conciliate the church.</p> + +<p>For every school there is an <i>Ortsschulinspektor</i>, usually the +clergyman of the parish, who discharges the duties of local +manager and correspondent. This local inspector is also +chairman of the <i>Schulvorstand</i> or committee, elected by the +<i>Schulgemeinde</i>, and charged with questions of attendance and +maintenance rather than with internal affairs. The Schulgemeinde +need not coincide with the civil parish. Parishes may +unite to provide one school, or within one parish different +religious communities may form separate school “parishes.”</p> + +<p>Thus the administrative system of Prussia in education as in +other matters may be described in general as a decentralized +bureaucracy. This bureaucracy is somewhat checked by the +rights of patronage attaching to the local boards in certain cases, +but the exercise of such rights is in all cases subject to government +approval. As regards higher-grade elementary and +secondary schools, the local boards in the towns (<i>Schuldeputationen</i>) +are able to exert a considerable influence in the way of +selection of the type of school, and even of suggestion for the +modification of recognized types, as is shown by the cases of +the famous “reformed” secondary curricula of Altona and +Frankfort. Still, the legal powers of the local board are restricted +to the establishment of an approved type of school, the control +of externa, and the right of nominating teachers.</p> + +<p><i>Elementary Schools.</i>—The single-class school (<i>Einklassige +Schule</i>) and the half-day school (<i>Halbtagsschule</i>) are features +of the Prussian elementary system which require notice. +The Einklassige Schule is a school taught by a single +<span class="sidenote">Peculiarities of elementary education.</span> +teacher, who may teach a maximum number of eighty +children. The Halbtagsschule is a single-class school +of which half the children are taught in the morning and half +in the afternoon. During the summer months, owing to the +exigencies of agricultural labour, many single-class schools are +taught as half-day schools. The system of course is regarded +as a makeshift, but in this, as in the matter of buildings for rural +elementary schools, the Prussian administration attaches great +weight to the consideration of financial economy. As regards +staff, a large measure of economy is rendered possible by the high +average standard of merit reached by German elementary +teachers, whose powers of oral exposition have struck English +observers as specially remarkable, and again by the national +readiness to be content with a moderate salary in return for +official status. A survival of the old close connexion between +church and school is to be found in the <i>Kirchendienste</i>, the duties +of training the choir, playing the organ, &c., which are attached +in many cases to the post of schoolmaster, and afford an additional +source of emolument, rendered feasible by the practical +absence of religious dissent.</p> + +<p>For the preliminary training of elementary teachers there are +special schools called <i>Präparanden-Anstalten</i>, of which most +are state institutions, some are municipal, and a few are private. +The training colleges themselves are provided by the state and +have a three years’ course.</p> + +<p><i>Continuation Schools (Fortbildungsschulen).</i>—Germans have +been foremost to realize the truth which is gradually being +brought home to English educationists, that adequate +value for the heavy expenditure of public funds upon +<span class="sidenote">Continuative education.</span> +education can only be obtained by providing for the +continued education for two or three years of the +children of the working classes who leave school at fourteen +years of age. One of the educational results of the war of 1870, +with its great lesson of the importance of national education, +was the Saxon law of 1873 making attendance at continuation +schools compulsory for three years (<i>i.e.</i> up to seventeen) +in that kingdom: The Saxon law appears to have been +justified by the experience of nearly a generation. It must +suffice here to note the following features of its working. (1) +The schools are taught by the primary teachers, supplemented +in the towns by some technical instructors. (2) The school +session may be either for the whole year or for only half the year, +and may also be held on Sunday, like the old English secular +Sunday schools. (3) The schools are brought into close relation +with trades, not only for purposes of curriculum, but also with +a view to considering the exigencies and meeting the convenience +of employers with respect to hours of attendance. (4) The +discipline of the continuation school is extended to supervision +out of school hours. “Visits to dancing-halls and all such +exhibitions as are dangerous to uprightness and purity are +forbidden to scholars of continuation schools.” Further, useful +institutions such as savings banks, and also associations for +social intercourse and the promotion of <i>esprit de corps</i>, are +organized in connexion with continuation schools. There is no +doubt that in this matter of continuation schools, as in so many +other fields of social organization, the adoption of compulsion +has been facilitated by the habituation of the working classes +to compulsory military service, which has made the German +workman more disciplined, more “organizable” as a social unit, +more accustomed to subordinate the principle of individual +freedom and self-will to the collective claims of the state, than +the workman reared in the traditions of Anglo-Saxon individualism.</p> + +<p>Attendance at continuation schools is now compulsory by +state law in 12 states, including (besides Saxony) Baden, Württemberg +and Bavaria. The city of Munich is notable for its highly +organized system of technical continuation schools for apprentices. +In Prussia compulsory attendance is still the exception (save in +the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, where it is enforced by +state law), but the permissive act is being rapidly adopted by +the great cities, including Berlin.</p> + +<p><i>Secondary Education.</i>—The official classification or grading +according to the type of curriculum of secondary schools in +Prussia (and indeed throughout Germany) is very +precise. The following are the officially recognized +<span class="sidenote">Grading of secondary schools.</span> +types. I. Classical schools: (<i>a</i>) Gymnasium, with +nine years’ course; (<i>b</i>) Progymnasium, with six years’ +course. II. Modern schools: (<i>a</i>) with Latin (semi-classical)—(i.) +Realgymnasium (nine years’ course), (ii.) Realprogymnasium +(six years’ course); (<i>b</i>) without Latin (non-classical)—(i.) +Oberrealschule (nine years’ course), (ii.) Realschule (six years’ +course). The six-year classical and semi-classical schools are +comparatively unimportant subdivisions in smaller towns.</p> + +<p><i>Lower-grade Secondary Education.</i>—Inasmuch as French is +taught in the lowest class of the Realschule under the official +curriculum (English, on the other hand, beginning in +Tertia, the fourth class from the lowest), it follows +<span class="sidenote">Co-ordination of elementary and secondary education.</span> +that this, the lowest type of secondary school, is not +directly co-ordinated with the elementary school. The +Realschulen of Berlin, however, form an important +exception to the general rule; their curriculum, +sanctioned by the ministry at the instance of the Berlin municipality, +provides for the beginning of French in Quarta (the third +class from the bottom) and English in Secunda. The consequence +is that in Berlin a very large number of pupils pass from the +elementary schools to the Realschulen, which take the place +of the Mittelschulen or higher-grade elementary schools that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page967" id="page967"></a>967</span> +are to be found in some towns, though something in the nature of +higher elementary education is afforded by the top sections of the +elementary schools.</p> + +<p><i>First-grade Schools.</i>—One of the most striking features of +German secondary education is the careful differentiation of +schools according to the type of curriculum adopted. +Thus, every German school is a homogeneous unit +<span class="sidenote">First grade secondary schools.</span> +with a definite educational aim and organization, +conforming to a common standard approved by +public authority for the particular type to which it belongs. +Hence the importance attached by the Germans to nomenclature; +so that in selecting a Gymnasium, a Realgymnasium +or an Oberrealschule, the parent knows exactly the type of +education he is going to secure for his son. In England, on the +other hand, as has often been observed, a great school tends to +multiply within itself different types of curricula in a haphazard +way according to the demand of parents, whose original choice +of school is based rather on social than on educational grounds. +Modern sides, army classes and engineering classes grow up as +excrescences upon an originally classical type, with the waste +of power that results from loss of consistency and concentration +of purpose. The difference between the English and German +systems is due ultimately to the adoption in Germany of the +day-school system and the absence, very remarkable in an +otherwise aristocratically governed country, of the caste spirit +in education above the elementary level, thanks to which the +nobly born are not ashamed to sit on the school bench side by +side with the children of the trading classes. On the other hand, +the English boarding-school system, despite all the want of +social solidarity, and all the class jealousy and exclusiveness +with which it is inevitably associated, has admittedly favoured +those ideals of the cultivation of character as distinct from +book-learning which give a special value to what is in England +called a public school education.</p> + +<p>The present differentiation of first-grade schools in Prussia +is the result of a natural educational development corresponding +with the economic changes which have transformed +Prussia and the empire from an agricultural to an +<span class="sidenote">Rise of semi-classical schools.</span> +industrial state. It was in 1855 that semi-classical +schools (teaching Latin without Greek) were first +recognized for a nine years’ course under the title of Realschule I. +Ordnung, and in 1871 pupils possessing their leaving certificates +were admitted to mathematical studies in the universities. +The Latinless Realschule II. Ordnung is the direct product of +the great industrial development of the modern empire. In +1882 the Realschule I. Ordnung received the title of Realgymnasium, +and the Realschule II. Ordnung that of Oberrealschule, +both types being at the same time admitted to certain +privileges in the universities, schools of technology and civil +service.</p> + +<p>About the same period official recognition was obtained for +reformed secondary curricula, first at Altona and afterwards +(1892) at Frankfort. These two types differ from +each other in detail, but the feature which distinguishes +<span class="sidenote">The “reform school” movement.</span> +both from the older types is the postponement +of Latin to Untertertia. The design is to secure for all +types of secondary education a common non-classical base +coextensive with the first three years of school life, followed by +a trifurcation or threefold choice between the classical, semi-classical +and non-classical types. The principle of the “reform-school” +has been adopted in a considerable number of German +(chiefly Prussian) schools, but it would be premature to see in it +at present more than a new variety of Realgymnasium or semi-classical +school; it can hardly be said as yet to have affected +the course of classical studies in the full sense. The widespread +sentiment of discontent with the old philological type of classical +school was vigorously expressed in a private letter written by the +emperor William II. as crown prince of Prussia in 1885, but not +published until some-years later. In December 1890 the Prussian +ministry convoked a conference at Berlin of secondary school +experts, and the emperor presided in person at the opening +session. His majesty delivered a speech criticizing the Gymnasia +as wanting a national basis. “It is our duty to educate +young men to become young Germans and not young Greeks or +Romans” was the keynote of the imperial discourse. The outcome +of the conference was a shortening of the hours allowed to +Latin in the Gymnasia, a reduction of the hours of study in view +of over-pressure, and an expression of official opinion adverse +to the Realgymnasium. These changes, introduced in 1892, did +not go far enough to satisfy the reformers, whilst the reduction +of the hours allowed for Latin caused misgivings among the +upholders of the traditional Gymnasium. Moreover, the Realgymnasium +showed greater vitality among the large towns than +its official critics anticipated. The ensuing decade witnessed a +certain reaction in favour of the classical humanities as a barrier +against the materialistic influences of the new industrialism. +At the same time the protagonists of the classics came to recognize +that side by side with the old humanities there must be +accorded to modern and scientific subjects that place in the +high-grade schools which the practical exigencies of industrial +life demanded. Thus, the opinion grew that the best line of +defence for the classical schools lay in the concession of equal +privileges to the non-classical types; in this way only could the +classical schools be kept safe from demands upon their time +that could not be conceded without endangering their proper +work. It was upon this basis that an agreement was reached +between the contending parties at a second school conference +that met in Berlin in June 1900. As the result of this conference +there was issued a royal decree laying down certain general +principles, of which the following are the most important. (1) +There must be equality of privileges as between classical, semi-classical +and non-classical first-grade schools. The decree +recognizes, however, that this principle must be applied with a +certain elasticity and with due regard to the necessity for training +in particular branches of knowledge as a preliminary to certain +lines of university study and certain professional pursuits. +Consequently the Prussian system of privileges has become +extremely complicated, and it is truer to speak, as the decree +goes on to do, of an extension of the privileges of the non-classical +schools, rather than of absolute equality. (2) “In +thus acknowledging the equality of the three types of higher +institutions, it will be possible more thoroughly to strengthen +the special characteristics of each type. In this connexion,” +the royal decree proceeds, “I shall offer no objection to an +increase in the number of hours devoted to Latin in the Gymnasium +and Realgymnasium.” Thus, both as to the place of +Latin in the curriculum of classical schools and as to the status +of semi-classical schools, the decree of 1900 involves a reversal +of the policy of 1890. (3) The decree expresses approval of the +reformed curricula of Altona and Frankfort, and a desire for an +extension of the experiment where the conditions are suitable.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the growing official encouragement of +education upon semi-classical or non-classical lines, the upper +and professional classes of Germany continue to show a marked +preference for the fully classical Gymnasium; hence, in Germany +as in England, the tendency for a widening gulf to disclose itself +between the education of the directing classes in politics and +administration and the bulk of the industrial population, which +suggests that the problem of combining in just proportions the +liberal and practical elements in a thoroughly national system +of education has not yet reached the solution that the needs of +the age require.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Switzerland.</i></p> + +<p>Switzerland affords perhaps the best type of a democratic +system of local authorities. The central authority is the canton, +not the federation. The interference of the federal +authority is confined to the imposition of certain broad +<span class="sidenote">Educational influence of federal constitution.</span> +principles by the constitution, to the indirect influence +exerted by the examination of recruits for the national +army, and to financial grants for technical instruction, +its most important direct educational work being the +support of the technological university at Zurich. The federal +constitution (1) states that primary instruction must be under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page968" id="page968"></a>968</span> +the control of the canton (an important point in view of the +strength of ecclesiastical influence in some of the Catholic +cantons), and must be compulsory and gratuitous; (2) declares +that it must be possible for the public schools to be attended +by the adherents of all creeds without hurting their freedom of +conscience; (3) forbids the employment of child labour before +completion of the fourteenth year, with a provision that in the +fifteenth and sixteenth years factory work, together with the time +given to school and religious instruction, must not exceed eleven +hours a day. (4) All recruits for the federal army (in which service +is compulsory on a militia basis) are examined in their twentieth +year, and the results are published. This examination affords an +instructive index to the state of education in the several cantons +and promotes a healthy emulation among them.</p> + +<p>The cantonal organization of education presents the variety +which the extraordinary diversity of race, language, religion and +physical conditions of the component states of the +federation would lead one to expect. The large canton +<span class="sidenote">Cantonal organization.</span> +of Bern may be instanced as the type of a strong +central authority. The commune or parish is the unit +for elementary education. The communal council nominates a +school board of at least five members, whose function is to spend +the money voted for school purposes by the general communal +council. Several communes in combination form a district +authority for the support of what are in reality higher primary +schools, though called in Switzerland <i>Sekundarschulen</i>, maintained +by the district. The maintenance both of the primary and higher +primary schools is aided by grants from the central authority. +The true secondary schools, called middle or higher schools, are +maintained and controlled by the central or cantonal authority. +The existence of separate local authorities for each grade of +education is characteristic of Switzerland generally, this system +being the opposite to that adopted in England in 1902.</p> + +<p>The central grants in Switzerland always take the form of +payments to the local authorities of a proportion of the teachers’ +salaries; they are never, as in England, assessed upon the number +of children in attendance, nor are they dependent, as was formerly +the case in England, upon the results of examination, nor again +are grants made in respect of particular subjects as is the case +with the grants for special, <i>i.e.</i> practical, instruction in England.</p> + +<p>Religious instruction in the Swiss communal schools generally +follows the faith of the majority; in a few cantons separate +schools being provided for minorities if sufficiently numerous. +In the town of Lucerne, Catholic instruction is given in school +hours and Protestant instruction is provided out of school and +out of hours for the Protestant minority.</p> + +<p>In 19 out of the 25 cantons attendance at continuation schools +is compulsory (at least in some districts) for boys up to 17, and +in 3 cantons it is compulsory also wholly or in part for girls.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Belgium.</i></p> + +<p>The interesting feature in Belgian education is the treatment +<span class="sidenote">Belgian treatment of religious question.</span> +of the religious question in successive laws.</p> + +<p>1. The law of 1842 obliged the communes to provide +primary instruction, which was to be free in the case of +poor children. The state made grants in aid, subject to +inspection. Subject to a conscience clause, religious +instruction was obligatory, and was placed under ecclesiastical +inspection.</p> + +<p>2. The law of 1879 removed religious instruction from the +curriculum, and provided for facilities to the clergy to give such +instruction outside school hours. This law furnishes a striking +instance of the futility of a parliamentary majority legislating in a +sense opposed to the convictions of a considerable section of the +community. The law evoked a storm of opposition in the country, +still profoundly Catholic and attached to ecclesiastical traditions, +and within eighteen months the Catholics founded private +elementary schools with 455,000 scholars. In 1883 the Catholic +private schools numbered 622,000 scholars, whilst the attendance +at the communal schools had sunk to 324,000. Their doctrinaire +treatment of the education question resulted in the political +annihilation of the Belgian Liberals, and was responsible for the +strongest and most persistent Roman Catholic reaction that has +been witnessed in western Europe since the beginning of the +19th century.</p> + +<p>3. The law of 1884 was the work of the moderate Catholic +party. It did not make religious instruction obligatory, but it +gave liberty to the communes to provide for the giving of religious +and moral instruction at the beginning or end of school hours, +subject to a conscience clause. Power was given to the communes +to “adopt” private confessional schools and maintain them. +Provision was further made entitling any twenty parents of +children of school age to demand a school of the normal communal +type as against a proposal to adopt a confessional school. Power +was also given to a like number of parents to compel the adoption +of a confessional school in the case of the commune refusing to +provide religious instruction of the type demanded by them, or +putting obstacles in the way of its being given by the clergy or +their representatives.</p> + +<p>4. The law of 1895 is the work of the more authoritarian +Catholics, and makes religious instruction obligatory, placing it +directly under the control of the clergy. It also increased the +subsidies to private schools. This law was passed in face of +opposition from the moderate section, who saw in it an exaltation +of state authority which might be turned by opponents to the +disadvantage of the religious interest. It is by no means clear +that Belgium has yet attained a final solution of the religious +difficulty; the life of the present law is probably to be measured +by that of the Catholic political majority.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Holland.</i></p> + +<p>The outstanding feature of public education in Holland is the +strength of the private primary schools. Under the law of 1857 +secular teaching alone was provided in the primary schools at +the public cost. The law of 1878 allowed communes to make +grants to private schools on condition of their becoming neutral +in the matter of religion. The law of 1889 allowed private +denominational schools to receive government grants while +retaining their denominational character, but forbade further +grants to such schools by the communes.</p> + +<p>In 1905 there were 566,460 children in the public and 278,632 +in the private schools.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Scotland.</i></p> + +<p>The diverse religious and social conditions of the three constituent +parts of the United Kingdom must necessarily cause the +education problem to assume a different shape and to receive +different solutions in England, Scotland and Ireland respectively; +latterly also the special conditions obtaining in Wales +have received partial recognition at the hands both of the +legislature and the executive. In Scotland the conditions have +been less complex than in England. The practical unanimity of +the people in religious faith, which has remained undisturbed by +the institutional divisions of recent times, the wider diffusion of a +sense of the value of education, the greater simplicity of life which +has rendered all classes largely content to avail themselves of the +preparatory education afforded by the common school and +favoured the development in the secondary sphere of day rather +than boarding schools, are among the causes which have contributed +to the early building up of a national system which in +some respects resembles the continental rather than the English +type.</p> + +<p>The national appreciation of education is found marked +already before the Reformation in a statute of James IV. (1494) +requiring all freeholders of substance to send their +heirs to school and to keep them there until they had +<span class="sidenote">Historical development.</span> +perfect Latin. The Reformation, asserting itself by +common consent under one ecclesiastical form, and free +from the divisions of religious organization which tended to +neutralize it as an educational force in England, put fresh life into +the educational aspirations of the people. As early as 1560 the +Church Assembly, largely under the influence of John Knox, put +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page969" id="page969"></a>969</span> +forth the <i>Book of Discipline</i>, providing that “every several kirk” +in a town “of any reputation” was to have its Latin school, that +the “upaland” or country parts were to have a teacher of the +“first rudiments” in every parish, and that each “notable” +town was to have “a college for logic, rhetoric and the tongues.” +Practical effect was later given to this scheme by an act of the +Scottish parliament in 1696, under which parish schools were set +up in connexion with the Established Church of Scotland. This +system was extended by an act of 1803, which made better +provision for teachers’ salaries and also confirmed the position of +the parish school as an adjunct of the parish church. The system +of inspection and state aid introduced in England in 1839 was +made applicable to Scotland, thus grafting upon Scotland the +English system of voluntary state-aided schools. At the same +period another new factor was imported into Scottish education +by the ecclesiastical disruption of 1843. As a result of these +changes in 1861 a new act was passed which relaxed, though it +did not sever, the ties which bound the parish school to the +church.</p> + +<p>The Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 set up elective school +boards for parishes and boroughs, and vested in them the +existing parish and burgh schools. Long prior to the +act it had been the practice of the Church of Scotland +<span class="sidenote">Scottish school boards and school attendance law.</span> +to allow exemption in the schools from religious instruction; +consequently in imposing a compulsory +conscience clause the act did little more than confirm +existing usage. The school boards were left full +liberty as to the religious instruction to be given in their +schools, and in practice school boards universally adopt the +Shorter Catechism, which is acceptable to all denominations +of Presbyterians. The act made the school boards responsible +for the supply of school accommodation, and introduced compulsory +attendance, for which opinion in England was not at that +time ripe. By the act of 1901, the age of compulsory attendance +was raised to fourteen, with provision for exemption after +twelve.</p> + +<p>The experience of the Scottish Education Department, like +that of the English, has led to the gradual abandonment of individual +examination as the basis for the payment of +grants. The institution of the merit certificate is +<span class="sidenote">Administrative progress.</span> +one of the features in which the Scottish system differs +from the English. Prior to the code of 1903 the merit +certificate, awarded on examination after the age of twelve, +was properly described as the leaving certificate of the elementary +school. Under the more recent codes merit certificates are +awarded under a system designed to encourage the transference +of promising pupils at an early age to supplementary courses or +higher-grade departments. Under this system the fitness of the +pupil to enter upon a course of higher studies is determined +not solely by the results of a single examination, but by +the whole character of his work during the preceding school +course.</p> + +<p>A notable factor historically in Scottish education was the +extent to which the parish schools supplied their best pupils +with higher or further education. The administrative +changes last mentioned have led to a remarkable +<span class="sidenote">Higher-grade schools.</span> +development of organized higher-grade schools and +departments. These departments have now been +organized upon the lines of the higher primary schools of France, +“to continue a stage further” (says the report of the Scottish +Education Department) “the general education of that considerable +body of pupils who, under new conditions, may be +expected to remain at school till fifteen or sixteen.” The +function “of giving something of the nature of a specialized +education to pupils who will leave school at a comparatively +early age” is now discharged by the supplementary courses.</p> + +<p>Elementary education has generally been rendered free by +the fee grants under the parliamentary vote, and by +the sums accruing under the Local Taxation (Customs +<span class="sidenote">Free education.</span> +and Excise) Act 1890 and the Education and Local +Taxation (Scotland) Act 1892.</p> + +<p>Voluntary schools are not numerous, being chiefly those of +the Roman Catholic Church. The average cost of maintenance +per child in average attendance in public schools (according +to the official report 1907-1908) was £3, 11s. 1¼d., of which +£2, 4s. 4½d. was met by government grants for elementary +education. In voluntary schools the average cost of maintenance +was £2, 15s. 1¾d., of which £2, 2s. 7d. was met by +elementary grants, including a special aid grant of 3s. per +head under the Education (Scotland) Act 1897.</p> + +<p>The total number of children (1907-1908) in average attendance +in grant-earning schools was 712,076, and the percentage of +attendances to numbers on the register was 87.66%. As +regards teaching power, 81.52% of the male teachers and +56.71% of the female teachers in the elementary teachers had +been trained in training colleges.</p> + +<p>Certain miscellaneous additional powers are conferred upon +school boards by the Education (Scotland) Act 1908, including +powers to provide school meals; in outlying parts, to +provide means of conveyance, or pay travelling expenses +<span class="sidenote">Education (Scotland) Act 1908.</span> +of teachers or pupils, or defray the cost of lodging pupils +in convenient proximity to a school; to provide for +medical inspection; and as to children neglected by reason of the +ill-health or poverty of the parent, to supply food, clothing +and personal attention.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most noteworthy provision in the act of 1908 +is that which enables (not obliges) school boards to make bye-laws +requiring attendance at continuation classes up +<span class="sidenote">Compulsory continuation classes.</span> +to the age of seventeen years. Apart from compulsory +attendance, the act lays upon school boards +the duty of making suitable provision of continuation +classes with reference to the crafts and industries practised in +the district.</p> + +<p>The Scottish Education Act of 1872 distinguished certain +burgh and parish schools as “higher class public” or secondary +schools. The act of 1908 deals in some detail with +secondary education, modifying and strengthening +<span class="sidenote">Secondary education.</span> +the framework in various ways, but without introducing +organic changes. “Secondary” schools are distinguished +from “intermediate,” the former being defined as providing +at least a five years’ course; the latter as providing at least a +three years’ course in languages, mathematics, science and such +other subjects as may from time to time be deemed suitable for +the instruction of pupils who have reached a certain standard +of attainment in elementary subjects under the code. Intermediate +and secondary schools may be provided and maintained +either by school boards or otherwise, and provision is contained +in the act for the transfer of endowed schools to the school +board. Thus secondary (as well as elementary and continuative) +education is organized upon the basis of the parish or burgh; it +receives, however, grants in aid through the agency of county +(or large urban) authorities (called district committees) constituted +under schemes of the Scottish Education Department. +For the purpose of such grants in aid the funds available under +the various local taxation acts, together with parliamentary +grants, other than a fee grant at the rate of 12s. per child in +average attendance, form a fund called the Education (Scotland) +Fund. After provision has been made for (<i>inter alia</i>) grants for +universities, higher technical education and training colleges, +the fund is allocated to the district committees according to a +scheme laid before parliament and approved by the king in +council. Out of the “district education fund” the school +board receives (ordinarily) a sum equal to one-half of the amount +by which the net cost to the school board (after deducting income +from grants made by the department and from fees) exceeds the +amount which would be produced by such rate per pound upon +the district of the school board as the committee may determine, +not being more than a rate of twopence in the pound. Important +powers are also conferred upon the district committee for organizing +and aiding within their district the provision by the school +boards of medical examination and supervision of school children, +the supply of bursaries for purposes of all forms of higher education, +and the provision of instruction in special subjects, such as +agriculture, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page970" id="page970"></a>970</span></p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Ireland.</i></p> + +<p>The full development of a system of public education in +Ireland has been hampered and retarded by the general difficulties +inherent in the problem of Irish government. +In consequence of the fundamentally different social, +<span class="sidenote">Special difficulties of Irish education.</span> +religious and political conditions in the two countries, +the English and Irish systems have developed down +to the present time upon divergent lines. In England, +popular education was founded in the first instance upon individual +initiative combining in organized voluntary effort, and, +though the voluntary agencies have been first supplemented +and latterly to a large extent supplanted by public action, the +tendency has been in the direction of municipalization rather +than in that of central state control. In Ireland, on the other +hand, education has suffered in the past from the general absence +of individual initiative and local interest almost as seriously as +from the mistakes of the English government. These causes, +more directly perhaps than the prevailing poverty of the country, +made it necessary to throw the burden of supporting the schools +to an increasing extent upon the state, while the want of local +self-government precluded any devolution of powers and duties +upon municipal authorities.</p> + +<p>State intervention is actually of earlier date in Ireland than +in England. From the reign of Elizabeth onwards, English +Protestant schools were founded by the government +in a sporadic and intermittent fashion in pursuance +<span class="sidenote">Historic retrospect.</span> +of its Anglicizing policy. To mention briefly one or +two historical features, the great religious educational +enterprise of Edmond Rice in founding the well-known Irish +Catholic order of the Christian Brothers in 1802 forms an exception +to the general lack of initiative among the people themselves. +About the same period the Kildare Place Society (founded in +1811 while the first commission of inquiry into Irish education +was sitting) attempted to grapple with the peculiar difficulties +of the religious situation upon lines somewhat similar to those +just laid down by Lancaster and his followers in England. +This organization comprised both Roman Catholic and +Protestant schools upon a common religious basis of Bible +reading without note or comment, and received government +grants which rose to £30,000 a year before they were discontinued +in 1833. The religious compromise which the system embodied +broke down in consequence of Catholic dissatisfaction, and that +it was at first fairly successful may seem extraordinary in view +of the later attitude of the Catholic Church towards the question +of common schools and combined religious instruction.</p> + +<p>In 1833, as the result of a second commission of inquiry +(1824) and a select committee of the House of Commons (1828), +Mr Stanley inaugurated the national system of elementary +schools under a board of commissioners nominated +<span class="sidenote">The national system.</span> +from the different religious denominations. The +government appears from the outset to have aimed +at combined secular and separate religious instruction for +Roman Catholics and Protestants. At the same time, an +attempt was inconsistently made to provide an ethical basis +for the secular instruction by means of Bible extracts. The +story of the preparation of these extracts by an ingenious +compound of the Protestant Authorized and Douai versions of +Scripture is in its way one of the curiosities of religious history. +The extracts were designed to meet the recognized Catholic +objection to the indiscriminate reading of the Bible without note +or comment. In practice they were chiefly used in the Protestant +schools (in which their use is now practically extinct), and the +growing Catholic objection to the policy of the National Board +in this respect found authoritative, though somewhat cautiously +worded, expression in a decree of the Roman Congregation De +Propaganda Fide of January 11, 1846, declaring that non-sectarian +religious instruction was dangerous to youth. “Tutius +multo esse ut literarum tantummodo humanarum magisterium +fiat in scholis promiscuis, quam ut fundamentales, ut aiunt, et +communes religionis Christianae articuli restricte tradantur, +reservata singulis sestis peculiari seorsum eruditione. Ita enim +cum pueris agere periculosum valde videtur.” The religious +difficulty in Irish elementary education may be said to have +been solved in process of time by the conversion of the national +system in practice, though not in theory, into a system strongly +denominational and therefore widely different from the design +of its founders, combined Biblical instruction being discarded, +and separate schools for the most part taking the place of +common schools for the two creeds. In the latter respect the +like tendency has been noted in the case of Germany.</p> + +<p>The following are the chief specific points upon which the +Irish system of elementary education differs from the English.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The state still makes building grants to the extent +of two-thirds of the cost. Such grants are only made to what +are called vested schools, that is to say, schools of +which the premises are vested in trustees or in the +<span class="sidenote">Irish elementary education.</span> +commissioners themselves. The state further pays +in the case of all national schools the entire cost of +maintenance except only the upkeep of the building, and the +provision of books after the exhaustion of a first free grant.</p> + +<p><i>Appointment and Payment of Teachers.</i>—For the purpose of +promotion the state through its inspectors undertakes the duty +of classifying the individual teachers in four grades, passage +from one grade to another being secured by examination. +Appointments of teachers to schools are made by the school +managers subject to the approval of the commissioners. Rights +of dismissal are reserved to the local managers and also to the +commissioners independently. Lastly, the teachers’ salaries +are now paid directly by the state. The old system of payment +by results was abandoned in 1900, and the teacher is paid (<i>a</i>) +a fixed salary according to grade, (<i>b</i>) a continued good service +salary which may be increased triennially, (<i>c</i>) a capitation +payment.</p> + +<p><i>Convent Schools.</i>—In addition to the national schools supported +as above, there are a considerable number of convent or monastery +schools which receive capitation grants after the English +plan, but not direct salaries. There were 308 such schools in +1908, with an average attendance of 70,003. There were also 83 +other convent or monastery schools paid by personal salaries, +with an average attendance of 11,075.</p> + +<p><i>School Attendance and Free Education.</i>—The Irish Education +Act 1892 provided for compulsory attendance in towns and for +the adoption of compulsion in other districts. In virtue of the +financial sections of this act, which provided an increased +grant for salaries, most national schools have become free.</p> + +<p><i>General Elementary-School Statistics.</i>—In 1908 the average +number of scholars on the rolls of all the schools was 708,992, +and the average daily attendance was 494,662, or 69.8% as +compared with the number on the rolls. As regards religious +denomination, 74.42% of the scholars on the rolls were Roman +Catholics; 28.6% were in schools attended by both Roman +Catholic and Protestant children and 71.4% in schools attended +solely by Roman Catholics or solely by Protestants. The total +expenditure on the schools and teaching staffs was £1,591,214, +of which £1,451,139, equivalent to £2, 19s. 3d. per scholar, was +contributed from state grants, and £140,074, equivalent to +5s. 9d. per scholar, from local (<i>i.e.</i> voluntary) sources, the rate +per scholar from all sources being £3, 5s.</p> + +<p><i>Training of Teachers.</i>—Salaried monitors are employed in +the Irish schools, but, unlike the English pupil teachers, are not +explicitly recognized as forming part of the school staff. There +are now seven training colleges, viz. one undenominational +college maintained by the commissioners, five Roman Catholic +colleges, and one college in connexion with the Protestant +Episcopal Church of Ireland. Of the scholars in the undenominational +college, 73 out of 312 were Roman Catholics. The total +number of students in training was 1189, viz. 514 men and 675 +women. The percentage of trained teachers to the total number +of teachers was 64.7. A special training college for the instruction +of teachers in Irish has been recognized.</p> + +<p>One of the chief desiderata in Irish education is a single +central authority for all branches of education, elementary, +secondary (or “intermediate”) and technical. There are two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page971" id="page971"></a>971</span> +central authorities dealing with secondary education, viz. the +<span class="sidenote">Secondary education.</span> +Intermediate Education Board and the Department for Agriculture +and Technical Instruction. The Intermediate +Board administers sums available under the Intermediate +Education Act of 1878 from the Irish Church +Surplus, and also the sum allocated under the Local Taxation +Act 1890. The vice of the system in the opinion of educational +experts lies in the statutory obligation to award grants on the +result of an individual examination of the scholars. As a result +of the vice-regal commission of 1898, power was taken to introduce +a system of school inspection, though not to dispense with +the individual examination as the basis for the award of the +grants; this measure of reform was ultimately carried out in +1909. The sum distributed in result grants is about £50,000 +per annum.</p> + +<p>Prior to the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) +Act 1899, science and art grants were administered by the +Science and Art Department in England; by this act they were +transferred to the new Irish Department for Agriculture and +Technical Instruction. This department makes block grants +to secondary schools in respect of science and art teaching, and +manual instruction or domestic economy. Measures have been +taken for the co-ordination of the duties of the Technical Department +and the Intermediate Board, and the impetus given to the +teaching of experimental science by grants for the erection of +laboratories represents a reform of undoubted value for higher +education in Ireland, especially when considered in connexion +with the enlistment of the local interest of the technical education +committees in the intermediate schools. Nevertheless, in the +absence of a reform of the results system of intermediate grants, +the special subsidizing of science teaching has tended to put an +undue premium upon this subject to the detriment of the rest +of the curriculum.</p> + +<p>Ireland possesses no such system of scholarships for assisting +the passage of scholars from the elementary to the secondary +school as England enjoys as a result of the municipalization of the +educational system. Nevertheless, Irish children as a fact pass +much more freely from the elementary to the secondary school +than is the case in England where social prejudices are stronger. +The schools of the Christian Brothers are usually organized in two +departments, primary and intermediate, and thus supply for the +Roman Catholic population the demand for the cheap type of +secondary day school represented by the municipal schools in +England. It must be added that the Irish intermediate schools +are purely denominational. The widespread demand for secondary +education among the people, to which the report of Messrs Dale +and Stephens bears witness, is a gratifying feature of Irish life, +while the recent establishment (1908) of the long-deferred national +university, and the perceptible quickening of intellectual interests +throughout the country in connexion with the Celtic revival, +point to better conditions for higher education and to the development +of a wider, deeper and truer, because more national, culture.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>England.</i></p> + +<p>It was justly observed by Sir Joshua Fitch (<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 10th +ed., xxvii. p. 655) that “the public provision for the education of +the people in England is not the product of any theory or plan +formulated beforehand by statesmen or philosophers; it has +come into existence through a long course of experiments, +compromises, traditions, successes, failures and religious controversies. +What has been done in this department of public +policy is the resultant of many diverse forces and of slow evolution +and growth rather than of pure purpose and well-defined national +aims. It has been effected in different degrees by philanthropy, +by private enterprise, by religious zeal, by ancient universities +and endowed foundations, by municipal and local effort, and only +to a small extent by legislation. The genius—or rather characteristic +habit—of the English people is averse from the philosophical +system, and is disposed to regard education, not as a science, but +as a body of expedients to be discovered empirically and amended +from time to time as occasion may require.” Clearly, then, the +English system of public education, as it results from successive +acts of the administration and the legislature, is one which can +only adequately be appreciated in the light of an historical +survey of the various stages which have led up to it and the social +conditions by which they were determined. The history of state +education in England begins tardily in 1832, when after a +generation of hesitation and controversy a beginning was made +upon an exceedingly modest scale with the system of treasury +grants in aid of elementary schools. The diverse forces which +were at that date at work in the education of the nation as a +whole, retarding state interference and marking out the limits +within which it was long to be confined, derive their origin from a +much remoter period.</p> + +<p>The apprenticeship laws of Henry VIII. contain the earliest +germ of state interference. These laws obliged children between +five and thirteen years of age who were found begging or idle to +be bound apprentices to some handicraft. If the immediate +<span class="sidenote">Influence of the English Reformation.</span> +object was the prevention of crime rather than education as such, +this early legislation is at least significant of the primary and +intimate connexion that exists between popular education and +industrial and economic needs. Yet in the shaping of the educational +system the original influences were religious rather than +economic; hence the importance of the canons of 1604, +which secured the control of education to the Established +Church. This of course was no novel doctrine, +but merely the reaffirmation by the Reformed Church +of the Catholic tradition of religious exclusiveness, +presenting itself to the mind of contemporaries rather as the +recognition of a national, that was also a religious, duty than as +the assumption of an ecclesiastical privilege. Whatever mischief +the Tudor statesmen wrought by indiscriminate destruction of +chantries and other foundations which combined educational +work with observances that the new religion branded as superstitions, +however far the English Reformation fell short of the +organized enthusiasm for popular education and culture that +marked the first most vigorous and constructive period of +Lutheranism in Germany, the Protestant, and especially the +Puritan, spirit unquestionably inspired a considerable volume of +individual educational effort during the latter half of the 16th +and the first half of the 17th centuries. Here, as in Germany, +the influence of the Reformation was wholly on the side of +classicism, the dead languages being the key to the theological +learning which was of primary concern to the men of that +theological age. The conception of elementary education as a +system complete in itself and adapted to the needs of the masses of +the people was unfamiliar at this date. The earliest elementary +schools were <i>petits</i> schools, which (as the name implies) were +really preparatory departments of the grammar-schools. Education +in fact was still regarded as the privilege of an élite, but, as in +the middle ages, the élite for whom it was sought to provide a +ladder to the university by means of the endowed schools so +numerously founded about this time was an élite of intellect and +not of mere wealth; the class feeling which became so marked +a feature of English higher education was of much later growth.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the 17th century elementary education +began to differentiate itself, partly by way of reaction against the +unnatural classicism of the preceding age, but more +especially as the result of the growth of towns and the +<span class="sidenote">Rise of elementary education.</span> +creation of a considerable industrial population. At +the close of the century the moral evils attendant upon +industrialism alarmed the religious conscience and prompted one +of the great educational movements that stand to the credit of +the national church. In 1699 Dr Bray founded the Society for +Promoting Christian Knowledge, and the movement thereby +initiated may be traced in the numerous “charity” or “Blue +Coat” schools scattered plentifully throughout the country and +especially in the great centres of population. The foundation of +these schools, which was pushed forward with vigour during the +early years of the 18th century, represents an energetic and well-planned +attempt to cope with the social evil of poverty by +educational means. The instruction was elementary, the scholars +were clothed as well as taught free, and the schools in the first +instance were supported not so much by permanent endowment +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page972" id="page972"></a>972</span> +as by voluntary effort, so that with this movement the voluntary +system may be said to make its appearance. Lastly, all these +philanthropic efforts were inspired by a solid but sober piety +nurtured by a church which came nearer than at any other period +of its history to enjoying the undivided allegiance of the people. +Another notable movement in connexion with the church was one +confined to Wales, that of the Welsh “circulating schools” +established by Griffith Jones about 1730, consisting of an organized +staff of schoolmasters who went round teaching adults to +read the Bible in Welsh. In the English rural parishes the comparative +religious unanimity favoured the quiet development +of elementary education in a small way upon less specifically +religious lines. Numerous small endowments for the elementary +education of poor children were provided by well-to-do +parishioners; indeed to such an extent did the practice of making +charitable (and largely educational) bequests increase that the +legislature intervened in the interest of private inheritance by +reviving the law of mortmain in an act of 1736. The village +schoolmaster became a feature of rural life, frequently enjoying +a schoolhouse provided sometimes by endowment and sometimes +even directly by the parishioners at the cost of the rate levied by +the vestry, but more often aided only by a little stipend from an +endowment for teaching poor children, and eking out an always +scanty subsistence by the fees of such paying scholars as he could +succeed in getting together.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the 18th century the emergency of the +industrial revolution evoked a fresh religious effort upon a more +highly organized scale in the shape of the Sunday-school +movement, which may be said to represent the +<span class="sidenote">The Sunday-school movement.</span> +educational contribution of the Evangelical revival +Robert Raikes, the founder of the Sunday School +Union, established his first Sunday school in 1782. The idea of +the Sunday school did not originate with Raikes; among earlier +pioneers in this field were John Wesley, who held Sunday classes +at Savannah in 1737; Theophilus Lindsey at Catterick in the +North Riding of Yorkshire, about 1769; Hannah Ball at High +Wycombe in 1769; and Jenkin Morgan near Llanidloes in +1770. Sunday schools, too, had been founded in England by +Joseph Alleine, the Puritan Father, in the 17th century, and +in Catholic Italy and France by St Charles Borromeo and Jean +Baptiste de la Salle in the 16th and 17th centuries respectively. +Nevertheless, in virtue of his achievement in organization, +Raikes is rightly regarded as the founder of the English Sunday +school. The peculiar value of the Sunday-school system in its +early days lay in the combination of secular with religious +instruction; in many cases the school was held on Saturday as +well as Sunday, and its restriction to the one day or two days was +due to the prevalence of child labour under stress of the great +industrial expansion. With better economic conditions and with +the development of day schools the Sunday schools gradually +became restricted in function to purely religious instruction. +Even with this limitation there is no doubt that the great Sunday-school +organizations of the various churches still deserve to be +reckoned among the educational assets of the nation, and as +agencies both of religious instruction and of general culture they +may tend, under modern educational and religious developments, +to play an increasingly important part.</p> + +<p>At the end of the 18th century the development of industry +and the social unrest which followed the French Revolution +combined to bring home to the public mind the need +of a national system of day schools. Unfortunately, +<span class="sidenote">Movements of Lancaster and Bell, and rise of the religious controversy.</span> +just at this moment the revival of Nonconformity as +the result of the religious vitality of the Evangelical +movement shattered the religious peace of the early +Hanoverian period and divided the nation once more into +hostile camps, to which class distinctions lent additional +bitterness. The famous controversy between Andrew +Bell and Joseph Lancaster and their respective followers in the +opening years of the 19th century served to define the religious +difficulty substantially in the form in which it exists after the +lapse of a century for the present generation. Both these +remarkable men conceived independently the idea of a national +system of popular education upon a voluntary basis; both +concurred in extolling the merits of the monitorial system, +which each claimed to have originated. The controversy +between them, begun upon personal grounds, resolved itself +into a national contest of rival principles of religious teaching. +Lancaster as a young Quaker schoolmaster, confronted with +pupils drawn from various religious bodies, planned his religious +instruction upon the lines of doctrine common to all the orthodox +Christian denominations. Thus he is the father of the undenominational +religious teaching which later formed the basis +of the Cowper-Temple compromise. But whereas the Cowper-Temple +clause is purely negative in form and so seems to point +to an undogmatic religion, the Lancasterian teaching was +essentially positive and dogmatic within its limits. In 1805 +Mrs Trimmer opened the attack upon Lancaster’s system with +a work bearing the expressive title of <i>A Comparative View of the +New Plan of Education promulgated by Mr Joseph Lancaster +and of the System of Christian Instruction founded by our Forefathers +for the initiation of the young members of the Established +Church in the Principles of the Reformed Religion</i>. The church +as a whole refused to co-operate in religious teaching upon the +basis of a common Christianity, and joined issue with Lancaster +and his Whig and Nonconformist following not merely upon +the question of the exclusion of dogmatic formularies, but +also upon the question of the control of whatever religious teaching +should be given. In fact the vital question at this period +was whether the clergy of the Established Church were to control +the national education. The religious issue was prominent in +connexion with the remarkable attempt at legislation made +by the Whig statesman Mr Whitbread in his Parochial Schools +Bill of 1807. As originally introduced, the bill proposed to make +it compulsory on parochial vestries to levy rates for the support +of schools for teaching reading, writing and arithmetic. The +compulsory provisions were dropped in the House of Commons, +but the bill was rejected by the Lords, mainly on the ground +that it did not place education on a religious basis or sufficiently +secure control to the minister of the parish.</p> + +<p>The failure of the liberal proposals of Whitbread, and the +strength of the Dissenting opposition to any settlement on purely +church lines (such as that advocated by Bell in 1808 +for establishing schools under the control of the +<span class="sidenote">Foundation of voluntary schools.</span> +parochial clergy), rendered recourse to voluntary effort +inevitable. In 1808 the Royal Lancasterian Society +was formed to carry on the work of Lancaster, the name being +afterwards changed, owing to personal difficulties due to the +wayward character of Lancaster, to the British and Foreign +School Society. In the following year the National Society for +Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the +Established Church throughout England and Wales was formed, +with Bell as its superintendent. In voluntary effort on a grand +scale the church easily outdistanced her opponents, and in 1831 +the National Society was able to show that there were in all over +13,000 schools in connexion with the church, of which 6470 were +both day and Sunday schools, having a total attendance of +409,000.</p> + +<p>The rapid development of the voluntary school system was +no doubt greatly facilitated by the monitorial plan of teaching, +upon which Bell and Lancaster equally relied. +Probably the first idea of utilizing the older pupils +<span class="sidenote">Monitorial system.</span> +to teach the younger presented itself independently +to Lancaster in the Borough Road and to Bell in Madras. The +monitorial plan never rested upon any educational theory; +it was simply a makeshift, a rough-and-ready expedient for +overcoming the practical difficulty caused by the dearth of +competent teachers. Historically it is important as the precursor +of the pupil-teacher system which so long formed the +exclusive basis of the English elementary system.</p> + +<p>Meantime a further political move was attempted by +Brougham, who included educational reform among his multifarious +activities. In 1816 he procured the appointment of a +general commission of inquiry into endowed charities. The +<span class="sidenote">Activities of Brougham.</span> +labours of this great inquisition lasted for twenty years and led +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page973" id="page973"></a>973</span> +to the reformation of many cases of abuse or waste of wealthy +endowments, and eventually to the establishment of the Charity +Commission in 1853. In 1820 Brougham introduced a +remarkable bill which proposed to make the magistrates +in quarter sessions the rating authority, to require +teachers to be members of the Church of England +and to be appointed upon a certificate from the parochial clergyman, +and on the other hand to prohibit religious formularies and +to confine religious instruction to Bible reading without comment. +The bill naturally failed through the opposition cf the Dissenters, +and served only to accentuate the religious impasse.</p> + +<p>In 1832 the Whig government which passed the Reform Bill +placed on the Estimates a sum of £20,000 for public education, +thus initiating the system of the annual grant voted by +parliament and dispensed under regulations framed +<span class="sidenote">Treasury grants.</span> +by administrative act. The grant of 1832 was administered +by the treasury and not by a special department, +under certain conditions laid down by treasury minute of August +30, 1833. The chief of these were that grants were confined to +the erection of school buildings, and were to be administered +only through the National and the British and Foreign School +societies; there was a provision for audit, but no condition +of inspection.</p> + +<p>In 1839 Lord Melbourne’s government by means of an order +in council established a separate education office under the style +of the Committee of Council on Education, and the +sum voted by parliament was increased to £39,000. +<span class="sidenote">Establishment of State-aided system.</span> +The original intention of the government was to establish +a state normal school or training college as the +foundation of a national system of education. Unfortunately +this design had to be abandoned in view of the +religious difficulty, with the result (so fruitful in controversy +at the present time) that the training of elementary teachers +was left in private hands and became a stronghold of the voluntary +and denominational interests. In view of the limited +resources placed at their disposal by parliament, the Committee +of Council were at first compelled to confine their assistance to +capital grants in aid of the provision of school buildings, but in +the distribution of the money three important conditions were +at once imposed. In the first place, the continuing right of +inspection was required in all cases; secondly, promoters were +obliged to conform to a fixed standard of structural efficiency; +thirdly, the building must be settled upon trusts permanently +securing it to the education of poor children.</p> + +<p>By the minute of August 10, 1840, the Committee of Council +concluded what came to be known as the concordat with the +church. Under this minute no appointment was to +be made of any person to inspect schools in connexion +<span class="sidenote">Concordat with the church.</span> +with the Church of England without the concurrence +of the archbishop of the province, and, what seems +still more extraordinary to modern ideas, any such appointment +was to be revoked should the archbishop at any time withdraw +his concurrence. The inspectors were charged with the duty +of inspecting religious teaching, but under instructions to be +framed by the archbishop, and their reports were to be transmitted +in duplicate to the archbishop and the bishop for the +information of these authorities. Further, the general instructions +of the Committee of Council themselves were to be communicated +to the archbishop before being finally sanctioned. +The march of events, and in particular the altered financial +relations between the state and the voluntary managers brought +about by the institution of maintenance grants, soon rendered +this concordat obsolete, but it remains historically important +as showing how at the outset the denominational principle was +recognized and fostered by the state.</p> + +<p>Among the first acts of the Committee of Council was the +promulgation of a set of model trusts deeds, one or other of which +applicants for building grants were required to adopt +for the settlement of their school premises. The +<span class="sidenote">Trust deeds.</span> +necessary conditions were the permanent appropriation +of the site to purposes of education, and the permanent right of +government inspection; it must, however, be noted that this +latter right was generally limited in terms to the inspection +provided for by the minute of August 10, 1840. A conscience +clause was not obligatory, and indeed was only offered in the +limited form of exemption from instruction in formularies and +attendance at Sunday school or public worship. A more systematic +attempt to promote public control by means of trust deeds +in 1846 led the Committee of Council into a controversy with the +National Society which extended over a period of three years, +turning chiefly upon the management clauses and the question of +appeals, and resulting in compromises which constituted a fresh +concordat with the church. In point of fact, the management +clauses proved to be of little practical consequence, save in a few +controversial cases, until the act of 1902, which had the effect of +bringing them once more into prominence in connexion with the +constitution of statutory bodies of foundation managers. The +act of 1902 also dealt specifically with two other points arising +upon the old trust deeds, viz. the control of religious instruction +and the appeal to the bishop in religious questions. Special +facilities for the conveyance of land for school purposes were +afforded to limited owners by the School Sites Acts of 1841 and +subsequent years. The landed gentry responded with great +public spirit to the call thus made upon their generosity by the +state, with the result that the vast majority of rural, and many +urban, parishes were freely endowed with sites for elementary +schools.</p> + +<p>The Grammar Schools Act of 1840, which was passed to deal +with the case of the decayed “grammar” (<i>i.e.</i> classical) schools +which abounded throughout the country, belongs to the +history of elementary rather than secondary education. +<span class="sidenote">Grammar Schools Act 1840.</span> +It expressly empowered the Court of Chancery, where +the endowment was insufficient for a classical school, to +substitute subjects of useful learning analogous to those contained +in the original trusts. As a result of this act a considerable +number of ancient endowments were reorganized so as to afford +an improved elementary instead of an inefficient classical +education, and the schemes made under the act constituted +an early, but not very successful, experiment in the direction of +higher elementary schools.</p> + +<p>In 1843 the Committee of Council decided to make grants in aid +of the erection of normal schools or training colleges +<span class="sidenote">Training-college grants.</span> +in connexion with the National Society and the British +and Foreign School societies, thus marking the definite +abandonment of the provision of training colleges to +voluntary effort.</p> + +<p>In 1846 an important step forwards was taken in the foundation +of the pupil-teacher system. The regulations of this year +inaugurated annual maintenance grants in the form of +stipends for apprenticed pupil teachers receiving a +<span class="sidenote">Pupil-teacher system.</span> +prescribed course of instruction under the head teacher, +and a lower grade of stipendiary monitors in schools +where such instruction could not be provided. These regulations +inaugurated the system of Queen’s Scholarships to assist pupil +teachers to proceed to a training college; they also established +capitation grants for the support of such colleges, and annual +grants to elementary schools under government inspection of +from £15 to £30 in aid of the salary of every trained teacher +employed. Provision was at the same time made for retiring +pensions to elementary teachers.</p> + +<p>Down to 1847 state aid was confined to two religious categories +of schools: those giving specifically Church of England teaching, +and those in connexion with the British and Foreign +School Society giving simple Bible teaching. To +<span class="sidenote">Extension of state aid to Wesleyans, Roman Catholics and Jews.</span> +facilitate the recognition of other denominational +schools the Committee of Council in 1847 issued a +minute dispensing schools not connected with the +Established Church from inquiries concerning their +religious condition, and in the same year state aid was +extended to Wesleyan and Roman Catholic schools. The +settlement of model trust deeds gave occasion for each of these +two great religious bodies to negotiate a kind of concordat with +respect to school management, and the Roman Catholic deed was +only settled after a controversy, similar to that which had arisen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page974" id="page974"></a>974</span> +with the National Society, as to the rights of ecclesiastical +authority. Jewish schools received recognition in 1851 upon +condition that the Scriptures of the Old Testament should be +daily read in them.</p> + +<p>During the middle years of the century various unsuccessful +legislative attempts were made to establish a national system of +elementary schools upon the basis of rate-aid. These +attempts began with the education clauses of Sir Robert +<span class="sidenote">Bills of 1842-57.</span> +Peel’s Factory Bill of 1842, and were renewed in a +series of bills from 1853 to 1857, of which one set was introduced +by Lord John Russell on behalf of the Whig government, whilst +a second was promoted by an organization called the Manchester +and Salford Committee on Education, in the denominational +interest, and a third set by an organization called the Lancashire +(afterwards the National) Public Schools Association, in the secular +interest. The only one of these attempts which calls for notice +here is the bill introduced by Lord John Russell (called the +Borough Bill, on account of its being restricted to municipal +boroughs) in 1853, and forming part of a comprehensive scheme of +legislative and administrative reform of which a portion was +actually carried into effect. The bill as a measure for elementary +education was supplemented by an administrative system of +capitation grants for rural areas. The government scheme also +comprised a measure dealing with the administration of charitable +trusts (which took shape as the Charitable Trusts Act 1853), the +constitution of the Department of Science and Art, and university +reform upon the lines recommended by the Oxford and Cambridge +commissions. The Borough Bill left it optional with municipalities +to adopt the act. It provided for the appointment of a school +committee, one half of whose members might be non-members of +the council. The school committee was merely given power to +assist existing voluntary schools out of the rates. No provision +was made for public control beyond the requirement of audit; +the sole condition as to religious instruction was the acceptance of +a conscience clause.</p> + +<p>The failure of the Borough Bill did not affect the new system of +capitation grants which was introduced by minute of the Committee +of Council dated April 2, 1853. These grants +were fixed at a scale varying from 3s. to 6s. per head, +<span class="sidenote">Capitation grants.</span> +payable upon certain conditions, of which the most +important were that the school must be under a certificated +teacher, and that three-fourths of the children must pass a +prescribed examination. In consequence of the failure of the +several fresh bills introduced in 1855 by the government, the +church party and the secular party respectively amplifying the +proposals previously brought forward, the capitation grant was, +by minute of January 26, 1856, extended to urban areas. As in +the case of all the early grants, the regulations governing the +distribution of the capitation grants were framed upon the +principle that subventions of public money must be met by local +funds derived from voluntary contributions, endowments and +school fees; thus the basis of the denominational system as +fostered by the state at this stage was one of financial partnership.</p> + +<p>In 1856 a purely administrative bill was passed, establishing +the office of vice-president of the Committee of Council +<span class="sidenote">Education minister, 1856.</span> +on Education as a minister responsible to parliament. +At the same time, the Science and Art Department +was transferred from the Board of Trade to the Committee +of Council.</p> + +<p>The progress of state-aided education during this period may +be measured by the increase of the annual parliamentary grant, +which rose from £30,000 in 1839 to £100,000 in 1846, +£150,000 in 1851, £396,000 in 1855, and £663,400 in +1858. This expansion was viewed with misgiving +<span class="sidenote">Newcastle Commission.</span> +by the friends of the denominational system, and by +the strong individualist school of that day, who upon wider +grounds clung to the old ideal of voluntary initiative. These +sections combined with the advocates of further state intervention +to press for a commission of inquiry, and at the instance of +Sir John Pakington (the eminent Conservative educationist +who was responsible for the denominational bills of the ’fifties) +a royal commission was appointed in 1858, under the chairmanship +of the duke of Newcastle, to inquire into the state of popular +education in England, and to consider and report what measures, +if any, were required for the extension of sound and cheap +elementary instruction to all classes of the people. The <i>Report</i> +of the Newcastle Commission, issued in 1861, contains an exhaustive +account of the existing condition of elementary education, +and, with due allowance for the grave defects revealed, +and in particular the glaring inefficiency of the numerous little +private-venture schools kept by “dames” and others, the +graphic picture drawn by the commissioners constitutes a +striking tribute to the sterling qualities of self-help and religious +earnestness which were so characteristic of the early Victorian +period. It was found that in round numbers about 2,500,000 +children were attending day schools, the proportion to population +being 1 in 7, as compared with 1 in 9 in France, 1 in 8 in Holland, +and 1 in 6 in Prussia, where education was compulsory. On the +other hand, of this number only 1,675,000 were in public schools +of all kinds, only 1,100,000 in schools liable to inspection, and +917,000 in schools receiving annual grant. The result was that +only one child in every twenty was attending a school whose +efficiency could be in any way guaranteed by the state. In +the constructive portion of their work the comments and recommendations +of the commissioners reflected the prevailing perplexity +of the public mind. A consistent individualistic minority +considered that the annual grant should be withdrawn altogether, +and that any further state aid should be confined to building +grants, which they would concede not as desirable in themselves +but as necessitated out of considerations of fairness to the parishes +that had not yet received such aid. The commissioners as a +body rejected free and compulsory education in view of the +religious difficulty and upon general grounds of individualistic +principle. Of the religious difficulty itself the commissioners +had some wise words to say which hold good in substance at the +present time. In their judgment the considerable evidence they +had amassed conclusively proved that the religious difficulty +originated with the managers, promoters and organizers of the +schools, and not with the parents themselves; yet the indifferent +or comparatively passive attitude of the people nowise materially +diminished the practical difficulty of introducing a comprehensive +system, since it was not with the body of the people but with +the founders and supporters of schools that legislators would +always have to deal. In view of the solution adopted in 1902 +it is of interest to note that the Newcastle Commissioners deliberately +rejected the parish as unfit to be taken as the unit of +elementary education upon the ground that management by +parochial ratepayers must tend to be illiberal and niggardly, +bent upon economy of the rates to the detriment of educational +interests; accordingly they recommended the constitution of +county boards (which in the absence of elective councils must +needs originate with quarter sessions) clothed with power to +levy a rate for the aid of existing voluntary schools.</p> + +<p>The one definite achievement of the Newcastle Commission +was the famous system of payment by results, which may be +said to have excited a keener and more prolonged +controversy than any other measure of a purely +<span class="sidenote">Payment by results.</span> +educational character. Impressed by the defects of +the existing teaching, the commissioners reported that there +was only one way of securing efficiency, and that was to institute +a searching examination by competent authority of every +child in every school to which grants were to be paid, with the +view of ascertaining whether the indispensable elements of +knowledge were thoroughly acquired, and to make the prospects +and position of the teacher dependent to a considerable extent +upon the results of this examination. Thus the commissioners +hoped to counteract what appeared to them to be the crying +defect of the existing training college system, viz. that it tended +mainly to adapt the young schoolmaster to advance his higher, +rather than to thoroughly ground his junior, pupils. They +recognized that to raise the character of the children, both +morally and intellectually, was and must always be the highest +aim of education, and they were far from desiring to supersede +this by any plan of a mere examination into the more mechanical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page975" id="page975"></a>975</span> +work of elementary education, the reading, writing and arithmetic +of young children; but they thought that the importance +of this training, which must be the foundation of all other +teaching, had been lost sight of, and that there was justice in the +common complaint that while a fourth of the scholars were +really taught, three-fourths after leaving school forgot everything +they had learnt there.</p> + +<p>Mr Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) as vice-president of the Committee +of Council (1859-1864) adopted the system of payment by results +in what became famous in history as the Revised Code, +issued in 1862 and so called because it was a revision +<span class="sidenote">Revised Code.</span> +of the minutes and regulations of the Committee of +Council, which were first collected and issued in the form of a +code in 1860. The Revised Code provided for the payment of a +grant of 4s. upon the old principle and a further grant of not +more than 8s. upon the result of examination. Mr Lowe declared +of the system in the House of Commons that “if it was costly +it should at least be efficient; and if it was inefficient it should +at least be cheap.” In fact, it proved to be cheap; the giant +fell from £813,400 in 1861 to £636,800 in 1865. The upholders +of the existing system denounced the Revised Code as an undeserved +slight upon the voluntary managers, and even as a +breach of faith with the great religious denominations. On +purely educational grounds, which need not be here re-capitulated, +it was at once viewed with misgiving by many +authorities, including Matthew Arnold. To meet objections, +some modifications were introduced in the code under the +Conservative government in 1867. The system of paying grant +upon the result of individual examination of the scholars was not +finally abolished till 1904.</p> + +<p>The years immediately preceding 1870 were occupied with +discussion and preparation for the great legislative measure for +which the time was now felt to have arrived. Good +work was done in this direction by the Select Committee +<span class="sidenote">Proceedings preliminary to the act of 1870.</span> +of the House of Commons in 1866, over which Sir +John Pakington presided. For reasons connected +with the political situation of the moment this committee +never reported, but the minutes of evidence and the +draft report prepared by Sir John Pakington contained +much valuable material in the way of criticism of the existing +system and suggestion for the coming settlement; in particular +the draft report insisted upon the inevitableness of an education +rate. In 1868 the Conservative government brought in, but did +not proceed with, an education bill deliberately discarding the +principle of rate-aid on the ground that it would destroy voluntary +contributions and gradually starve out the denominational +schools. In 1867 and again in 1868 Mr Bruce (afterwards Lord +Aberdare), Mr W.E. Forster and Mr Algernon Egerton introduced +a bill which formed the basis of the measure of 1870. As +redrafted in 1868 the bill of Mr Bruce and his coadjutors proposed +a universal system of municipal and parochial rating with +liberty for voluntary schools to unite themselves to the rate-aided +system under their existing management, subject to the +acceptance of a conscience clause. The bill also proposed to +empower town councils to co-opt outsiders upon their education +committees. Thus both in the principle of co-optation and in +the extension of rate aid to schools not under public control +the bill of these Liberal statesmen in 1868 anticipated certain +controverted features of Mr Balfour’s Education Act of 1902. +In the meantime, in the country the Education League, originated +at Birmingham, was carrying on a propaganda in favour of free +secular schools, whilst the Education Union, formed to counteract +the influence of the league, urged a settlement upon the old +lines. As a concession to the popular feeling against secularism, +the league proposed to allow Bible reading without doctrinal +exposition. Thus opinion was sufficiently focussed to enable +Mr Gladstone’s administration in 1870 to undertake the comprehensive +measure of educational reform for which the country +had had to wait so long.</p> + +<p>The Elementary Education Act of 1870 bore in every respect +the marks of compromise. As Mr Forster explained in introducing +the bill, the object of the government was “to complete +the voluntary system and to fill up gaps,” not to supplant it. +<span class="sidenote">Act of 1870.</span> +To this end the Education Department was charged with the +duty of ascertaining whether or not there was in every +parish a deficiency of public school accommodation, +and provision made for the formation of school boards +in every school district (<i>i.e.</i> parish or municipal borough) +requiring further public school accommodation. Such accommodation +might consist either of public elementary schools as +defined by the act, or other schools giving efficient and suitable +elementary education. The definition of public elementary +school contained in section 7 of the act is still in force. Shortly, +a public elementary school is a school subject to a conscience +clause entitling scholars to complete exemption from all religious +instruction and observance whatsoever. Any religious instruction +or observance in the school must be either at the beginning +or the end of the school meeting. The school must also be open +at all times to the government inspectors and must be conducted +in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled in order +to obtain an annual parliamentary grant. In the same connexion +an important change was made in the conditions of inspection +by declaring that it should be no part of the duties of the inspector +to inquire into religious instruction, whilst a later section +of the act provided that no parliamentary grant should be made +in respect of any religious instruction.</p> + +<p>Three important changes were made in the measure during +its passage through parliament. As at first proposed, (1) the +school boards were not to be directly elected by the ratepayers, +but were to be appointed by the town council or the vestry. +(2) These nominated boards were empowered either to provide +schools themselves or to assist existing public elementary +schools, provided that such assistance was granted on equal +terms to all such schools, upon conditions to be approved by the +Education Department. Thus the school board, if it exercised +the option of assisting denominational schools, would have been +obliged to assist all or none. (3) With regard to its own schools, +the school board was to settle the form of religious instruction. +These proposals raised serious opposition in the country, and +when the committee stage of the bill was reached two fundamental +changes were made in the policy of the bill. In the first +place, as Mr Gladstone put it, the government had decided +“to sever altogether the tie between the local board and the +voluntary schools.” In lieu of the suggested rate-aid they +proposed an increased grant from the treasury, that is to say, +the voluntary schools were left standing as state-aided schools +under private management, side by side with the new rate-supported +schools.</p> + +<p>Next, the character of the religious instruction in the board +schools was determined upon an undenominational basis by a +provision which has become known to history after +the name of its author, then Mr Cowper-Temple, +<span class="sidenote">Cowper-Temple clause.</span> +as the Cowper-Temple clause (section 14 of the act), +directing that “no religious catechism or religious +formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination +shall be taught in the school.” The clause was not intended +to exclude doctrinal exposition, and was in fact a compromise +not merely between absolute secularism and denominationalism, +but between denominationalism and the view of those who would +have the Bible read without note or comment. The Apostles’ +Creed as a symbol common to all denominations of Christians +was held by Mr Forster (at the suggestion of Mr Gladstone) +not to be excluded under the Cowper-Temple clause. The result +was the establishment in the schools, upon the lines laid down +by Joseph Lancaster at the beginning of the 19th century, of +what may be termed the common Protestantism of the English +nation; and though Mr Disraeli urged that a religion without +formularies was in fact a new religion, and that in leaving its +exposition to the teachers we were creating a new sacerdotal +class, the Cowper-Temple compromise, notwithstanding its inherent +want of logic, stood the test of experience for more than +a generation against the consistent denominationalists on the one +hand and the party of secular education on the other. It is +important to observe that the act of 1870 left the giving of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page976" id="page976"></a>976</span> +religious instruction, whether in voluntary schools (in which its +inclusion might be assumed as of course) or in board schools, +purely permissive. In practice it was only in Wales that school +boards availed themselves to any extent of the liberty to abstain +from giving religious instruction, and this comparative secularism +of Wales certainly argued no lack of religious life among the +people.</p> + +<p>The third change in the bill was the substitution of the <i>ad hoc</i> +school board for the municipally appointed board originally +proposed, a change which commended itself in view of the special +difficulty presented by the case of London. These boards were +elected by the system of cumulative voting under which each +elector had as many votes as there were candidates to be elected, +with liberty to give all his votes to one candidate or to distribute +them amongst the candidates as he thought fit. This system was +much criticized as being unduly favourable to minorities, whose +representation it was devised to secure; it continued, however, +until the supersession of the <i>ad hoc</i> authorities by committees +of the county and urban councils under the act of 1902.</p> + +<p>School boards were empowered not only to acquire sites for +schools under powers of compulsory purchase, but also to take +transfers of existing voluntary schools from their managers. +The section which enables managers to transfer schools to the +school board or local education authority for the purpose of +board or council schools freed from religious trusts unquestionably +marks an important inroad by the state upon the sanctity +of trusts. Thus though the act of 1870 did not itself introduce +the principle of compulsory transfer, it formed the point of departure +for the proposals in this direction which were the basis of +the unsuccessful bills of 1906 and 1908. The act of 1870 did not +introduce either direct compulsory attendance or free education, +but it took a distinct step forward in each direction by enabling +school boards to frame by-laws rendering attendance compulsory, +and also to pay the school fees in the case of poverty of the parent.</p> + +<p>The policy of compromise between the two systems of voluntary +and rate-established schools was carried out in the provisions +relating to the future supply of schools. On the one hand, +building grants were continued temporarily for the benefit +of those who applied (as voluntary managers alone could apply) +before the 31st of December 1870. On the other hand, the +Education Department was authorized to refuse parliamentary +grants to schools established in school board districts after the +passing of the act if they thought such schools unnecessary.</p> + +<p>The following figures are of interest as showing the progress +made under the act of 1870. In the year 1870 there was accommodation +in inspected day schools for about 2,000,000 +children; the average attendance was 1,168,000, and +<span class="sidenote">Progress under the act of 1870.</span> +the number on the books about 1,500,000. It was +computed, however, that there were, exclusive of the +well-to-do classes, at least 1,500,000 children who attended no +school at all or schools not under inspection. In 1876 accommodation +had been provided for nearly 3,500,000, and of +the 1,500,000 new places nearly two-thirds were provided by +voluntary agencies. “These voluntary agencies,” says Sir H. +Craik, “had received grants in aid for about one-third of the +schools they had built, the grants defraying about one-fifth of +the cost of the aided schools.” On the other hand, the growth of +school boards was rapid and continuous, notwithstanding the +permissive character of the act and the strenuous efforts of +the voluntaryists to keep pace with the new demands. In 1872, +9,700,000 of the population were under school boards, and of +these 8,142,000 were under by-laws; in 1876 the numbers were +respectively 12,500,000 and 10,400,000. In the same period +the annual grants increased from £894,000 in 1870 to £1,600,000 +in 1876.</p> + +<p>The development evidenced by the above figures, and in +particular the fact that 52% of the population were subject to +by-laws, enabled Mr Disraeli’s government in 1876 to +take a notable step forward in the direction of universal +<span class="sidenote">Act of 1876.</span> +direct compulsion. The act of 1876 embodied the +declaration that “it shall be the duty of the parent of every child +to cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction in +reading, writing and arithmetic, and if such parent fail to +perform such duty he shall be liable to such orders and penalties +as are provided by the Act”; next, it rendered an employer +liable to a penalty who took into his employment a child under +the age of ten years, or a child between the ages of ten and +fourteen years who had not obtained the required certificate of +proficiency in reading, writing and arithmetic, or of previous +attendance at a certified efficient school. In order to complete +the machinery for compulsion, the act directed that, in every +district where there was no school board, a school attendance +committee should be appointed by the local authority. The +law as to school attendance, resting upon this and subsequent +enactments, is complicated and in some details obscure. The +subject was dealt with in the report of an inter-departmental +committee in 1909, who recommended the abolition of the +partial exemptions permitted, and the raising of the age of +exemption to 13.</p> + +<p>In 1880 Mr Mundella, as vice-president of the Council in Mr +Gladstone’s administration, passed a short act which made the +framing of by-laws compulsory upon school boards and +school attendance committees, thus completing the +<span class="sidenote">Act of 1880.</span> +system of universal direct compulsion. Under the acts +of 1876 and 1880 the average attendance increased from 2,000,000 +in 1876 to 3,500,000 in 1878 and 4,000,000 in 1881; in terms of +percentage to population, 8.06 in 1876, 9.60 in 1878, and 10.69 +in 1881. In the last-mentioned year the annual grant rose to +£2,200,000, having more than doubled in the decade.</p> + +<p>With the passing of the Elementary Education Act 1880 the +education question entered upon a new phase. The country was +now possessed of a national system of elementary +education, in the sense that provision was made for +<span class="sidenote">Development of public opinion.</span> +the supply of efficient schools and for compulsory +attendance. The question of free education was +brought within the range of practical politics by the adoption of +universal compulsion, but as yet it was advocated only by a small +political group of pronounced collectivist tendencies. Whilst +opinion was maturing on this topic, there began to force itself +upon the public mind the vastly more difficult problem of +combining the two systems of voluntary, denominational, state-aided +schools on the one hand, and public, undenominational, +rate-supported schools on the other. From the denominational +point of view the problem presented itself as that of a burden +imposed and a danger threatened in ever-increasing degree by the +competition of the board schools, a competition that was felt not +so much by direct rivalry of school with school as indirectly by +the steady raising of the standard of efficiency with respect to +buildings, equipment, salaries of teachers and educational +attainment which inevitably resulted from the establishment of +authorities with power to draw upon the rates. On the other +hand, from the purely educational point of view, it was seen that +the dual system tended in practice to an illicit but almost +inevitable recognition of two standards of efficiency, the lower +being conceded to voluntary schools in consideration of their +comparative poverty. Experience, too, of the shortcomings of +small country school boards was beginning to confirm the misgivings +entertained long before by the Newcastle Commissioners +as to the wisdom of entrusting autonomous powers to the parish, +when the reform of local government by the creation of popularly +elected county authorities turned attention once more to the +question of organizing education upon a county basis.</p> + +<p>In 1887 a royal commission under the presidency of Viscount +Cross was appointed to inquire into the working of the education +acts. The labours of this commission produced a +thorough discussion of the educational problem in all +<span class="sidenote">Cross Commission, 1887.</span> +its aspects, political, administrative, scholastic and +religious. For any clear recommendations with regard +to the reorganization of education generally the moment was not +opportune, inasmuch as the commission just preceded the +establishment of the new county authorities and the powers +with respect to instruction other than elementary which parliament +was shortly to confide to them under the Technical +Instruction Acts. Nevertheless the report of the majority of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page977" id="page977"></a>977</span> +commissioners pointed unmistakably towards the solution adopted +in the act of 1902, and their definite recommendation that voluntary +schools should be accorded rate-aid without the imposition of +the Cowper-Temple clause, served as the basis of that legislation. +The commission brought into strong relief the opposing currents +of thought in educational politics, the majority report, representing +the principles of denominationalism, being balanced by a +strong minority report embodying the views of those who looked +for progress along the lines of the school-board system. Taken +together, the two reports form a comprehensive survey of the +difficulties which still in the main beset public education in this +country.</p> + +<p>Of the developments which followed the Cross report, it is +convenient to mention in the first place, out of chronological +sequence, the practical establishment of free education +by the act of 1891, not by the absolute prohibition of +<span class="sidenote">Elementary Education Act 1891.</span> +school fees but by the device of a special grant payable +by parliament in lieu of fees, called the fee grant. +The result of this legislation and of subsequent administrative +action was to place free education within the reach of every +child, fees being retained (with few exceptions) only where some +instruction of a higher elementary type was given.</p> + +<p>The establishment of county councils by the Local Government +Act 1888 introduced a new factor which was destined to exert a +determining influence upon subsequent developments +of public education. In the first place, it at once +<span class="sidenote">Education other than elementary.</span> +rendered possible the partial and experimental provision +for higher education attempted by the Technical +Instruction Acts, which affected secondary education as well as +technical education in the proper sense of the term. In order to +understand the state of secondary education at this period, it is +necessary to refer back to the first attempts made to deal with +secondary education a generation earlier.</p> + +<p>In 1861, that is to say, nearly thirty years after the state began +to concern itself with elementary education, the first step in the +way of intervention in what is now called secondary or +intermediate education was taken by the appointment +<span class="sidenote">Public Schools Commission, 1861.</span> +of a royal commission, presided over by Lord Clarendon, +to inquire into the condition of nine of the chief +endowed schools in the country, viz. Eton, Winchester, Westminster, +Charterhouse, St Paul’s, Merchant Taylors, Harrow, +Rugby and Shrewsbury. The report of this commission led to a +statute, the Public Schools Act of 1864, which introduced certain +reforms in the administration of seven of these schools, leaving +the two great London day schools, St Paul’s and Merchant Taylors, +outside its operation. The results achieved were seen to be +important enough to call for a further and much wider inquiry.</p> + +<p>Accordingly in 1864 the Schools Inquiry Commission was +appointed under the presidency of Lord Taunton to inquire into +all the schools which had not been included either in +the commission of 1861 or the Popular Education Commission +<span class="sidenote">Schools Inquiry Commission, 1864-68.</span> +of 1858. It included several men of eminent +distinction, such as Dr Temple (afterwards archbishop +of Canterbury), Mr W.E. Forster, Dean Hook, and Sir +Stafford Northcote; and it was singularly fortunate in its staff of +assistant commissioners, among whom were numbered Mr James +Bryce, Mr Matthew Arnold, and Mr (afterwards Sir Joshua) +Fitch. It thoroughly explored the field of secondary education, +discussing all the problems, administrative and pedagogic, which +the subject presents, and “its luminous and exhaustive report” +(to quote the words of Mr Bryce’s Commission of 1894) remains +the best introduction to the problem of public secondary education +in England. The existence of numerous and frequently very +wealthy endowments arising from private benefactions and +bequests has at all times been a feature in education as in other +departments of English social life. In the organization of +secondary education in particular, private endowments have +played and continue still to play a part which cannot be +paralleled in any other country. This circumstance has undoubtedly +resulted in a great economy of resources, though in +numerous instances the difficulties occasioned by the haphazard +distribution of endowments and the local jealousies invariably +aroused by any attempt to readjust their areas to modern +conditions have obstructed useful reform and proved a source of +misdirected and wasted effort. At the date of the Schools Inquiry +Commission the state of the ancient endowments was largely one +of abuse. Very many endowments intended for advanced +education were applied for instruction of a purely elementary +character, and that of an inferior kind; indeed the possession of +an endowment in a rural locality not infrequently operated to +prevent the establishment of an efficient state-aided school. The +evidence showed that the proportion of scholars in the country +grammar-schools who were receiving some tincture of the classical +education intended by the founders was steadily decreasing, and +nothing had been done to bring the curriculum into harmony with +the actual needs of the time. No doubt a small élite of classical +scholars were sent to the older universities by these schools, but in +the main they were in a feeble and decadent state, giving, more or +less inefficiently, an education wholly unsuited to the wants of +the class to whom they ministered. In addition to the general +inelasticity of the curriculum, the special evils from which the +grammar-schools suffered were the want of effective governing +bodies and the freehold tenure of the headmasterships.</p> + +<p>The commission was singularly successful in bringing about +the reform of these abuses, its report being immediately followed +in 1869 by the Endowed Schools Act, which was based +upon its recommendations and conferred upon a special +<span class="sidenote">Endowed Schools Acts 1869-74.</span> +commission (united in 1874 with the Charity Commission) +very wide and drastic powers of reorganizing +ancient endowments. A direction for extending the benefits of +endowments to girls did much to assist the movement for the +secondary education of girls. The Endowed Schools Acts +1869-1874 introduced modifications of importance and general +interest into the law of trusts. Under the existing rules of the +court of chancery, which rules were also binding upon the Charity +Commissioners, educational endowments were generally treated, +in the absence of evidence to the contrary, as subject to a trust +for instruction in the doctrines of the Church of England. Under +the Endowed Schools Acts the presumption is reversed, and +ancient trusts are treated as free from denominational restrictions, +save in virtue of express conditions imposed by or under the +authority of the founder. The result was that in framing schemes +for the reorganization of ancient endowed schools the commissioners +found themselves able to treat the majority of +cases as undenominational. In such cases the general practice +was to direct that instruction should, subject to a strict conscience +clause, be given in the principles of the Christian faith; this +provision corresponded in a way to the Cowper-Temple clause in +elementary education, with the important distinction that it +was positive, not negative, and did not exclude special doctrinal +instruction.</p> + +<p>Besides the recommendations for the reform of endowed +schools, to which substantial effect was given directly or indirectly +by means of the Endowed Schools Acts, the +Schools Inquiry Commission also submitted proposals +<span class="sidenote">Schools Inquiry Commission’s proposals for reform of secondary education.</span> +for the general administrative organization of a system +of secondary education. They recommended the +establishment of three authorities—(1) a central +authority; (2) a local or provincial authority, representing +the county or a group of counties, with a certain +jurisdiction both in proposing schemes for the reform +of endowed schools in their area (such as that afterwards conferred +upon the joint education committees under the Welsh +Intermediate Education Act), and in administering these +schools; and (3) a central council of education charged with +examination duties. Further, it was proposed to raise the level +of proprietary and private schools by offering them inspection +and examination and by establishing a system of school registration. +Lastly, in order that the supply of public secondary schools +might not be dependent upon endowments, it was proposed to +confer upon towns and parishes powers of rating for the establishment +of new schools. For these proposals as a whole the time +was not ripe. The bill of 1869 as originally introduced in the +House of Commons attempted to give effect, with some variations, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page978" id="page978"></a>978</span> +to one of these suggestions, namely, that for the creation of a +central council, but exigencies of parliamentary time made it +necessary to drop this part of the measure; the result was that +the plan of the commissioners was only half carried out. Nevertheless, +owing to the multiplicity and wealth of endowments, +the work accomplished was sufficient to exert a considerable +influence upon the secondary education of the country. Thus +in 1895 Mr Bryce’s Commission was able to report that schemes +under the Endowed Schools Acts had been made for 902 endowments +in England, excluding Wales and Monmouth, leaving +only 546 endowments out of the total of 1448 endowments in +England known to be subject to the Endowed Schools Acts, +which had not felt the reforming hand of the commissioners. The +total income of the endowments known to be Subject to the Endowed +Schools Acts, and therefore available for purposes of +secondary education, according to the estimate of the Secondary +Education Commission (still in 1909 the latest available source +of complete information), was in 1895 about £735,000 gross.</p> + +<p>Twenty years after the Schools Inquiry Commission the +creation by the Local Government Act in 1888 of the representative +and popular county authorities of which the +need had been felt by reformers alike in secondary and +<span class="sidenote">Technical Instruction Acts 1889, &c.</span> +elementary education, rendered the first step in the +direction of the municipalization of secondary instruction +at last possible. In 1889 the Technical Instruction Act +(extended in some particulars by an act of 1891) empowered +the councils of counties, boroughs and urban districts to levy +a rate (not exceeding a penny in the pound) for the support or +aid of technical or manual instruction. Comparatively few +councils were prepared to resort to their rating powers, but +progress under these acts was greatly facilitated by the Local +Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890, which mentioned +technical instruction as one of the purposes to which the imperial +contribution paid to local authorities in respect of the beer and +spirit duties might be applied. By virtue of the very liberal +interpretation given to technical instruction by these acts the +financial assistance afforded under them was extended to cover +the whole field of mathematical and physical science, as well as +modern languages.</p> + +<p>The Department of Science and Art acted as an agency in +the development of secondary education upon the same lines as +the Technical Instruction Acts, administering a parliamentary +grant which was gradually extended with a +<span class="sidenote">Grants of science and art department.</span> +view to encouraging literary studies as well as the +scientific and mathematical subjects to the promotion +of which it was primarily directed. Thus the combined +effect of the local resources available under the Technical +Instruction Act and the imperial grant administered by +the department was gradually to develop a national system of +secondary education with a marked bias on the side of +physical science.</p> + +<p>An undoubted stimulus was given to secondary education in +the great centres of industry during the last quarter of the +19th century by the rise of the new university colleges, +<span class="sidenote">Influence of new university colleges.</span> +among which must be reckoned those established +expressly for women. In the main the influence of +these new institutions made for a non-classical and +scientific type of curriculum in the popular secondary schools.</p> + +<p>At the same time, the pressure of the school boards influenced +secondary education in two ways. In the first place, the elementary +schools were found to act as feeders for +schools of a higher type, and the idea of the “educational +<span class="sidenote">Influence of school boards.</span> +ladder” began to play a leading part in plans +for the organization of national education. It was +seen that there must be schools to which the more advanced +scholars could pass from the public elementary schools, and +scholarships to assist such scholars to continue their education +in this way. In the next place, it was recognized that to provide +adequately for the further education of public elementary +scholars a new type of school was required. Thus there came +into being through the initiative of the great school boards +what were known as higher-grade elementary schools. These +were really secondary schools of the third grade, and, as the +Commission on Secondary Education observed, the school boards +simply stepped in to fill the educational void which the Schools +Inquiry Commissioners had proposed to fill by schools of that +name. The happy obscurity of the legal definition of elementary +education left these schools free to develop during the long years +of the neglect of secondary education by the state, and when in +1901 the famous judgment in the test case of <i>Rex</i> v. <i>Cockerton</i> +pronounced them to be illegal, it was at once recognized that +the legislature must without delay step in to secure the educational +work which the undoubtedly correct principles of judicial +interpretation had placed in jeopardy.</p> + +<p>Such were the agencies at work in the domain of secondary +education when in 1894 a royal commission was appointed +under the presidency of Mr Bryce to inquire into this +branch of education. The terms of reference excluded +<span class="sidenote">Secondary Education Commission, 1894.</span> +elementary education, and the report may be taken +as embodying the views of that school of educational +statesmen who held that progress would best be attained +by keeping elementary and secondary education entirely separate +for purposes of local administration, the parish being regarded +as the natural unit for elementary and the county for secondary +education, a topic to which it will be necessary to revert in connexion +with the act of 1902. The principal recommendations +of the commission were: (1) the unification of the existing +central authorities, viz. the Department of Science and Art, +the Charity Commission (so far as it dealt with educational +endowments), and the Education Department, in one central +office, and the establishment of an educational council to advise +the minister of education in certain professional matters; (2) +the establishment of local authorities, to consist of committees +of the county councils with co-opted elements; (3) the formation +of a register of teachers with a view to the encouragement of +professional training, and a system of school registration upon +the basis of inspection and examination. The first of these +recommendations was carried out by the Board of Education +Act 1899, as mentioned below, and under the same act an +attempt was made to give some effect to the third-named object, +which, though it unfortunately fell short of success, may serve +as a point of departure for further efforts. The realization of +the second, and the most important, of the recommendations +was deferred till 1902, when it was brought about as a part of a +wider reorganization of the educational system.</p> + +<p>The religious difficulty in elementary education during the +period immediately succeeding the report of Mr Bryce’s Commission +in 1895 once more reached an acute stage, and +this circumstance was immediately unfavourable to a +<span class="sidenote">Agitation on behalf of voluntary schools.</span> +resolute handling of educational problems as such, +public attention being largely concentrated upon the +demand of the supporters of voluntary schools for +relief from the growing financial burden which was laid upon +them by that steady raising of the standard to which reference has +been made above. In 1896 an endeavour was made to meet +the demands of the voluntary managers by means of a bill +introduced by Sir John Gorst on behalf of the Conservative +government. This bill with its provision for a special aid +grant to be administered by county education authorities, +which were to exist side by side with the school boards, represented +a kind of compromise between the systems of 1870 and +1902. It encountered opposition in all quarters and was withdrawn. +In 1897, however, the position of the denominational +schools was strengthened by the Voluntary Schools Act, which +provided for a special aid grant of five shillings per head of the +scholars in average attendance in these schools.</p> + +<p>In view of the difficulties which beset any comprehensive +treatment of the education question, partial effect was given +to the recommendations of the Secondary Education +Commission by the Board of Education Act of 1899, +<span class="sidenote">Board of Education Act 1899.</span> +which abolished the office of vice-president of the +council, united the Department of Science and Art with +the Education Department in one central office under the title +of the Board of Education, with a president and parliamentary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page979" id="page979"></a>979</span> +secretary; and provided for the transfer to this board of the +powers of the Charity Commissioners in relation to educational +endowments; also for the association with the board of a consultative +committee, consisting as to not less than two-thirds +of persons qualified to represent the views of university and +other bodies interested in education, for the purpose (1) of +framing a register of qualified teachers, and (2) of advising the +Board of Education upon any matters referred to the committee +by the board. The administrative reorganization of the Education +Office was completed shortly after the passing of the act +of 1902, when a tripartite division was adopted to correspond +with the three branches of education with which the Board +of Education is concerned, viz. elementary, secondary and +technological.</p> + +<p>No law of recent years has excited an acuter or more prolonged +controversy than the Education Act of 1902, and amid the dust +of religious and political strife it is not easy for contemporaries +to view it objectively and in its true +<span class="sidenote">Act of 1902, general principles.</span> +proportions. Nevertheless, considered historically, +the act becomes intelligible as the product of the +forces, partly religious and partly educational, which have been +already described. The immediate impulse for this measure +must be sought in the agitation that during the preceding +decade had been gathering force among the adherents of the +Established and Roman Catholic churches for equality of +financial treatment as between voluntary and board schools. +It must be placed to the credit of the constructive statesmanship +of the Conservative party that it availed itself of an ecclesiastical +agitation to take an important step forward in the organization +of national education. The difficulty inherent in such a measure +was the admitted difficulty of securing public control, as a necessary +concomitant of public maintenance, without jeopardizing +or destroying the special religious character of the voluntary +schools. The act of 1902 sought to solve this problem, so +difficult of solution under democratic conditions, upon the +principle of a division of financial responsibility justifying a +corresponding division of control between the voluntary managers +and the local authority. The constitution of the local authority +to be charged not only with the delicate duty of participating +in the dual control of the voluntary public elementary schools, +but also with the responsible task of co-ordinating public higher +with public elementary education, presented features of controversy +only less formidable than the purely religious question +itself. Boldly reversing the settlement of 1870, the act of 1902 +abolished the parochial school boards, and with them the system +of <i>ad hoc</i> election, and made the county councils, already seised +of technical and secondary education under the Technical +Instruction Acts, the local authorities for all forms of education, +thus reverting to the solution propounded by Conservative +statesmanship in the middle period of the 19th century and +endorsed by an important memorandum contributed by Lord +Sandford (formerly permanent secretary of the Education +Department) to the report of the Cross Commission. The +unquestionable niggardliness and inefficiency of many small +country school boards, which had been foretold by the prescience +of the Newcastle Commissioners, constituted the chief educational +argument for the selection of the wider area so far as the interests +of elementary education alone were concerned. On the other +hand, experience has shown that in the rural districts against +the undoubted gain in general efficiency there must be set a +certain loss on account of the decay of local and personal interest +consequent upon the centralization of authority in the hands of +the county councils. Account, too, must be taken of the comparative +heaviness with which a uniform county rate is apt to +press upon sparsely populated agricultural parishes, especially +in counties which include considerable industrial districts. +Notwithstanding these minor drawbacks, it may be said that +upon the whole the best opinion has endorsed the policy of 1902 +with respect to the area of administration. At any rate it has +been necessary to recognize the impracticability of disestablishing +the strongly organized provincial authorities which the act +brought into being, and proposals for amendment in this particular +have been confined to schemes, favoured in principle by +all parties, for securing some measure of decentralization and +delegation of powers calculated to restore and stimulate local +interest without derogating from the financial and administrative +responsibility of the county council.</p> + +<p>The principal provisions of the act of 1902 may be summarized +as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Part I. Local Education Authority. The council of every county +and of every county borough is the local education +authority for the purposes of the act, <i>i.e.</i> for both higher +and elementary education, but for the purpose of elementary +<span class="sidenote">Act of 1902, summary of provisions.</span> +education autonomous powers are conferred upon +boroughs with a population of over 10,000, and urban +districts with a population of over 20,000 (§ 1).</p> + +<p>Part II. Higher Education. “The L.E.A. (local education +authority) shall consider the educational needs of their area and take +such steps as seem to them desirable, after consultation with the +Board of Education, to supply or aid the supply of education other +than elementary, and to promote the general co-ordination of all +forms of education.” For this purpose the application of the money +received by the local authority under the Local Taxation (Customs +and Excise) Act 1890, heretofore optional, is made compulsory, and +power is given to levy a rate which in the case of a county is not +to exceed two pence in the pound, or such higher rate as the county +council with the consent of the Local Government Board may fix +(§ 2). Concurrent powers are given to the councils of non-county +boroughs and urban districts, with the limit of a penny rate (§ 3). +A council must not require any particular form of religious instruction +or observance, but the usual conscience clause in schools, colleges, +or hostels provided by the council is modified by a provision for +facilities for any particular religious instruction to be given at the +request of parents of scholars at such times and under such conditions +as the council think desirable, otherwise than at the cost of the +council (§ 4).</p> + +<p>Part III. Elementary Education. (1) Powers and duties. School +boards and school attendance committees are abolished and their +powers and duties are transferred to the L.E.A., who are also to be +responsible for and have the control of all secular instruction in +public elementary schools not provided by them (§ 5).</p> + +<p>(2) Management of schools. (<i>a</i>) For public elementary schools +provided by the L.E.A. (now officially styled “council schools”): +(1) in counties, there is to be a body of six managers, viz. four +appointed by the county council and two by the borough or urban +district council, or parish council or parish meeting as the case may +be, called in the act the minor local authority; (2) in non-county +areas, the L.E.A. (being the borough or urban district council) may, +if they think fit, appoint a body of managers consisting of such +number as they may determine (§ 6 [1]).</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) For schools not provided by the L.E.A. (voluntary schools) the +act directs that there shall be a body of six managers, of whom four +are to be “foundation managers,” and two are to be appointed as +follows: in counties, one by the L.E.A. and one by the minor local +authority, and in autonomous boroughs or urban districts both by +the borough or urban district council (§ 6 [2]). Directions for the +appointment of foundation managers are given by § 11, which in +effect declares that, unless the trust deed of the school provides +for the appointment of the required number, the foundation managers +must be appointed under an order of the Board of Education, in +making which the board are to have regard to the ownership of the +school building and to the principles on which the education given +in the school had been conducted in the past. It was found necessary +for the board to make over 11,000 of these orders, a heavy task which +was rendered the more formidable by the controversial character +of the questions arising upon trust deeds as to the mode of +appointment and the qualifications of managers.</p> + +<p>(3) Maintenance of schools (§ 7). (<i>a</i>) Powers. The L.E.A. are +required to maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools +which were necessary (<i>i.e.</i> which, as defined by § 9, have an average +attendance of not less than thirty), under certain specified conditions, +of which the most material are as follows. The managers +must carry out the directions of the L.E.A. as to the secular instruction +to be given in the school, including any directions with respect +to the number and educational qualifications of the teachers, and +for the dismissal of any teacher on educational grounds (§ 7 [1] +[<i>a</i>]). The consent of the L.E.A. is required to the appointment of +teachers, but that consent may not be withheld except on educational +grounds; and the consent of the authority is also required to the +dismissal of a teacher unless the dismissal is on grounds connected +with the giving of religious instruction (§7 [1] [<i>c</i>]).</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Liabilities. The managers are required to provide the school +premises to the L.E.A. for use as a public elementary school free of +charge, except that a rent is payable for the teacher’s residence +where one exists; and the managers are further required out of +funds provided by them to keep the school premises in good repair +and to make such alterations and improvements in the buildings as +might reasonably be required by the L.E.A. On the other hand, +the L.E.A. are required to make good such damage as they consider +to be due to fair wear and tear of rooms used by them (§ 7 [1] [<i>d</i>]). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page980" id="page980"></a>980</span> +Thus, by virtue of the teacher’s house rent and the wear-and-tear +allowance the voluntary managers secured a valuable set-off against +the cost of ordinary repairs.</p> + +<p>Any question arising under this section (§ 7) between the L.E.A. +and the managers of a voluntary school is to be determined by the +Board of Education (§ 7 [3]).</p> + +<p>It is further provided with respect to teachers in voluntary schools +that assistant teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed “if it +is thought fit” without reference to religious creed and denomination, +and in any case in which there are more candidates for the post of +pupil teacher than there are places to be filled, the appointment is +to be made by the L.E.A. (§ 7. [5]).</p> + +<p>A provision, § 7 (6), known from the name of its author (d. 1908), +Colonel Kenyon Slaney, M.P., as the Kenyon-Slaney clause, attracted +considerable attention and formed the subject of much ecclesiastical +controversy during the passage of the bill through parliament. +The Kenyon-Slaney clause requires the religious instruction in +voluntary schools to be in accordance with the provisions (if any) of +the trust deed, but also to be under the control of the managers +as a whole, whereas the common form of trust deed of the National +Society reserves the control of religious instruction to the clergyman, +whilst the clause was equally in conflict with the well-known sacerdotal +principles of the Roman Catholic Church. Thus the clause +represented a revival, as did the questions with respect to foundation +managers, of the early controversy over the management clauses of +the Committee of Council on Education. Its special interest lies, +not so much in its intrinsic importance, as in the precedent it affords, +specially notable as emanating from a Conservative source, for the +overruling of trust deeds upon grounds of public policy. By way of +saving another familiar provision of the trust deeds, a proviso to the +Kenyon-Slaney clause reserves the existing trust-deed rights of +appeal to the bishop or other denominational authority as to the +character of the religious instruction.</p> + +<p><i>Provision of New Schools.</i>—New schools may be provided either +by the L.E.A. or any other persons, subject to the issue of three +months’ public notice, and to a right of appeal on the part of the +managers of any existing school, the L.E.A. (in the case of proposed +voluntary schools) or any ten ratepayers of the district, to the Board +of Education on the ground that the proposed school is not required, +or that a school provided by the L.E.A., or not so provided, as the +case might be, is better suited to meet the wants of the district than +the proposed school. Any enlargement of a public elementary school +which in the opinion of the Board of Education is such as to amount +to the provision of a new school is to be so treated for the purposes +of the section, and any transfer of a school to or from the L.E.A. +must be treated as the provision of a new school. In deciding appeals +as to new schools and in determining a case of dispute whether a +school was necessary or not, the board are directed to have regard +to the interest of secular instruction, the wishes of parents as to the +education of children, and the economy of the rates, but existing +schools are not to be considered unnecessary if the average attendance +is not less than thirty (§§ 8-9). The last-mentioned canons +have played a prominent part in subsequent discussions. Experience +of these sections has shown that though it is extremely difficult to +set up new voluntary schools in face of opposition from the L.E.A., +such opposition is rarely offered or pressed where any really strong +local demand is shown to exist.</p> + +<p><i>Aid Grant.</i>—Section 10 provides a new aid grant payable to the +L.E.A. in respect of the number of scholars in average attendance +in schools maintained by them. This new grant, calculated by an +elaborate method which need not here be set out, took the place of +the grants under the Voluntary Schools Act 1897, and § 97 of the +act of 1870 as amended by the Elementary Education Act 1897.</p> + +<p><i>Education Committees.</i>—The constitution of education committees +is dealt with by § 17. All councils having powers under the act, +except those having concurrent powers as to higher education only, +must establish education committees in accordance with schemes +made by the councils and approved by the Board of Education +(§ 17 [1]). A scheme may provide for more than one education +committee under a single council, but before approving such a scheme +the board must satisfy themselves that due regard is paid to the +importance of the general co-ordination of all forms of education +(§ 17 [6]). All matters relating to the exercise by a council of their +powers under the act, except the power of raising a rate or borrowing +money, stand referred to the education committee; the council +may also delegate to the education committee any of their powers +other than financial powers as above (§ 17 [2]). Every scheme must +provide (<i>a</i>) for the appointment of a majority of the committee by +the council, the persons so appointed to be persons who are members +of the council unless in the case of a county the council otherwise +determine; (<i>b</i>) for the appointment by the council, on the nomination +or recommendation, where it appears desirable, of other bodies +(including associations of voluntary schools) of persons of experience +in education, and of persons acquainted with the needs of the various +kinds of schools in the area of the council; (<i>c</i>) for the inclusion of +women. Provision was also made (<i>d</i>) for the representation in the +first instance of members of existing school boards (§ 17 [3]).</p> + +<p><i>Expenses.</i>—All parliamentary grants are made payable to the +L.E.A. instead of as previously to the managers (§ 18 [2]). The +county council must charge a proportion of all capital expenditure +and liabilities, including rent, on account of the provision or improvement +of any public elementary school on the parish or parishes +which in the opinion of the council are served by the school, such +proportion to be not less than one-half or more than three-fourths +as the council think fit (§ 18 [1] [<i>c</i>] [<i>d</i>]). The county council may also +if they think fit charge on the parishes benefited any expenses +incurred with respect to education other than elementary (§ 18 +[1] [<i>a</i>]).</p> + +<p><i>Endowments.</i>—The act introduced a new principle into the +administration of endowments by directing that their income so +far as necessarily applicable in any case for those purposes of a public +elementary school for which the local authority are liable must be +paid to that authority for the relief of the parochial rate (§ 13). +As the result of technicalities of legal interpretation the section has +been found to have in practice a narrower scope than had been +generally anticipated.</p> + +<p>The act of 1902 was extended to London by a separate act in 1903, +containing certain special provisions of only minor importance.</p> +</div> + +<p>The hostility of Nonconformists to the extension of rate-aid to +denominational schools led to the organization upon a considerable +scale of what became known as the “Passive +Resistance” movement, a number of Nonconformist +<span class="sidenote">“Passive resistance” to 1902 act. Default Act 1904.</span> +rate-payers refusing to pay the education rate on the +ground that their consciences forbade their supporting +the religious teaching in denominational schools; +and their willingness to become subject to distraint +and consequent inconveniences rather than pay the rates became +the foundation of a widespread political campaign. In Wales, +where in the rural districts the schools were commonly Anglican +whilst the population was Nonconformist, particular difficulties +arose in administering the act in consequence of the hostile +attitude of the county authorities. Friction likewise manifested +itself in one or two English areas, which reflected militant +Nonconformist views. Accordingly the government passed +the Local Education (Local Authority Default) Act 1904, +empowering the Board of Education, in the case of default by +the local authority, to make payments direct to the managers +of the school and to deduct the amount from the sums payable +to the defaulting authority on account of parliamentary grants.</p> + +<p>When the liberal party came into power again in 1906, Mr +Birrell as president of the Board of Education in Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman’s administration introduced a +bill to amend the Education Acts 1902-1903, with +<span class="sidenote">Bill of 1906.</span> +the object of securing full public control of all rate-aided +schools and the appointment of teachers without reference +to religious belief. The bill was of a highly complex character; +its principal features were,—compulsory transfer of existing +voluntary schools to the local authority, facilities for the giving +of denominational instruction in transferred schools out of school +hours by persons other than the regular teachers, and the recognition +in populous districts, upon the demand of parents, of +special publicly maintained schools in which denominational +teaching could be included in the curriculum; the latter schools +might (according to the bill as finally amended) in the last resort, +<i>i.e.</i> if the local authority refused to maintain them, be recognized +as state-aided schools. The bill encountered strong opposition +from Anglicans and Catholics (though the Catholic Irish members +finally voted for it as amended); it passed the House of Commons +by a large majority, but after unavailing attempts at compromise +upon the amendments introduced in the House of Lords, the +two Houses failed to agree and the measure was lost.</p> + +<p>Mr Birrell was soon transferred to another office, and nothing +more was done to amend the act of 1902 till early in the session +of 1908, his successor Mr McKenna introduced a bill +based on what was known as “contracting out.” In +<span class="sidenote">Bills of 1908.</span> +single-school parishes the existing schools were to be +compulsorily transferred, subject to the grant of denominational +facilities out of school hours; elsewhere a sufficiency of places +in schools with Cowper-Temple teaching, which the bill proposed +to make compulsory in all provided schools, must be supplied +by the local authority, while existing voluntary schools might +become state-aided schools upon terms of receiving a grant of +47s. per head. The bill was accompanied by a financial scheme +for a new system of allocating the parliamentary grant. In +view of the improbability of its passing into law the bill was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page981" id="page981"></a>981</span> +not pressed beyond the stage of second reading. Meanwhile, +when Mr Asquith reorganized the cabinet, Mr Runciman succeeded +Mr McKenna at the education office, and in the autumn he +introduced a fresh measure framed as the result of negotiations +between the government and the archbishop of Canterbury +(Dr Randall Davidson) and designed to be passed rapidly +through parliament by consent of all parties. Mr Runciman’s +bill, like his predecessor’s, was based upon the principle of +compulsory transfer in single-school parishes and contracting +out elsewhere, but it gave a right of entry for denominational +teaching on two days a week during school hours in all council +schools whether transferred voluntary schools or otherwise, +with liberty to employ for this purpose assistant teachers, but +not (save temporarily at first in transferred schools) head teachers. +Provision was also made for the payment of a small rent which +would be applicable for or towards the cost of the denominational +instruction. Unfortunately, the compromise failed at the last +moment for want of agreement as to the financial terms of +“contracting out,” the government offering 50s. per head and +the Church demanding 7s. more. It is obvious that “contracting +out” is open to serious objection upon educational and economic +grounds, and that if resorted to upon any very considerable +scale it would involve a disruption of the public elementary +system, and a duplication of schools which would constitute +a wasteful drain upon the national exchequer. Upon such a +system, therefore, some check is necessary, and, once decided +that the check should take the form of financial pressure, rather +than request of parents as in Mr Birrell’s bill, or some form of +administrative control, the question of pecuniary terms became +one of principle and not merely of financial detail. Moreover, +the difficulty of adjusting differences was intensified by the +opposition of the extremists on either side, which daily gathered +force, and the bill was withdrawn by the government when in +committee of the House of Commons. The conciliatory efforts +of Mr Runciman and Dr Randall Davidson revealed the existence +of a considerable body of influential opinion among all schools +of thought in favour of a national compromise, and the proposals +embodied in the bill marked on the part both of Churchmen +and Nonconformists important concessions to each other’s +views, engendering reasonable hopes of an ultimate settlement +being reached at no distant date.</p> + +<p>Two subsidiary points as regards educational machinery have +to be noted. The Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906 +enabled local education authorities to aid voluntary +agencies in the provision of meals for children attending +<span class="sidenote">Feeding of school children.</span> +public elementary schools, and in certain cases with +the consent of the Board of Education to defray the +cost of the food themselves. In 1907-1908 forty, and in 1908-1909 +seventy-five authorities in England and Wales were authorized by +the board to expend moneys from the rates on food under this +act. In addition, a number of authorities expended funds on +equipment and service.</p> + +<p>In 1907 an uncontroversial act entitled the Education (Administrative +Provisions) Act, besides dealing with various matters +of technical and administrative detail, laid upon local +education authorities the new duty of providing for +<span class="sidenote">Medical inspection.</span> +the medical inspection of all children attending public +elementary schools. In connexion with this act the +Board of Education established a medical department to advise +and assist them in supervising local education authorities in +carrying out their statutory duties in this regard. The whole +departure is significant of the new sense of the importance of +physical culture and hygiene which has been one of the remarkable +features in recent educational developments.</p> + +<p>Sir Joshua Fitch, in his article on education in the 10th +edition of this work, describes how experience had led the +Education Department to abandon the system of +payment by results, to establish “in place of testing +<span class="sidenote">General progress in elementary education.</span> +the proficiency of individual scholars, ... one summary +estimate of the work of the school; in place of +an annual examination, occasional inspection without +notice; in place of a variable grant dependent on a report in +detail on the several subjects of instruction and on particular +educational merits and defects, one block grant payable to all +schools alike.” He at the same time expressed some misgiving +as to the effect of “so large a relaxation of the conditions by +which it had hitherto been sought to secure accuracy and +thoroughness in teaching.” The act of 1902, by placing secular +education in public elementary schools under the control of +strongly organized local education authorities may be said to +have largely removed such dangers as were to be apprehended +from the relaxation in question. Thus it was possible for the +Board of Education in the code of 1904 to abolish the last traces +of the system of payment by results, by setting forth (in the +language of their report for 1903-1904) “a properly co-ordinated +curriculum suitable to the needs of the children, with an indication +of the relation which the various subjects of instruction +should bear to each other, in place of the relatively haphazard +list of possible branches of knowledge which were formerly +presented to the choice of individual schools or authorities.” +In the new code also the board for the first time endeavoured +to state for the guidance of teachers and parents the proper aim +of the public elementary school, laying stress upon that element +of the training of character which the system of payment by +results had so unfortunately obscured. The new spirit was +strikingly manifested in the volume of <i>Suggestions for the Considerations +of Teachers</i>, issued by the Board of Education in 1905. +This volume represented a notable attempt to connect administration +with educational theory, without in any way seeking +to crush individual initiative, or to impose a bureaucratic +uniformity of method upon those engaged in the actual work +of the schools. Apprehension of the true aim of elementary +education as essentially and primarily a preparation for practical +life has led to a corresponding development of instruction of a +practical character, observation lessons and nature study being +treated as a necessary element in the curriculum, while handicraft +and gardening, and domestic subjects (for girls), are encouraged +by special grants. Particular attention has been bestowed both +by the central and local authorities upon the problem of rural +instruction, and much has been done in many areas to bring the +schools into closer relations with the needs of agricultural and +rural life generally. In this way the old and perhaps not altogether +ill-founded distrust of popular education as tending to +unfit the working classes for industrial pursuits is being broken +down and a public opinion more favourable to educational +progress in the widest sense is being created.</p> + +<p>According to the official returns for 1907-1908, the total number +of scholars on the registers (England only) was as follows:—council +schools, 2,991,741; voluntary schools, 2,566,030; +total, 5,557,771, and the total attendance upon which grant +was paid was 4,928,659. The percentage of actual average +attendance to average number on the registers was 88.50%. +The parliamentary grant (England and Wales) for elementary +schools, other than higher elementary, amounted to £11,023,433.</p> + +<p>The development of higher elementary education in England +is now proceeding very much upon the lines that have been noted +in France. The old higher-grade board-schools +(declared illegal under the Elementary Education Acts +<span class="sidenote">Higher elementary schools.</span> +by the judgment in the case of <i>Rex</i> v. <i>Cockerton</i> in +1901, and legalized temporarily by an act passed for +the purpose in the same year) were mostly converted into +municipal secondary schools under the act of 1902. In the +succeeding years provision was made in the code for higher +elementary schools of a specialized and technical type intended +only for industrial districts. In 1906, as the result of the recommendations +of the Consultative Committee, a new type of +higher elementary school was admitted for children over twelve, +corresponding generally to the French <i>école primaire supérieure</i>, +described as having “for its object the development of the +education given in the ordinary public elementary school, and +the provision of special instruction bearing on the future occupations +of the scholars, whether boys or girls.” It may be possible +to supplement this system in the rural areas to some extent by +“higher tops” to the ordinary elementary schools in cases +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page982" id="page982"></a>982</span> +where it is not practicable to establish a fully organised higher +elementary school; but for such “higher tops” no central grant +is available. The total number of scholars upon the registers +of higher elementary schools (England) in 1907-1908 was: +New Type, 3178 (against 2715 in the previous year); Old Type, +4492 (against 5866 in the previous year).</p> + +<p>The total expenditure (exclusive of capital outlay) of the local +authorities (1906-1907) in England only upon elementary +education, including “industrial” and “special” +schools, was £19,776,733, of which (<i>a</i>) £10,408,242 +<span class="sidenote">Expenditure on elementary education.</span> +was met by the ordinary parliamentary grant, and +(<i>b</i>) £8,930,468 was the balance required to be met by +rates, the difference being represented by receipts from various +sources. The average cost per child of elementary schools in +England and Wales (excluding London) may be taken at £3 +(including London £3, 4s. 10d.), and the average central grant +(excluding grants for special purposes) at 41s., leaving 19s. to +be raised locally.</p> + +<p>The training of teachers for the two great branches of public +education, elementary and secondary respectively, is an important +part of the general administrative problem. +Since the middle of the 19th century there has been +<span class="sidenote">Preliminary training of elementary teachers.</span> +a great development of public opinion with regard +to their professional qualifications. Sir Joshua Fitch +(<i>Ency. Brit.</i> 10th ed.) pointed out that the full appreciation +of the importance of training began at the lower end of +the social scale. Shuttleworth and Tufnell in 1846 urged the +necessity of special training for the primary teacher, and hoped +to establish State Training Colleges to supply this want; but +the one college at Battersea which was founded as an experiment +was soon transferred to the National Society (the “National +Society for educating the poor in the principles of the Established +Church”: founded in 1811). Before this, Bell and +Lancaster had made arrangements in their model schools for +the reception of a few young people to learn the system by +practice. In Glasgow, David Stow, who founded in 1826 the +Normal Seminary which afterwards became the Free Church +College, was one of the first to insist on the need of systematic +professional preparation. The religious bodies in England, +notably the Established Church, availed themselves promptly of +the failure of the central government, and a number of diocesan +colleges for men, and separately for women, were gradually +established. In 1854 the British and Foreign School Society +(founded 1808) placed their institutes at the Borough Road +and Stockwell on a collegiate footing, and subsequently founded +other colleges at Swansea, Bangor, Darlington and Saffron +Walden; the Roman Catholic Church provided two for women +and one for men; and the Wesleyans two, one for each sex. +The new provincial colleges of university rank were invited by +the Education Department to attach normal classes to their +ordinary course and to make provision for special training and +suitable practice in schools for those students who desired to +become teachers. Thus the government came to recognize two +kinds of training schools—the residential colleges of the old type +and the day colleges attached to institutions of university rank; +both were subsidized by grants from the Treasury, and regularly +inspected. As the need of special training for teachers became +further recognized by the consideration of the same question +as regards teachers in higher and intermediate schools (Cambridge +instituting in 1879 examinations for a teacher’s diploma, and +other universities providing courses for secondary as well as +primary teachers, and establishing professorships of education), +the attitude of the government, <i>i.e.</i> the Board of Education, +towards the problem gradually became more and more a subject +of controversy and of public interest, as indicated by the clause +in the Act of 1899 providing for a public registration of qualified +teachers and for the gradual elimination from the profession +of those who were unqualified. And meanwhile the increased +solidarity of the National Union of Teachers (founded in 1870), +the trade union, so to speak, of the teachers, brought an important +body of professional opinion to bear on the discussion +of their own interests.</p> + +<p>The question of the preliminary education of elementary +teachers had after some years of discussion reached a critical +stage in 1909. The history of pupil teachership as a method +of concurrent instruction and employment shows that it was in +its inception something in the nature of a makeshift; the ideal +placed before local education authorities in the recent regulations +and reports of the Board of Education is the alternative system +whereby with the aid of national bursaries (instituted in 1907) +“the general education of future teachers may be continued in +secondary schools until the age of seventeen or eighteen, and all +attempts to obtain a practical experience of elementary school +work may be deferred until the training college is entered, +or at least until an examination making a natural break in that +general education and qualifying for an admission to a training +college has been passed.” Under the revised pupil-teacher +system established by the regulations of 1903 provision is made +for the instruction of pupil teachers in centres which as far as +possible are attached to secondary schools receiving grants from +the Board of Education under the regulations for secondary +schools, about two-thirds of the secondary schools on the grant +list undertaking this work. Accordingly, the result of recent +changes is to modify the old system in two ways: first by providing +the alternative of a full course of secondary education, +secondly by associating pupil teachership itself as far as possible +with part-time attendance at a secondary school. The total +number of pupil teachers recognized during the year 1907-1908 +was 20,571, and of these 9770 were in centres forming integral +parts of secondary schools. The number of bursars who passed +the leaving examination was 1486.</p> + +<p>One of the principal difficulties which confronted the state +and the local authorities in their task of organizing an improved +system of public education under the act of 1902 +lay in the deficiency of training colleges in view of +<span class="sidenote">Training colleges.</span> +the increased number of teachers. Local authorities +naturally hesitated to burden themselves with the cost of +providing such institutions in view of the fact that there is +nothing to prevent teachers trained at great expense by one +authority taking service under a less public-spirited authority +who had contributed nothing to such training; hence a widespread +feeling that the provision of training colleges should be +undertaken by the state as a matter of national concern. Under +these circumstances a new system of building grants in aid of +the establishment of training colleges was instituted in 1905. +In 1906 these grants were raised from 25 to 75% of the capital +expenditure, but were limited to colleges provided by local +authorities. A further difficulty in view of the municipalization +of education arose from the fact that the majority of the residential +colleges were in the hands of denominational trusts +which did not admit a conscience clause. Under the presidency +of Mr McKenna in 1907, the Board of Education, in regulations +which excited much controversy, “with a view to throwing open +as far as possible the advantages of a course of training in colleges +supported mainly by public funds to all students who are qualified +to profit by it irrespective of religious creed or social status,” +laid down that the application of a candidate might in no circumstances +<span class="correction" title="amended from he">be</span> rejected on any religious ground, nor on the ground +of social antecedents or the like. The same regulations provided +that no new training colleges would be recognized except on +terms of compliance with certain conditions as to freedom from +denominational restrictions or requirements. The obligation +as to religious exemptions has since been limited to 50% of +the admissions. There were in attendance (<i>Statistics</i>, England, +1907-1908) in the various colleges, 6561 women and 2835 men, of +whom 1619 women and 335 men were in colleges provided by local +education authorities. The grants made by the Board of Education +for training colleges were as follows: maintenance grants +£383,851; building grants £45,000. These figures include Wales.</p> + +<p>The fear has been widely entertained that a considerable +part of the national expenditure upon elementary education is +wasted for want of an effective system of continuative instruction +to be given out of working hours to adolescents engaged in +<span class="sidenote">Continuative education.</span> +industrial employment. The whole subject was exhaustively +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page983" id="page983"></a>983</span> +treated by the report in 1909 of the Consultative Committee of +the Board of Education. This report seeks to base an efficient +continuative system upon the improvement of +elementary education by reducing the size of the +classes in the elementary schools upon the lines +now laid down by the new staffing regulations of +1909; by increasing the amount of instruction in hand-work +with a view to rendering the curriculum less bookish and +more efficient as a training for industrial and agricultural life; +and by legislation to reform the system of half-time attendance +and raise the age of compulsory attendance to thirteen and ultimately +fourteen. Upon the foundation of an improved and +prolonged elementary education there would be reared a superstructure +of continuative schools or classes, attendance at which up +to seventeen would be compulsory under bye-laws adoptive locally +at the option of the local education authorities. In 1906-1907 +about 21 per thousand of the population of England and Wales +attended evening schools and classes inspected by the Board of +Education, and grant amounting to £361,596 was paid in respect +of 440,718 regular attendants.</p> + +<p>The most marked progress has undoubtedly been in secondary +education, and in no direction has the act of 1902 proved more +fruitful. At the end of the 19th century secondary +instruction in England was still provided chiefly by +<span class="sidenote">Secondary education.</span> +endowed grammar-schools, by proprietary schools +established by religious bodies or joint-stock companies, and by +private enterprise. No public provision was made for secondary +education as such; what financial assistance was forthcoming +from municipal sources was given indirectly under cover of the +grants under the Technical Instruction Acts, while in the administration +of central grants for the first years of the working +of the Board of Education Act 1899, no absolute differentiation +between secondary and technological functions was recognized. +The establishment of local authorities with direct duties in respect +of secondary education, and the reorganization of the central +office with reference to the three branches of education, elementary, +secondary and technological, rendered possible for the +first time an adequate treatment of the problem of public +secondary education as a whole. “The regulations for secondary +schools,” says the prefatory memorandum to the regulations +of the Board of Education, “grew up round the old provisions +of the Directory of the Science and Art Department. Detached +science classes were gradually built up into schools of science. +Schools of science were subsequently widened into schools of what +was known as the ‘Division A’ type, providing a course of +instruction in science in connexion with, and as part of, a course +of general education. Aid was afterwards extended to schools +of the ‘Division B’ type in which science did not form the +preponderating element of the instruction given. In 1904 the +board recast the regulations so as to bring all schools aided by +grants within the general definition of a school offering a general +education up to and beyond the age of sixteen through a complete +graded course of instruction, the object of which should be to +develop all the faculties, and to form the habit of exercising them.”</p> + +<p>Two main tendencies distinguish the recent development: +on the one hand the tendency to municipalization, or at least to +the establishment of public control; on the other hand the +tendency (marked especially by the regulations of 1907) to +greater elasticity in regard to curricula, and so to the freer +encouragement of local initiative and local effort.</p> + +<p>In 1907 the government of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman +placed greatly increased funds at the disposal of the Board of +Education for the purpose of secondary education. The regulations +under which the increased grant was administered imposed +conditions in respect of freedom from denominational restrictions +or requirements, representative local control, and accessibility to +all classes of the people, which, like the analogous rules with +regard to training colleges, roused considerable controversy. +With regard to religious instruction, the requirement was made +that no catechism or formulary distinctive of any particular +religious denomination might be taught in the school except upon +the request in writing of the parent or guardian and at the cost of +funds other than grants of public money. Power was at the same +time reserved to the board to waive the new conditions in the +event of the local education authority passing a resolution that +the school was in their view required as part of the secondary +school provision for their area, and that the conditions, or one or +more of them, might be waived with advantage in view of the +educational needs of the area. It will be noticed that one effect +of the regulations (as of the training college regulations) was +to recognize as a kind of established religion those elements +of Christianity which are shared in common by the various +Protestant churches, according to the system of Lancaster and the +Cowper-Temple compromise. Normally schools are required to +provide 25% of free places for scholars from public elementary +schools, and, with a view to encouraging the transference of +children from the public elementary school at an early age, a +grant of £2 was made payable on account of ex-public elementary +scholars between ten and twelve years of age. The full scale of +grants is £2 for ex-public elementary scholars between ten and +twelve, and £5 for scholars between twelve and eighteen. To +schools previously recognized and failing to comply with the new +conditions, grant may be paid on the lower scale of £2 and +£2, 10s. respectively.</p> + +<p>Secondary school grants are assessed upon average attendance, +and efficiency is guaranteed by inspection and not by individual +examination. All recognized schools must provide at least the +substantial equivalent of the four-years’ course formerly required, +and recognition is withheld or withdrawn if an adequate number +of the scholars do not remain at least four years in the school, or +do not remain up to sixteen; in rural areas, however, and small +towns, a school life of three years and a leaving age of fifteen may +be accepted. “The board are now in a position, through their +inspectorate, to keep a watch and exercise a guidance which were +previously impossible over the planning and working of school +curricula. Detailed reports following upon full inspections, and +the more constant if less obvious influence exercised through +informal visits, conferences, reports and suggestions, may now be +relied upon to guard against the risks of one-sided education, of +ill-balanced schemes of instruction, and of premature or excessive +specialization” (Report of Board of Education, 1906-1907, page +68). The curriculum must provide instruction duly graded and +duly continuous, in the English language and literature, in +geography and history, in mathematics, science and drawing, +and in at least one language other than English. Where +two languages other than English are taken, Latin must ordinarily +be one. Provision must be made for organized games, +physical exercises and manual instruction, and in girls’ schools +science and mathematics other than arithmetic may be replaced +by an approved scheme of practical housewifery for girls over +fifteen. The total number of secondary schools recognized for +grant (<i>Statistics</i>, 1907-1908) was 736, of which only 220 were +directly provided by local authorities. The number of pupils +in attendance was 68,104 boys and 56,359 girls, total 124,463. +The government grants for 1907-1908 amounted to £320,873 +besides grants from local authorities.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Wales.</i></p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the important differences which exist between +the social and especially the religious conditions of England and +Wales respectively, Wales continued to be treated as one with +England for purposes of educational administration down to quite +recent years. Towards the end of the 19th century the striking +revival of Welsh nationality, in itself largely an educational and a +literary movement, led to a spontaneous demand among the +Welsh people for the organization of a national system of higher +education. In accordance with the recommendations of a special +royal commission the Welsh Intermediate Education Act passed +in 1889 provided for the creation in every county in Wales +(including Monmouthshire) of joint education committees +consisting of three nominees of the county council and two +nominees of the lord president of the council. To these committees +were entrusted the duties of framing (under the Charity +Commissioners) schemes for the establishment of intermediate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page984" id="page984"></a>984</span> +and technical schools and for the application of endowments, and +for administering a ½d. county rate, which was supplemented by +a treasury grant not exceeding the amount raised by the rate. +Certain supervisory functions were entrusted to a Central Education +Board, to which are committed the duties of inspection and +examination. The joint education committees have now (except +for the purpose of framing schemes for endowments) been superseded +by the local education authorities under the act of 1902. +The public assistance afforded to secondary <span class="correction" title="amended from educaton">education</span> in Wales +under the Intermediate Act is supplemented by the grants of the +Board of Education, and the Board’s revised Secondary School +Regulations were applied to Wales in 1908. There were (1907-1908) +92 county secondary schools in Wales administered under +schemes made under the Welsh Intermediate Act, attended by +6235 boys and 6727 girls, total 12,962; and 12 other secondary +schools, of which 8 were provided by local authorities. The total +attendance at all secondary schools was 13,615, viz. 6819 boys +and 6796 girls. The Board of Education grant amounted to +£31,090. The expenditure of the local authorities for the year +1906-1907 was £85,242.</p> + +<p>The number of scholars on the registers of ordinary public +elementary schools in Wales was (<i>Statistics</i>, 1907-1908), in council +schools 330,413, and in voluntary schools 100,290, total 430,703. +The percentage of average attendance was 86.98. The ordinary +parliamentary grant (1906-1907) was £794,161, and the net +expenditure of local authorities £561,234.</p> + +<p>In 1907 a Welsh department of the Board of Education was +established with a permanent secretary and a chief inspector, each +responsible directly to the president. A movement was in progress +in Wales in 1908-1909 for the creation of a national council of +education under an independent minister, but this change could +in any case only be effected by legislation; and meanwhile the +special religious and social conditions in Wales caused administrative +difficulties in working an act (that of 1902) primarily designed +to meet those prevailing in England.</p> +<div class="author">(G. B. M. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>United States.</i></p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The first white settlers who came to North America +were typical representatives of those European peoples who had +made more progress in civilization than any other +in the world. Those settlers, in particular those +<span class="sidenote">Beginnings.</span> +from England and from Holland, brought with them +the most advanced ideas of the time on the subject of education. +The conditions of life in the New World emphasized the need +of schools and colleges, and among the earliest public acts of +the settlers were provisions to establish them. The steps taken +between 1619 and 1622 to provide schools for the colony of +Virginia were frustrated by the Indian war which broke out in +the latter year, and were never successfully renewed during the +colonial period. In New York, where the influence of the Dutch +was at first predominant, elementary schools were maintained +at the public expense, and were intended for the education of +all classes of the population. This policy reflected the very +advanced views as to public elementary education which were +then held in the Netherlands. The assumption of control in the +colony of New York by the English was a distinct check to the +development of public elementary education, and little or no +further progress was made until after the Revolution. The +most systematic educational policy was pursued in the colony +of Massachusetts. As early as 1635, five years after it was +founded, the town of Boston took action to the end that “our +brother Philemon Pormort shall be entreated to become schoolmaster +for the teaching and nurturing children with us.” The +General Court of the colony in 1636 made the first appropriation +for what was to become Harvard College, taking its name in +honour of the minister, John Harvard, who died in 1638, leaving +his library and one-half of his property, having a value of £800, +to the new institution. The amount of this appropriation of +1636 (£400) was remarkable in that it was probably equal to +the whole colony tax for a year. In 1642 followed a legislative +act which, while saying nothing of schools, gave to the selectmen +in every town power to oversee both the education and the +employment of children. It is made the duty of the selectmen +to see that the children can read and understand the principles +of religion and the capital laws of the country, and that they +are put to some useful work.</p> + +<p>Five years later, in 1647, was enacted the law which is not +only the real foundation of the Massachusetts school system, +but the type of later legislation throughout the United States. +This epoch-making act, the first of its kind in the world, represented +the public opinion of a colony of about 20,000 persons, +living in thirty towns. It required every town of fifty house-holders +to establish a school, the master of which should be paid +either by the parents of the children taught or by public tax, +as the majority of the town committee might decide; and it +further required every town of one hundred families or house-holders +to set up a grammar school in which pupils might be +prepared for the “University,” as the new institution at Cambridge +was designated. Moreover, a penalty was attached to +neglect of this legislative requirement, in the form of a fine to +be devoted to the maintenance of the nearest school. Horace +Mann said of the act of 1647: “It is impossible for us adequately +to conceive the boldness of the measure, which aimed at universal +education through the establishment of free schools. As a fact +it had no precedent in the world’s history; and, as a theory, it +could have been refuted and silenced by a more formidable array +of argument and experience than was ever marshalled against +any other institution of human origin. But time has ratified +its soundness. Two centuries of successful operation now +proclaim it to be as wise as it was courageous, and as beneficent +as it was disinterested.” The significance of these acts of 1642 +and 1647 is that they foreshadow the whole American system +of education, including elementary schools, secondary schools +and colleges, and that they indicate the principles upon which +that system rests. These principles as summarized by George +H. Martin in his <i>Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School +System</i> are the following:—(1) The universal education of +youth is essential to the well-being of the state. (2) The obligation +to furnish this education rests primarily upon the parent. +(3) The state has a right to enforce this obligation. (4) The +state may fix a standard which shall determine the kind of +education and the minimum amount. (5) Public money raised +by general tax may be used to provide such education as the +state requires. The tax may be general, though the school +attendance is not. (6) Education higher than the rudiments may +be supplied by the state. Opportunity must be provided at the +public expense for youths who wish to be fitted for college. These +principles have now found expression in the public acts of every +state, and upon them education in the United States is founded.</p> + +<p>Despite the praiseworthy attempts made in New York, New +Jersey and Pennsylvania to develop schools and school systems, +very little was accomplished in those colonies which +was permanent. The sentiment in the more southern +<span class="sidenote">Development.</span> +colonies was, as a rule, unfriendly to free schools, and +nothing of importance was attempted in that section of the +country until the time of Thomas Jefferson. Through religious +zeal or philanthropy colleges were founded as far south as +Virginia, and no fewer than ten of these institutions were in +operation in 1776. Their present names and the dates of their +foundation are: Harvard University, Massachusetts (1636); +College of William and Mary, Virginia (1693); Yale University, +Connecticut (1701); Princeton University, New Jersey (1746); +Washington and Lee University, Virginia (1749); University +of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania (1749); Columbia University, +New York (1754); Brown University, Rhode Island (1764); +Rutgers College, New Jersey (1766); and Dartmouth College, +New Hampshire (1769). In the colleges the ecclesiastical spirit +was at first almost uniformly dominant. The greater number +of their students were preparing for the ministry in some one of +the branches of the Protestant Church. These facts caused the +grammar schools to take on more and more the character of +college-preparatory schools; and when this was brought about +they supplied the educational needs of but one portion of the community. +As time passed, the interdependence of governmental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page985" id="page985"></a>985</span> +and ecclesiastical interests began to weaken in the colonies, and +there arose among those who represented the new secularizing +tendency a distrust of the colleges and their influence. This +gave rise to a new and influential type of school, the academy, +which took its name from the secondary schools established +in England by the dissenting religious bodies during the latter +part of the seventeenth century at the suggestion of Milton. +These academies were intended to give an education which was +thought to be more practical than that offered by the colleges, +and they drew their students from the so-called middle classes of +society. The older academies were usually endowed institutions, +organized under the control of religious organizations or of +self-perpetuating boards of trustees. Their programme of +studies was less restricted than that of the grammar schools, +and they gave new emphasis to the study of the English language +and its literature, of mathematics and of the new sciences of +nature. For two generations the academies were a most beneficent +factor in American education, and they supplied a large +number of the better-prepared teachers for work in other schools. +These schools were in a sense public in that they were chartered, +but they were not directly under public control in their management. +Early in the 19th century there arose a well-defined +demand for public secondary schools—high schools, as they are +popularly known. They were the direct outgrowth of the +elementary school system. Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore +and New York were the first of the large cities to establish +schools of this type, and they spread rapidly. These public +secondary schools met with opposition, however, springing +partly from the friends of the academies, and partly from those +who held that governmental agency should be restricted to the +field of elementary education. The legal questions raised were +settled by a decision of the supreme court of Michigan, which +contained these words: “Neither in our state policy, in our +constitution, nor in our laws do we find the primary school +districts restricted in the branches of knowledge which their +officers may cause to be taught, or the grade of instruction that +may be given, if their voters consent, in regular form, to bear +the expense and raise the taxes for the purpose.” This decision +gave marked impetus to the development of public secondary +or high schools, and they have increased rapidly in number. +The academies have relatively declined, and in the Western +states are almost unknown.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the elementary school system had grown rapidly. +The school district, the smallest civil division, was created in +Connecticut in 1701, in Rhode Island about 1750, and in Massachusetts +in 1789. From the point of view of efficient, well-supported +schools, it has been felt since the time of Horace Mann +that the substitution of the small school district for the town +as the unit of school administration was a mistake. Yet the +school district has exercised a profound influence for good upon +the American people. In New York state, for example, there +were in 1900 over eleven thousand school districts, and in +Illinois over twelve thousand. The districts are small in extent +and often sparsely settled. Their government is as democratic +as possible. The resident legal voters, often including women, +hold a meeting at least once a year. They elect trustees to +represent them in the employment of the teacher and the management +of the school. They determine whether a new schoolhouse +shall be built, whether repairs shall be made, and what sum of +money shall be raised for school purposes. In the rural districts +this system has often been itself a school in patriotism and in +the conduct of public affairs. Recently the tendency is to +merge the school districts into the township, in order that larger +and better schools may be maintained, and that educational +advantages may be distributed more evenly among the people. +Most of the southern states have the county system of school +administration. This is because the county, rather than the +township, has been the political unit in the south from the +beginning. Special laws have been made for the school system +in cities, and the form of these laws differs very much. In +nearly every city there is a separate board of education, sometimes +chosen by the voters, sometimes appointed by the mayor +or other official, which board has full control of the schools. +The city board of education has as its executive officer a superintendent +of schools, who has become a most important factor in +American educational administration. He exerts great influence +in the selection of teachers, in the choice of text-books, in the +arrangement of the programme of studies, and in the determination +of questions of policy. Sometimes he is charged by law +with the initiative in some or all of these matters. He is usually +a trained administrator as well as an experienced teacher. The +first superintendent was appointed in 1837 at Buffalo. Providence +followed in 1839, New Orleans in 1841, Cleveland in 1844, +Baltimore in 1849, Cincinnati in 1850, Boston in 1851, New York, +San Francisco and Jersey City in 1852, Newark and Brooklyn +in 1853, Chicago and St Louis in 1854, and Philadelphia in 1883. +In general, it may be said that the progress of public education +in the United States is marked by (1) compulsory schools, +(2) compulsory licensing of teachers, (3) compulsory school +attendance, and (4) compulsory school supervision, and by the +increasingly efficient administration of these provisions. The +compulsion comes in each case from the state government, +which alone, in the American system, has the power to prescribe +it and to enforce it. Each state is therefore an independent +educational unit, and there is no single, uniform American +system of education in any legal sense. In fact, however, the +great mass of the American people are in entire agreement as to +the principles which should control public education; and the +points in which the policies of the several states are in agreement +are greater, both in number and in importance, than those in +which they differ. An American educational system exists, +therefore, in spirit and in substance, even though not in form.</p> + +<p>Neither in the Declaration of Independence nor in the Constitution +of the United States is there any mention of education. +The founders of the nation were by no means indifferent +to education, but they shared the common view of +<span class="sidenote">National policy.</span> +their time, which was that the real responsibility for +the maintenance of schools and the expense of maintaining +them should fall upon the several local communities. The +relation of government to education was not then a subject of +ordinary consideration or discussion. Later, when this question +did arise and the power of taxation was involved, the several +states assumed control of education, as it was necessary that +they should do. Nevertheless, from the very beginning the +national government has aided and supported education, while +not controlling it. This policy dates from the 13th of July 1787, +when there was passed the famous “Ordinance for the Government +of the Territory of the United States North-West of the +River Ohio,” meaning the territory north and west of the Ohio +river now represented by the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, +Michigan, Wisconsin, and the eastern side of Minnesota, embracing +more than 265,000 sq. m. of territory. This ordinance +contains this declaration: “Religion, morality, and knowledge +being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, +schools and the means of education shall for ever be +encouraged.” The Ordinance of 1787 also reaffirmed the provisions +of the so-called Land Ordinance of 1785, by which +section No. 16 in every township (a township consists of 36 +numbered sections of 1 sq. m. each), or one thirty-sixth of the +entire north-west territory, was set aside for the maintenance of +public schools within the township. The funds derived from the +sale and lease of these original “school lands” form the major +portion of the public school endowment of the states formed +out of the north-west territory. The precedent thus established +became the policy of the nation. Each state admitted +prior to 1848 reserved section No. 16 in every township of public +land for common schools. Each state admitted since 1848 (Utah +being an exception, and having four sections) has reserved +sections No. 16 and No. 36 in every township of public lands +for this purpose. In addition, the national government has +granted two townships in every state and territory containing +public lands for seminaries or universities. A third land grant +is that made in 1862 for colleges of agriculture and the mechanical +arts. The sum total of these three land grants amounted in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page986" id="page986"></a>986</span> +1900 to 78,659,439 acres, to which there must be added various +special grants made from time to time to the states and devoted +to education. The portion of the public domain so set apart +in 1900 amounted in all to 86,138,473 acres, or 134,591 English +sq. m. This is an area greater than those of the six New England +states, New York, New Jersey, Maryland and Delaware added +together. It is a portion of the earth’s surface as great as the +kingdom of Prussia, about seven-tenths as great as France, and +considerably greater than the combined areas of Great Britain +(including the Channel Islands) and the kingdom of Holland. +Besides the enormous grants of land in aid of education, the +national government has maintained since 1802 a military +academy at West Point, New York, for the training of officers +for the army, and since 1845 a naval academy at Annapolis, +Maryland, for the training of officers for the navy. It has also +taken charge of the education of the children of uncivilized +Indians, and of all children in Alaska. It has voted, by act of +1887, a perpetual endowment of $15,000 a year for each agricultural +experiment station connected with a state agricultural +college, and, by act of 1890, an additional endowment of $25,000 +a year for each of the agricultural colleges themselves. The +aggregate value of land and money given by the national government +for education in the several states and territories is about +$300,000,000.</p> + +<p>In 1867 the Congress established a bureau of education, +presided over by a commissioner who is under the jurisdiction +of the secretary of the interior, the purpose of which +is declared to be to collect “such statistics and facts +<span class="sidenote">Bureau of education.</span> +as shall show the condition and progress of education +in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such information +respecting the organization and management of school +systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people +of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of +efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of +education throughout the country.” The bureau has therefore +no direct power over the educational policy of the several states. +It has, however, exercised a potent influence for good in its +advisory capacity. Up to 1900 this bureau had published 360 +separate volumes and pamphlets, including 31 annual reports, +covering from 800 to 2300 pages each; and the number has +since been much increased. The annual reports alone of the +Commissioner of Education are mines of information. These +standard works of reference are distributed gratuitously in large +numbers to libraries, school officials and other persons interested, +and to foreign governments. The several commissioners of +education have been: Henry Barnard, 1867-1870; John Eaton, +1870-1886; Nathaniel H.R. Dawson, 1886-1889; William +T. Harris,<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> 1889-1906; Elmer Ellsworth Brown, 1906- .</p> + +<p>In the United States the sovereign powers are not all lodged +in one place. Such of those powers as are not granted by the +Constitution to the national government are reserved +to the states respectively, or to the people. The power +<span class="sidenote">State governments and education.</span> +to levy taxes for the support of public education has +been almost universally held to be one of the powers +so reserved. The inhabitants of the several local communities, +however indisposed they may have been to relinquish absolute +control of their own schools, have been compelled to yield to the +authority of the state government whenever it has been asserted, +for except under such authority no civil division—county, city, +township, or school district—possesses the power to levy taxes +for school purposes. Moreover, since the exercise of state +authority has uniformly improved the quality of the schools, +it has usually been welcomed, not resisted. In general, it may +be said that the state has used its authority to prescribe a +minimum of efficiency which schools and teachers must reach, +and it enforces this minimum through inspection and the withholding +of its proper share of the state school fund from any +locality where schools or teachers are permitted to fall below +the required standard. In extreme cases the state authorities +have interfered directly to prevent the evil results of local +inefficiency or contumacy. In addition, the states, almost +without exception, maintain at their own expense schools for +the training of teachers, known as normal schools. Many of +the states also offer inducements to the cities, towns and districts +to exceed the prescribed minimum of efficiency. Through the +steady exercise of state supervision the school buildings have +improved, the standard for entrance upon the work of teaching +has been raised, the programme of studies has been made more +effective and more uniform, and the length of the school term +has increased. The Constitution of every state now contains +some provision as to public education. Each state has an +executive officer charged with the enforcement of the state +school laws. Sometimes, as in New York, this official has +plenary powers; sometimes, as in Massachusetts and Ohio, he +is little more than an adviser. In twenty-nine states this +official is known as the superintendent of public instruction; in +Massachusetts and Connecticut he is called secretary of the state +board of education; other titles used are commissioner of public +schools, superintendent of common schools, and superintendent +of public schools. The schools are administered, on behalf of +the taxpayers, by an elected board of school trustees in rural +school districts, and by an elected (though sometimes appointed) +board of education or school committee in cities and towns. In +836 cities and towns there is a local superintendent of schools, +who directs and supervises the educational work and acts as +the executive officer of the board of education. The schools in +the rural districts are under the direct supervision of a county +superintendent of schools or similar official, who is often chosen +by the people, but who sometimes is named by the state +authorities. The county and city superintendents are often +charged with the duty of holding examinations for entrance +upon the work of teaching, and of issuing licences to those +persons who pass the examinations. This system works best +where it is carefully regulated by state law. Thirty states, +one territory, and the District of Columbia have enacted compulsory +education laws, but the enforcement of them is usually +very lax. In fifteen states and territories there are no compulsory +education laws, although there are in existence there fully +organized school systems free to all children. The usual age +during which school attendance is required is from 8 to 14. +Provision is made in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, +Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, +Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan, for sending habitual +truants to some special institution. Laws forbidding the employment +of children under a specified minimum age in any mercantile +or manufacturing establishment are in force in twelve states, +and are usually administered in connexion with the compulsory +education laws.</p> + +<p>The universal establishment in America of public secondary +schools (high schools), and the existence of state universities in +all of the states south and west of Pennsylvania, have brought +into existence a system of state education which reaches from +the kindergarten and the elementary school to the graduate +instruction offered at state colleges and universities. This system +includes (1) about 1500 free public kindergartens scattered +over fifteen states; (2) free public elementary schools within +reach of almost every home in the land; (3) free public secondary +schools (high schools) in every considerable city or town and in +not a few rural communities; (4) free land grant colleges, supported +in large part by the proceeds of the nation’s endowment of +public lands, paying particular attention to agriculture and the +mechanical arts, in all the states; (5) state universities, free +or substantially so, in all the states south and west of Pennsylvania; +(6) free public normal schools, for the professional +training of teachers, in nearly every state; (7) free schools +for the education of defectives in nearly all the states; and (8) +the national academies at West Point and Annapolis for the +professional training of military and naval officers respectively.</p> + +<p>Miss Susan E. Blow, herself the leading exponent of kindergarten +principles in the United States, has pointed out that the +history of the kindergarten movement reveals four distinct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page987" id="page987"></a>987</span> +stages in its development: the pioneer stage, having Boston as +<span class="sidenote">Kindergartens.</span> +its centre; the philanthropic stage, which began in the village +of Florence, Mass., and reached its climax at San Francisco, +California; the national or strictly educational +stage, which began at St Louis; and the so-called +maternal stage, which from Chicago as a centre is spreading over +the entire country. During the first stage public attention was +directed to a few of the most important aspects of Froebel’s +teaching. During the second stage the kindergarten was valued +largely as a reformatory and redemptive influence. During the +third stage the fundamental principles underlying kindergarten +training were scientifically studied and expounded, and the +kindergarten became part of the public school system of the +country. The fourth stage, which, like the third, is fortunately +still in existence, aims at making the kindergarten a link between +the school and the home, and so to use it to strengthen the +foundations and elevate the ideals of family life. By 1898 there +were 4363 kindergartens in the United States (1365 of which +were public), employing 9937 teachers (2532 in the public +kindergartens) and enrolling 189,604 children (95,867 in the +public kindergartens). Of the 164 public normal schools, 36 +made provision for training kindergarten teachers. The scientific +and literary activity of some of the private kindergarten training +classes is very great, and they exert a beneficial and stimulating +effect on teaching in the elementary schools. It is generally +admitted that from the point of view of the children, of the +teachers, of the schools, and of the community at large, the +kindergarten has been and is an inspiration of incalculable value.</p> + +<p>The elementary school course is from six to nine years in +length, the ordinary period being eight years. The pupils enter +at about six years of age. In the cities the elementary +schools are usually in session for five hours daily, +<span class="sidenote">Elementary schools.</span> +except Saturday and Sunday, beginning at 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> +There is an intermission, usually of an hour, at midday, +and short recesses during the sessions. In the small rural schools +the pupils are usually ungraded, and are taught singly or in +varying groups. In the cities and towns there is a careful +gradation of pupils, and promotions from grade to grade are +made at intervals of a year or of a half-year. The best schools +have the most elastic system of gradation and the most frequent +promotions. In a number of states there are laws authorizing +the conveyance of children to school at the public expense, when +the schoolhouse is unduly distant from the homes of a portion +of the school population. Co-education (<i>q.v.</i>) in the elementary +school has been the salutary and almost uniform practice in the +United States. The programme of studies in the elementary +school includes English (reading, writing, spelling, grammar, +composition), arithmetic (sometimes elementary algebra also, +or plane geometry in the upper grades), geography, history of +the United States, and elementary natural science, including +human physiology and hygiene. Physical training, vocal music, +drawing and manual training are often taught. Sometimes a +foreign language (Latin, German or French) and the study of +general history are begun. Formal instruction in manners +and morals is not often found, but the discipline of the school +offers the best possible training in the habits of truthfulness, +honesty, obedience, regularity, punctuality and conformity to +order. Religious teaching is not permitted, although the +exercises of the day are often opened with reading from the +Bible, the repetition of the Lord’s Prayer and the singing of a +hymn. Corporal punishment is not infrequent, but is forbidden +by law in New Jersey, and in many states may be used only under +restrictions. Text-books are used as the basis of the instruction +given, and the pupils “recite” in class to the teacher, who, by +use of illustration and comment, makes clear the subject-matter +of the prescribed lesson. The purpose of the recitation method +is to make the work of each pupil help that of his companion. +Skilfully used, it is the most effectual instrument yet devised for +elementary school instruction.</p> + +<p>The secondary school course is normally four years in length. +The principal subjects studied are Latin, Greek, French, German, +algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, physical geography, +physiology, rhetoric, English literature, civics and history. +<span class="sidenote">Secondary schools.</span> +Although but 11.36% of the students in public high schools and +25.36% of those in private secondary schools are +preparing for a college or scientific school, yet the conditions +prescribed by the colleges for admission to their +courses affect powerfully both the secondary school programme +and the methods of teaching. Of late years no educational +topic has been more widely discussed than that as to the proper +relations of secondary schools and colleges. As a result, special +examinations for admission to college are either greatly simplified +or entirely abolished, and the secondary studies are much more +substantial and better taught than formerly. An increasing +proportion of secondary school teachers are college graduates. +The most extraordinary characteristic of secondary education +in recent years is the rapid increase in the number of students +taking Latin as a school subject. Meanwhile the proportion +of those studying physics and chemistry has fallen off slightly. +The rate of increase in the number of pupils who study Latin +is fully twice as great as the rate of increase in the number +of secondary school students. Between 1890 and 1896, while +the number of students in private secondary schools increased +12%, the number of students in public secondary schools +increased 87%. Since 1894 the number of students in private +secondary schools has steadily declined.</p> + +<p>The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the +English colleges of Oxford and of Cambridge, has developed +into an institution which has no counterpart in Europe. +The college course of study, at first three years in +<span class="sidenote">The colleges.</span> +length, was soon extended to four years, and the +classes are uniformly known as the freshman, the sophomore, +the junior and the senior. The traditional degree which crowns +the college course is that of Bachelor of Arts (A.B.). The studies +ordinarily insisted on in the case of candidates for this degree +are Latin, Greek, mathematics, English, philosophy, political +economy, history, at least one modern European language +(French or German), and at least one natural science. The +degrees of Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Philosophy +(Ph.B.), and Bachelor of Letters (B.L.) are often conferred by +colleges upon students who have pursued systematic courses of +study which do not include Greek or the amount of Latin required +for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The best colleges give instruction +which is similar in character to that given in Germany in +the three upper classes of the gymnasium and in the introductory +courses at the universities, in France in the two upper classes of +the lycée and in the first two years of university study, and in +England in the upper form of the public schools and during the +years of undergraduate residence at Oxford and Cambridge. +Since 1870 the colleges have developed enormously. Their +resources have multiplied, the number of their students has +increased by leaps and bounds, the programme of studies +has broadened and deepened, the standards have been raised, +and the efficiency of the instruction has greatly increased. +Rigidly prescribed courses of study have given way to elective +courses, and a knowledge of Greek is no longer required for +the degree of A.B. at such influential colleges as Harvard, +Columbia, Cornell and Williams. A strong effort is being made +to have the leading colleges give but one degree, that of Bachelor +of Arts, and to confer that upon those who complete any substantial +course of college studies. A marked change has taken +place in the attitude of the college authorities toward the students. +In 1870 the college president was a paterfamilias. He knew each +student and came into direct personal contact with him. The +president and the faculty had supervision not only of the studies +of the students, but of their moral and religious life as well. +The older type of college professor was not always a great +scholar, but he was a student of human nature, with keen +intuitions and shrewd insight. The new type, which had come +into existence at the opening of the 20th century, was more +scholarly in some special direction, often regarded teaching +as a check upon opportunities for investigation, and disdained +troubling himself with a student’s personal concerns or intellectual +and moral difficulties. The change was not altogether +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page988" id="page988"></a>988</span> +for the better, and a desirable reaction has been observable. +Each college, however small or ill-equipped, exercises a helpful +local influence. Ninety per cent of all college students attend +an institution not more than one hundred miles from their own +homes. Few colleges have a national constituency, and even +in these cases an overwhelming preponderance of the students +come from the immediate neighbourhood. This explains, in a +measure, the powerful influence which the college has exercised +in the life of the nation. While hardly more than one in a +hundred of the white male youth of the country has had a college +education, yet the college graduates have furnished one-half +of all the presidents of the United States, most of the justices +of the Supreme Court, about one-half of the cabinet officers and +United States senators, and nearly one-third of the House of +Representatives. Before the Revolution eleven colleges were +founded. From 1776 to 1800, twelve more were added; from +1800 to 1830, thirty-three; from 1830 to 1865, one hundred and +eighty; from 1865 to 1898, two hundred and thirty-six. Their +standards, efficiency and equipment are very diverse, many of +the so-called colleges being less effective than some of the better +organized secondary schools. Except in New York and Pennsylvania, +there is no statutory restriction upon the use of the name +“college.” This is an abuse to which public attention has in +recent years been increasingly called.<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>In the United States the title “university” is used indiscriminately +of institutions which are in reality universities, of +institutions which are colleges, and of institutions +which are so ill-equipped as not to take rank with +<span class="sidenote">The universities.</span> +good secondary schools. Only time and a greatly +increased capacity to distinguish the various types of +higher schools will remedy this error. Putting aside tentative +and unsuccessful attempts to develop genuine university instruction +much earlier, it may safely be said that the opening of the +Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore in 1876 began the +present movement to organize carefully advanced study and +research, requiring a college education of those who wish to enter +upon it. This is university instruction properly so called, and +though found elsewhere, it is given chiefly at fourteen institutions: +California University, Catholic University of America, +Chicago University, Clark University, Columbia University, +Cornell University, Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, +Michigan University, Pennsylvania University, Princeton +University, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Wisconsin University +and Yale University. All of these institutions, except the +Catholic University of America, are also colleges. The combination +of collegiate and university instruction under one +corporation and one executive administration is distinctive of +higher education in the United States, and its chief source of +strength. The crowning honour of the university student is +the degree of Ph.D., although that of A.M.—obtainable in less +time and much easier conditions—is also sought. The minimum +period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D. is two years +after obtaining the bachelor’s degree; but in practice, three, +and even four, years of study are found necessary. In addition +to carrying on an investigation in the field of his main subject +of study, the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required +to pass examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to +possess a reading knowledge of French and German (often of +Latin as well), and to submit—usually in printed form—the +dissertation which embodies the results of his researches. The +methods of instruction in the universities are the lecture, discussion +and work in laboratory or seminary—the latter transplanted +from the German universities. The degree of Master of +Arts is conferred upon students who, after one year of university +residence and study, pass certain prescribed examinations. +This degree, like those of D.D., S.T.D. and LL.D., is often +conferred by colleges and universities as a purely honorary +distinction. The degree of Ph.D. is not so conferred any longer +by the best universities. Not a few of the universities maintain +schools of law and medicine. Harvard and Yale universities +maintain schools of theology as well. The learned publications +issued by the universities, or under the direction of university +professors, are of great importance, and constitute an imposing +body of scientific literature. The national and state governments +make increasing use of university officials for public service +requiring special training or expert knowledge. In 1871-1872 +there were only 198 resident graduate (or university) students +in the United States. In 1887 this number had risen to 1237, +and in 1897 to 4392. These figures are exclusive of professional +students, and include only those who are studying in what +would be called, in Germany, the philosophical faculty. (See +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Most extensive provision is made in America for professional, +technical and special education of all kinds, and for the care and +training of the dependent and defective classes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Blindness</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deaf and Dumb</a></span>), as well as for the education of the Indian +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indians, North American</a></span>), and—in the Southern states—of +the negro (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> +<div class="author">(N. M. B.)</div> + +<p><i>Statistics.</i>—Details as to education in each state of the American +Union are given in the articles under state headings. But +a more comprehensive view may be obtained here from the +general statistics. The introduction to the statistical tables in +vol. ii. of the Commissioner of Education’s Report for 1907 may +usefully be quoted. Mr Edward L. Thorndike, of the Teachers’ +College, Columbia University, there summarizes the national +account as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“We use in formal school education a material plant valued at +from twelve to thirteen hundred million dollars, the labour of 550,000 +teachers or other educational officers, and more or less of the time +of some eighteen million students.... We pay for the labour of +these teachers, many of whom work for only part of the normal city-school +year, about $300,000,000. We pay for fuel, light, janitorial +services, repairs, depreciation of books, school supplies, insurance +and the like, about $90,000,000. For depreciation of the plant +not so charged we should properly provide during the year a sinking +fund of perhaps $25,000,000. Adding an interest charge of 5% +on the investment in the plant, our annual bill for formal school +education comes to over $475,000,000. Additions to the plant were +made [in 1906-1907] to the extent of from ninety to a hundred million +dollars. As a partial estimate of the returns from this investment +we may take the number of students whose education has been carried +to a specified standard of accomplishment and power. Thus I +estimate that, in 1907, 3000 students reached the standard denoted +by three years or more of academic, technical or professional study +in advance of a reputable college degree; that 25,000 students +reached the standard denoted by at least three and not over four +years of such study in advance of a four-year high-school course; +than an eighth of a million students reached the standard denoted +by at least three and not over four years of study in advance of an +eight-year elementary-school course; and that three-quarters of a +million students reached the standard of completion of an elementary-school +course of seven or eight years or its equivalent.... Roughly, +nine-tenths of elementary education and the education of teachers, +over two-thirds of secondary education, and over a third of college +and higher technical education are provided and controlled by the +public. Professional education, other than the training of teachers +and engineers, is still largely a function of private provision and +control.</p> + +<p>“The following rough comparison may serve to define further the +status of education in the country at large. The plant used for formal +education is valued at 1% of our entire national wealth, or twice +the value of our telephone systems, or ten times the value of our +Pullman and private cars, or one-tenth the value of our railroads. +The number of teachers is approximately that of the clergymen, +engineers, lawyers and physicians together, five times that of the +regular army and navy, and about twice that of the saloon-keepers +and bar-tenders and their assistants. The annual expenditure for +education, exclusive of additions to the plant, is somewhat over twice +the expenditure for the war and navy departments of the national +government. It is three and a half times the expenditure of the +national government in 1907 for pensions. It is about one and a +fourth times the cost (New York wholesale prices) of the sugar and +coffee we consume annually.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The above comparison indicates perhaps, not inadequately, +the “business” conception of the value of education prevailing +in the United States, where its practical advantages are realized +as in no other country, not even Germany.</p> + +<p>From the same report the following statistics may be cited +for 1906-1907.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page989" id="page989"></a>989</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Common Schools (including Elementary and Secondary Public +Schools only).</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Total number of pupils of all ages</td> <td class="tcl cl">16,820,386<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Average number of days schools open</td> <td class="tcl">151.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Average number of days attended by each pupil</td> <td class="tcl cl">106.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Number of male teachers</td> <td class="tcl">105,773</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Number of female teachers</td> <td class="tcl cl">369,465</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Number of school houses</td> <td class="tcl">259,115</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Average monthly wage of male teachers</td> <td class="tcl cl">$56.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Average monthly wage of female teachers</td> <td class="tcl">$43.67</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Value of all school property</td> <td class="tcl cl">$843,309,410</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Income from permanent funds and rents</td> <td class="tcl"> $16,579,551</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Income from State taxes</td> <td class="tcl cl"> $46,281,501</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Income from local taxes</td> <td class="tcl">$230,424,554</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Income from other sources</td> <td class="tcl cl"> $50,317,132</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Expenditure on sites, buildings, furniture, libraries and apparatus</td> <td class="tcl"> $65,817,870</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Expenditure on salaries</td> <td class="tcl cl">$196,980,919</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Expenditure on other purposes</td> <td class="tcl"> $67,882,012</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Expenditure per head of population</td> <td class="tcl cl">$3.90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Expenditure per pupil</td> <td class="tcl">$27.98</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Bureau of Education in 1907 received reports from 606 +universities, colleges and technological schools; they had a teaching +force of 24,679, and an enrolment of 293,343 students. The number +of public and private normal schools reporting was 259, with an +enrolment of 70,439 students in the regular training courses for +teachers, 12,541 graduates and 3660 instructors. There were 148 +manual and industrial training schools (independently of the manual +training taught in the public schools and in 66 Indian schools), +with 1692 teachers and an enrolment of 68,427 students; and 445 +independent commercial and business schools, with 2856 instructors +and 137,364 students.</p> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—For the study of education as an aspect of +religious, social, moral and intellectual development, the material +is practically inexhaustible, and much of the most valuable does not +treat specifically of the education given in schools and colleges. +The most useful guide is E.P. Cubberley’s <i>Syllabus of Lectures on the +History of Education</i> (1902), which consists of an analytic outline +of topics with copious and detailed references to authorities. See +also W.S. Monroe’s <i>Bibliography of Education</i> (1897). The best +general history in English is P. Monroe’s <i>Text-Book in the History of +Education</i> (1905), which, like Davidson’s much briefer <i>History of +Education</i>, treats the subject broadly and in relation to other aspects +of life. Williams’s <i>History of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Education</i> +is a useful statement of the main facts of educational progress +taken somewhat by itself. In German the standard work is K.A. +Schmid’s <i>Geschichte der Erziehung</i>, a comprehensive and detailed +treatment in which each period is dealt with by a specialist. Ziegler’s +<i>Geschichte der Pädagogik</i> is a good short history. In French, +Letourneau’s <i>L’Évolution de l’éducation</i> is especially good on ancient +and non-European education. Draper’s <i>Intellectual Development of +Europe</i> is vigorous and interesting, but marred by its depreciation +of the work of the Church. Guizot’s <i>History of Civilization</i> is still +of value, as are parts of Hallam’s <i>Literary History</i>. Lecky’s <i>History +of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe</i>, and +Buckle’s <i>History of Civilization</i> in England, contain much that is +of value. The best encyclopaedias are W. Rein’s <i>Encyklopädisches +Handbuch der Pädagogik</i>, and F. Buisson’s <i>Dictionnaire de pédagogie, +première partie</i>. Sir Henry Craik’s <i>The State and Education</i> (1883) +is an excellent text-book on national education.</p> + +<p>Of books dealing with special periods and topics, S. Laurie’s +<i>Historical Sketch of Pre-Christian Education</i>, Freeman’s <i>Schools of +Hellas</i>, Girard’s <i>L’Éducation athénienne au V<span class="sp">e</span> et au IV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle avant</i> +J.-C., Davidson’s <i>Education of the Greek People</i>, Mahaffy’s <i>Old Greek +Education</i> and <i>Greek Life and Thought</i>, Nettleship’s article on +“Education in Plato’s Republic” in <i>Hellenica</i>, Capes’s <i>University +Life in Athens</i>, Hobhouse’s <i>Theory and Practice of Ancient Education</i>, +Grasberger’s <i>Erziehung und Unterricht im classischen Alterthum</i>, +Wilkin’s <i>Roman Education</i>, and Clarke’s <i>Education of Children at +Rome</i>, are valuable for classical times.</p> + +<p>For the somewhat obscure transition centuries there is much of +value in Taylor’s <i>Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages</i>, Dill’s <i>Roman +Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire</i>, especially the +chapter on “Culture in the 4th and 5th centuries,” Boissier’s <i>La +Fin du paganisme</i>, and Hatch’s <i>Influence of Greek Thought upon the +Christian Church</i>.</p> + +<p>The best general account of medieval education is in Drane’s +<i>Christian Schools and Scholars</i>; and J.B. Mullinger’s <i>Schools of +Charles the Great</i> treats well of the Carolingian Revival. G.B. +Adams’s <i>Civilization during the Middle Ages</i> is excellent; and +Sandys’s <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> is a valuable book of +reference. On the scholastic philosophy Turner’s <i>History of Philosophy</i>, +and Hauréau’s <i>Histoire de la philosophie scolastique</i>, are +useful. Medieval schools are described in Furnivall’s preface to +<i>The Babees Book</i>, which deals with “Education in Early England,” +and in Leach’s <i>Old Yorkshire Schools</i> and <i>History of Winchester +College</i>. The most important books on the universities are Rashdall’s +<i>Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages</i>, Jourdain’s <i>Histoire +de l’université de Paris aux XVII<span class="sp">e</span> et XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i>, Lyte’s <i>History +of the University of Oxford to 1530</i>, and Mullinger’s <i>History of the +University of Cambridge to the Accession of Charles I.</i> Paulsen’s +<i>Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen und +Universitäten</i> is the best history of education in Germany.</p> + +<p>On the Renaissance in Italy, Villari’s Introduction to his <i>Life +and Times of Machiavelli</i>, and Burckhardt’s <i>Die Kultur der Renaissance +in Italien</i> (translated into English), are of the first importance. +Other valuable books are the first volume of the <i>Cambridge Modern +History</i> and Symonds’s great work on <i>The Renaissance in Italy</i>, +especially the volume on <i>The Revival of Learning</i>. Dealing more +specifically with education are Woodward’s excellent monographs +on <i>Education during the Renaissance</i>, <i>Vittorino da Feltre</i> and <i>Erasmus</i>. +Janssen’s <i>Geschichte des deutschen Volkes</i> (translated into English) +gives a good account of the social and intellectual condition of +Germany in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. Christie’s <i>Life of +Étienne Dolet</i> is of value for the Renaissance in France. For the +movement in England Seebohm’s <i>Oxford Reformers</i>, Gasquet’s <i>Eve +of the Reformation in England</i>, Einstein’s <i>The Italian Renaissance in +England</i>, and Leach’s <i>English Schools at the Reformation, 1546-1548</i>, +are particularly important.</p> + +<p>For later times the material is chiefly in the form of monographs, +of which the following, among others, are of value: Adamson’s +<i>Pioneers of Modern Education</i>, Laas’s <i>Die Pädagogik des Johannes +Sturm</i>, Beard’s <i>Port Royal</i>, vol. ii., Kuno Fischer’s <i>Fr. Bacon und +seine Nachfolger</i>, Laurie’s <i>John Amos Comenius</i>, Morley’s <i>Rousseau</i>, +Pinloche’s <i>La Réforme de l’éducation en Allemagne au dix-huitième +siècle</i>, Biedermann’s <i>Deutschlands geistige, sittliche, und gesellige +Zustände im XVIII. Jahrhundert</i>.</p> + +<p>For the 19th century and after, the best sources of information are +the official Reports, such as those of the Royal Commissions on the +English Universities, the Public Schools, and the other English +secondary schools; the “Special Reports,” issued by the English +Board of Education; the encyclopaedic annual Reports of the +American Commissioner of Education (dealing not only with the +United States, but with progress in other countries); monographs +in the French <i>Musée pédagogique</i>, and various German Reports.</p> + +<p>For education in the United States, see also Boone’s <i>History of +Education in U.S.A.</i> (1889); N.M. Butler (editor), <i>Education in the +U.S.A.</i> (1900), a series of monographs prepared for the Paris Exposition; +E.G. Dexter’s <i>History of Education in the United States</i> +(1904); and the <i>Proceedings</i> of the National Educational Association.</p> + +<p>On the leading writers on education the monographs in the Great +Educator Series are useful, and editions and translations of the best +known of these writers are available. The greatest systematic +collection is the <i>Monumenta Germaniae paedagogica</i>. On the development +of the means of education, Montmorency’s two books on +<i>State Intervention in English Education from the Earliest Times to +1833</i>, and <i>The Progress of Education in England</i>, Balfour’s <i>Educational +Systems of Great Britain and Ireland</i>, Allain’s <i>L’Instruction primaire +en France avant la Révolution</i>, Lantoine’s <i>Histoire de l’enseignement +secondaire en France au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> et au début du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, and +Konrad Fischer’s <i>Geschichte des deutschen Volkschullehrerstands</i>, may +be mentioned.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Wn.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the evolution of the school as such from early times see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schools</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See especially <i>Das öffentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands</i>, +by Dr Paul Stötzner (Leipzig, 1901).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A valuable bibliography of Mr Harris’s contributions to educational +literature is given in the Report of the Commissioner of +Education for 1907 (Washington, 1908).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See especially the second Annual Report of the President of the +Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (pp. 76-80), +quoted in the Report for 1907 of the Commissioner of Education.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> In private schools there were also 1,304,547 pupils.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> “<span class="sc">The Elder</span>” (d. 924), king of the Angles and +Saxons, was the second son of Alfred the Great, and with his +sister Æthelflæd was carefully educated at the court of his +father. During his father’s lifetime he took an active part in +the campaigns against the Danes, especially in that of 894, and +as early as 898 he signs a charter as “rex,” showing that he was +definitely associated with his father in the kingship. He succeeded +his father in October 899,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but not without opposition. +The Ætheling Æthelwold, son of Alfred’s elder brother Æthelred, +seized Wimborne and Christchurch. Edward advanced against +him, and Æthelwold took refuge among the Danes in Northumbria. +In 904 Æthelwold landed in Essex, and in the next +year he enticed the East Anglian Danes to revolt. They ravaged +all southern Mercia and, in spite of Edward’s activity, returned +home victorious, though Æthelwold fell in the battle of the +Holme. In 905 or 906 Edward made a peace with the East +Anglian and Northumbrian Danes at “Yttingaford,” near +Linslade in Buckinghamshire, perhaps the peace known as +“the Laws of Edward and Guthrum.” In 909 and 910 fresh +campaigns took place owing to southerly raids by the Danes, +and victories were won at Tettenhall and Wednesfield in Staffordshire.<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +From 907 onwards Edward and his sister Æthelflæd, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page990" id="page990"></a>990</span> +the Lady of the Mercians, were busy strengthening their hold +on Mercia and Wessex. Forts were built at Lincoln (907), +“Bremesbyrig” (910), “Scergeat” and Bridgenorth (912), +and when in the year 911 Æthelflæd’s husband Æthelred died, +Edward took over from Mercia the government of London and +Oxford, with the lands belonging to them, <i>i.e.</i> probably Oxfordshire +and Middlesex. The policy of constructing “burhs” or +fortified towns was continued. Hertford was fortified in 911, +Witham in 912, while Æthelflæd fortified Cherbury in Shropshire, +“Weardbyrig” and Runcorn (all in 915). In 913 the Danes in +Eastern Mercia gave considerable trouble, and in 914 a fresh +horde of pirates, coming from Brittany, sailed up the Severn. +They raided southern Wales, but were hemmed in by the English +forces and besieged until they promised to leave the king’s +territory. Edward watched the southern shores of the Bristol +Channel so carefully that the Danes failed to secure a hold there, +and were ultimately forced to sail to Ireland. In the same year +Edward fortified Buckingham and received the submission of +the jarls and chief men of Bedford. In 915 he fortified Bedford +itself, Maldon in 916, and Towcester and “Wigingamere” in 917. +In the last-mentioned year Edward captured and destroyed the +Danish stronghold of Tempsford, and later in the year he took +Colchester. An attack by the Danes on Maldon failed, and in +915 Edward went to Passenham and received the submission +of the men of the “borough” of Northampton. The Danish +strongholds of Huntingdon and Colchester were now restored +and repaired, and Edward received the submission of the whole +of the East Anglian Danes. Before midsummer of this year +Edward had fortified Stamford, and on the death of his sister +he received the submission of the Mercians at Tamworth. There +also three kings of the North Welsh took Edward as their lord. +Nottingham was now fortified; Thelwall in Cheshire (919) and +Manchester soon followed; Nottingham was strengthened by a +second fort; Bakewell was fortified and garrisoned, and then +came the greatest triumph of Edward’s reign. He was “chosen +as father and lord” by the Scottish king and nation, by Rægenald, +the Norwegian king of Northumbria, by Ealdred of +Bamborough, and by the English, Danes or Norwegians in +Northumbria, and by the Strathclyde Welsh.</p> + +<p>With the conclusion of his wars Edward’s activity ceased, +and we hear no more of him until in 924 he died at Farndon in +Cheshire and was buried in the “New Minster” at Winchester. +He was thrice married: (1) to Ecgwyn, a lady of rank, by +whom he had a son Æthelstan, who succeeded him, and a +daughter Eadgyth, who married Sihtric of Northumbria in +924. This marriage was probably an irregular one. (2) To +Ælflæd, by whom he had two sons—Ælfweard, who died a +fortnight after his father, and Eadwine, who was drowned in +933—and six daughters, Æthelflæd and Æthelhild nuns, and +four others (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Æthelstan</a></span>). (3) To Eadgifu, the mother of +Kings Edmund and Edred, and of two daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Plummer and Earle, +Oxford); Florence of Worcester (Mon. Hist. Brit.); William of +Malmesbury, <i>Gesta regum</i> (Rolls Series); Simeon of Durham (Rolls +Series); Ethelweard (Mon. Hist. Brit.); Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, +Nos. 588-635; <i>D.N.B.</i>, s.v.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Stevenson’s article in <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> vol. xiii. pp. 71-77. +The whole chronology of this reign is very difficult and certainly +is often impossible of attainment.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is possible that these battles are one and the same; the places +are within 2 to 3 m. of each other.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> “<span class="sc">The Martyr</span>” (<i>c.</i> 926-978), king of the English, +was the son of Edgar by his wife Æthelflæd. Edward’s brief +reign was marked by an anti-monastic reaction. Ælfhere, +earl of Mercia, once more expelled many of the monks whom +Bishop Æthelwold had installed. There seems also to have been +some change in administrative policy, perhaps with regard to +the Danes, for Earl Oslac, whom Edgar had appointed to Northumbria, +was driven from his province. In ecclesiastical matters +there were two parties in the kingdom, the monastic, which had +its chief hold in Essex and East Anglia, and the anti-monastic, +led by Ælfhere of Mercia. Conferences were held at Kirtlington +in Oxfordshire and at Calne in Wiltshire in 977 and 978, but +nothing definite seems to have been decided. On the 18th of +March 978 Edward’s reign was suddenly cut short by his assassination +at Corfe Castle in Dorsetshire. The crime was probably +inspired by his stepmother, Ælfthryth, who was anxious to secure +the succession of her son Ælthelred. The body was hastily +interred at Wareham and remained there till 980, when Archbishop +Dunstan and Ælfhere of Mercia united in transferring +it with great ceremony to Shaftesbury. Edward seems to have +been personally popular, and the poem on his death in the +chronicle calls his murder the worst deed in English history. +Very shortly after his death he was popularly esteemed to be both +saint and martyr.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>; <i>Vita S. Oswaldi</i> (<i>Hist. of Ch. of York</i>, Rolls +Series); <i>Memorials of St Dunstan</i> (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Mw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> “<span class="sc">The Confessor</span>” (d. 1066), so called on account +of his reputation for sanctity, king of the English, was the son of +Æthelred II. and Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy, +and was born at Islip in Oxfordshire. On the recognition of +Sweyn as king of England in 1013, Æthelred, with his wife and +family, took refuge in Normandy, and Edward continued to +reside at the Norman court until he was recalled in 1041 by +Hardicanute. He appears to have been formally recognized as +heir to the throne, if not actually associated in the kingship, and +on the death of Hardicanute in 1042 “all folk received him to be +king,” though his actual coronation was delayed until Easter +1043. A few months later Edward, in conjunction with the +three great earls of the kingdom, made a raid on the queen-mother +Ælfgifu, or Emma, seized all her possessions and compelled +her to live in retirement.</p> + +<p>In the earlier years of the reign the influence of Earl Godwine +was predominant, though not unopposed. His daughter Edith +or Eadgyth became Edward’s queen in 1045. But the king’s +personal tastes inclined much more to foreigners than to Englishmen, +and he fell more and more into the hands of favourites from +beyond the sea. Between Godwine, representing the spirit of +nationalism, and these favourites (especially their leader Robert +of Jumièges, successively bishop of London and archbishop of +Canterbury) there was war to the knife. In 1046 Magnus, king of +Norway, who had succeeded Hardicanute in Denmark and claimed +to succeed him in England as well, threatened an invasion, but +the necessity of defending Denmark against his rival Sweyn +Estrithson prevented him from carrying it into effect. In 1049, +Godwine’s son Sweyn, who had been outlawed for the seduction of +the abbess of Leominster, returned and demanded his restoration. +This was refused and Sweyn returned into exile, but not before he +had with foulest treachery murdered his young kinsman Beorn. +He was, however, inlawed next year. The influence of Godwine, +already shaken, received a severe blow in 1051 in the appointment +of Robert of Jumièges to the archbishopric of Canterbury, and +the same year saw the triumph of the foreigners for the moment +complete. Edward, indignant at the resistance offered by the +men of Dover to the insolence of his brother-in-law Eustace of +Boulogne and his French followers, ordered Godwine to punish the +town. Godwine refused. The king at the prompting of the +archbishop then summoned a meeting of the witan, at which the +old charge against Godwine of complicity in the murder of the +Ætheling Alfred was to be revived. About the same time came +news of a fresh outrage by the foreigners. Godwine gathered his +forces and demanded redress, while the earls Leofric of Mercia and +Siward of Northumbria hastened to the side of the king. Civil +war seemed imminent, but at length a compromise was effected +by which the matter was referred to a meeting of the witan to +be held at London. At the appointed time Godwine presented +himself at Southwark. But his followers were rapidly deserting +him, nor would the king give hostages for his security. Alarmed +for his safety, he fled to Flanders, while his son Harold went to +Ireland. But their exile was brief. The tale of Godwine excited +universal sympathy, for it was realized that he represented the +cause of national independence. Encouraged by assurances from +England, he sailed thither, and joining forces with Harold sailed +along the south coast and up the Thames. The king would have +resisted but found no support. Yielding to circumstances, he +allowed himself to be reconciled, and Godwine and his house were +restored to their old position. The queen at the same time was +brought back from the monastery of Wherwell, whither she had +been despatched after her father’s flight. The foreigners had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page991" id="page991"></a>991</span> +already ignominiously fled the country, and henceforth the influence +of Godwine, and, after his death, of Harold, was supreme. +In 1063 Harold made a great expedition into Wales, in which he +crushed the power of King Gruffyd, who was killed by his own +people. But despite his prowess and his power, he was the +minister of the king rather than his personal favourite. This +latter position belonged to his younger brother Tostig, who on +the death of Siward in 1055 was appointed earl of Northumbria. +Here his severity and arbitrary temper rendered him intensely +unpopular, and in 1065 his subjects broke into revolt. They +elected Morkere as their earl, then marching south demanded +Tostig’s banishment. Edward desired to crush the revolt by force +of arms, but he was overborne and forced to submit. The +election of Morkere was recognized, and Tostig went into exile. +Intensely mortified at this humiliation, the king fell sick, and +henceforth his health failed rapidly. He was unable to gratify +his intense desire to be present at the consecration of his new +abbey of Westminster, the foundation of which had been the chief +interest of his closing years, and on the 5th of January 1066 +he died.</p> + +<p>The virtues of Edward were monkish rather than kingly. In +the qualities of a ruler he was conspicuously deficient; always +dependent on others, he ever inclined to the unworthier master. +But the charm of his character for the monastic biographer, and +the natural tendency to glorify the days before the Norman +oppression began, combined to cast about his figure a halo which +had not attached to it in life. Allowed to keep her property by +William the Conqueror, his widow, Edith, passed the remainder +of her life at Winchester, dying on the 19th of December 1075.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Sources.</span>—A number of lives of Edward are brought together +in a volume of the Rolls Series entitled <i>Lives of Edward the Confessor</i>, +and edited by Dr H.R. Luard (London, 1858). Of these by far the +most valuable is the contemporary <i>Vita Edwardi</i>, which would appear +from internal evidence to have been written by an unknown writer +soon after the Norman Conquest—some time between 1066 and 1074. +The other chief authorities for the reign are (1) the <i>Saxon Chronicle</i>, +(C. Plummer, Oxford, 1892-1899); (2) <i>Florence of Worcester</i>, ed. +B. Thorpe, English Historical Society (London, 1848-1849). Reference +may also be made to J.M. Kemble, <i>Codex diplomaticus aevi +Saxonici</i> (London, 1839-1848).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. S. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD I.<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1239-1307), king of England, born at Westminster +on the 17th of June 1239, was the eldest son of Henry +III. and Eleanor of Provence. He was baptized Edward after +Edward the Confessor, for whom Henry had special veneration, +and among his godfathers was Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, +his aunt Eleanor’s husband. His political career begins when the +conclusion of a treaty with Alphonso X. of Castile, by which he +was to marry the Spanish king’s half sister Eleanor, necessitated +the conferring on him of an adequate establishment. His father +granted him the duchy of Gascony, the earldom of Chester, the +king’s lands in Wales and much else. The provision made was so +liberal that Henry’s subjects declared he was left no better than a +mutilated king. In May 1254 Edward went to Gascony to take +possession of his inheritance. He then crossed the Pyrenees, and +in October was dubbed knight by Alphonso and married to +Eleanor at the Cistercian convent of Las Huelgas, near Burgos. +He remained in Gascony till November 1255, but his father was +too jealous to allow him a free hand in its administration. After +his return, the attempts of his agents to establish English laws in +his Welsh possessions brought Edward into hostile relations with +the Welsh. Here also his father would give him no help, and +his first campaign brought him little result. Edward became +extremely unpopular through his association with his Lusignan +kinsfolk, his pride and violence, and the disorders of his household. +In 1258 his strenuous opposition to the Provisions of Oxford +further weakened his position, but, after the banishment of the +foreigners, he began to take up a wiser line. In 1259 he led the +young nobles who insisted that the triumphant oligarchy should +carry out the reforms to which it was pledged. For a moment it +looked as if Edward and Leicester might make common cause, +but Edward remained an enemy of Montfort, though he strove to +infuse his father’s party with a more liberal and national spirit. +He was the soul of the reconstituted royalist party formed about +1263. In 1264 he took a prominent part in the fighting between +the king and the barons. At the battle of Lewes his rash pursuit +of the Londoners contributed to his father’s defeat. Two days +later Edward surrendered to Leicester as a hostage for the good +behaviour of his allies. He was forced to give up his earldom of +Chester to Leicester, but at Whitsuntide 1265 he escaped from his +custodians, and joined the lords of the Welsh march who were +still in arms. With their aid he defeated and slew Leicester at +Evesham on the 4th of August 1265.</p> + +<p>For the rest of Henry III.’s reign Edward controlled his +father’s policy and appropriated enough of Leicester’s ideals +to make the royalist restoration no mere reaction. So peaceful +became the outlook of affairs that in 1268 Edward took the cross, +hoping to join the new crusade of St Louis. Want of money +delayed his departure till 1270, by which time St Louis was dead, +and a truce concluded with the infidel. Refusing to be a party +to such treason to Christendom, Edward went with his personal +followers to Acre, where he abode from May 1271 to August 1272. +Despite his energy and valour he could do little to prop up the +decaying crusading kingdom and he narrowly escaped assassination. +At last the declining health of his father induced him +to return to the West. He learned in Sicily the death of Henry +III. on the 16th of November 1272. On the 20th of November, +the day of Henry’s funeral, he was recognized as king by the +English barons, and from that day his regnal years were subsequently +computed. Affairs in England were so peaceful that +Edward did not hurry home. After a slow journey through +Italy and France he did homage to his cousin Philip III. at +Paris, on the 26th of July 1273. He then went to Gascony, +where he stayed nearly a year. At last he landed at Dover on the +2nd of August 1274, and was crowned at Westminster on the +18th of the same month.</p> + +<p>Edward was thirty-five years old when he became king, and +the rude schooling of his youth had developed his character +and suggested the main lines of the policy which he was to carry +out as monarch. He was a tall, well-proportioned and handsome +man, extravagantly devoted to military exercises, tournaments +and the rougher and more dangerous forms of hunting. +He had learned to restrain the hot temper of his youth, and was +proud of his love of justice and strict regard to his plighted word. +His domestic life was unstained, he was devoted to his friends, +and loyal to his subordinates. Without any great originality +either as soldier or statesman, he was competent enough to appropriate +the best ideas of the time and make them his own. His +defects were a hardness of disposition which sometimes approached +cruelty and a narrow and pedantic temper, which caused him +to regard the letter rather than the spirit of his promises. His +effectiveness and love of strong government stand in strong +contrast to his father’s weakness. Though he loved power, and +never willingly surrendered it, he saw that to be successful he +must make his policy popular. Thus he continued the system +which Montfort had formed with the object of restraining the +monarchy, because he saw in a close alliance with his people +the best means of consolidating the power of the crown.</p> + +<p>The first years of Edward’s reign were mainly occupied by +his efforts to establish a really effective administration. In +carrying out this task he derived great help from his chancellor, +Robert Burnell, bishop of Bath and Wells. Administrative +reform soon involved legislation, and from 1275 to 1290 nearly +every year was marked by an important law. Few of these contained +anything that was very new or original. They rather +illustrate that policy which caused Dr Stubbs to describe his +reign as a “period of definition.” Yet the results of his conservative +legislation were almost revolutionary. In particular +he left the impress of his policy on the land laws of England, +notably by the clause <i>De Donis</i> of the Westminster statute of +1285, and the statute <i>Quia Emptores</i> of 1290. The general effect +of his work was to eliminate feudalism from political life. At +first he aimed at abolishing all franchises whose holders could not +produce written warranty for them. This was the policy of the +statute of Gloucester of 1278, but the baronial opposition was +so resolute that Edward was forced to permit many immunities +to remain. Though the most orthodox of churchmen, his dislike +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page992" id="page992"></a>992</span> +of authority not emanating from himself threatened to involve +him in constant conflict with the Church, and notably with +John Peckham, the Franciscan friar, who was archbishop of +Canterbury from 1279 to 1292. The statute of Mortmain of +1279, which forbade the further grant of lands to ecclesiastical +corporations without the royal consent, and the writ <i>Circumspecte +Agatis</i> of 1285, which limited the church courts to strictly +ecclesiastical business, both provoked strong clerical opposition. +However, Peckham gave way to some extent, and Edward +prudently acquiesced in many clerical assumptions which he +disliked. He was strong enough to refuse to pay the tribute to +Rome which John had promised, and his reign saw the end +of that papal overlordship over England which had greatly +complicated the situation under his father.</p> + +<p>Besides administration and legislation, the other great event +of the first fifteen years of Edward’s reign was the conquest +of the principality of Wales. It was part of Edward’s policy +of reconciliation after the battle of Evesham that in the treaty +of Shrewsbury of 1267 he had fully recognized the great position +which Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, prince of Wales, had gained as the +ally of Simon de Montfort. However, Llewelyn’s early successes +had blinded the Welsh prince to the limitations of his power, +and he profited by Edward’s early absences from England to +delay in performing his feudal obligations to the new king. +Even after Edward’s return Llewelyn continued to evade doing +homage. At last Edward lost patience, and in 1277 invaded +north Wales. He conducted his campaign like a great siege, +blocking all the avenues to Snowdon, and forcing Llewelyn +to surrender from lack of supplies. He thereupon reduced the +Welsh prince to the position of a petty north Welsh chieftain +strictly dependent on the English. For the next five years +Edward did his best to set up the English system of government +in the ceded districts. The Welsh resentment of this soon gave +Llewelyn another chance, and compelled Edward to devote the +years 1282-1283 to completing his conquest. In 1284 he issued +the statute of Wales, which provided for a scheme for the future +government of the principality. Edward is often called the +conqueror of Wales, but in truth he only effected the conquest +of Llewelyn’s dominions. The march of Wales was only indirectly +affected by his legislation, and remained subject to its feudal +marcher lords until the 16th century.</p> + +<p>Edward was very careful in his foreign policy. Though +preserving nominal peace with his cousin Philip III. of France, +his relations with that country were constantly strained. After +Philip III.’s death in 1285, Edward crossed the Channel in 1286, +to perform homage to his successor, Philip the Fair. He remained +abroad till 1289, busied in attempts to improve the administration +of Gascony, and making repeated and finally successful efforts to +end by his mediation the still continuing struggle between the +houses of Anjou and Aragon. His long absence threw the government +of England into confusion, and on his return in 1289 he was +compelled to dismiss most of his judges and ministers for corruption. +In 1290 he expelled all Jews from England.</p> + +<p>The affairs of Scotland furnished Edward with his chief preoccupation +for the rest of his reign. After the death of Alexander +III., in 1286, Scotland was governed in the name of his granddaughter +Margaret, the Maid of Norway. The English king +had suggested that Edward of Carnarvon, his eldest surviving son, +should marry the little queen of Scots, and thus bring about the +union of the two countries. Unluckily the death of Margaret in +1290 frustrated the scheme. The Scottish throne was now +disputed by many claimants, and the Scots asked Edward to +arbitrate between them. Edward accepted the position, but +insisted that, before he acted, the Scots should recognize him +as their overlord. The claimants set the example of submission, +and soon the chief Scots nobles followed. Thereupon Edward +undertook the arbitration, and in 1292 adjudged the throne +to John Baliol. The new king did homage to Edward, but his +subjects soon began to resent the claims of jurisdiction over +Scotland, which Edward declared were the natural results of +his feudal supremacy. At last the Scots deprived John of nearly +all his power, repudiated Edward’s claims, and made an alliance +with the French. During the years of the Scottish arbitration +Edward had slowly been drifting into war with France. The +chronic difficulties caused by French attempts to confine +Edward’s power in Gascony were now accentuated by the +quarrels between the sailors and merchants of the two countries. +In 1293 Edward was persuaded by his brother, Edmund, earl of +Lancaster, to yield up Gascony temporarily to Philip the Fair. +But Philip refused to restore the duchy, and Edward, seeing that +he had been tricked, declared war against France, at the very +moment when the Scottish resistance gave the French a firm ally +in Britain. To make matters worse, the Welsh rose in rebellion. +It was therefore quite impossible for Edward to recover Gascony.</p> + +<p>The most critical years of Edward’s reign now began. He +saw that he could only meet his difficulties by throwing himself +on the support of his own subjects, and convoked, in 1295, a +representative parliament of the three estates, which has been +called in later times the Model Parliament, because it first +illustrated the type which was to be perpetuated in all subsequent +parliaments. “What touches all,” ran Edward’s writ of +summons, “should be approved of all, and it is also clear that +common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon +in common.” The parliamentary constitution of England was +established as the result of Edward’s action.</p> + +<p>Secure of his subjects’ allegiance, Edward put down the +Welsh revolt, and conquered Scotland in 1296. When quiet +was restored to Britain, he hoped to throw all his energy into +the recovery of Gascony, but new troubles arose at home which +once more diverted him from his supreme purpose. Led by +Archbishop Winchelsea, Peckham’s successor, the clergy refused +to pay taxes in obedience to the bull of Pope Boniface VIII., +called <i>Clericis Laicos</i>. Edward declared that if the clergy +would not contribute to support the state, the state could afford +them no protection. But the clerical opposition was soon joined +by a baronial opposition. Headed by the earls of Hereford +and Norfolk, many of the barons declined to join in an expedition +to Gascony, and Edward was forced to sail to the French war, +leaving them behind. Thereupon the recalcitrant barons forced +upon the regency a fresh confirmation of the charters, to which +new articles were added, safeguarding the people from arbitrary +taxation. Edward at Ghent reluctantly accepted this <i>Confirmatio +Cariarum</i>, but even his submission did not end the crisis. In the +same year (1297), all Scotland rose in revolt under the popular +hero William Wallace, and next year (1298), Edward was forced +to undertake its reconquest. The battle of Falkirk, won on +the 22nd of July, was the greatest of Edward’s military triumphs; +but, though it destroyed the power of Wallace, it did not put +an end to Scottish resistance. Bitter experience taught Edward +that he could not fight the French and the Scots at the same +time, and in 1299 he made peace with Philip, and, Eleanor +having died in November 1290, he married the French king’s +sister Margaret (<i>c.</i> 1282-1318), and some years later obtained +the restitution of Gascony. In the same spirit he strove to destroy +the clerical and baronial opposition. He did not succeed in +the former task until a complacent pope arose in his own +subject, Clement V., who abandoned Winchelsea to his anger, and +suffered the archbishop to be driven into exile. The baronial +leaders could not be wholly overthrown by force, and Edward +was compelled to make them fresh concessions.</p> + +<p>It was not until 1303 that Edward was able to undertake +seriously the conquest of Scotland. By 1305 the land was +subdued, and Wallace beheaded as a traitor. But Edward had +hardly organized the government of his new conquest when a +fresh revolt broke out under Robert Bruce, grandson of the +chief rival of Baliol in 1290. Bruce was soon crowned king of +Scots, and at the age of seventy Edward had to face the prospect +of conquering Scotland for the third time. He resolved to take +the field in person; but the effort was too great, and on the 7th +of July 1307 he died at Burgh-on-Sands, near Carlisle. His +death destroyed the last faint hope of conquering Scotland, and +showed that the chief ambition of his life was a failure. Yet +his conquest of Wales, his legislation, his triumph over his barons, +his ecclesiastics, and the greatest of French medieval kings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page993" id="page993"></a>993</span> +indicate the strength and permanence of his work. He was +buried at Westminster under a plain slab on which was inscribed +<i>Edwardus primus Scottorum malleus hic est. Pactum serva.</i></p> + +<p>By Eleanor of Castile Edward had four sons, his successor +Edward II. and three who died young, and nine daughters, +including Joan, or Joanna (1272-1307), the wife of Gilbert de +Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295), and then of Ralph de +Monthermer; Margaret (1275-1318), the wife of John II., duke +of Brabant; and Eleanor (1282-1316), who married John I., +count of Holland, and then Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford +(d. 1322). By Margaret of France the king had two sons: +Thomas of Brotherton, earl of Norfolk, and Edmund of +Woodstock, earl of Kent.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal modern authorities for this reign are: W. Stubbs, +<i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. ii. chaps. xiv. and xv. (1896); +T.F. Tout, <i>Edward I.</i> (1893), and <i>Political History of England, 1216-1377</i>, +pp. 136-235 (1905); R.B. Seeley, <i>Life and Reign of Edward I.</i> +(1872); R. Pauli, <i>Geschichte von England</i>, iv. pp. 1-198 (Hamburg, +1864-1875); W. Hunt, article on “Edward I.” in <i>Dictionary +of National Biography</i>; J.E. Morris, <i>Welsh Wars of Edward I.</i> +(Oxford, 1901); and C.V. Langlois’s <i>Philippe le Hardi</i> (Paris, +1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD II.<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1284-1327), “of Carnarvon,” king of England, +the fourth son of Edward I. by his first wife Eleanor of Castile, +was born at Carnarvon Castle on the 25th of April 1284. The +story that the king presented the new-born child to the Welsh +as their future native prince is quite unfounded, for Edward +was only made prince of Wales in the Lincoln parliament of +1301. When a few months old, he became by his elder brother’s +death the heir to the throne, and Edward I. took great pains +to train him in warfare and statecraft. He took part in several +Scots campaigns, but all his father’s efforts could not prevent +his acquiring the habits of extravagance and frivolity which +he retained all through his life. The old king attributed his +son’s defects to the bad influence of his friend, the Gascon knight +Piers Gaveston, and drove the favourite into exile. When +Edward I. died, on the 7th of July 1307, the first act of the prince, +now Edward II., was to recall Gaveston. His next was to abandon +the Scots campaign on which his father had set his heart.</p> + +<p>The new king was physically almost as fine a man as Edward I. +He was, however, destitute of any serious purpose, and was, as +Dr Stubbs says, “the first king after the Conquest who was +not a man of business.” He cared for nothing but amusing himself, +and found his chief delight in athletics and in the practice +of mechanical crafts. He was not so much vicious as foolish, +and wanting in all serious interests. He had so little confidence +in himself that he was always in the hands of some favourite +who possessed a stronger will than his own. In the early years +of his reign Gaveston held this role, acting as regent when Edward +went to France—where, on the 25th of January 1308, he married +Isabella, the daughter of Philip the Fair—and receiving the +earldom of Cornwall with the hand of the king’s niece, Margaret +of Gloucester. The barons soon grew indignant at Edward’s +devotion to his “brother Piers,” and twice insisted on his +banishment. On each occasion Edward soon recalled his friend, +whereupon the barons, headed by the king’s cousin Thomas, +earl of Lancaster, went to war against king and favourite, and +in 1312 treacherously put Gaveston to death. Edward was not +strong enough even to avenge his loss. He was forced to stand +aside and suffer the realm to be governed by the baronial committee +of twenty-one lords ordainers, who, in 1311, had drawn +up a series of ordinances, whose effect was to substitute ordainers +for the king as the effective government of the country. But +in all the ordinances nothing was said about the commons and +lower clergy. Parliament meant to the new rulers an assembly +of barons just as it had done to the opponents of Henry III. +in 1258. The effect of their triumph was to change England +from a monarchy to a narrow oligarchy.</p> + +<p>During the quarrels between Edward and the ordainers, +Robert Bruce was steadily conquering Scotland. His progress +was so great that he had occupied all the fortresses save Stirling, +which he closely besieged. The danger of losing Stirling shamed +Edward and the barons into an attempt to retrieve their lost +ground. In June 1314 Edward led a great army into Scotland +in the hope of relieving Stirling. On the 24th of June his ill-disciplined +and badly led host was completely defeated by Robert +Bruce at Bannockburn. Henceforth Bruce was sure of his +position as king of Scots, and his pitiless devastation of the +northern counties of England was his wild vengeance for the +sufferings his land had previously experienced from the English. +Edward’s disgraceful defeat made him more dependent on his +barons than ever. His kinsman, Thomas of Lancaster, had now +an opportunity of saving England from the consequences of the +king’s incompetence. He had shown some capacity as a leader +of opposition, but though he had great wealth, and was lord of +five earldoms, he had small ability and no constructive power. +In his desire to keep the king weak, he was suspected to have +made a secret understanding with Robert Bruce. Before long +the opposition split up under his incompetent guidance into +fiercely contending factions. Under Aymer of Valence, earl +of Pembroke, a middle party arose, which hated Lancaster so +much that it supported the king to put an end to Lancaster’s +rule. After 1318 the effect of its influence was to restore Edward +to some portion of his authority. However, the king hated +Pembroke almost as much as Lancaster. He now found a +competent adviser in Hugh le Despenser, a baron of great +experience. What was more important to him, he had in +Despenser’s son, Hugh le Despenser the younger, a personal +friend and favourite, who was able in some measure to replace +Gaveston. The fierce hatred which the barons manifested to +the Despensers showed that they could hate a deserter as bitterly +as they had hated the Gascon adventurer. They were indignant +at the favours which Edward lavished upon the favourite and +his father, and were especially alarmed when the younger +Despenser strove to procure for himself the earldom of Gloucester +in right of his wife, Edward’s niece.</p> + +<p>At last, in 1321, the barons met in parliament, and under +Lancaster’s guidance procured the banishment of the Despensers. +The disasters of his friends inspired Edward to unwonted +activity. In 1322 he recalled them from exile, and waged war +against the barons on their behalf. Triumph crowned his +exertions. Lancaster, defeated at Boroughbridge, was executed +at Pontefract. For the next five years the Despensers ruled +England. Unlike the ordainers, they took pains to get the +Commons on their side, and a parliament held at York in 1322 +revoked the ordinances because they trenched upon the rights +of the crown, and were drawn up by the barons only. From +this time no statute was technically valid unless the Commons +had agreed to it. This marks the most important step forward +in Edward II.’s reign. But the rule of the Despensers soon +fell away from this wise beginning. They thought only of +heaping up wealth for themselves, and soon stirred up universal +indignation. In particular, they excited the ill-will of the queen, +Isabella of France. Craftily dissembling her indignation, +Isabella kept silence until 1325, when she went to France in +company with her eldest son, Edward of Windsor, who was sent +to do homage for Aquitaine to her brother, the new French king. +When her business was over, Isabella declined to return to her +husband as long as the Despensers remained his favourites. +She formed a criminal connexion with Roger Mortimer of +Wigmore, one of the baronial exiles, and in September 1326 +landed in Essex accompanied by Mortimer and her son, declaring +that she was come to avenge the murder of Lancaster, and to +expel the Despensers. Edward’s followers deserted him, and +on the 2nd of October he fled from London to the west, where +he took refuge in the younger Despenser’s estates in Glamorgan. +His wife followed him, put to death both the Despensers, and, +after a futile effort to escape by sea, Edward was captured on +the 16th of November. He was imprisoned at Kenilworth +Castle, and a parliament met at Westminster in January +1327, which chose his son to be king as Edward III. It was +thought prudent to compel the captive king to resign the crown, +and on the 20th of January Edward was forced to renounce his +office before a committee of the estates. The government of +Isabella and Mortimer was so weakly established that it dared +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page994" id="page994"></a>994</span> +not leave the deposed king alive. On the 3rd of April he was +secretly removed from Kenilworth and entrusted to the custody +of two dependants of Mortimer. After various wanderings he +was imprisoned at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. Every +indignity was inflicted upon him, and he was systematically +ill-treated in the hope that he would die of disease. When his +strong constitution seemed likely to prevail over the ill-treatment +of his enemies he was cruelly put to death on the 21st of September. +It was announced that he had died a natural death, and he was +buried in St Peter’s Abbey at Gloucester, now the cathedral, +where his son afterwards erected a magnificent tomb.</p> + +<p>Edward’s wife, Isabella (<i>c.</i> 1292-1358), bore him two sons, +Edward III. and John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall (1316-1336), +and two daughters, Isabella and Joanna (1321-1362), wife of +David II., king of Scotland. After the execution of her paramour, +Roger Mortimer, in 1330, Isabella retired from public life; she +died at Hertford on the 23rd of August 1358.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Pauli, <i>Geschichte von England</i>, iv. pp. 199-306; T.F. Tout, +<i>Political History of England</i>, 1216-1307, pp. 236-304, and article in +<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>; W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 319-386, and <i>Introductions to Chronicles of the Reigns of +Edward I. and Edward II.</i> in Rolls series.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD III.<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1312-1377), “of Windsor,” king of England, +eldest son of Edward II. and Isabella of France, was born at +Windsor on the 13th of November 1312. In 1320 he was made +earl of Chester, and in 1325 duke of Aquitaine, but he never +received the title of prince of Wales. Immediately after his +appointment to Aquitaine, he was sent to France to do homage +to his uncle Charles IV., and remained abroad until he accompanied +his mother and Mortimer in their expedition to England. +To raise funds for this he was betrothed to Philippa, daughter +of the count of Hainaut. On the 26th of October 1326, after +the fall of Bristol, he was proclaimed warden of the kingdom +during his father’s absence. On the 13th of January 1327 +parliament recognized him as king, and he was crowned on the +29th of the same month.</p> + +<p>For the next four years Isabella and Mortimer governed in +his name, though nominally his guardian was Henry, earl of +Lancaster. In the summer he took part in an abortive campaign +against the Scots, and was married to Philippa at York on the +24th of January 1328. On the 15th of June 1330 his eldest +child, Edward, the Black Prince, was born. Soon after, Edward +made a successful effort to throw off his degrading dependence +on his mother and her paramour. In October 1330 +he entered Nottingham Castle by night, through a subterranean +passage, and took Mortimer prisoner. On the 29th of November +the execution of the favourite at Tyburn completed the young +king’s emancipation. Edward discreetly drew a veil over his +mother’s relations with Mortimer, and treated her with every +respect. There is no truth in the stories that henceforth he +kept her in honourable confinement, but her political influence +was at an end.</p> + +<p>Edward III.’s real reign now begins. Young, ardent and +active, he strove with all his might to win back for England +something of the position which it had acquired under Edward +I. He bitterly resented the concession of independence to Scotland +by the treaty of Northampton of 1328, and the death of +Robert Bruce in 1329 gave him a chance of retrieving his position. +The new king of Scots, David, who was his brother-in-law, was +a mere boy, and the Scottish barons, exiled for their support +of Robert Bruce, took advantage of the weakness of his rule +to invade Scotland in 1332. At their head was Edward Baliol, +whose victory at Dupplin Moor established him for a brief +time as king of Scots. After four months Baliol was driven out +by the Scots, whereupon Edward for the first time openly took +up his cause. In 1333 the king won in person the battle of +Halidon Hill over the Scots, but his victory did not restore +Baliol to power. The Scots despised him as a puppet of the +English king, and after a few years David was finally established +in Scotland. During these years England gradually drifted +into hostility with France. The chief cause of this was the +impossible situation which resulted from Edward’s position as +duke of Gascony. Contributing causes were Philip’s support +of the Scots and Edward’s alliance with the Flemish cities, +which were then on bad terms with their French overlord, and +the revival of Edward’s claim, first made in 1328, to the French +crown. War broke out in 1337, and in 1338 Edward visited +Coblenz, where he made an alliance with the emperor Louis the +Bavarian. In 1339 and 1340 Edward endeavoured to invade +France from the north with the help of his German and Flemish +allies, but the only result of his campaigns was to reduce him +to bankruptcy.</p> + +<p>In 1340, however, he took personal part in the great naval +battle off Sluys, in which he absolutely destroyed the French +navy. In the same year he assumed the title of king of France. +At first he did this to gratify the Flemings, whose scruples in +fighting their overlord, the French king, disappeared when they +persuaded themselves that Edward was the rightful king of +France. However, his pretensions to the French crown gradually +became more important. The persistence with which he and +his successors urged them made stable peace impossible for more +than a century, and this made the struggle famous in history +as the Hundred Years’ War. Till the days of George III. every +English king also called himself king of France.</p> + +<p>Despite his victory at Sluys, Edward was so exhausted by +his land campaign that he was forced before the end of 1340 to +make a truce and return to England. He unfairly blamed his +chief minister, Archbishop Stratford, for his financial distress, +and immediately on his return vindictively attacked him. +Before the truce expired a disputed succession to the duchy +of Brittany gave Edward an excuse for renewing hostilities +with France. In 1342 he went to Brittany and fought an +indecisive campaign against the French. He was back in +England in 1343. In the following years he spent much time +and money in rebuilding Windsor Castle, and instituting the +order of the Garter, which he did in order to fulfil a vow that +he had taken to restore the Round Table of Arthur. His +finances, therefore, remained embarrassed despite the comparative +pause in the war, although in 1339 he had repudiated +his debt to his Italian creditors, a default that brought about +widespread misery in Florence.</p> + +<p>A new phase of the French war begins when in July 1346 +Edward landed in Normandy, accompanied by his eldest son, +Edward, prince of Wales, a youth of sixteen. In a memorable +campaign Edward marched from La Hogue to Caen, and from +Caen almost to the gates of Paris. It was a plundering expedition +on a large scale, and like most of Edward’s campaigns showed +some want of strategic purpose. But Edward’s decisive victory +over the French at Crécy, in Ponthieu, on the 26th of August, +where he scattered the army with which Philip VI. attempted +to stay his retreat from Paris to the northern frontier, signally +demonstrated the tactical superiority of Edward’s army over +the French. Next year Edward effected the reduction of Calais. +This was the most solid and lasting of his conquests, and its +execution compelled him to greater efforts than the Crécy +campaign. Other victories in Gascony and Brittany further +emphasized his power. In 1346, David, king of Scots, was also +defeated and taken prisoner at Neville’s Cross, near Durham. +In the midst of his successes, however, want of money forced +Edward to make a new truce in 1347. He was as far from the +conquest of France as ever.</p> + +<p>Edward returned to England in October 1347. He celebrated +his triumph by a series of splendid tournaments, and completed +his scheme for the establishment of the order of the Garter. +In 1348 he rejected an offer of the imperial throne. In the +same year the Black Death first appeared in England, and raged +until 1349. Yet the horrors which it wrought hardly checked +the magnificent revels of Edward’s court, and neither the plague +nor the truce stayed the course of the French war, though +what fighting there was was indecisive and on a small scale. +Edward’s martial exploits during the next years were those of +a gallant knight rather than those of a responsible general. +Conspicuous among them were his famous combat with Eustace +de Ribemont, near Calais, in 1349, and the hard-fought naval +victory over the Spaniards off Winchelsea, in 1350. Efforts +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page995" id="page995"></a>995</span> +to make peace, initiated by Pope Innocent VI., came to nothing, +though the English commons were now weary of the war. The +result of this failure was the renewal of war on a large scale. +In 1355 Edward led an unsuccessful raid out of Calais, and in +January and February 1356 harried the Lothians, in the expedition +famous as the Burned Candlemas. His exploits sank +into insignificance as compared with those of his son, whose +victory at Poitiers, on the 19th of September 1356, resulted +in the captivity of King John, and forced the French to accept +a new truce. Edward entertained his royal captive very +magnificently, and in 1359 concluded with him the treaty of +London, by which John surrendered so much that the French +repudiated the treaty. Edward thereupon resolved to invade +France afresh and compel its acceptance. On the 28th of +October he landed at Calais, and advanced to Reims, where he +hoped to be crowned king of France. The strenuous resistance +of the citizens frustrated this scheme, and Edward marched +into Burgundy, whence he made his way back towards Paris. +Failing in an attack on the capital, he was glad to conclude, on +the 8th of May 1360, preliminaries of peace at Brétigny, near +Chartres. This treaty, less onerous to France than that of +London, took its final form in the treaty of Calais, ratified by +King John on the 9th of October. By it Edward renounced +his claim to France in return for the whole of Aquitaine.</p> + +<p>The treaty of Calais did not bring rest or prosperity either to +England or France. Fresh visitations of the Black Death, in +1362 and 1369, intensified the social and economic disturbances +which had begun with the first outbreak in 1348. Desperate, +but not very successful, efforts were made to enforce the statute +of Labourers, of 1351, by which it was sought to maintain +prices and wages as they had been before the pestilence. Another +feature of these years was the anti-papal, or rather anti-clerical, +legislation embodied in the statutes of Provisors and Praemunire. +These measures were first passed in 1351 and 1353, but often +repeated. In 1366 Edward formally repudiated the feudal +supremacy over England, still claimed by the papacy by reason +of John’s submission. Another feature of the time was the +strenuous effort made by Edward to establish his numerous +family without too great expense. In the end the estates of +the houses of Lancaster, Kent, Bohun, Burgh and Mortimer +swelled the revenues of Edward’s children and grandchildren, +in whose favour also the new title of duke was introduced.</p> + +<p>In 1369 the French king, Charles V., repudiated the treaty of +Calais and renewed the war. Edward’s French dominions +gladly reverted to their old allegiance, and Edward showed +little of his former vigour in meeting this new trouble. He +resumed the title and arms of king of France, but left most of +the fighting and administration of his foreign kingdoms to his +sons, Edward and John. While the latter were struggling with +little success against the rising tide of French national feeling, +Edward’s want of money made him a willing participator in the +attack on the wealth and privileges of the Church. In 1371 a +clerical ministry was driven from office, and replaced by laymen, +who proved, however, less effective administrators than their +predecessors. Meanwhile Aquitaine was gradually lost; the +defeat of Pembroke off La Rochelle deprived England of the +command of the sea, and Sir Owen ap Thomas, a grand-nephew +of Llewelyn ab Gruffyd, planned, with French help, an abortive +invasion of Wales. In 1371 the Black Prince came back to +England with broken health, and in 1373 John of Lancaster +marched to little purpose through France, from Calais to +Bordeaux. In 1372 Edward made his final effort to lead an +army, but contrary winds prevented his even landing his troops +in France. In 1375 he was glad to make a truce, which lasted +until his death. By it the only important possessions remaining +in English hands were Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne and Brest.</p> + +<p>Edward was now sinking into his dotage. After the death +of Queen Philippa he fell entirely under the influence of a greedy +mistress named Alice Perrers, while the Black Prince and John +of Gaunt became the leaders of sharply divided parties in the +court and council of the king. With the help of Alice Perrers +John of Gaunt obtained the chief influence with his father, +but his administration was neither honourable nor successful. +His chief enemies were the higher ecclesiastics, headed by +William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who had been +excluded from power in 1371. John further irritated the clergy +by making an alliance with John Wycliffe. The opposition to +John was led by the Black Prince and Edmund Mortimer, +earl of March, the husband of Edward’s grand-daughter, Philippa +of Clarence. At last popular indignation against the courtiers +came to a head in the famous Good Parliament of 1376. Alice +Perrers was removed from court, and Duke John’s subordinate +instruments were impeached. But in the midst of the parliament +the death of the Black Prince robbed the commons of their +strongest support. John of Gaunt regained power, and in 1377 +a new parliament, carefully packed by the courtiers, reversed +the acts of the Good Parliament. Not long after Edward III. +died, on the 21st of June 1377.</p> + +<p>Edward III. was not a great man like Edward I. He was, +however, an admirable tactician, a consummate knight, and +he possessed extraordinary vigour and energy of temperament. +His court, described at length in Froissart’s famous chronicle, +was the most brilliant in Europe, and he was himself well fitted +to be the head of the magnificent chivalry that obtained fame +in the French wars. Though his main ambition was military +glory, he was not a bad ruler of England. He was liberal, +kindly, good-tempered and easy of access, and his yielding to +his subjects’ wishes in order to obtain supplies for carrying on +the French war contributed to the consolidation of the constitution. +His weak points were his wanton breaches of good faith, his +extravagance, his frivolity and his self-indulgence. Like that +of Edward I. his ambition transcended his resources, and before +he died even his subjects were aware of his failure.</p> + +<p>Edward had twelve children, seven sons and five daughters. +Five of his sons played some part in the history of their time, +these being Edward the Black Prince, Lionel of Antwerp, duke +of Clarence, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, Edmund of +Langley, afterwards duke of York, and Thomas of Woodstock, +afterwards duke of Gloucester. John and Edmund are also +important as the founders of the rival houses of Lancaster +and York. Each of the last four was named from the place of +his birth, and for the same reason the Black Prince is sometimes +called Edward of Woodstock. The king’s two other sons both +died in infancy. Of his daughters, three died unmarried; the +others were Isabella, who married into the family of Coucy, +and Mary, who married into that of Montfort.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The two chief modern lives of Edward III. are +W. Longman’s <i>Life and Times of Edward III.</i>, and J. Mackinnon’s +<i>History of Edward III.</i> Neither work can be regarded as adequate, +and in some ways J. Barnes’s quaint <i>History of Edward III.</i> (1688) is +less unsatisfactory. The general history of the time can be read +in W. Stubbs’s <i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. ii. chapters xvi. +and xvii.; in T.F. Tout’s <i>Political History of England</i>, 1216-1377, +pp. 301-441; in R. Pauli’s <i>Geschichte von England</i>, iv. pp. 307-504; +and in Edward’s life by W. Hunt in the <i>Dictionary of National +Biography</i>. For the Hundred Years’ War, see E. Déprez’s <i>Les +Préliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1342</i>, and H. Denifle’s +<i>La Desolation des églises, monastères et hôpitaux en France pendant +la guerre de cent ans</i>. For economic and social history see W.J. +Ashley’s <i>English Economic History</i>, and W. Cunningham’s <i>Growth of +English Industry and Commerce during the Early and Middle Ages</i>. For +the end of the reign see S. Armitage Smith’s <i>John of Gaunt</i>, J. +Lechler’s <i>Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation</i>, translated as +<i>Wycliffe and his English Precursors</i>, R.L. Poole’s <i>Wycliffe and +Movements for Reform</i>, and G.M. Trevelyan’s <i>England in the Age of +Wycliffe</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD IV.<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1442-1483), king of England, son of Richard, +duke of York, by Cicely Neville, was born at Rouen on the +28th of April 1442. As a boy he was styled earl of March, +and spent most of his time at Ludlow. After the Yorkist +failure at Ludlow field in October 1459, Edward fled with the +earls of Salisbury and Warwick, his uncle and cousin, to Calais. +Thence in the following July he accompanied them in their +successful invasion of England, to be welcomed in London, and +to share in the victory over the Lancastrians at Northampton. +After the acceptance of Richard of York as heir to the crown, +Edward returned to the Welsh marches, where early in the new +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page996" id="page996"></a>996</span> +year he heard of his father’s defeat and death at Wakefield. +Hastily gathering an army he defeated the earls of Pembroke +and Wiltshire at Mortimer’s Cross on the 2nd of February +1461, and then marched on London. He was acclaimed by the +citizens in an assembly at Clerkenwell, declared king by a Yorkist +council, and took possession of the regality on the 4th of March. +Soon after the new king and the earl of Warwick went north, +and on the 28th of March won a decisive victory at Towton.</p> + +<p>Edward owed his throne to his kinsmen the Nevilles, and +he was content for the time to be guided by them. For +himself he was young and fond of pleasure. Still he made +frequent progresses, and took some part in the fighting that +went on in the north during 1462 and 1463. But he was absent +from the final victory at Hexham on the 14th of May 1464, +and was at the very time engaged in contracting a secret marriage +with Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers, +and widow of Sir John Grey of Groby (d. 1461). The marriage +was disclosed at Michaelmas, much to the vexation of Warwick, +who in pursuit of his foreign policy had projected a match +with a French princess. Edward heaped favours on his new +relatives; his father-in-law was made treasurer, and great +marriages were found for his wife’s sisters and brothers. In +foreign affairs also Edward thwarted Warwick’s plans by favouring +an alliance with Burgundy rather than France. There +was, however, no open breach till 1469, when Warwick, taking +advantage of the unpopularity of the Woodvilles, and supported +by the king’s next brother George, duke of Clarence, appeared +in arms. Edward was surprised and made prisoner at Middleham, +and Rivers was beheaded. For six months Edward had to +submit to Warwick’s tutelage; then on the occasion of a rising +in Lincolnshire he gathered an army of his own. Sir Robert +Welles, the leader of this rebellion, made a confession implicating +Warwick, who fled with Clarence to France. The king thought +himself secure, but when Warwick and Clarence made terms +with the Lancastrian exiles, Edward in his turn had to seek +refuge in Holland (September 1470). His brother-in-law, +Charles of Burgundy, at first refused him any assistance, but at +last furnished him with money, and on the 14th of March 1471 +Edward and his brother Richard landed with a small force at +Ravenspur near Hull. Marching south he was welcomed at +London on the 11th of April, defeated Warwick at Barnet +three days later, and the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury on the +4th of May. From thenceforth Edward’s possession of the +crown was secure. His position was strengthened by the birth +of a son (2nd of November 1470, during his exile), and by the +wealth which he acquired through the confiscation of the estates +of his opponents. Clarence had made his peace with Edward, +but was at enmity with his other brother Richard of Gloucester, +who now married Warwick’s second daughter and claimed a +share in the Neville inheritance. Their rivalry and Clarence’s +continued intrigues furnished Edward with his chief domestic +difficulty; the trouble was ended by the judicial murder of +Clarence in 1478.</p> + +<p>The only serious enterprise of these latter years was the short +French war of 1475, from which Edward was bought out by +the treaty of Pecquigny. As foreign policy it was inglorious, +and involved a departure from Edward’s earlier plan of a +Burgundian alliance. However, it shows a certain recognition +of England’s need to concentrate her energies on her own development. +The annual subsidy which Louis XI. agreed to pay +further served Edward’s purposes by providing him with money +for home government, and enabled him to avoid possible +trouble through the necessity for too frequent parliaments +and heavy taxation. So Edward’s personal rule became in its +character autocratic; but it was in the art of courting popularity +and concealing despotism that he most shows himself as a type +of tyranny. He lacked neither ambition nor capacity, but was +indolent and only exerted himself spasmodically. He could be +ruthless, but was not habitually cruel. His strongest weapons +were the fine presence, the affable manners (even with citizens), +and the love of pleasure and entertainments which secured his +personal popularity. In his last years he was given to self-indulgence +and scandalous excesses, which did not, however, +alienate the London citizens, with whose wives he was too +familiar. Most of the power at court was in the hands of the +Woodvilles, in spite of their unpopularity; the more arduous +work of administration in the north was left to Richard of +Gloucester. If as a prince of the Renaissance Edward was +the first to rule tyrannically in England, he also deserves +credit as a patron of the new culture and friend of Caxton; +he further resembles his Italian contemporaries in the commercial +purposes to which he applied his wealth in partnership with +London merchants.</p> + +<p>Edward died at Westminster on the 9th of April 1483, and +was buried at Windsor. By Elizabeth Woodville, who died on +the 8th of June 1492, he had two sons, Edward V. and Richard +of York, who were murdered in the Tower; and five daughters, +of whom the eldest, Elizabeth, married Henry VII. Of his +numerous mistresses the most notorious was Jane Shore. +Before his marriage he had been contracted to Lady Eleanor +Butler, and this was alleged by Richard III. to have made +his children by Elizabeth Woodville illegitimate.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Of original authorities for Edward’s reign the +chief are the <i>Continuation of the Cropland Chronicle</i> in Fulman’s +<i>Scriptores</i>; the various London Chronicles, especially for the early +years <i>Gregory’s Chronicle</i>; Warkworth’s <i>Chronicle</i>, and the <i>Arrivall +of King Edward IV.</i> (a partisan account of events in 1470-1471), +published by the Camden Society; the <i>Paston Letters</i> with Dr +Gairdner’s valuable Introduction; and for foreign affairs the +<i>Mémoires</i> of Philippe de Comines; the collection called <i>Chronicles +of the White Rose</i> is useful. For modern authors, consult Sir James +Ramsay’s <i>Lancaster and York</i> (1892), and the <i>Political History of +England</i>, vol. iv. (1906), by Prof. C. Oman.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD V.<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1470-1483), king of England, was the elder son +of Edward IV. by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, and was born, +during his father’s temporary exile, in the sanctuary of Westminster +Abbey on the 2nd of November 1470. In June 1471 he +was created prince of Wales. When Edward IV. died in April +1483 a struggle for power took place between the young king’s +paternal uncle, Richard, duke of Gloucester, who had been +appointed as his guardian by Edward IV., and his maternal uncle, +Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers. Gloucester obtained possession +of the king’s person, and, having arrested Rivers and some of his +supporters, assumed the crown himself after a very slight and +feigned reluctance, on the ground that the marriage of Edward +and Elizabeth Woodville was invalid, and consequently its issue +was illegitimate. At this time Edward and his brother Richard, +duke of York, were living in the Tower of London. Shortly afterwards +a movement was organized to free them from captivity, +and then it became known that they were already dead; but, +though it was the general conviction that they had been murdered, +it was twenty years before the manner of this deed was discovered. +According to the narrative of Sir Thomas More, Sir +Robert Brackenbury, the constable of the Tower, refused to obey +Richard’s command to put the young princes to death; but he +complied with a warrant ordering him to give up his keys for one +night to Sir James Tyrell, who had arranged for the assassination. +Two men, Miles Forest and John Dighton, then smothered the +youths under pillows while they were asleep. The murder was +committed most probably in August or September 1483. Horace +Walpole has attempted to cast doubts upon the murder of the +princes, and Sir C.R. Markham has argued that the deed was +committed by order of Henry VII. Both these views, however, +have been traversed by James Gairdner, and there seems little +doubt that Sir Thomas More’s story is substantially correct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Richard III.</a></span>; and in addition, Sir Thomas More, <i>History +of Richard III.</i>, edited by J.R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1883); Horace +Walpole, <i>Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III.</i> +(London, 1768); J. Gairdner, <i>Richard III.</i> (Cambridge, 1898); +J. Gairdner and C.R. Markham in the <i>English Historical Review</i>, +vol. vi. (London, 1891); Sir C.R. Markham, <i>Richard III.</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD VI.<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1537-1553), king of England and Ireland, born +at Greenwich on the 12th of October 1537, was the only child of +Henry VIII. by his third wife, Jane Seymour, who died of +puerperal fever twelve days later. The story that the mother’s +life was deliberately sacrificed by the performance of Caesarean +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page997" id="page997"></a>997</span> +section is unfounded, although Jane’s death was little noticed +amid the rejoicings which greeted the advent of a male heir to the +throne. But in spite of Holbein’s vivacious portrait of Edward +at the age of two (now at Hanover), he was a frail child, and a +short life was anticipated for him from his early years. This did +not prevent a strenuous education; until the age of six he was +naturally left in the charge of women, but when he was only seven +his tutor Dr Coxe, afterwards bishop of Ely, writes that he could +decline any Latin noun and conjugate any regular verb (<i>L. and +P.</i>, 1544, ii. 726); “every day in the mass-time he readeth a +portion of Solomon’s Proverbs, wherein he delighteth much.” +Sir John Cheke, Sir Anthony Cooke and Roger Ascham all +helped to teach him Latin, Greek and French; and by the age of +thirteen he had read Aristotle’s <i>Ethics</i> in the original and was +himself translating Cicero’s <i>De philosophia</i> into Greek.</p> + +<p>Edward was duke of Cornwall from his birth, but he was never +prince of Wales, and he was only nine when he succeeded his +father as king of England and Ireland and supreme head of the +church (28th of January 1546/7). His nonage threw power into +the hands of Somerset and then of Northumberland, and enabled +Gardiner and Bonner to maintain that the royal supremacy over +the church was, or should be, in abeyance. Projects for his +marriage were hardly even the occasion, but only the excuse, for +Somerset’s war on Scotland and Northumberland’s subsequent +alliance with France. All factions sought to control his person, +not because of his personality but because of his position; he +was like the Great Seal, only more so, an indispensable adjunct to +the wielder of authority. The Protector’s brother tried to bribe +him with pocket-money; Northumberland was more subtle and +established a complete dominion over his mind, and then put him +forward at the age of fourteen as entitled to all the power of +Henry VIII. But he was only Northumberland’s mask; of his +individual influence on the course of history during his reign there +is hardly a trace. A posthumous effort was made to give him +the credit of a humane desire to save Joan Bocher from the +flames; but he recorded with apparently cold-blooded indifference +the execution of both his uncles, and he certainly made +no attempt to mitigate the harassing attentions which the +council paid his sister Mary. This passed for piety with the +zealots, and the persecutions of Mary’s reign reflected a halo on +that of the Protestant Josiah. So strong was the regret that +rumours of his survival persisted, and hare-brained youths were +found to personate him throughout Mary’s and even far into +Elizabeth’s reign.</p> + +<p>It was well that they were false, for Edward showed signs of all +the Tudor obstinacy, and he was a fanatic into the bargain, as no +other Tudor was except Mary. The combination would probably +have involved England in disasters far greater than any that +ensued upon his premature death; and it was much better that +the Anglican settlement of religion should have been left to the +compromising temper of Elizabeth. As it was, he bequeathed a +legacy of woe; his health began to fail in 1552, and in May 1553 +it was known that he was dying. But his will and the various +drafts of it only betray the agitated and illogical efforts of +Northumberland to contrive some means whereby he might +continue to control the government and prevent the administration +of justice. Mary and Elizabeth were to be excluded from the +throne, as not sufficiently pliant instruments; Mary Stuart was +ignored as being under Scottish, Catholic and French influence; +the duchess of Suffolk, Lady Jane’s mother, was excluded +because she was married, and the duke her husband might claim +the crown matrimonial. In fact, all females were excluded, +except Jane, on the ground that no woman could reign; even she +was excluded in the first draft, and the crown was left to “the +Lady Jane’s heirs male.” But this draft was manipulated so as +to read “the Lady Jane and her heirs male.” That Edward +himself was responsible for these delirious provisions is improbable. +But he had been so impregnated with the divine right of kings +and the divine truth of Protestantism that he thought he was +entitled and bound to override the succession as established by +law and exclude a Catholic from the throne; and his last recorded +words were vehement injunctions to Cranmer to sign the will. +He died at Greenwich on the 6th of July 1553, and was buried in +Henry VII.’s chapel by Cranmer with Protestant rites on the 8th +of August, while Mary had Mass said for his soul in the Tower.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>J.G. Nichols collected almost all that is known of Edward VI. in +his excellent edition of the king’s <i>Journal</i>. A few additional facts +and suggestions can be gleaned from the <i>Letters and Papers of +Henry VIII.</i> vols. xii.-xxi.; <i>Acts of the Privy Council</i>, ed. Dasent, +vols. i.-iv.; Domestic, Spanish, Venetian and Foreign <i>Calendars +of State Papers</i>; Froude’s <i>History</i>; Dixon’s <i>Hist. Church of England</i>; +A.F. Pollard’s <i>England under Somerset</i> and <i>Life of Cranmer</i>; and <i>English +Historical Review</i>, xxiii. 286, &c. Sir Clements Markham’s <i>Edward +VI.</i> (1907) emphasizes his interest in geography.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD VII.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Albert Edward</span>) (1841-1910), king of Great +Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the +Seas, emperor of India, the eldest son and second child of Queen +Victoria and of Albert, prince consort, was born at Buckingham +Palace on the 9th of November 1841. He was created prince +of Wales and earl of Chester on the 4th of December following, +and was baptized on the 25th of January 1842. In his childhood +he was educated by the dowager Lady Lyttelton; and in his boyhood +successively by the Rev. Henry Mildred Birch, Mr F.W. +Gibbes, the Rev. C.F. Tarver and Mr Herbert W. Fisher. He +afterwards resided at Edinburgh, studying chemistry in its +industrial applications under Professor (afterwards Lord) Playfair +at the university; at Christ Church, Oxford; and at Trinity +College, Cambridge. In November 1858 he was made a knight of +the Garter and a colonel in the army. In 1859 he travelled in +Italy and Spain, and in 1860 paid a visit as “Lord Renfrew” +to the United States and Canada.</p> + +<p>Upon the completion of his Cambridge course in June 1861 +he joined the camp at the Curragh. The prince consort died on +the 13th of December, and in 1862 the prince of Wales went for +a tour in the Holy Land (February-June) under the guidance of +Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, afterwards dean of Westminster. Early +in 1863 he was sworn of the privy council, and took his seat in +the House of Lords as duke of Cornwall. The estate of Sandringham, +in Norfolk, was purchased for him out of the savings of his +minority, and his town residence was fixed at Marlborough +House.</p> + +<p>His impending marriage to the princess Alexandra, daughter +of Christian IX., king of Denmark (b. December 1, 1844), had +already been announced, and took place on the 10th of March +at Windsor, the beauty and grace of the princess captivating +the heart of the nation. Parliament granted the prince an income +of £40,000 a year, exclusive of the revenues of the duchy of +Cornwall, and he relinquished his right of succession to the +duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Prince Albert Victor, afterwards +duke of Clarence, was the first offspring of the marriage, being +born on the 8th of January 1864. The births followed of +Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, afterwards duke of York +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">George V.</a></span>), on the 3rd of June 1865; Princess Louise +Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, by marriage duchess of Fife, princess +royal, on the 20th of February 1867; Princess Victoria Alexandra +Olga Mary, on the 6th of July 1868; and Princess Maud Charlotte +Mary Victoria, afterwards queen of Norway, on the 26th of +November 1869.</p> + +<p>From the time of their marriage the prince and princess +were prominently before the country. Queen Victoria remained +in retirement, but they filled her place at important public +functions. The prince’s readiness to promote every worthy +cause was most marked; no one was a more constant attendant +at meetings for objects of public utility of a non-political +nature, and his speeches were always characterized by excellent +sense. The most important external event of these years +was a tour to Egypt, undertaken in 1869 in company with +the duke of Sutherland, Sir Samuel Baker and others, an +account of which was published by Mrs William Grey. The +prince also visited Ireland more than once, and opened the +International Exhibition of 1871.</p> + +<p>On the 23rd of November 1871 it was announced that the +prince would be prevented from paying a visit which had been +arranged to the Maharajah Dhuleep Singh by a feverish attack. +It soon appeared that the malady was typhoid, contracted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page998" id="page998"></a>998</span> +as was supposed, on a visit to Scarborough. The case became +so serious that on November 29 the queen and Princess Alice +hurried to Sandringham. On the 1st of December there was a +slight rally, but on the 8th so serious a relapse occurred that for +some days the prince’s life was despaired of. Under the skilful +treatment of Sir William Jenner, Sir William Gull and Sir +James Paget, however, the crisis was surmounted by December +16, and by Christmas day the danger was regarded as +virtually over. On the 27th of February 1872 a thanksgiving +was held at St Paul’s, amid imposing demonstrations of public +joy.</p> + +<p>In January 1874 the prince of Wales attended the marriage at +St. Petersburg of his brother, the duke of Edinburgh, with the +grand-duchess Marie of Russia. In the same year he paid a +historic visit to Birmingham, where Mr Joseph Chamberlain, not +yet a member of parliament, received him officially as mayor. +In March 1875 it was officially announced that he would make a +visit to India, carrying out an idea originally conceived by the +first Indian viceroy, Earl Canning. He was supposed to travel +as heir-apparent, not as representative of the queen; but the +characters could not be kept apart, and in fact the prince’s visit +was a political event of great importance. Leaving England on +October 11, he was received at Bombay by the viceroy, Lord +Northbrook. Here he met a very large number of Indian +feudatory princes, whose acquaintance he subsequently improved +by visiting at their courts during the seventeen weeks which he +spent in the country. During these four months the prince +travelled nearly 8000 m. by land and 2500 m. by sea, became +acquainted with more rajahs than had all the viceroys who had +reigned over India, and saw more of the country than any living +Englishman. The visit led up to the queen’s assumption of the +title of empress of India in the following year.</p> + +<p>The prince’s life after this date was full of conspicuous public +appearances. In 1885 he visited Ireland at a time of much +political excitement, and was received enthusiastically in many +quarters and without symptoms of ill-will in any. In 1886 he +filled the presidency of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, +opened the Mersey Tunnel, and laid the first stone of the Tower +Bridge. In 1887 a large share of the arrangements for the queen’s +Jubilee devolved upon him. On the 27th of July 1589 his eldest +daughter, Princess Louise, was married to the duke of Fife. In +the autumn he paid a semi-incognito visit to Paris, where he +was always highly popular, viewed the Exhibition, and ascended +the Eiffel Tower. In 1890 he opened the Forth Bridge. On the +14th of January 1892, however, a heavy blow fell upon him and +his house by the death of his eldest son, Prince Albert Victor, +duke of Clarence, after a brief illness. The young prince, who +with his brother George had made the tour of the world (1879-1882) +in H.M.S. “Bacchante,” and after a short career at Oxford +and Cambridge was just settling down to play his part in public +life, had recently become engaged to Princess Victoria Mary +of Teck (b. May 26, 1867), and the popularity of the heir to the +crown had been increased by the expression of his satisfaction +at his son’s bride being an English princess. On the 6th of July +1893 the broken thread was reunited by her marriage to Prince +George, duke of York.</p> + +<p>The year 1894 was a busy one for the prince of Wales, who +became a member of the royal commission on the housing of the +poor, opened the Tower Bridge, attended the Welsh Eisteddfod +and was duly initiated, and paid two visits to Russia—one for the +marriage of the grand-duchess Xenia, the other for the funeral of +the tsar, his brother-in-law. In 1896 he became first chancellor +of the university of Wales, and his first act after his installation at +Aberystwyth was to confer an honorary degree upon the princess. +He had already been for some years a trustee of the British +Museum. On the 22nd of July 1896 his daughter. Princess Maud, +was married to Prince Charles of Denmark, who in 1905 was +offered and accepted the crown of the new kingdom of Norway. +The arrangements for the queen’s Jubilee of 1897 depended upon +the prince even more than those of the corresponding celebration +in 1887: he rode on the queen’s right at the great procession to +St Paul’s, and as an admiral of the fleet presided at the naval +review at Spithead. In July 1898 the prince had the misfortune +to fracture his knee-cap while on a visit to Baron Ferdinand de +Rothschild, but completely recovered from the effects of the +accident. In December 1899, while passing through Brussels +on his way to St Petersburg, he was fired at by a miserable +lad named Sipido, crazed by reading anarchist literature. +Fortunately no injury was done.</p> + +<p>It was the especial distinction of Albert Edward, while prince +of Wales, to have been a substantial support of the throne +before he was called upon to fill it. This cannot be said of any +of his predecessors except Edward the Black Prince. He was +exemplary in the discharge of his public duties, and in his +scrupulous detachment from party politics. He was a keen +patron of the theatre, and his thoroughly British taste for sport +was as pronounced as his inclination for most of the contemporary +amusements of society. The “Tranby Croft Case” (1890), in +which Sir William Gordon Cumming brought an unsuccessful +libel action for having been accused of cheating at a game of +baccarat, caused some comment in connexion with the prince’s +appearance in the witness-box on behalf of the defendants. +But it did him no disservice with the people to have twice won the +Derby with his horses Persimmon (1896) and Diamond Jubilee +(1900)—his third victory, in 1909, with Minoru, being the first +occasion on which the race had been won by a reigning sovereign; +and his interest in yacht-racing was conspicuously shown at +all the important fixtures, his yacht “Britannia” being one of +the best of her day. His activity in the life of the nation may +be illustrated by his establishment (1897) of the Prince of +Wales’s (afterwards King Edward’s) Hospital Fund, his +devotion to the cause of Masonry (he was first elected grand +master of the Freemasons of England in 1874), and his position as +a bencher of the Middle Temple, where he also became (1887) +treasurer.</p> + +<p>On the death of Queen Victoria on the 22nd of January 1901, +the question what title the new king would assume was speedily +set at rest by the popular announcement that he would be called +Edward the Seventh. The new reign began auspiciously by the +holding of a privy council at St James’s Palace, at which the +king announced his intention to follow in his predecessor’s +footsteps and to govern as a constitutional sovereign, and received +the oaths of allegiance. On the 14th of February the king and +queen opened parliament in state. Shortly afterwards it was +announced that the visit of the duke and duchess of York to +Australia, in order to inaugurate the new Commonwealth, which +had been sanctioned by Queen Victoria, would be proceeded +with; and on the 16th of March they set out on board the +“Ophir” with a brilliant suite. The tour lasted till November 1, +the duke and duchess having visited Australia, New Zealand, +the Cape and Canada; and on their return the king, on +November 9, created the duke prince of Wales and earl of +Chester. Meanwhile parliament had settled the new civil list at +£470,000 a year, and the royal title had been enlarged to include +the colonial empire by an act enabling the king to style himself +“Edward VII., by the grace of God, of the United +Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of all the British +Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, +Emperor of India.” At the end of May 1902 the long-drawn-out +war in South Africa came at last to an end, and the coronation +was fixed for the 26th of June. But on the 24th, amid +general consternation, the king was announced to be suffering +from perityphlitis, necessitating the immediate performance +of an operation; and the coronation, for which unprecedented +preparations had been made, had to be postponed. The operation—performed +by Sir Frederick Treves—was, however, so +marvellously successful, and the king’s progress towards +recovery so rapid and uninterrupted, that within a fortnight +he was pronounced out of danger, and soon afterwards it was +decided to hold the coronation service on August 9. Though +shorn of much of the magnificence which would have been added +to it in June by the presence of foreign royalties and the preparations +for a great procession through London, the solemnity duly +took place on that date in Westminster Abbey amid great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page999" id="page999"></a>999</span> +rejoicings. The king spent several weeks (partly in a yachting +trip round the coast and up to Stornoway) in recruiting his +health, and on the 25th of October he went in procession through +the main streets of south London, when he was most enthusiastically +received. Next day the king and queen attended St +Paul’s cathedral in state to return thanks for his restoration to +health. On New Year’s day 1903 the coronation was proclaimed +in India at a magnificent durbar at Delhi.</p> + +<p>At home the king opened parliament in person in February +1903, and on the 31st of March he sailed from Portsmouth to +pay a visit to the king of Portugal at Lisbon, leaving Lisbon +for Gibraltar on the 7th of April. On the 11th he held a review +of the garrison troops and next day left for Malta, and the +tour was continued to Naples (23rd of April). On the 27th of +April he was received at Rome by the king of Italy—the first +time an English king as such had been there; and two days +later he paid a visit to Leo XIII. at the Vatican. On May day +he was received in Paris by President Loubet. Later in the +year return visits were paid to England by President Loubet +(July) and the king and queen of Italy (November). On the +11th of May His Majesty paid his first formal visit to Edinburgh, +and held courts at Holyrood. In July the king and queen went +to Ireland, and though the Dublin corporation refused to vote a +loyal address the reception was generally cordial. In September +the king took his annual “cure” at Marienbad, and paid a +visit to Vienna, where he was received by the Austrian emperor. +In 1904 again the king and queen went to Ireland; in June the +king was cordially received by the German emperor at the +yacht-races at Kiel, and he included a visit to Hamburg, where +the welcome was hearty. In November the king and queen +of Portugal were entertained at Windsor and at the Guildhall.</p> + +<p>The success of King Edward as a promoter of international +friendliness, and the advantage of so efficient a type of kingship, +attracted universal attention, and treaties of arbitration were +concluded by Great Britain with France, Spain, Italy, Germany +and Portugal in 1903 and 1904. In his first two years the king +had already earned the title of Edward the Peacemaker, and +established his position as a source of new strength to the +state. This reputation was confirmed in the years which +followed, during which the royal hand was to be seen in the +progress of foreign affairs in a manner somewhat new to old-fashioned +politicians. The <i>entente</i> with France was promoted +by his influence, notably by his reception of President Fallières +in England in 1908. It was noticed that the permanent under-secretary +for foreign affairs, Sir Charles Hardinge, generally +accompanied the king, as one of his suite, on his visits abroad: and +the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907)—which +was attributed with some reason to royal policy—was hotly +criticized in Radical quarters. It was pointed out that neither +the foreign secretary (Sir E. Grey) nor any other secretary of +state accompanied the king on his foreign visits. These objections +were, however, scouted by the government, and undeniably +public opinion approved of the sovereign’s personal activity in +a sphere peculiarly his own. The strengthening of British influence +in Europe, which was the marked result of the Anglo-French +and Anglo-Russian <i>ententes</i>, and of the closer ties between +England and countries like Portugal and Spain (whose young +king Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, King +Edward’s niece), had, indeed, temporarily the effect of rousing +German suspicion, the view taken being that the object of British +foreign policy was to isolate Germany; and during 1907 and 1908 +the political situation was coloured by the discussions in the press +with regard to Anglo-German rivalry. But in February 1909 the +king and queen paid a state visit to the Kaiser in Berlin, where +the greatest cordiality was displayed on all sides; the event was +prepared for, in both countries, as a means of dispelling the +clouds which had gathered over the relations between England +and Germany, and the success of the visit proved once more how +powerful King Edward’s personality could be as an agency for +peace and international amity.</p> + +<p>During the year 1909, however, the political situation at home +was developing into an acute constitutional crisis, which seemed +likely to involve the Crown in serious difficulties. Mr Lloyd-George’s +budget convulsed the House of Commons and the +country, and was eventually rejected by the House of Lords; +and the Liberal government now put in the forefront of its +programme the abolition of the Peers’ “veto.” As was hinted, +not obscurely, later by the doctors, King Edward, although +certainly not prejudiced against a Liberal ministry, was seriously +disturbed in mind and health by the progress of events, which +culminated in the return of Mr Asquith to office after the elections +of January 1910, and in his statement that, if necessary, guarantees +would be sought from the Crown for the purpose of enforcing +the will of the representative chamber. A remarkable sign of +the king’s discomfort was his insertion, in the official “King’s +Speech” at the opening of parliament, of the words “in the +opinion of my advisers,” in connexion with the passage dealing +with the House of Lords. The king had been far from robust for +some little time, and while he was taking change and rest at +Biarritz in the early spring of 1910 he had a bronchial attack +which caused some anxiety, although the public heard nothing +of it. When he returned to England there is no doubt that he +was acutely affected by the prospect of being forcibly dragged +into the political conflict. In the country at large there was +indeed considerable confidence that the king’s tact and experience +would help to bring order out of chaos; but this was not +to be. Within two days the public heard with consternation +that he was ill, and then was dead. On May 5 it was announced +that he had bronchitis; and he died at 11.45 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> on the 6th, of +heart failure. On May 17, 18 and 19 there was an impressive +lying-in-state in Westminster Hall, attended by unprecedented +crowds; and on May 20 the burial took place at Windsor, after +a great funeral procession through London, the coffin being +followed by the new king, George V., and by eight foreign +sovereigns—the German emperor, the kings of Greece, Spain, +Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Bulgaria—besides +the archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (heir to the throne of +Austria-Hungary), the prince consort of Holland and many +other royalties, and a number of special ambassadors, including +Mr Roosevelt as representative of the United States. Mourning +was as sincere as it was universal; for not only England and the +British Empire, but the world, had lost a king who was both a +very human man and a tried and trusted statesman.</p> + +<p>Queen Victoria’s long reign had solidly established the constitutional +monarchy; it remained for her son to rehabilitate +the idea of English kingship by showing how the sovereign could +be no less constitutional but personally more monarchical. +While prince of Wales he had had little real training in statecraft, +but when he became king his genuine capacity for affairs +was shown. Ably advised by such men as Lord Knollys and +Lord Esher, he devoted himself to the work of removing the +Throne from its former isolation, and bringing it into touch with +all sections of the community for the promotion of social happiness +and welfare. His own love of pageantry and his interest in +the stately ordering of court functions responded, moreover, to +a marked inclination on the part of the public and of “society” +for such things. It was significant that even Radicals and +Socialists began to advocate extensions of the prerogative, and +to insist on the active part which the Crown should play in public +life. The king won the genuine affection and confidence of the +people; and in Queen Alexandra he had an ideal consort, to +whom all hearts went out.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">EDWARD,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> prince of Wales, known as “<span class="sc">The Black Prince</span>” +(1330-1376), the eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of +Hainaut, was born at Woodstock on the 15th of June 1330. +Contemporaries called him Edward of Woodstock, and his +surname of the Black Prince cannot be traced back earlier than +the 16th century. It is supposed to have been derived from his +wearing black armour. In 1333 he was made earl of Chester, +and in 1337 duke of Cornwall, being the first duke ever created +in England. Nominal warden of England during his father’s +absences abroad in 1338 and 1342, he was created prince of +Wales in 1343, and in 1345 he first accompanied his father on a +foreign expedition.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1000" id="page1000"></a>1000</span></p> + +<p>His real career begins, however, with Edward III.’s Norman +campaign of 1346. On landing at La Hogue he was knighted by +his father, and took a prominent part in the whole of the +campaign. He commanded the right wing of the English forces +at Crécy, and, though hard pressed for a time by the French, took +his full share in gaining the victory. Next year he was at the +siege of Calais, and returned to England in October 1347 with +his father. He was one of the original knights of the Garter, and +participated in his father’s chivalrous adventures at Calais in +1349 and in the battle off Winchelsea in 1350. In September +1355 he was sent to Gascony at the head of an English army, +having been appointed his father’s lieutenant there in July. He +was warmly welcomed by the Gascons, and at once led a foray +through Armagnac and Languedoc. By November he had got +as far as Narbonne, whence he returned to Bordeaux, where he +kept his Christmas court. In August 1356 he started from +Bergerac on another marauding expedition, this time in a +northerly direction. He penetrated as far as the Loire, but was +there compelled to retire before the superior forces of King John +of France. On the 19th of September the two armies met in the +battle of Poitiers, fought about 6 m. south-east of the city. It +was the hardest-fought and most important battle of the Hundred +Years’ War, and Edward’s victory was due both to the excellence +of his tactical disposition of his forces and to the superior +fighting capacity of his army. The flank march of the Captal de +Buch, which decided the fate of the day, was of Edward’s own +devising, and the captivity of King John attested the completeness +of his triumph. He treated his prisoner with almost +ostentatious magnanimity, and took him to Bordeaux, whence +they sailed to England in May 1357. On the 24th of that month +he led his prisoner in triumph through the streets of London. +In 1359 he took part in his father’s invasion of northern France, +and had a large share in the negotiations at Brétigny and Calais.</p> + +<p>In October 1361 Edward married his cousin Joan, countess of +Kent (1328-1385), the daughter and heiress of Edmund of +Woodstock, earl of Kent, the younger son of Edward I. by his +second wife Margaret of France. The lady, who enjoyed a great +reputation for beauty, was in her thirty-third year, and the +widow of Sir Thomas Holand, by whom she had had three +children. Froissart says that the marriage was a love match, and +that the king had no knowledge of it. However, Edward III. +approved of his son’s choice, and in July 1362 handed over to +him all his dominions in southern France, with the title of prince +of Aquitaine. In February 1363 Edward and Joan took ship +for Gascony, which became his ordinary place of residence for the +next eight years. He maintained a brilliant court at Bordeaux +and Angoulême, and did his best to win the support of the +Gascons. He was not, however, successful in winning over the +greater nobles, who, with John, count of Armagnac, at their head, +were dissatisfied with the separation from France, and looked +with suspicion upon Edward’s attempts to reform the administration +as being likely to result in the curtailment of their feudal +rights. Edward was better able to conciliate the towns, whose +franchises he favoured and whose trade he fostered, hoping that +they would prove a counterpoise to the aristocracy. He kept the +chief posts of the administration mainly in English hands, and +never really identified himself with the local life and traditions of +his principality. He succeeded in clearing Aquitaine of the free +companies, and kept good peace for nearly six years.</p> + +<p>In 1367 Peter the Cruel, the deposed king of Castile, visited +Edward at Bordeaux, and persuaded him to restore him to his +throne by force. In February 1367 Edward led an army into +Spain over the pass of Roncesvalles. After a difficult and +dangerous march Edward reached the Ebro, and on the 3rd of +April defeated Bertrand du Guesclin at Nájera, the last of his +great victories. He then proceeded to Burgos, and restored +Peter to the throne of Castile. He remained in Castile for four +months, living principally at Valladolid. His army wasted away +during the hot Spanish summer, and Edward himself contracted +the beginnings of a mortal disease. In August 1367 Edward led +the remnant of his troops back through the pass of Roncesvalles, +and returned to Bordeaux early in September. He had exhausted +all his resources on the Spanish expedition, and was forced to +seek from the estates of Aquitaine extraordinary sources of supply. +A hearth tax for five years was willingly granted to him, and +generally paid. The greater barons, however, found in this impost +a pretext for revolt. The count of Armagnac, who had +already made a secret understanding with Charles V., appealed +against the hearth tax to the parlement of Paris. Cited before +this body in January 1369, Edward declared that he would +answer at Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War +broke out again, and Edward III. resumed the title of king of +France. Thereupon Charles V. declared that all the English +possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369 +all Aquitaine was in full revolt. With weak health and impaired +resources, the Black Prince showed little activity in dealing with +his insurgent subjects, or in warding off French invasion. +Though too ill to ride on horseback, he insisted upon commanding +his troops, and on the 19th of September 1370 won his last +barren success, by capturing the revolted city of Limoges and +putting the population to the sword. Early in 1371 he returned +to England, leaving the impossible task of holding Gascony to his +brother John of Gaunt. In August 1372 he joined his father in +an abortive expedition to France, but contrary winds prevented +their landing, and he now abandoned military life for good. In +October he resigned his principality on the ground that he could +not afford to retain any longer so expensive a charge. His health +now rapidly declined, but he still followed politics with interest, +and did what he could to support the constitutional opposition of +the great ecclesiastics to the administration of John of Gaunt and +the anti-clerical courtiers. His last public act was to inspire the +attack on Lancaster’s influence made by the Good Parliament +in the spring of 1376. The famous parliament was still in +session when he died at Westminster on the 8th of July. He was +buried in the east end of Canterbury cathedral on the 29th of +September, where his magnificent tomb, erected in accordance +with the instructions in his will, may still be seen. By Joan, +“the fair maid of Kent,” who died on the 7th of August 1385, +the Black Prince left an only son, afterwards King Richard II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For authorities see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Edward III</a></span>. To these may be added W. +Hunt’s article in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>; A. Collins’s <i>Life of Edward, +Prince of Wales</i> (1740); G.P.R. James’s <i>Life of Edward the Black +Prince</i> (1839); J. Moisant’s <i>Le Prince Noir en Aquitaine</i> (1894); and +R.P. Dunn-Pattison’s <i>The Black Prince</i> (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. T.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 10, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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